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Country code top-level domain
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country_code_top-level_domain
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# Country code top-level domain
*Revision ID: 1159535589 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T23:40:25Z*
---
A **country code top-level domain** (**ccTLD**) is an [Internet](Internet) [domain](top-level)(top-level domain) generally used or reserved for a [country](country), sovereign state, or [territory](dependent)(dependent territory) identified with a [code](country)(country code). All [ASCII](ASCII) ccTLD identifiers are two letters long, and all two-letter top-level domains are ccTLDs.
In 2018, the [Assigned Numbers Authority](Internet)(Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) (IANA) began implementing [country code top-level domain](internationalized)(internationalized country code top-level domain)s, consisting of language-native characters when displayed in an end-user application. Creation and delegation of ccTLDs is described in RFC 1591, corresponding to [3166-1 alpha-2](ISO)(ISO 3166-1 alpha-2) [codes](country)(country codes). While [gTLD](gTLD)s have to obey international regulations, ccTLDs are subjected to requirements that are determined by each country’s domain name regulation corporation. With over 150 million domain name registrations today or as of 2022, ccTLDs make up about 40% of the total domain name industry.
Country code extension applications began in 1985. The registered country code extensions in that year included [.us](.us) (United States), [.uk](.uk) (United Kingdom) and [.il](.il) (Israel). The registered country code extensions in 1986 included [.au](.au) (Australia), [.de](.de) (Germany), [.fi](.fi) (Finland), [.fr](.fr) (France), [.is](.is) (Iceland), [.jp](.jp) (Japan), [.kr](.kr) (South Korea), [.nl](.nl) (Netherlands) and [.se](.se) (Sweden). The registered country code extensions in 1987 included [.nz](.nz) (New Zealand), [.ch](.ch) (Switzerland) and [.ca](.ca) (Canada). The registered country code extensions in 1988 included [.ie](.ie) (Ireland) [.it](.it) (Italy), [.es](.es) (Spain) and [.pt](.pt) (Portugal). The registered country code extensions in 1989 included [.in](.in) (India) and [.yu](.yu) (Yugoslavia). In the 1990s, [.cn](.cn) (People’s Republic of China) and [.ru](.ru) (Russian Federation) were first registered.
There are 308 delegated ccTLDs. The [.cn](.cn), [.tk](.tk), [.de](.de), [.uk](.uk), [.nl](.nl) and [.ru](.ru) ccTLDs contain the highest number of domains. The [.jp](.jp), [.kr](.kr), [.ca](.ca), [.pl](.pl), [.gr](.gr), [.cz](.cz), [.hu](.hu), [.au](.au), [.fr](.fr), [.it](.it), [.es](.es) and [.us](.us) ccTLDs do not contain as many domains as other ccTLDs. The top ten ccTLDs account for more than five-eighths of registered ccTLD domains. There were about 153 million ccTLD domains registered at the end of March 2022.
## Delegation and management
IANA is responsible for determining an appropriate trustee for each ccTLD. Administration and control are then delegated to that trustee, which is responsible for the policies and operation of the domain. The current delegation can be determined from IANA's list of ccTLDs. Individual ccTLDs may have varying requirements and fees for registering [subdomains](subdomains). There may be a local-presence requirement (for instance, citizenship or other connection to the ccTLD), as, for example, the [American](United States) ([us](.us)), [Japanese](Japan) ([jp](.jp)), [Canadian](Canada) ([ca](.ca)), [French](France) ([fr](.fr)) and [German](Germany) ([de](.de)) domains, or registration may be open.
## History
The first registered ccTLD was [.us](.us), which was registered in 1985. Later ccTLDs registered in that year included [.uk](.uk) and [.il](.il). Then, [.au](.au), [.de](.de), [.fi](.fi), [.fr](.fr), [.is](.is), [.jp](.jp), [.kr](.kr), [.nl](.nl) and [.se](.se) were also registered in 1986. In 1987, [.nz](.nz), [.ch](.ch), [.my](.my) [.ca](.ca) were registered. Later on, in 1988, [.ie](.ie), [.it](.it), [.es](.es) and [.pt](.pt) were also registered.
## Lists
As of 20 May 2017, there were 255 country-code top-level domains, purely in the Latin alphabet, using two-character codes. The number was 316 , with the addition of internationalized domains.
### Latin Character ccTLDs
:
;Table Notes:
### Internationalized ccTLDs
; Table notes:
### Proposed internationalized ccTLDs
Internationalised domain names have been proposed for [Japan](Japan) and [Libya](Libya).
## Relation to ISO 3166-1
}}
### Unused ISO 3166-1 codes
Almost all current ISO 3166-1 codes have been assigned and do exist in DNS.
However, some of these are effectively unused. In particular, the ccTLDs for the Norwegian dependency [Island](Bouvet)(Bouvet Island) ([bv](.bv)) and the designation [and Jan Mayen](Svalbard)(Svalbard and Jan Mayen) ([sj](.sj)) do exist in DNS, but no subdomains have been assigned, and it is [Norid](Norid) policy to not assign any at present. Two [French](France) territories—[bl](.bl) ([Barthélemy](Saint)(Saint Barthélemy)) and [mf](.mf) ([Martin](Saint)(Saint Martin (France)))— await local assignment by France's government.
The code [eh](.eh), although eligible as ccTLD for [Sahara](Western)(Western Sahara), has never been assigned and does not exist in [DNS](Domain Name System). Only one subdomain is still registered in [gb](.gb) (ISO 3166-1 for the [Kingdom](United)(United Kingdom)), and no new registrations are being accepted for it. Sites in the United Kingdom generally use [uk](.uk) (see below).
The former [.um](.um) ccTLD for the [Minor Outlying Islands](U.S.)(United States Minor Outlying Islands) was removed in April 2008. Under RFC 1591 rules, [.um](.um) is eligible as a ccTLD on request by the relevant governmental agency and local Internet user community.
### ASCII ccTLDs not in ISO 3166-1
Several ASCII ccTLDs are in use that are not ISO 3166-1 two-letter codes. Some of these codes were specified in older versions of the ISO list.
* [uk](.uk) ([Kingdom](United)(United Kingdom)): The ISO 3166-1 code for the United Kingdom is GB. However, the [JANET](JANET) network had already selected uk as a top-level identifier for its pre-existing [Registration Scheme](Name)(JANET NRS), and this was incorporated into the DNS root. [gb](.gb) was assigned with the intention of a transition, but this never occurred and the use of uk is now entrenched.
* [su](.su) This obsolete ISO 3166 code for the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) was assigned when the Soviet Union still existed; moreover, new su registrations are accepted.
* [ac](.ac) ([Island](Ascension)(Ascension Island)): This code is a vestige of [IANA's](Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) decision in 1996 to allow the use of codes reserved in the [3166-1 alpha-2](ISO)(ISO 3166-1 alpha-2) reserve list for use by the [Postal Union](Universal)(Universal Postal Union). The decision was later reversed, with Ascension Island now the sole outlier. (Three other ccTLDs, [gg](.gg) ([Guernsey](Bailiwick of Guernsey)), [im](.im) ([of Man](Isle)(Isle of Man)) and [je](.je) ([Jersey](Jersey)) also fell under this category from 1996 until they received corresponding ISO 3166 codes in March 2006.)
* [eu](.eu) ([Union](European)(European Union)): On September 25, 2000, [ICANN](ICANN) decided to allow the use of any two-letter code in the [3166-1](ISO)(ISO 3166-1) reserve list that is reserved for all purposes. Only EU currently meets this criterion. Following a decision by the EU's Council of Telecommunications Ministers in March 2002, progress was slow, but a [registry](domain name registry) (named [EURid](EURid)) was chosen by the [Commission](European)(European Commission), and criteria for allocation set: [ICANN](ICANN) approved [eu](.eu) as a ccTLD, and it opened for registration on 7 December 2005 for the holders of prior rights. Since 7 April 2006, registration is open to all in the European Economic Area.
### Historical ccTLDs
ccTLDs may be removed if that country ceases to exist. There are three ccTLDs that have been deleted after the corresponding 2-letter code was withdrawn from ISO 3166-1: [cs](.cs) (for [Czechoslovakia](Czechoslovakia)), [zr](.zr) (for [Zaire](Zaire)) and [tp](.tp) (for [Timor](East)(East Timor)). There may be a significant delay between withdrawal from ISO 3166-1 and deletion from the DNS; for example, ZR ceased to be an ISO 3166-1 code in 1997, but the zr ccTLD was not deleted until 2001. Other ccTLDs corresponding to obsolete ISO 3166-1 codes have not yet been deleted. In some cases they may never be deleted due to the amount of disruption this would cause for a heavily used ccTLD. In particular, the Soviet Union's ccTLD [su](.su) remains in use more than twenty years after SU was removed from ISO 3166-1.
The historical country codes [dd](.dd) for the [Democratic Republic](German)(German Democratic Republic) and yd for [Yemen](South)(South Yemen) were eligible for a ccTLD, but not allocated; see also [de](.de) and [ye](.ye).
The temporary reassignment of country code cs ([and Montenegro](Serbia)(Serbia and Montenegro)) until its split into [rs](.rs) and [me](.me) ([Serbia](Serbia) and [Montenegro](Montenegro), respectively) led to some controversies about the stability of ISO 3166-1 country codes, resulting in a second edition of ISO 3166-1 in 2007 with a guarantee that retired codes will not be reassigned for at least 50 years, and the replacement of RFC 3066 by RFC 4646 for country codes used in [tag](language)(language tag)s in 2006.
The previous ISO 3166-1 code for [Yugoslavia](Yugoslavia), YU, was removed by ISO on 23 July 2003, but the [yu](.yu) ccTLD remained in operation. Finally, after a two-year transition to Serbian [rs](.rs) and Montenegrin [me](.me), the .yu domain was phased out in March 2010.
Australia was originally assigned the [oz](.au#Historic second-level domains) country code, which was later changed to [au](.au) with the .oz domains moved to .oz.au.
## Internationalized ccTLDs
An [country code top-level domain](internationalized)(internationalized country code top-level domain) (IDN ccTLD) is a top-level domain with a specially encoded domain name that is displayed in an end user application, such as a [browser](web)(web browser), in its native language script or a non-alphabetic [system](writing)(writing system), such as [script](Latin)(Latin script) (.us, .uk and .br), [script](Indic)(Indic script) (.) and [script](Korean)(Korean script) (.), etc. IDN ccTLDs are an application of the [domain name](internationalized)(internationalized domain name) (IDN) system to top-level Internet domains assigned to countries, including the [Kingdom](United)(United Kingdom), or independent geographic regions.
ICANN started to accept applications for IDN ccTLDs in November 2009, and installed the first set into the Domain Names System in May 2010. The first set was a group of Arabic names for the countries of Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. By May 2010, 21 countries had submitted applications to ICANN, representing 11 languages.
ICANN requires all potential international TLDs to use at least one letter that does not resemble a Latin letter, or have at least three letters, in an effort to avoid [homograph attack](IDN)(IDN homograph attack)s. Nor shall the international domain name look like another domain name, even if they have different alphabets. Between Cyrillic and Greek alphabets, for example, this could happen.
## Generic ccTLDs
**Generic Country Code Top-Level Domain** or **gccTLD** refers to those TLDs which are technically "non-restricted ccTLDs" but used like traditional generic TLDs ([gTLDs](gTLDs)) rather than "country"-targeted ones. Most of the gccTLDs are primarily used as [hack](domain)(domain hack)s:
## Unconventional usage
Lenient registration restrictions on certain ccTLDs have resulted in various [hack](domain)(domain hack)s. Domain names such as I.am, tip.it, start.at and go.to form well-known English phrases, whereas others combine the [domain](second-level)(second-level domain) and ccTLD to form one word or one title, creating domains such as [blo.gs](blo.gs) of [Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands](South)(South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands) ([gs](.gs)), [youtu.be](YouTube) of [Belgium](Belgium) ([be](.be)), [del.icio.us](Delicious (website)) of the [States](United)(United States) ([us](.us)), and [cr.yp.to](cr.yp.to) of [Tonga](Tonga) ([to](.to)). The .co domain of Colombia has been cited since 2010 as a potential competitor to generic TLDs for commercial use, because it may be an abbreviation for *company*.
Several ccTLDs allow the creation of [domain](emoji)(emoji domain)s.
Some ccTLDs may also be used for [typosquatting](typosquatting). The domain *cm* of [Cameroon](Cameroon) has generated interest due to the possibility that people might miss typing the letter *o* for sites in the *com*.
### Commercial use
Some of the world's smallest countries and non-sovereign or colonial entities with their own country codes have opened their TLDs for worldwide commercial use, some of them free like [.tk](.tk).
## See also
* [of ccTLDs](List)(List of Internet top-level domains#Country code top-level domains)
* [code top-level domains with commercial licenses](Country)(Country code top-level domains with commercial licenses)
* [code second-level domain](Country)(Country code second-level domain)
* [3166-1 alpha-2 assigned codes](ISO)(ISO 3166-1 alpha-2#Current codes)
* [top-level domain](Geographic)(Geographic top-level domain), a type of generic top-level domain
## References
}}
## External links
*
*
*
*
*
[telecommunications](Category:International)(Category:International telecommunications)
[domains](Category:Top-level)(Category:Top-level domains)
[codes](Category:Country)(Category:Country codes)
[Name System](Category:Domain)(Category:Domain Name System)
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The Expanse _novel series
|
the_expanse__novel_series
|
# The Expanse (novel series)
*Revision ID: 1158970105 | Timestamp: 2023-06-07T11:17:41Z*
---
| followed_by =
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image =
| image_caption =
| author = [S. A. Corey](James)(James S. A. Corey)
| country = United States
| language =
| subject =
| genre = [fiction](Science)(Science fiction)[opera](Space)(Space opera)
| publisher = [Books](Orbit)(Orbit Books)
| pub_date = June 25 2011 – March 15, 2022
| media_type = PrintAudiobookE-book
| number_of_books =
}}
***The Expanse*** is a [series](novel series) of [fiction](science)(science fiction) [novel](novel)s (and related [novella](novella)s and [stories](short)(short stories)) by [S. A. Corey](James)(James S. A. Corey), the joint [name](pen)(pen name) of authors [Abraham](Daniel)(Daniel Abraham (author)) and [Franck](Ty)(Ty Franck). The first novel, *[Wakes](Leviathan)(Leviathan Wakes)*, was nominated for the [Award for Best Novel](Hugo)(Hugo Award for Best Novel) in 2012. The complete series was nominated for the [Award for Best Series](Hugo)(Hugo Award for Best Series) in 2017. It later won, following its second nomination for the same award in 2020.
The book series is made up of nine novels, nine shorter works and a story collection book. The series was adapted for television by the [Syfy](Syfy) Network, also under the title of *[Expanse](The)(The Expanse (TV series))''. When Syfy canceled the TV series after three seasons, [Amazon](Amazon (company)) acquired it, produced three more seasons, and streams all six seasons on [Prime Video](Amazon)(Amazon Prime Video).
## Series overview
### Novels
### Short stories and novellas
The book ''Memory's Legion* is a collection of all eight short stories and novellas, except for *The Last Flight of the Cassandra'' (which remains exclusive to the [RPG](#Roleplaying game)). The collection includes authors' notes, and the final novella *The Sins of Our Fathers,* which is an epilogue to the series.
The series totals 5062 pages across the 9 novels, 467 across the other 9 short stories and novellas, and a total of 5529 pages in its entirety. The audiobook collections are approximately 178 hours, 17 hours, and 195 hours long respectively.
### Audiobooks
All novels and short works except the RPG exclusive short story have been released as audiobooks, with [Mays](Jefferson)(Jefferson Mays) as the narrator for the novels and short works that include *Drive*, *The Butcher of Anderson Station*, *The Vital Abyss*, *Strange Dogs*, *Auberon*, and *The Sins of Our Fathers*. Erik Davies was originally the narrator for the novellas *The Churn* and *Gods of Risk*; but both have been re-released with Jefferson Mays narrating them as of December 28, 2021. While most of Memory's Legion is narrated by Jefferson Mays, the author's note portions are narrated by Daniel Abraham and Ty Franck.
## Summary of books
*The Expanse* is set in a future in which humanity has [colonized](Space colonization) much of the [System](Solar)(Solar System), but does not have [travel](interstellar)(interstellar travel). The [G-force](G-force) exerted during acceleration when travelling across the [System](Solar)(Solar System) is debilitating without the use of special drugs. In the [belt](asteroid)(asteroid belt) and beyond, tensions are rising between [Earth](Earth)'s [Nations](United)(United Nations), [Mars](Mars), and the [planets](outer)(outer planets). The residents of the outer planets have developed a [language](creole)(creole language) due to their physical isolation from Earth and Mars. The series initially takes place in the Solar System, using many real locations such as [Ceres](Ceres (dwarf planet)) and [Eros](433 Eros) in the asteroid belt, several moons of [Jupiter](Jupiter), with [Ganymede](Ganymede (moon)) and [Europa](Europa (moon)) the most developed, and small science bases as far out as [Phoebe](Phoebe (moon)) around [Saturn](Saturn) and [Titania](Titania (moon)) around [Uranus](Uranus), as well as well-established domed and underground settlements on [Mars](Mars) and the [Moon](Moon).
The authors have suggested that *The Expanse* might well take place in the future of [Weir](Andy)(Andy Weir)'s novel *[Martian](The)(The Martian (Weir novel))*. In support of this, they created a ship named the *Mark Watney* after the titular Martian. However, Andy Weir has publicly clarified that the reference was solely a fun reference.
As the series progresses, humanity gains access to thousands of new worlds by use of the ring, an artificially sustained [bridge](Einstein-Rosen)(Wormhole#Schwarzschild wormholes) or [wormhole](wormhole), created by a long-dead alien race. The ring in our solar system is two [AU](Astronomical unit) from the orbit of [Uranus](Uranus). Passing through it leads to a hub of starless space approximately one million kilometers across, with more than 1,300 other rings, each with a [system](star)(planetary system) on the other side. In the center of the hub, which is also referred to as the "slow zone," an alien [station](space)(space station) controls the gates and can also set instantaneous speed limits on objects inside the hub as a means of defense.
## Characters
The story is told through multiple main point-of-view characters. There are two POV characters in the first book and four in books two through five. In the sixth and seventh books, the number of POV characters increases, with several characters having only one or two chapters. The eighth book returned to a more limited number with five. In the final ninth book, there is an increase in POVs with some chapters having multiple POV characters. Every book also begins and ends with a prologue and epilogue told from a unique character's perspective.
### Crew of the *Rocinante*
The central characters are the crew of the *Rocinante*, a salvaged Martian naval gunship. The main crew consists of:
* **James "Jim" R. Holden**, the captain of the *Rocinante*, former UN Navy (UNN) officer; from Earth (an Earther).
* **Naomi Nagata**, chief engineer and executive officer; a Belter.
* **Amos Burton**, mechanic and general muscle; an Earther.
* **Alex Kamal**, pilot of the *Rocinante*, former Mars Congressional Republic Navy (MCRN) pilot; a Martian.
### The Outer Planets
* **Josephus "Joe" Aloisus Miller**, a Belter who worked as a detective for the Ceres station security firm, Star Helix Security
* **Juliette "Julie" Andromeda Mao**, the oldest child of Earther [plutocrat](Plutocracy) Jules-Pierre Mao, former pinnace racer and Outer Planets Alliance convert
* **Frederick "Fred" Lucius Johnson**, a former UN [marine](Marines) reviled as the "Butcher of Anderson Station" and now the leader of the OPA
* **Dr. Praxidike "Prax" Meng**, the chief botanist of the RMD-Southern soy farm project on Ganymede and father of Mei Meng
* **Mei Meng**, daughter of Prax
* **Carlos "Bull" de Baca**, a member of the OPA serving as [security officer](chief)(chief security officer) aboard the *Behemoth*
* **Michio Pa**, executive officer of the OPA ship *Behemoth*, later captain of the Free Navy ship *Connaught*
* **Basia "Baz" Merton**, a welder from Ganymede, later citizen of Ilus
* **Manéo "Néo" Jung-Espinoza**, a young Belter from Ceres
* **Marco Inaros**, a commander of Free Navy, a radical OPA branch
* **Filip Inaros**, a teenage member of the OPA, and later Free Navy, and son of Marco Inaros and Naomi Nagata
* **Camina Drummer**, chief of security of Tycho Station, later president of the Transport Union
* **Jakulski, Roberts, Salis & Vandercaust**, four techs, working for the Free Navy on Medina Station
### Mars
* **Roberta "Bobbie" W. Draper**, Martian gunnery sergeant in the MCRN, of the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Force
* **Fayez Okoye-Sarkis**, A Geologist from Mars who worked on new colony worlds and later married Elvi Okoye
* **Emil Sauveterre**, the captain of the MCRN *Barkeith*
* **Solomon Epstein,** inventor of the "Epstein-Fusion Drive". He died testing his machine when he went into deep space with no way to get back.
* **Kit Kamal**, Son of Alex Kamal from his second marriage. He leaves Mars with his wife and son to the Nieuwestad system.
### Earth
* **Dmitri Havelock**, a security contractor from Earth and former partner of Joe Miller
* **Chrisjen Avasarala**, the UN Assistant Undersecretary of Executive Administration, later [Secretary General](UN)(Secretary-General of the United Nations)
* **Clarissa "Claire" Melpomene Mao** a.k.a. **Melba Alzbeta Koh** a.k.a. **Peaches**, a daughter of Jules-Pierre Mao, magnate of Mao-Kwikowski Mercantile from Luna; as Melba she is a licensed electrochemical technician. After forming a bond with her, Amos gives her the nickname Peaches.
* **Dr. Elvi Okoye**, a biologist from Earth, now a leading figure among citizens of the new colonies
* **Rev. Dr. Annushka "Anna" Volovodov**, a [Methodist](Methodism) pastor at St. John's United on Europa and Earth
* **Namono "Nono" Volovodov**, wife of Anna, with whom she has a daughter, "Nami"
### Laconia
* **Winston Duarte**, High Consul of the Laconian Empire, a defector from the Martian navy
* **Teresa Duarte** a.k.a. **Tiny**, the daughter and heir of the High Consul
* **Paolo Cortázar**, a former member of Protogen's [nanoinformatics](nanoinformatics) research division, he is now the lead researcher on Laconia
* **Santiago Jilie Singh**, a captain in the Laconian Imperial Navy and commander of the *Gathering Storm*
* **Anton Trejo**, High Admiral of the Laconian Imperial Navy and captain of the *Heart of the Tempest*
* **Aliana Tanaka**, a Colonel in the Laconian Imperial Navy and a former officer in the MCRN until defecting.
* **Cara Bisset**, a ten-year-old child who, with her parents, settled on Laconia and was resurrected by the planet's repair drones.
### Other systems
* ** Jillian Houston**, a member of the Underground and crew member of the *Gathering Storm*, she hails from the Freehold system
* **Unnamed Gunner**, a member of the Underground faction that joined on Ganymede and participated in the Siege of Laconia on the gunship *Rocinante*, from Brazil Nova
* **Ekko Levy**, The captain of the *Forgiveness* from the planet Firdaws
* **Marrel Imvic**, a Linguist onboard the *Musafir* from the Dobridomov system
## Inspiration and writing
### Development
Ty Franck began developing the world of *The Expanse* initially as the setting for a [MMORPG](MMORPG) and, after a number of years, for a [roleplaying game](tabletop)(tabletop roleplaying game). Daniel Abraham, who had authored a number of novels on his own, suggested, given the depth of the setting, that it could serve for the basis for a series of novels, noting: "People who write books don't do this much research."
The authors have stated that the series gets some of its inspirations from Fred Pohl's *[Gateway](Gateway (novel))* and the other [Heechee](Heechee) books.
It has also been observed that there are similarities in the political and social setting of the series to [Bester](Alfred)(Alfred Bester)'s classic science fiction novel *[Stars My Destination](The)(The Stars My Destination)*.
Ty Franck has also stated [Scott's](Ridley)(Ridley Scott) *[Alien](Alien (film))* as having "the single largest influence on *The Expanse*."
### Writing process
Franck writes all the Holden, Bobbie, and Anna chapters, while Abraham writes the Miller, Melba, Avasarala, Bull, and Prax chapters. The writers meet weekly to discuss upcoming chapters and swap completed chapters for the other to edit.
### Narrative structure
The novels are written in [limited](third-person)(Narration#Third-person, subjective). Each chapter is told from the point of view of a character central to the story, while the prologue and epilogue are told by a recurring character or a one-off viewpoint. Most of the books employ four point-of-view characters (plus the prologue and epilogue viewpoints). *Leviathan Wakes* features two, ''Babylon's Ashes* features sixteen, *Persepolis Rising* features eight, and *Tiamat's Wrath* features five. James Holden is the only character to be used as a viewpoint character in all nine novels.
## Reception
### Critical response
The series overall has been well received, with the first novel *[Wakes](Leviathan)(Leviathan Wakes)* being the highest praised. For *[War](Caliban's)(Caliban's War)'', [Wired.com](Wired.com)'s Geek Dad and *[Weekly](Publishers)(Publishers Weekly)* both praised the novel. GeekDad cited the book's "believable human personalities and technology that is easily recognizable" as a highlight. *Publishers Weekly* gave ''[Gate](Abaddon's)(Abaddon's Gate)'' a [review](starred)(starred review) saying "series fans will find this installment the best yet." The same publication gave *[Burn](Cibola)(Cibola Burn)* a starred review and called it "splendid" and it "blends adventure with uncommon decency." *The Expanse* won the 2020 *[Award](Hugo)(Hugo Award)* for Best Series.
### Awards and nominations
## Adaptations
### Television series
The American television channel [Syfy](Syfy) announced a straight-to-series commitment to a television adaptation of *The Expanse* in April 2014, ordering the production of ten hour-long episodes for a first season which premiered in December 2015. six seasons consisting of a total of 62 episodes have been produced, with the final episode of each season sharing its name with the respective book. The series stars [Jane](Thomas)(Thomas Jane) as Josephus Miller and [Strait](Steven)(Steven Strait) as Jim Holden. As for the other crew of the *Rocinante*, [Tipper](Dominique)(Dominique Tipper) was cast as Naomi Nagata, [Anvar](Cas)(Cas Anvar) as Alex Kamal, and [Chatham](Wes)(Wes Chatham) as Amos Burton. The other major cast members are [Aghdashloo](Shohreh)(Shohreh Aghdashloo) as Chrisjen Avasarala, [Coleman](Chad)(Chad Coleman) as Fred Johnson, and [Faivre](Florence)(Florence Faivre) as Julie Mao. In season 2, [Adams](Frankie)(Frankie Adams) joined the cast as Bobbie Draper.
### Comics
Four digital comics based on the books and tying into the television series were published by [ComiXology](ComiXology). The comics were written by James S. A. Corey, Hallie Lambert and Georgia Lee and illustrated by Huang Danlan, Triona Farrell, Juan Useche and Rahzzah. *The Expanse: Origins* reveals the untold backstories of the crew members of the *Rocinante* before the start of the series. All four comics were also released in print as a compilation titled *The Expanse Vol. 1: Origins* by [Studios](BOOM!)(BOOM! Studios), which also featured a new story about Detective Miller.
A second series was also published by Boom and written by James S.A. Corey and Corinna Bechko, and illustrated by Alejandro Aragon, Francesco Segala and Ed Dukeshire. To date 4 issues have been published.
In January 2023, it was announced that the continuation of the TV-series, set between ''[Ashes](Babylon's)(Babylon's Ashes)* and *[Rising](Persepolis)(Persepolis Rising)*, would be adapted into a 12-issue comic book series, *The Expanse: Dragon Tooth''.
### Board game
An Expanse board game, designed by Geoff Engelstein and published by [WizKids](WizKids), was released in October 2017. The authors of the book series collaborated with Engelstein on its development.
The game focuses on politics, conquest and intrigue similar to the board game [Struggle](Twilight)(Twilight Struggle), although with a shorter playing time. Players represent Earth's UN forces, the military of Mars, the O.P.A., and Protogen Inc, each struggling to become the dominant power in the Solar System. They use cards and action points to move and place Fleets and expand their Influence in contested areas. The cards represent characters and events from the universe of The Expanse, each bearing key images from the show. Each character has special abilities that must be correctly exploited in order to gain the upper hand in the struggle for control.
The Expanse: Doors & Corners Expansion has been announced for release by WizKids in February 2019. It contains five new modules that can be used independently or in any combination together with the base game.
### Roleplaying game
*The Expanse Roleplaying Game* uses the AGE (Adventure Game Engine) system designed by Chris Pramas to bring James S. A. Corey's universe to life. The core rulebook and Gamemaster's Kit launched on Kickstarter in July 2018 and gathered over $400,000 from their campaign. The book was written by game designer [Kenson](Steve)(Steve Kenson) and is published by Pramas' company Green Ronin Publishing. The game allows players to create their own character of the various Solar System factions and adventure through the Solar System and beyond at the various settings or even on their own ships. It includes a bonus short story by James S. A. Corey titled "The Last Flight of the *Cassandra*".
## References
## External links
* [The-Expanse.com](http://the-expanse.com)
[series introduced in 2011](Category:Book)(Category:Book series introduced in 2011)
[ ](Category:The Expanse)
[wormholes in fiction](Category:Artificial)(Category:Artificial wormholes in fiction)
[science fiction novels](Category:American)(Category:American science fiction novels)
[science fiction](Category:Hard)(Category:Hard science fiction)
[Award-winning works](Category:Hugo)(Category:Hugo Award-winning works)
[about main-belt asteroids](Category:Fiction)(Category:Fiction about main-belt asteroids)
[set on Mars](Category:Fiction)(Category:Fiction set on Mars)
[fiction novel series](Category:Science)(Category:Science fiction novel series)
[opera novels](Category:Space)(Category:Space opera novels)
[set on dwarf planets](Category:Fiction)(Category:Fiction set on dwarf planets)
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Florence Nightingale
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florence_nightingale
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# Florence Nightingale
*Revision ID: 1159693721 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T23:43:50Z*
---
*The Lady with a Lamp*||Florence Nightingale (disambiguation)}}
| image = Florence Nightingale (H Hering NPG x82368).jpg
| caption = Nightingale,
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Florence](Florence), [Duchy of Tuscany](Grand)(Grand Duchy of Tuscany)
| death_date =
| death_place = [Mayfair](Mayfair), London, England
| nationality = British
| known_for =
| field = Hospital [hygiene](hygiene) and [sanitation](sanitation), statistics
| work_institutions = }}
| awards =
| signature = Florence Nightingale Signature.svg
| module = }}
}}
**Florence Nightingale** (; 12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910) was an English [reformer](social)(Reform movement), statistician and the founder of modern [nursing](nursing). Nightingale came to prominence while serving as a manager and trainer of nurses during the [War](Crimean)(Crimean War), in which she organised care for wounded soldiers at [Constantinople](Constantinople). She significantly reduced death rates by improving hygiene and living standards. Nightingale gave nursing a favourable reputation and became an icon of [culture](Victorian)(Victorian culture), especially in the persona of "The Lady with the Lamp" making rounds of wounded soldiers at night.
Recent commentators have asserted that Nightingale's Crimean War achievements were exaggerated by the media at the time, but critics agree on the importance of her later work in professionalising nursing roles for women. In 1860, she laid the foundation of professional nursing with the establishment of [nursing school](her)(Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery) at [Thomas' Hospital](St)(St Thomas' Hospital) in London. It was the first secular nursing school in the world and is now part of [College London](King's)(King's College London). In recognition of her pioneering work in nursing, the [Pledge](Nightingale)(Nightingale Pledge) taken by new nurses, and the [Nightingale Medal](Florence)(Florence Nightingale Medal), the highest international distinction a nurse can achieve, were named in her honour, and the annual [Nurses Day](International)(International Nurses Day) is celebrated on her birthday. Her social reforms included improving healthcare for all sections of British society, advocating better hunger relief in India, helping to [prostitution laws](abolish)(abolitionism (prostitution)) that were harsh for women, and expanding the acceptable forms of female participation in the workforce.
Nightingale was a pioneer in statistics; she represented her analysis in graphical forms to ease drawing conclusions and actionables from data. She is famous for usage of the [area diagram](polar)(polar area diagram), also called the Nightingale rose diagram, equivalent to a modern circular [histogram](histogram). This diagram is still regularly used in [visualisation](data)(Data visualization).
Nightingale was a prodigious and versatile writer. In her lifetime, much of her published work was concerned with spreading medical knowledge. Some of her tracts were written in [English](simple)(plain English) so that they could easily be understood by those with poor literary skills. She was also a pioneer in data visualisation with the use of [infographic](infographic)s, using graphical presentations of statistical data in an effective way. Much of her writing, including her extensive work on religion and [mysticism](mysticism), has only been published posthumously.
## Early life
[[File:Embley Park.jpg|thumb|[Park](Embley)(Embley Park) in Hampshire, now a school, one of the family homes of [Nightingale](William)(William Nightingale)]]
Florence Nightingale was born on 12 May 1820 into a wealthy and well-connected British family at the *Villa Colombaia*,["Florence Nightingale"](https://jmvh.org/article/florence-nightingale/) . JMVH.org. Retrieved 17 June 2020 in [Florence](Florence), Tuscany, Italy, and was named after the city of her birth. Florence's older sister [Parthenope](Frances)(Frances Parthenope Verney) had similarly been named after her place of birth, *[Parthenope](History of Naples)*, a [Greek](Ancient Greece) settlement now part of the city of [Naples](Naples). The family moved back to England in 1821, with Nightingale being brought up in the family's homes at [Hampshire](Embley,)(Embley, Hampshire), and [Hurst, Derbyshire](Lea)(Dethick, Lea and Holloway).
Florence inherited a liberal-humanitarian outlook from both sides of her family. Her parents were [Edward Nightingale, born William Edward Shore](William)(William Nightingale) (1794–1874) and Frances ("Fanny") Nightingale ( Smith; 1788–1880). William's mother Mary ( Evans) was the niece of Peter Nightingale, under the terms of whose will William inherited his estate at Lea Hurst, and assumed the name and arms of Nightingale. Fanny's father (Florence's maternal grandfather) was the [abolitionist](Abolitionism in the United Kingdom) and [Unitarian](Unitarianism) [Smith](William)(William Smith (abolitionist)). Nightingale's father educated her.
A [BBC](BBC) documentary reported that "Florence and her older sister Parthenope benefited from their father's advanced ideas about women's education. They studied history, mathematics, Italian, classical literature, and philosophy, and from an early age Florence, who was the more academic of the two girls, displayed an extraordinary ability for collecting and analysing data which she would use to great effect in later life."
[[Nightingale - Project Gutenberg 13103.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Young Florence Nightingale](File:Florence)]
In 1838, her father took the family on a tour in Europe where she was introduced to the English-born Parisian hostess [Clarke](Mary)(Mary Elizabeth Mohl), with whom Florence bonded. She recorded that "Clarkey" was a stimulating hostess who did not care for her appearance, and while her ideas did not always agree with those of her guests, "she was incapable of boring anyone." Her behaviour was said to be exasperating and eccentric and she had little respect for upper-class British women, whom she regarded generally as inconsequential. She said that if given the choice between being a woman or a galley slave, then she would choose the freedom of the galleys. She generally rejected female company and spent her time with male intellectuals. Clarke made an exception, however, in the case of the Nightingale family and Florence in particular. She and Florence were to remain close friends for 40 years despite their 27-year age difference. Clarke demonstrated that women could be equals to men, an idea that Florence had not learnt from her mother.
Nightingale underwent the first of several experiences that she believed were calls from God in February 1837 while at [Park](Embley)(Embley Park), prompting a strong desire to devote her life to the service of others. In her youth she was respectful of her family's opposition to her working as a nurse, only announcing her decision to enter the field in 1844. Despite the anger and distress of her mother and sister, she rejected the expected role for a woman of her status to become a wife and mother. Nightingale worked hard to educate herself in the art and science of nursing, in the face of opposition from her family and the restrictive social code for affluent young English women.
[[File:Florence Nightingale by Augustus Egg.jpg|thumb|upright|Painting of Nightingale by [Egg](Augustus)(Augustus Egg), 1840s]]
As a young woman, Nightingale was described as attractive, slender, and graceful. While her demeanour was often severe, she was said to be very charming and to possess a radiant smile. Her most persistent suitor was the politician and poet [Monckton Milnes](Richard)(Richard Monckton Milnes), but after a nine-year courtship, she rejected him, convinced that marriage would interfere with her ability to follow her calling to nursing.
In Rome in 1847, she met [Herbert](Sidney)(Sidney Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Lea), a politician who had been [at War](Secretary)(Secretary at War) (1845–1846) who was on his honeymoon. He and Nightingale became lifelong close friends. Herbert would be Secretary of War again during the [War](Crimean)(Crimean War) when he and his wife would be instrumental in facilitating Nightingale's nursing work in Crimea. She became Herbert's key adviser throughout his political career, though she was accused by some of having hastened Herbert's death from [disease](Bright's)(Bright's disease) in 1861 because of the pressure her programme of reform placed on him. Nightingale also much later had strong relations with academic [Jowett](Benjamin)(Benjamin Jowett), who may have wanted to marry her.Bostridge, Mark (2008). Florence Nightingale. pg. 8. London
[[Nightingale by Kilburn c1854.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Nightingale 1854](File:Florence)]
Nightingale continued her travels (now with Charles and [Bracebridge](Selina)(Selina Bracebridge)) as far as Greece and Egypt. While in Athens, Greece, Nightingale rescued a juvenile [owl](little)(little owl) from a group of children who were tormenting it, and she named the owl Athena. Nightingale often carried the owl in her pocket, until the pet died (shortly before Nightingale left for Crimea).
Her writings on Egypt, in particular, are testimony to her learning, literary skill, and philosophy of life. Sailing up the Nile as far as Abu Simbel in January 1850, she wrote of the [Simbel temples](Abu)(Abu Simbel temples), "Sublime in the highest style of intellectual beauty, intellect without effort, without suffering ... not a feature is correct — but the whole effect is more expressive of spiritual grandeur than anything I could have imagined. It makes the impression upon one that thousands of voices do, uniting in one unanimous simultaneous feeling of enthusiasm or emotion, which is said to overcome the strongest man."
At Thebes, she wrote of being "called to God", while a week later near Cairo she wrote in her diary (as distinct from her far longer letters that her elder sister Parthenope was to print after her return): "God called me in the morning and asked me would I do good for him alone without reputation." Later in 1850, she visited the Lutheran religious community at [Kaiserswerth-am-Rhein](Düsseldorf-Kaiserswerth) in Germany, where she observed Pastor [Fliedner](Theodor)(Theodor Fliedner) and the deaconesses working for the sick and the deprived. She regarded the experience as a turning point in her life, and issued her findings anonymously in 1851; *The Institution of Kaiserswerth on the Rhine, for the Practical Training of Deaconesses, etc.* was her first published work.*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography* She also received four months of medical training at the institute, which formed the basis for her later care.
On 22 August 1853, Nightingale took the post of superintendent at the [for the Care of Sick Gentlewomen](Institute)(Nightingale Hospital (Marylebone)) in [Harley Street](Upper)(Upper Harley Street), London, a position she held until October 1854. (commercial website) Her father had given her an annual income of £500 (roughly £40,000/US$65,000 in present terms), which allowed her to live comfortably and to pursue her career.
## Crimean War
[[File:Notes on Nursing (28).jpg|thumb|A print of the jewel awarded to Nightingale by [Victoria](Queen)(Queen Victoria), for her services to the soldiers in the war]]
Florence Nightingale's most famous contribution came during the [War](Crimean)(Crimean War), which became her central focus when reports got back to Britain about the horrific conditions for the wounded at the military hospital on the Asiatic side of the [Bosporus](Bosporus), opposite [Constantinople](Constantinople), at Scutari (modern-day [Üsküdar](Üsküdar) in [Istanbul](Istanbul)). Britain and France entered the war against Russia on the side of the [Empire](Ottoman)(Ottoman Empire). On 21 October 1854, she and the staff of 38 women volunteer nurses including her head nurse [Roberts](Eliza)(Eliza Roberts (British nurse)) and her aunt Mai Smith, and 15 Catholic nuns (mobilised by [Edward Manning](Henry)(Henry Edward Manning)) citing were sent (under the authorisation of Sidney Herbert) to the [Empire](Ottoman)(Ottoman Empire). On the way, Nightingale was assisted in Paris by her friend [Clarke](Mary)(Mary Elizabeth Mohl).Patrick Waddington, "Mohl, Mary Elizabeth (1793–1883)", *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography*, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, January 2007 [accessed 7 February 2015](http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/18880,) The volunteer nurses worked about away from the main British camp across the [Sea](Black)(Black Sea) at [Balaklava](Balaklava), in the [Crimea](Crimea).
[[File:Nightingale letter.jpeg|thumb|left|Letter from Nightingale to [Mohl](Mary)(Mary Elizabeth Mohl), 1881]]
Nightingale arrived at [Barracks](Selimiye)(Selimiye Barracks) in Scutari early in November 1854. Her team found that poor care for wounded soldiers was being delivered by overworked medical staff in the face of official indifference. Medicines were in short supply, [hygiene](hygiene) was being neglected, and mass infections were common, many of them fatal. There was no equipment to process food for the patients.
}}
After Nightingale sent a plea to *[Times](The)(The Times)* for a government solution to the poor condition of the facilities, the British Government commissioned [Kingdom Brunel](Isambard)(Isambard Kingdom Brunel) to design a [prefabricated](prefabricated building) hospital that could be built in England and shipped to the [Dardanelles](Dardanelles). The result was [Hospital](Renkioi)(Renkioi Hospital), a civilian facility that, under the management of [Alexander Parkes](Edmund)(Edmund Alexander Parkes), had a death rate less than one tenth of that of Scutari.["Report on Medical Care"](http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/battles/crimea/popup/medical.htm) . British National Archives (WO 33/1 ff.119, 124, 146–7). 23 February 1855.
[Paget](Stephen)(Stephen Paget) in the *[of National Biography](Dictionary)(Dictionary of National Biography)* asserted that Nightingale reduced the death rate from 42% to 2%, either by making improvements in hygiene herself, or by calling for the Sanitary Commission. For example, Nightingale implemented [handwashing](handwashing) in the hospital where she worked.
[[File:Coloured mezzotint; Florence Nightingale, Wellcome L0019661.jpg|thumb|upright|Florence Nightingale, *an angel of mercy*. [Scutari](Üsküdar) hospital 1855. ]]
During her first winter at Scutari, 4,077 soldiers died there. Ten times more soldiers died from illnesses such as [typhus](typhus), [typhoid](typhoid), [cholera](cholera), and [dysentery](dysentery) than from battle wounds. With overcrowding, defective [sewers](sanitary sewer) and lack of ventilation, the Sanitary Commission had to be sent out by the British government to Scutari in March 1855, almost six months after Nightingale had arrived. The commission flushed out the sewers and improved ventilation. Death rates were sharply reduced, but she never claimed credit for helping to reduce the death rate. Head Nurse [Roberts](Eliza)(Eliza Roberts (British nurse)) nursed Nightingale through her critical illness of May 1855.McDonald, Lynn (ed.) *Florence Nightingale: The Crimean War in Collected Works* vol. xiv, 2010, pp.65, 384 & 1038
In 2001 and 2008 the BBC released documentaries that were critical of Nightingale's performance in the Crimean War, as were some follow-up articles published in *The Guardian* and the *Sunday Times*. Nightingale scholar [McDonald](Lynn)(Lynn McDonald) has dismissed these criticisms as "often preposterous", arguing they are not supported by the primary sources.
Nightingale still believed that the death rates were due to poor nutrition, lack of supplies, stale air, and overworking of the soldiers. After she returned to Britain and began collecting evidence before the Royal Commission on the Health of the Army, she came to believe that most of the soldiers at the hospital were killed by poor living conditions. This experience influenced her later career when she advocated sanitary living conditions as of great importance. Consequently, she reduced peacetime deaths in the army and turned her attention to the sanitary design of hospitals and the introduction of sanitation in working-class homes (see Statistics and Sanitary Reform, below).
[[File:Nightingale receiving the Wounded at Scutari by Jerry BarrettFXD.jpg|left|thumb|*The Mission of Mercy: Florence Nightingale receiving the Wounded at Scutari* ([Barrett](Jerry)(Jerry Barrett), 1857)]]
According to some secondary sources, Nightingale had a frosty relationship with her fellow nurse [Seacole](Mary)(Mary Seacole), who ran a hotel/hospital for officers. Seacole's own memoir, *Wonderful Adventures of Mrs. Seacole in Many Lands*, records only one, friendly, meeting with her, when she asked her for a bed for the night and got it; Seacole was in Scutari en route to the Crimea to join her business partner and start their business. However, Seacole pointed out that when she tried to join Nightingale's group, one of Nightingale's colleagues rebuffed her, and Seacole inferred that racism was at the root of that rebuttal.Mary Seacole, *Wonderful Adventures of Mrs. Seacole in Many Lands*, Chapter VIII (London: James Blackwood, 1857), pp. 73–81 Nightingale told her brother-in-law, in a private letter, that she was worried about contact between her work and Seacole's business, claiming that while "she was very kind to the men and, what is more, to the Officers – and did some good (she) made many drunk".letter 4 August 1870, Wellcome Ms 9004/59). Nightingale reportedly wrote, "I had the greatest difficulty in repelling Mrs. Seacole's advances, and in preventing association between her and my nurses (absolutely out of the question!)...Anyone who employs Mrs. Seacole will introduce much kindness – also much drunkenness and improper conduct".Tan-Feng Chang, CREOLIZING THE WHITE WOMAN'S BURDEN: MARY SEACOLE PLAYING "MOTHER" AT THE COLONIAL CROSSROADS BETWEEN PANAMA AND CRIMEA, (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017), p. 526. On the other hand, Seacole told the French chef [Soyer](Alexis)(Alexis Soyer) that "You must know, M Soyer, that Miss Nightingale is very fond of me. When I passed through Scutari, she very kindly gave me board and lodging."Soyer, p. 434.
The arrival of two waves of Irish nuns, the [of Mercy](Sisters)(Sisters of Mercy) to assist with nursing duties at Scutari met with different responses from Nightingale. [Clare Moore](Mary)(Mary Clare Moore) headed the first wave and placed herself and her Sisters under the authority of Nightingale. The two were to remain friends for the rest of their lives. The second wave, headed by [Francis Bridgeman](Mary)(Mary Francis Bridgeman) met with a cooler reception as Bridgeman refused to give up her authority over her Sisters to Nightingale while at the same time not trusting Nightingale, whom she regarded as ambitious.Bridgeman, M. F. (1854–1856), An Account of the Mission of the Sisters of Mercy in the Military Hospitals of the East, Beginning December 1854 and Ending May 1856. Unpublished Manuscript, Archives of the Sisters of Mercy, Dublin, p.18Carol Helmstadter, [*Beyond Nightingale: Nursing on the Crimean War Battlefields*](https://books.google.com/books?id=X3C9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT134) , Manchester University Press (2020) – Google Books
### The Lady with the Lamp
[[File:Florence Nightingale. Coloured lithograph. Wellcome V0006579.jpg|thumb|*[Lady with the Lamp](The)(Miss Nightingale at Scutari (1854))*. Popular lithograph reproduction of a painting of Nightingale by [Rae](Henrietta)(Henrietta Rae), 1891.]]
During the [war](Crimean)(Crimean war), Nightingale gained the nickname "The Lady with the Lamp" from a phrase in a report in *[Times](The)(The Times)*:
The phrase was further popularised by [Wadsworth Longfellow](Henry)(Henry Wadsworth Longfellow)'s 1857 poem "Santa Filomena":
Lo! in that house of misery
A lady with a lamp I see
Pass through the glimmering gloom,
And flit from room to room.
## Later career
In the [Crimea](Crimea) on 29 November 1855, the Nightingale Fund was established for the training of nurses during a public meeting to recognise Nightingale for her work in the war. There was an outpouring of generous donations. Sidney Herbert served as honorary secretary of the fund and the [of Cambridge](Duke)(Prince George, Duke of Cambridge) was chairman. In her 1856 letters she described spas in the [Empire](Ottoman)(Ottoman Empire), detailing the health conditions, physical descriptions, dietary information, and other vital details of patients whom she directed there. She noted that the treatment there was significantly less expensive than in Switzerland.
[[Nightingale by Henry Hering, 1858.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Nightingale, 1858, by Goodman](File:Florence)]
Nightingale had £45,000 at her disposal from the Nightingale Fund to set up the first nursing school, the Nightingale Training School, at [Thomas' Hospital](St)(St Thomas' Hospital) on 9 July 1860. The first trained Nightingale nurses began work on 16 May 1865 at the Liverpool Workhouse Infirmary. Now called the [Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery](Florence)(Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery), the school is part of [College London](King's)(King's College London). In 1866 she said the [Buckinghamshire Hospital](Royal)(Royal Buckinghamshire Hospital) in [Aylesbury](Aylesbury) near her sister's home [House](Claydon)(Claydon House) would be "the most beautiful hospital in England", and in 1868 called it "an excellent model to follow".
Nightingale wrote *[on Nursing](Notes)(Notes on Nursing)* (1859). The book served as the cornerstone of the curriculum at the Nightingale School and other nursing schools, though it was written specifically for the education of those nursing at home. Nightingale wrote, "Every day sanitary knowledge, or the knowledge of nursing, or in other words, of how to put the constitution in such a state as that it will have no disease, or that it can recover from disease, takes a higher place. It is recognised as the knowledge which every one ought to have – distinct from medical knowledge, which only a profession can have".
*Notes on Nursing* also sold well to the general reading public and is considered a classic introduction to nursing. Nightingale spent the rest of her life promoting and organising the nursing profession. In the introduction to the 1974 edition, Joan Quixley of the Nightingale School of Nursing wrote: "The book was the first of its kind ever to be written. It appeared at a time when the simple rules of health were only beginning to be known, when its topics were of vital importance not only for the well-being and recovery of patients, when hospitals were riddled with infection, when nurses were still mainly regarded as ignorant, uneducated persons. The book has, inevitably, its place in the history of nursing, for it was written by the founder of modern nursing".
[[File:Martin Chuzzlewit illus11.jpg|thumb|upright|Illustration in Charles Dickens' *[Chuzzlewit](Martin)(Martin Chuzzlewit)*. Nurse Sarah Gamp (left) became a stereotype of untrained and incompetent nurses of the early Victorian era, before the reforms of Nightingale]]
As [Bostridge](Mark)(Mark Bostridge) has demonstrated, one of Nightingale's signal achievements was the introduction of trained nurses into the [workhouse](workhouse) system in Britain from the 1860s onwards. This meant that sick paupers were no longer being cared for by other, able-bodied paupers, but by properly trained nursing staff. In the first half of the 19th century, nurses were usually former servants or widows who found no other job and therefore were forced to earn their living by this work. [Dickens](Charles)(Charles Dickens) caricatured the standard of care in his 1842–1843 published novel *[Chuzzlewit](Martin)(Martin Chuzzlewit)* in the figure of [Gamp](Sarah)(Sarah Gamp) as being incompetent, negligent, alcoholic and corrupt. According to Caroline Worthington, director of the [Nightingale Museum](Florence)(Florence Nightingale Museum), "When she [Nightingale] started out there was no such thing as nursing. The Dickens character Sarah Gamp, who was more interested in drinking gin than looking after her patients, was only a mild exaggeration. Hospitals were places of last resort where the floors were laid with straw to soak up the blood. Florence transformed nursing when she got back [Crimea](from). She had access to people in high places and she used it to get things done. Florence was stubborn, opinionated, and forthright but she had to be those things in order to achieve all that she did."
Though Nightingale is sometimes said to have denied the theory of infection for her entire life, a 2008 biography disagrees,*Florence Nightingale, the Woman and her Legend*, by Mark Bostridge (Viking, 2008) saying that she was simply opposed to a precursor of germ theory known as [contagionism](Contingent contagionism). This theory held that diseases could only be transmitted by touch. Before the experiments of the mid-1860s by [Pasteur](Louis Pasteur) and [Lister](Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister), hardly anyone took germ theory seriously; even afterwards, many medical practitioners were unconvinced. Bostridge points out that in the early 1880s Nightingale wrote an article for a textbook in which she advocated strict precautions designed, she said, to kill germs. Nightingale's work served as an inspiration for nurses in the [Civil War](American)(American Civil War). The [Union](Union (American Civil War)) government approached her for advice in organising field medicine. Her ideas inspired the volunteer body of the [States Sanitary Commission](United)(United States Sanitary Commission).
Nightingale advocated autonomous nursing leadership, and that her new style of matrons had full control and discipline over their nursing staff. The infamous '[Hospital](Guy's)(Guy's Hospital) dispute' in 1879-1880 between matron Margaret Burt and hospital medical staff highlighted how doctors sometimes felt that their authority was being challenged by these new style Nightingale matrons. This was not an isolated episode and other matrons experienced similar issues, such as [Luckes](Eva)(Eva Luckes).Rogers, Sarah (2022). 'A Maker of Matrons'? A study of Eva Lückes's influence on a generation of nurse leaders:1880–1919' (Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Huddersfield, April 2022)
[[File:Florence nightingale at st thomas.jpg|thumb|left|Florence Nightingale (middle) in 1886 with her graduating [of nurses](class)(Florence nightingale school of nursing and midwifery) from [Thomas'](St)(St Thomas' Hospital) outside [House](Claydon)(Claydon House), Buckinghamshire]]
In the 1870s, Nightingale mentored [Richards](Linda)(Linda Richards), "America's first trained nurse", and enabled her to return to the United States with adequate training and knowledge to establish high-quality nursing schools. Richards went on to become a nursing pioneer in the US and Japan.Linda Richards (1915) [*Reminiscences of Linda Richards*](https://archive.org/details/reminiscencesli02richgoog), Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston
By 1882, several Nightingale nurses had become matrons at several leading hospitals, including, in London ([Mary's Hospital](St)(St Mary's Hospital (London)), Westminster Hospital, St Marylebone Workhouse Infirmary and the [for Incurables](Hospital)(Royal Hospital for Neuro-disability) at [Putney](Putney)) and throughout Britain ([Victoria Hospital](Royal)(Netley Hospital), [Netley](Netley); [Royal Infirmary](Edinburgh)(Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh); Cumberland Infirmary and Liverpool Royal Infirmary), as well as at [Hospital](Sydney)(Sydney Hospital) in [South Wales](New)(New South Wales), Australia.
In 1883, Nightingale became the first recipient of the [Red Cross](Royal)(Royal Red Cross). In 1904, she was appointed a [of Grace of the Order of St John (LGStJ)](Lady)(Order of Saint John (chartered 1888)).
In 1907, she became the first woman to be awarded the [of Merit](Order)(Order of Merit). In the following year she was given the [Freedom](Honorary)(Freedom of the City) of the [of London](City)(City of London). Her birthday is now celebrated as International [CFS](Chronic fatigue syndrome) Awareness Day.
From 1857 onwards, Nightingale was intermittently bedridden and suffered from depression. A recent biography cites [brucellosis](brucellosis) and associated [spondylitis](spondylitis) as the cause.Bostridge (2008) Most authorities today accept that Nightingale suffered from a particularly extreme form of brucellosis, the effects of which only began to lift in the early 1880s. Despite her symptoms, she remained phenomenally productive in social reform. During her bedridden years, she also did pioneering work in the field of hospital planning, and her work propagated quickly across Britain and the world. Nightingale's output slowed down considerably in her last decade. She wrote very little during that period due to blindness and declining mental abilities, though she still retained an interest in current affairs.
## Relationships
[[File:Florence Nightingale by Charles Staal, engraved by G. H. Mote.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Florence Nightingale by Charles Staal, engraved by G. H. Mote, used in [Cowden Clarke](Mary)(Mary Cowden Clarke)'s *Florence Nightingale* (1857)]]
Although much of Nightingale's work improved the lot of women everywhere, Nightingale believed that women craved [sympathy](sympathy) and were not as capable as men.}} She criticised early women's rights activists for decrying an alleged lack of careers for women at the same time that lucrative medical positions, under the supervision of Nightingale and others, went perpetually unfilled.}} She preferred the friendship of powerful men, insisting they had done more than women to help her attain her goals, writing: "I have never found one woman who has altered her life by one iota for me or my opinions."The same 1861 letter published in She often referred to herself as, for example, "a man of action" and "a man of business".Stark, Myra. "Florence Nightingale's Cassandra". The Feminist Press, 1979, p. 17.
However, she did have several important and long-lasting friendships with women. Later in life, she kept up a prolonged correspondence with Irish nun Sister Mary Clare Moore, with whom she had worked in Crimea. Her most beloved confidante was Mary Clarke, an Englishwoman she met in Paris in 1837 and kept in touch with throughout her life.Cannadine, David. "Ever Yours, Florence Nightingale: Selected Letters." *The New Republic*. 203.7 (13 August 1990): 38–42.
Some scholars of Nightingale's life believe that she remained chaste for her entire life, perhaps because she felt a religious calling to her career.Dossey, Barbara Montgomery. *Florence Nightingale: Mystic, Visionary, Reformer*. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1999.
## Death
[[File:St Margarets FN grave.jpg|thumb|upright|The grave of Florence Nightingale in the churchyard of St Margaret's Church, [Wellow](East)(Wellow, Hampshire), Hampshire]]
Florence Nightingale died peacefully in her sleep in her room at 10 [Street, Mayfair](South)(South Street, Mayfair), London, on 13 August 1910, at the age of 90.}} The offer of burial in [Abbey](Westminster)(Westminster Abbey) was declined by her relatives and she is buried in the churchyard of St Margaret's Church in [Wellow](East)(Wellow, Hampshire), Hampshire, near Embley Park with a memorial with just her initials and dates of birth and death.[Photograph of Nightingale's grave](http://www.countryjoe.com/nightingale/joe_grave.jpg) . countryjoe.com She left a large body of work, including several hundred notes that were previously unpublished.Kelly, Heather (1998). ''[Florence Nightingale's autobiographical notes: A critical edition of BL Add. 45844 (England)](http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/126/) '' (M.A. thesis) Wilfrid Laurier University A memorial monument to Nightingale was created in [marble](Carrara)(Carrara marble) by Francis William Sargant in 1913 and placed in the cloister of the [of Santa Croce](Basilica)(Santa Croce, Florence), in Florence, Italy.
## Contributions
### Statistics and sanitary reform
Florence Nightingale exhibited a gift for mathematics from an early age and excelled in the subject under the tutelage of her father.}} Later, Nightingale became a pioneer in the visual presentation of information and [graphics](statistical)(statistical graphics). She used methods such as the [chart](pie)(pie chart), which had first been developed by [Playfair](William)(William Playfair) in 1801. While taken for granted now, it was at the time a relatively novel method of presenting data. (alternative pagination depending on country of sale: 98–107, bibliography on p. 114) [online article – see documents link at left](http://www.unc.edu/~nielsen/soci708/)
Indeed, Nightingale is described as "a true pioneer in the graphical representation of statistics", and is especially well-known for her usage of a [area diagram](polar)(polar area diagram), or occasionally the *Nightingale rose diagram*, equivalent to a modern circular [histogram](histogram), to illustrate seasonal sources of patient mortality in the military field hospital she managed. While frequently credited as the creator of the polar area diagram, it is known to have been used by André-Michel Guerry in 1829 and Léon Louis Lalanne by 1830. Nightingale called a compilation of such diagrams a "coxcomb", but later that term would frequently be used for the individual diagrams. She made extensive use of coxcombs to present reports on the nature and magnitude of the conditions of medical care in the Crimean War to [of Parliament](Members)(Parliament of the United Kingdom) and civil servants who would have been unlikely to read or understand traditional statistical reports. In 1859, Nightingale was elected the first female member of the [Statistical Society](Royal)(Royal Statistical Society). In 1874 she became an honorary member of the [Statistical Association](American)(American Statistical Association).Norman L. Johnson, Samuel Kotz (2011). Leading Personalities in Statistical Sciences: From the Seventeenth Century to the Present". p. 314. John Wiley & Sons.
[[File:Nightingale-mortality.jpg|thumb|right|"*[Diagram](polar area diagram) of the causes of mortality in the army in the East*" by Florence Nightingale]]
Her attention turned to the health of the British Army in [India](India) and she demonstrated that bad drainage, contaminated water, overcrowding, and poor ventilation were causing the high death rate.Professional Nursing Practice: Concepts and perspective, Koernig & Hayes, sixth edition, 2011, p. 100. Following the report *The Royal Commission on India* (1858–1863), which included drawings done by her cousin, artist [Bonham Carter](Hilary)(Bonham Carter family), with whom Nightingale had lived,}} Nightingale concluded that the health of the army and the people of India had to go hand in hand and so campaigned to improve the sanitary conditions of the country as a whole.
Nightingale made a comprehensive statistical study of [sanitation](sanitation) in Indian rural life and was the leading figure in the introduction of improved medical care and public health service in India. In 1858 and 1859, she successfully lobbied for the establishment of a Royal Commission into the Indian situation. Two years later, she provided a report to the commission, which completed its own study in 1863. "After 10 years of sanitary reform, in 1873, Nightingale reported that mortality among the soldiers in India had declined from 69 to 18 per 1,000".
The Royal Sanitary Commission of 1868–1869 presented Nightingale with an opportunity to press for compulsory sanitation in private houses. She lobbied the minister responsible, [Stansfeld](James)(James Stansfeld), to strengthen the proposed Public Health Bill to require owners of existing properties to pay for connection to mains drainage. The strengthened legislation was enacted in the Public Health Acts of 1874 and 1875. At the same time, she combined with the retired sanitary reformer [Chadwick](Edwin)(Edwin Chadwick) to persuade Stansfeld to devolve powers to enforce the law to Local Authorities, eliminating central control by medical technocrats. Her Crimean War statistics had convinced her that non-medical approaches were more effective given the state of knowledge at the time. Historians now believe that both drainage and devolved enforcement played a crucial role in increasing average national life expectancy by 20 years between 1871 and the mid-1930s during which time medical science made no impact on the most fatal epidemic diseases.
### Literature and the women's movement
Historian of science [Bernard Cohen](I.)(I. Bernard Cohen) argues:
}} [Strachey](Lytton)(Lytton Strachey) was famous for his book debunking 19th-century heroes, *[Victorians](Eminent)(Eminent Victorians)* (1918). Nightingale gets a full chapter, but instead of debunking her, Strachey praised her in a way that raised her national reputation and made her an icon for English feminists of the 1920s and 1930s.James Southern, ["A Lady 'in Proper Proportions'? Feminism, Lytton Strachey, and Florence Nightingale's Reputation, 1918–39"](https://academic.oup.com/tcbh/article-abstract/28/1/1/2525313). *Twentieth Century British History* 28.1 (March 2017): 1–28. . .
While better known for her contributions in the nursing and mathematical fields, Nightingale is also an important link in the study of English [feminism](feminism). She wrote some 200 books, pamphlets and articles throughout her life. During 1850 and 1852, she was struggling with her self-definition and the expectations of an upper-class marriage from her family. As she sorted out her thoughts, she wrote *Suggestions for Thought to Searchers after Religious Truth*. This was an 829-page, three-volume work, which Nightingale had printed privately in 1860, but which until recently was never published in its entirety. An effort to correct this was made with a 2008 publication by [Laurier University](Wilfrid)(Wilfrid Laurier University), as volume 11 Privately printed by Nightingale in 1860. of a 16 volume project, the *Collected Works of Florence Nightingale*. The best known of these essays, called "Cassandra", was previously published by [Strachey](Ray)(Ray Strachey) in 1928. Strachey included it in *The Cause*, a history of the women's movement. Apparently, the writing served its original purpose of sorting out thoughts; Nightingale left soon after to train at the Institute for deaconesses at [Kaiserswerth](Kaiserswerth).
"Cassandra" protests the over-feminisation of women into near helplessness, such as Nightingale saw in her mother's and older sister's lethargic lifestyle, despite their education. She rejected their life of thoughtless comfort for the world of social service. The work also reflects her fear of her ideas being ineffective, as were [Cassandra](Cassandra)'s. Cassandra was a princess of [Troy](Troy) who served as a priestess in the temple of [Apollo](Apollo) during the [War](Trojan)(Trojan War). The god gave her the gift of [prophecy](prophecy); when she refused his advances, he cursed her so that her prophetic warnings would go unheeded. [Showalter](Elaine)(Elaine Showalter) called Nightingale's writing "a major text of English feminism, a link between [Wollstonecraft](Mary Wollstonecraft) and [Woolf](Virginia Woolf)".Gilbert, Sandra M., and Susan Gubar. "Florence Nightingale." *The Norton Anthology of Literature by Women: The Traditions in English*. New York: W. W. Norton, 1996. 836–837. Nightingale was initially reluctant to join the Women's [Society](Suffrage)(Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom) when asked by [Stuart Mill](John)(John Stuart Mill), but through [Butler](Josephine)(Josephine Butler) was convinced 'that women's enfranchisement is absolutely essential to a nation if moral and social progress is to be made'.
In 1972, the poet [Ross Taylor](Eleanor)(Eleanor Ross Taylor) wrote "Welcome Eumenides", a poem written in Nightingale's voice and quoting frequently from Nightingale's writings. [Rich](Adrienne)(Adrienne Rich) wrote that "... Eleanor Taylor has brought together the waste of women in society and the waste of men in wars and twisted them inseparably."
### Theology
Despite being named as a Unitarian in several older sources, Nightingale's own rare references to conventional Unitarianism are mildly negative. She remained in the [of England](Church)(Church of England) throughout her life, albeit with unorthodox views. Influenced from an early age by the [tradition](Wesleyan)(Wesleyanism), }} Nightingale felt that genuine religion should manifest in active care and love for others.}} She wrote a work of theology: *Suggestions for Thought*, her own [theodicy](theodicy), which develops her heterodox ideas. Nightingale questioned the goodness of a God who would condemn souls to hell and was a believer in [reconciliation](universal)(universal reconciliation) – the concept that even those who die without being saved will eventually make it to Heaven. She would sometimes comfort those in her care with this view. For example, a dying young prostitute being tended by Nightingale was concerned she was going to hell and said to her "Pray God, that you may never be in the despair I am in at this time". The nurse replied "Oh, my girl, are you not now more merciful than the God you think you are going to? Yet the real God is far more merciful than any human creature ever was or can ever imagine."}} — Regarding the influence of Florence Nightingale on [Barton](Clara)(Clara Barton).}}
Despite her intense personal devotion to Christ, Nightingale believed for much of her life that the pagan and eastern religions had also contained genuine revelation. She was a strong opponent of discrimination both against Christians of different denominations and against those of non-Christian religions.
Nightingale believed religion helped provide people with the fortitude for arduous good work and would ensure the nurses in her care attended religious services. However, she was often critical of organised religion. She disliked the role the 19th century Church of England would sometimes play in worsening the oppression of the poor. Nightingale argued that secular hospitals usually provided better care than their religious counterparts. While she held that the ideal health professional should be inspired by a religious as well as professional motive, she said that in practice many religiously motivated health workers were concerned chiefly in securing their own salvation and that this motivation was inferior to the professional desire to deliver the best possible care.
## Legacy
### Nursing
[[File:Nightingaleplaque.JPG|thumb|left|[plaque](Blue)(Blue plaque) for Nightingale in [Street](South)(South Street, Mayfair), Mayfair, London]]
Nightingale's lasting contribution has been her role in founding the modern nursing profession. She set an example of compassion, commitment to patient care and diligent and thoughtful hospital administration. The first official nurses' training programme, her [School for Nurses](Nightingale)(Nightingale School for Nurses), opened in 1860 and is now called the [Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery](Florence)(Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery) at [College London](King's)(King's College London).
In 1912, the [Committee of the Red Cross](International)(International Committee of the Red Cross) instituted the [Nightingale Medal](Florence)(Florence Nightingale Medal), which is awarded every two years to nurses or nursing aides for outstanding service. It is the highest international distinction a nurse can achieve and is awarded to nurses or nursing aides for "exceptional courage and devotion to the wounded, sick or disabled or to civilian victims of a conflict or disaster" or "exemplary services or a creative and pioneering spirit in the areas of public health or nursing education". Since 1965, [Nurses Day](International)(International Nurses Day) has been celebrated on her birthday (12 May) each year. The [of India](President)(President of India) honours nursing professionals with the "National Florence Nightingale Award" every year on International Nurses Day. The award, established in 1973, is given in recognition of meritorious services of nursing professionals characterised by devotion, sincerity, dedication and compassion.
[[File:Pledge of Florence Nightingale. Wellcome L0008728.jpg|thumb|upright|The [Pledge](Nightingale)(Nightingale Pledge)]]
The [Pledge](Nightingale)(Nightingale Pledge) is a modified version of the [Oath](Hippocratic)(Hippocratic Oath) which nurses recite at their [ceremony](pinning)(Pinning ceremony (nursing)) at the end of training. Created in 1893 and named after Nightingale as the founder of modern nursing, the pledge is a statement of the ethics and principles of the nursing profession.
The Florence Nightingale Declaration Campaign, established by nursing leaders throughout the world through the Nightingale Initiative for Global Health (NIGH), aims to build a global grassroots movement to achieve two [Nations Resolutions](United)(United Nations Resolutions) for adoption by the UN General Assembly of 2008. They will declare: The International Year of the Nurse–2010 (the centenary of Nightingale's death); The UN Decade for a Healthy World – 2011 to 2020 (the bicentenary of Nightingale's birth). NIGH also works to rekindle awareness about the important issues highlighted by Florence Nightingale, such as preventive medicine and [health](holistic)(holistic health). As of 2016, the Florence Nightingale Declaration has been signed by over 25,000 signatories from 106 countries.
During the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War), Nightingale inspired many [Army](US)(US Army) nurses, sparking a renewal of interest in her life and work. Her admirers include [Joe](Country)(Country Joe McDonald) of [Joe and the Fish](Country)(Country Joe and the Fish), who has assembled an extensive website in her honour. The Agostino Gemelli Medical School in Rome, the first university-based hospital in Italy and one of its most respected medical centres, honoured Nightingale's contribution to the nursing profession by giving the name "Bedside Florence" to a wireless computer system it developed to assist nursing.
### Hospitals
Four hospitals in Istanbul are named after Nightingale: Florence Nightingale Hospital in [Şişli](Şişli) (the biggest private hospital in Turkey), Metropolitan Florence Nightingale Hospital in Gayrettepe, European Florence Nightingale Hospital in [Mecidiyeköy](Mecidiyeköy), and Kızıltoprak Florence Nightingale Hospital in [Kadıköy](Kadıköy), all belonging to the Turkish Cardiology Foundation.
In 2011, an appeal was made for the former Derbyshire Royal Infirmary hospital in Derby, England to be named after Nightingale. It was suggested the name could be either Nightingale Community Hospital or Florence Nightingale Community Hospital. The area where the hospital is situated is sometimes referred to as the "Nightingale Quarter".
During the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom), a number of temporary [Nightingale Hospitals](NHS)(NHS Nightingale Hospitals) were set up in readiness for an expected rise in the number of patients needing critical care. The first was housed in the [London](ExCeL)(ExCeL London) and several others followed across England. Celebrations to mark her bicentenary in 2020, were disrupted by the coronavirus pandemic and Nightingale's contribution to scientific and statistical analysis of infectious disease and nursing practice may have led to the new temporary hospitals being in her name, in Scotland named the [Louisa Jordan](NHS)(NHS Louisa Jordan Hospital) after a nurse who followed in Nightingale's footsteps in battlefield nursing in [War One](World)(World War One).
### Museums and monuments
[[File:Florence_Nightingale_monument_London.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of Nightingale by [George Walker](Arthur)(Arthur George Walker) in Waterloo Place, London]]
[[File:Florence Nightingale Statue, London Road, Derby.jpg|thumb|upright|Florence Nightingale Statue, [Road](London)(London Road (Sheffield)), [Derby](Derby)]]
[[File:Derby DRI stained glass window at St Peters squared.JPG|thumb|upright|Florence Nightingale stained glass window, originally at the Derbyshire Royal Infirmary Chapel and now removed to [Peter's Church, Derby](St)(St Peter's Church, Derby) and rededicated 9 October 2010|alt=A vertical rectangular stained glass window with nine panels, each holding one or more human figures]]
A statue of Florence Nightingale by the 20th-century war memorialist [George Walker](Arthur)(Arthur George Walker) stands in Waterloo Place, [Westminster](Westminster), London, just off [Mall](The)(The Mall (London)). There are three statues of Nightingale in Derby – one outside the [Royal Infirmary](Derbyshire)(Derbyshire Royal Infirmary) (DRI), one in St Peter's Street, and one above the Nightingale-Macmillan Continuing Care Unit opposite the Derbyshire Royal Infirmary. A [pub](public house) named after her stands close to the DRI. The Nightingale-Macmillan continuing care unit is now at the [Derby Hospital](Royal)(Royal Derby Hospital), formerly known as The City Hospital, Derby.
A [glass window](stained)(stained glass window) was commissioned for inclusion in the DRI chapel in the late 1950s. When the chapel was demolished the window was removed and installed in the replacement chapel. At the closure of the DRI, the window was again removed and stored. In October 2010, £6,000 was raised to reposition the window in [Peter's Church, Derby](St)(St Peter's Church, Derby). The work features nine panels, of the original ten, depicting scenes of hospital life, Derby townscapes, and Nightingale herself. Some of the work was damaged and the tenth panel was dismantled for the glass to be used in the repair of the remaining panels. All the figures, who are said to be modelled on prominent Derby town figures of the early sixties, surround and praise a central pane of the triumphant Christ. A nurse who posed for the top right panel in 1959 attended the rededication service in October 2010.
The [Nightingale Museum](Florence)(Florence Nightingale Museum) at [Thomas' Hospital](St)(St Thomas' Hospital) in London reopened in May 2010 in time for the centenary of Nightingale's death. Another museum devoted to her is at her sister's family home, [House](Claydon)(Claydon House), now a property of the [Trust](National)(National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty).
Upon the centenary of Nightingale's death in 2010, and to commemorate her connection with [Malvern](Malvern, Worcestershire), the [Museum](Malvern)(Malvern Museum) held a Florence Nightingale exhibit with a school poster competition to promote some events.
In Istanbul, the northernmost tower of the Selimiye Barracks building is now the Florence Nightingale Museum. and in several of its rooms, relics and reproductions related to Florence Nightingale and her nurses are on exhibition.
When Nightingale moved on to the Crimea itself in May 1855, she often travelled on horseback to make hospital inspections. She later transferred to a mule cart and was reported to have escaped serious injury when the cart was toppled in an accident. Following this, she used a solid Russian-built black carriage, with a waterproof hood and curtains. The carriage was returned to England by [Soyer](Alexis)(Alexis Soyer) after the war and subsequently given to the Nightingale training school. The carriage was damaged when the hospital was bombed during the Second World War. It was restored and transferred to Claydon House and is now displayed at the [Medical Services Museum](Army)(Army Medical Services Museum) in [Mytchett](Mytchett), Surrey, near [Aldershot](Aldershot).
[[File:Florence Nightingale bust Gun Hill Park 2021.jpg|thumb|upright|Bust of Nightingale unveiled at [Hill Park](Gun)(Gun Hill Park) in [Aldershot](Aldershot) in 2021]]
A bronze plaque, attached to the plinth of the Crimean Memorial in the [Cemetery](Haydarpaşa)(Haydarpaşa Cemetery), Istanbul, Turkey and unveiled on [Day](Empire)(Empire Day), 1954, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of her nursing service in that region, bears the inscription: "To Florence Nightingale, whose work near this Cemetery a century ago relieved much human suffering and laid the foundations for the nursing profession." Other monuments of Nightingale include a statue at [University](Chiba)(Chiba University) in Japan, a bust at [State University](Tarlac)(Tarlac State University) in the Philippines, and a bust at [Hill Park](Gun)(Gun Hill Park) in [Aldershot](Aldershot) in the UK. Other nursing schools around the world are named after Nightingale, such as in [Anápolis](Anápolis) in Brazil.["ESCOLA DE ENFERMAGEM FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE em Anápolis, Anápolis"](https://guia-goias.escolasecreches.com.br/escolas-e-creches/ESCOLA-DE-ENFERMAGEM-FLORENCE-NIGHTINGALE-anapolis-anapolis-goias-i52020819.htm) . escolasecreches.com. Retrieved 17 February 2021
### Audio
Florence Nightingale's voice was saved for posterity in a [phonograph](phonograph) recording from 1890 preserved in the [Library Sound Archive](British)(British Library Sound Archive). The recording, made in aid of the [Brigade Relief Fund](Light)(Charge of the Light Brigade) and available to hear online, says:
When I am no longer even a memory, just a name, I hope my voice may perpetuate the great work of my life. God bless my dear old comrades of Balaclava and bring them safe to shore. Florence Nightingale.
### Theatre
The first theatrical representation of Nightingale was [Berkeley](Reginald)(Reginald Berkeley)'s *The Lady with the Lamp*, premiering in London in 1929 with [Evans](Edith)(Edith Evans) in the title role. It did not portray her as an entirely sympathetic character and draws much characterisation from [Strachey](Lytton)(Lytton Strachey)'s biography of her in *[Victorians](Eminent)(Eminent Victorians)*.Mark Bostridge, *Florence Nightingale – The Woman and Her Legend* It was adapted as a film of the same name in 1951. In 2009, a stage musical play representation of Nightingale entitled *The Voyage of the Lass* was produced by the Association of Nursing Service Administrators of the [Philippines](Philippines).
### Film
In 1912, a biographical silent film titled *The Victoria Cross*, starring [Swayne Gordon](Julia)(Julia Swayne Gordon) as Nightingale, was released, followed in 1915 by another silent film, *[Nightingale](Florence)(Florence Nightingale (1915 film))*, featuring [Risdon](Elisabeth)(Elisabeth Risdon). In 1936, [Francis](Kay)(Kay Francis) played Nightingale in the film titled *[White Angel](The)(The White Angel (1936 film))*. In 1951, *[Lady with a Lamp](The)(The Lady with a Lamp)* starred [Neagle](Anna)(Anna Neagle).
In 1993, [Entertainment](Nest)(Nest Entertainment) released an animated film *Florence Nightingale*, describing her service as a nurse in the Crimean War.*Florence Nightingale.* Nest Entertainment. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 10 September 2019. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0956136/
### Television
Portrayals of Nightingale on television, in documentary as in fiction, vary – the BBC's 2008 *[Nightingale](Florence)(Florence Nightingale (2008 film))*, featuring [Fraser](Laura)(Laura Fraser), emphasised her independence and feeling of religious calling, but in Channel 4's 2006 *[Seacole](Mary)(Mary Seacole): The Real Angel of the Crimea*, she is portrayed as narrow-minded and opposed to Seacole's efforts.
Other portrayals include:
* Laura Morgan in *[Victoria](Victoria (UK TV series))* episode #3.4 "Foreign Bodies" (2018)
* [Isitt](Kate)(Kate Isitt) in the *[Grandad](Magic)(Magic Grandad)* episode "Famous People: Florence Nightingale" (1994)
* [Smith](Jaclyn)(Jaclyn Smith) in the TV biopic *Florence Nightingale* (1985)
* [Thompson](Emma)(Emma Thompson) in the ITV sketch comedy series *[Alfresco](Alfresco (TV series))* episode #1.2 (1983)
* [Meadows](Jayne)(Jayne Meadows) in PBS series *[of Minds](Meeting)(Meeting of Minds)* (1978)
* [Suzman](Janet)(Janet Suzman) in the British theatre-style biopic *Miss Nightingale* (1974)
* [Harris](Julie)(Julie Harris (actress)) in *[Hall of Fame](Hallmark)(Hallmark Hall of Fame)* episode #14.4 "[Holy Terror](The)(List of Hallmark Hall of Fame episodes)" (1965)
* [Churchill](Sarah)(Sarah Churchill (actress)) in *[Hall of Fame](Hallmark)(Hallmark Hall of Fame)* episode #1.6 "[Nightingale](Florence)(List of Hallmark Hall of Fame episodes)" (1952)
### Banknotes
Florence Nightingale's image appeared on the reverse of [Series D banknotes](£10)(banknotes of the pound sterling#Historical figures) issued by the [of England](Bank)(Bank of England note issues) from 1975 until 1994. As well as a standing portrait, she was depicted on the notes in a field hospital, holding her lamp. Nightingale's note was in circulation alongside the images of [Newton](Isaac)(Isaac Newton), [Shakespeare](William)(William Shakespeare), [Dickens](Charles)(Charles Dickens), [Faraday](Michael)(Michael Faraday), [Christopher Wren](Sir)(Sir Christopher Wren), the [of Wellington](Duke)(Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington) and [Stephenson](George)(George Stephenson), and prior to 2002, other than the female monarchs, she was the only woman whose image had ever adorned British paper currency.
### Photographs
Nightingale had a principled objection to having photographs taken or her portrait painted. An extremely rare photograph of her, taken at Embley on a visit to her family home in May 1858, was discovered in 2006 and is now at the [Nightingale Museum](Florence)(Florence Nightingale Museum) in London. A black-and-white photograph taken in about 1907 by [Caswall Smith](Lizzie)(Lizzie Caswall Smith) at Nightingale's London home in South Street, Mayfair, was auctioned on 19 November 2008 by Dreweatts auction house in Newbury, Berkshire, England, for £5,500.
### Biographies
The first biography of Nightingale was published in England in 1855. In 1911, [Tyas Cook](Edward)(Edward Tyas Cook) was authorised by Nightingale's executors to write the official life, published in two volumes in 1913. Nightingale was also the subject of one of [Strachey](Lytton)(Lytton Strachey)'s four mercilessly provocative biographical essays, *[Victorians](Eminent)(Eminent Victorians)*. Strachey regarded Nightingale as an intense, driven woman who was both personally intolerable and admirable in her achievements.Florence Nightingale, Monica E. Baly and H. C. G. Matthew, *[Dictionary of National Biography](Oxford)(Oxford Dictionary of National Biography)*, 2015.
[Woodham-Smith](Cecil)(Cecil Woodham-Smith), like Strachey, relied heavily on Cook's *Life* in her 1950 biography, though she did have access to new family material preserved at Claydon. In 2008, [Bostridge](Mark)(Mark Bostridge) published a major new life of Nightingale, almost exclusively based on unpublished material from the Verney Collections at Claydon and from archival documents from about 200 archives around the world, some of which had been published by Lynn McDonald in her projected sixteen-volume edition of the *Collected Works of Florence Nightingale* (2001 to date).
### Other
[[File:KLM MD 11 AMS.jpg|thumbnail|left|alt=A three-engine wide-body jet airliner in blue and gray livery|[KLM](KLM) [MD-11](McDonnell Douglas MD-11), registration PH-KCD, *Florence Nightingale*]]
In 2002, Nightingale was ranked number 52 in the [BBC](BBC)'s list of the [Greatest Britons](100)(100 Greatest Britons) following a UK-wide vote. In 2006, the Japanese public ranked Nightingale number 17 in [Top 100 Historical Persons in Japan](The)(The Top 100 Historical Persons in Japan).
Several churches in the [Communion](Anglican)(Anglican Communion) commemorate Nightingale with a feast day on their [calendar](liturgical)(liturgical calendar)s. The [Lutheran Church in America](Evangelical)(Evangelical Lutheran Church in America) commemorates her as a [of Society](Renewer)(Renewer of Society) with [Maass](Clara)(Clara Maass) on 13 August.Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Evangelical Lutheran Worship – Final Draft. Augsburg Fortress Press, 2006
[National Cathedral](Washington)(Washington National Cathedral) celebrates Nightingale's accomplishments with a double-lancet stained glass window featuring six scenes from her life, designed by artist Joseph G. Reynolds and installed in 1983.
The [Navy](US)(United States Navy) ship the was commissioned in 1942. Beginning in 1968, the [Air Force](US)(United States Air Force) operated a fleet of 20 ["Nightingale"](C-9A)(McDonnell Douglas C-9) [evacuation](aeromedical)(Medical evacuation) aircraft, based on the [Douglas DC-9](McDonnell)(McDonnell Douglas DC-9) platform.[Air Mobility Command Museum: "C-9 Nightingale"](http://amcmuseum.org/at-the-museum/aircraft/c-9ac-nightingale/) . The last of these planes was retired from service in 2005."Historic C-9 heads to Andrews for retirement"
In 1981, the asteroid [Florence](3122)(3122 Florence) was named after her. A Dutch [KLM](KLM) [MD-11](McDonnell-Douglas)(McDonnell-Douglas MD-11) (registration PH-KCD) was also named in her honour; it served the airline for 20 years, from 1994 to 2014. Nightingale has appeared on international postage stamps, including, the UK, [Alderney](List of postage stamps of Alderney), Australia, Belgium, Dominica, Hungary (showing the Florence Nightingale medal awarded by the International Red Cross), and Germany.
Florence Nightingale is [remembered](Calendar of saints (Church of England)) in the [of England](Church)(Church of England) with a [commemoration](Commemoration (observance)) on 13 August. Celebrations to mark her bicentenary in 2020, were disrupted by the [pandemic](coronavirus)(COVID-19 pandemic), but the [Nightingale](NHS)(COVID-19 hospitals in the United Kingdom) hospitals were named after her.
## Gallery
File:Balaklava sick 2.jpg|A tinted [lithograph](lithograph) by [Simpson](William)(William Simpson (artist)) illustrating evacuation of the sick and injured from [Balaklava](Balaklava)
File:Nightingale-illustrated-london-news-feb-24-1855.jpg|Picture of Nightingale in *[Illustrated London News](The)(The Illustrated London News)*, 24 February 1855
File:'One of the wards in the hospital at Scutari'. Wellcome M0007724 - restoration, cropped.jpg|A ward of the hospital at [Scutari](Üsküdar) where Nightingale worked, from an 1856 lithograph by [Simpson](William)(William Simpson (artist))
File:Items belonging to Florence Nightingale, Nelson and Livingstone. (9663810240).jpg|Nightingale's [moccasins](moccasins) that she wore in the Crimean War (the other items are not hers)
File:Flornce Nightingale exhibit.jpg|Florence Nightingale exhibit at [Museum](Malvern)(Malvern Museum), England, 2010
File:Florence Nightingale medals NAM.jpg|Nightingale's medals displayed in the [Army Museum](National)(National Army Museum)
File:Memorial to Florence Nightingale, Church of Santa Croce, Florence, Italy.jpg|Memorial to Nightingale, Church of [Croce, Florence](Santa)(Santa Croce, Florence), Italy
## Works
*
*
*
*
*
* Privately printed by Nightingale in 1860.
*
* *The Family*, a critical essay in Fraser's Magazine (1870)
*
* Note: First few pages missing. Title page is present.
*. See also 2005 publication by Diggory Press,
*
*
## See also
* [War Memorial](Crimean)(Crimean War Memorial)
* [from Sevastopol](Dasha)(Dasha from Sevastopol)
* [Nightingale effect](Florence)(Florence Nightingale effect)
* [of feminism](History)(History of feminism)
* [practical nurse](Licensed)(Licensed practical nurse)
* [of suffragists and suffragettes](List)(List of suffragists and suffragettes)
* [environmental theory](Nightingale's)(Nightingale's environmental theory)
* [process](Nursing)(Nursing process)
* [Saunders](Cicely)(Cicely Saunders)
* [of women in science](Timeline)(Timeline of women in science)
* [suffrage in the United Kingdom](Women's)(Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom)
## Explanatory footnotes
## Citations
## General and cited references
### Primary sources
* Goldie, Sue, [*A Calendar of the Letters of Florence Nightingale*](https://wellcomecollection.org/works/yp69tab7), Oxford: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1983.
* McDonald, Lynn, ed., [*Collected Works of Florence Nightingale*](https://www.wlupress.wlu.ca/Series/C/Collected-Works-of-Florence-Nightingale). Wilfrid Laurier University Press. 16 volumes.
### Secondary sources
* [Monica E.](Baly,)(Monica Baly), and Matthew, H.C.G., ["Nightingale, Florence (1820–1910)"](https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-35241?rskey=hTpcCZ&result=2), *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography*, Oxford University Press, 2004; online ed., January 2011.
* [Mark (2008)](Bostridge,)(Mark Bostridge), *Florence Nightingale: The Woman and Her Legend*. Viking (2008), Penguin (2009). US title *Florence Nightingale: The Making of an Icon*. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux (2008).
* [Vern L.](Bullough,)(Vern Bullough); [Bonnie](Bullough,)(Bonnie Bullough); and Stanton, Marieta P., *Florence Nightingale and Her Era: A Collection of New Scholarship*, New York, Garland, 1990.
* [Edward](Chaney,)(Edward Chaney) (2006), "Egypt in England and America: The Cultural Memorials of Religion, Royalty and Revolution," in *Sites of Exchange: European Crossroads and Faultlines*, eds. Ascari, Maurizio, and Corrado, Adriana. Rodopi BV, Amsterdam and New York, 39–74.
* [Zachary](Cope,)(Zachary Cope), *Florence Nightingale and the Doctors*, London: [Press](Museum)(Museum Press), 1958; Philadelphia: [B. Lippincott & Co.](J.)(J. B. Lippincott & Co.), 1958.
*
* [Gillian](Gill,)(Gillian Gill) (2004). *Nightingales: The Extraordinary Upbringing and Curious Life of Miss Florence Nightingale*. Ballantine Books.
* Magnello, M. Eileen. "Victorian statistical graphics and the iconography of Florence Nightingale's polar area graph," *BSHM Bulletin: Journal of the British Society for the History of Mathematics* (2012) 27#1 pp 13–37
* Nelson, Sioban, and [Anne Marie](Rafferty,)(Anne Marie Rafferty), eds. *Notes on Nightingale: The Influence and Legacy of a Nursing Icon* (Cornell University Press; 2010) 184 pages. Essays on Nightingale's work in the Crimea and Britain's colonies, her links to the evolving science of statistics, and debates over her legacy and historical reputation and persona.
* [James](Parton,)(James Parton) (1868). "Florence Nightingale," in *Eminent Women of the Age; Being Narratives of the Lives and Deeds of the Most Prominent Women of the Present Generation*, Hartford, Conn.: S. M. Betts & Company.
* [Martin](Pugh,)(Martin Pugh (author)), ''The March of the Women: A Revisionist Analysis of the Campaign for Women's Suffrage, 1866–1914*, Oxford (2000), at 55.
* [Joan](Rees,)(Joan Rees). *Women on the Nile: Writings of [Martineau](Harriet)(Harriet Martineau), Florence Nightingale, and [Edwards](Amelia)(Amelia Edwards)''. London: Rubicon Press (1995, 2008).
*
*
* Sokoloff, Nancy Boyd, *Three Victorian Women Who Changed their World: Josephine Butler, Octavia Hill, Florence Nightingale*, London: MacMillan (1982).
* Available online at [Florence Nightingale: Part I. Strachey, Lytton. 1918. Eminent Victorians](http://www.bartleby.com/189/201.html) .
* Webb, Val, *The Making of a Radical Theologician*, Chalice Press (2002).
* [Cecil](Woodham-Smith,)(Cecil Woodham-Smith), *Florence Nightingale*, Penguin (1951), rev. 1955.
## Further reading
*
## External links
*
*
** [UCLA Elmer Belt Florence Nightingale Collection](//archive.org/details/f_nightingale), hosted at [Archive](Internet)(Internet Archive)
*
* [1890 audio recording of Florence Nightingale speaking](http://sounds.bl.uk/Accents-and-dialects/Early-spoken-word-recordings/024M-1CD0239287XX-0214V0)
* [Victorians.co.uk: Florence Nightingale](http://www.victorians.co.uk/florence-nightingale)
* [Eminent Victorians: Florence Nightingale](http://www.bartleby.com/189/201.html) by Lytton Strachey
*
* [University of Guelph: Collected Works of Florence Nightingale project](https://web.archive.org/web/20061213074121/http://www.sociology.uoguelph.ca/fnightingale/)
*
* [Florence Nightingale Foundation](http://www.florence-nightingale-foundation.org.uk/)
*[Florence Nightingale Correspondence from the Historic Psychiatry Collection, Menninger Archives, Kansas Historical Society](http://www.kansasmemory.org/item/223260)
* [Florence Nightingale Letters Collection](http://digitalcollections.library.ubc.ca/cdm/landingpage/collection/florence) – A collection of letters written by and to Florence Nightingale from the UBC Library Digital Collections
* [Florence Nightingale Letters Collection](http://collections.carli.illinois.edu/cdm4/index_uic_fnlc.php?CISOROOT=/uic_fnlc) – correspondence in the University of Illinois at Chicago digital collections
*[Florence Nightingale Collection](http://digital.library.wayne.edu/digitalcollections/item?id=wayne:collectionNightingale) at [State University](Wayne)(Wayne State University) Library consists primarily of letters written by Florence Nightingale throughout her life. Major topics of the letters include medical care for the soldiers and the poor, the role of nursing, and sanitation and public works in colonized India.
* [Florence Nightingale Declaration Campaign for Global Health](http://www.nightingaledeclaration.net/) established by the Nightingale Initiative for Global Health (NIGH)
*
* [Florence Nightingale Window at St Peter's, Derby](https://archive.today/20130423203458/http://www.stpetersderby.org.uk/Heritage.html)
* [Papers of Florence Nightingale, 1820–1910](https://web.archive.org/web/20140316195943/http://archiveshub.ac.uk/data/gb0120-mss.5471-5484,6930and8991-9109)
* [Southern Star article](http://www.southernstar.ie/News/The-feisty-nun-who-took-on-Florence-Nightingale-24102014.htm)
* [Episode 6: Florence Nightingale](http://babesofscience.com/episodes/2016/1/18/episode-6-florence-nightingale?rq=Episode%206) from [Babes of Science](http://babesofscience.com/) podcasts
* [Texas Woman's University Special Collections](http://twudigital.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/landingpage/collection/p16283coll41) has a large collection of Florence Nightingale artefacts, letters, and primary sources.
[ ](Category:Florence Nightingale)
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[of the Order of Merit](Category:Members)(Category:Members of the Order of Merit)
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[associated with King's College London](Category:People)(Category:People associated with King's College London)
[celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar](Category:People)(Category:People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar)
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[from Florence](Category:People)(Category:People from Florence)
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[statisticians](Category:Women)(Category:Women statisticians)
|
San Francisco Giants
|
san_francisco_giants
|
# San Francisco Giants
*Revision ID: 1158723372 | Timestamp: 2023-06-05T21:27:00Z*
---
| logo = San Francisco Giants Logo.svg
| uniformlogo = San Francisco Giants Cap Insignia.svg
| current league = National League
| y1 = 1883
| division = [Division](West)(National League West)
| y2 =1969
| Uniform = MLB-NLW-SF-Uniforms.png
| retirednumbers =
| colors = Black, orange, metallic gold, cream
| y3 = 1958
| nicknames = The Orange and Black
* Los Gigantes
* The G-Men
| pastnames =
* New York Giants (–)
* New York Gothams (–)
| ballpark = [Park](Oracle)(Oracle Park)
| y4 = 2000
| pastparks =
* [Park](Candlestick)(Candlestick Park) (–)
* [Stadium](Seals)(Seals Stadium) (–)
* [Park](Hilltop)(Hilltop Park) ()
* [Grounds III](Polo)(Polo Grounds III) (–)
* [Grounds II](Polo)(Polo Grounds II) (–)
* [George Cricket Grounds](St.)(St. George Cricket Grounds) ()
* [Park](Oakland)(Oakland Park, New Jersey) ()
* [Grounds I](Polo)(Polo Grounds I) (–)
| WS = (8)
| WORLD CHAMPIONS = | | | | | | | | }}
| LEAGUE = NL
| P = (23)
| PENNANTS =
| misc1 =
| OTHER PENNANTS =
| DIV = West
| DV = (9)
| Division Champs =
| misc5 =
| OTHER DIV CHAMPS =
| WC = (3)
| Wild Card =
| misc6 =
| owner = San Francisco Baseball Associates LLC
| manager = [Kapler](Gabe)(Gabe Kapler)
| gm = [Putila](Pete)(Pete Putila)
| presbo = [Zaidi](Farhan)(Farhan Zaidi)
}}
The **San Francisco Giants** are an American [baseball](professional)(professional baseball) team based in [Francisco](San)(San Francisco). The Giants compete in [League Baseball](Major)(Major League Baseball) (MLB) as a member club of the [League](National)(National League (baseball)) (NL) [West](National League West) division. Founded in 1883 as the **New York Gothams**, the team was renamed the [York Giants](New)(New York Giants (baseball)) three years later, eventually [relocating](relocation of professional sports teams) from New York City to San Francisco in 1958.
The franchise is one of the oldest and most successful in professional baseball, with more wins than any team in the history of major [sports](American)(Sports in the United States). The team was the first major-league organization based in New York City, most memorably playing home games at several iterations of the [Grounds](Polo)(Polo Grounds). The Giants have played in the [Series](World)(World Series) 20 times. In 2014, the Giants won their then-record 23rd National League [pennant](Pennant (sports)); this mark has since been equaled and then eclipsed by the rival [Dodgers](Los Angeles Dodgers), who as of 2022 lay claim to 24 NL crowns. The Giants' eight World Series championships are second-most in the NL and fifth-most of any franchise.
The franchise won 17 pennants and five World Series championships while in New York, led by managers [McGraw](John)(John McGraw), [Terry](Bill)(Bill Terry), and [Durocher](Leo)(Leo Durocher). New York-era star players including [Mathewson](Christy)(Christy Mathewson), [Hubbell](Carl)(Carl Hubbell), [Ott](Mel)(Mel Ott), and [Mays](Willie)(Willie Mays) join 63 other Giants in the [Hall of Fame](Baseball)(Baseball Hall of Fame), the most of any franchise. The Giants' [rivalry](Dodgers–Giants rivalry) with the [Angeles Dodgers](Los)(Los Angeles Dodgers), one of the longest-standing and most famed rivalries in American sports, began in New York and continued when both teams relocated to [California](California) in 1958.
Despite the efforts of Mays and [Bonds](Barry)(Barry Bonds), regarded as two of baseball's all-time best players, the Giants endured a 56-year championships drought following the move west, a stretch that included three World Series losses. The drought finally ended in the early 2010s; under manager [Bochy](Bruce)(Bruce Bochy), the Giants embraced [sabermetrics](sabermetrics) and eventually formed a baseball [dynasty](Dynasty (sports)) that saw them win the World Series in [2010](2010 World Series), [2012](2012 World Series), and [2014](2014 World Series), making the Giants the second team in NL history to win three championships in five years.
Through 2022, the franchise's all-time record is 11,382-9,854 (). The team's current manager is [Kapler](Gabe)(Gabe Kapler).
## Franchise history
### New York Giants
The Giants originated in New York City as the **New York Gothams** in 1883, and were known as the **New York Giants** from 1885 until the team relocated to San Francisco after the 1957 season. During most of their 75 seasons in New York City, the Giants played home games at various incarnations of the [Grounds](Polo)(Polo Grounds) in [Manhattan](Upper)(Upper Manhattan).
Numerous inductees of the [Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum](National)(National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum) played for the New York Giants, including [McGraw](John)(John McGraw), [Mathewson](Christy)(Christy Mathewson), [Ott](Mel)(Mel Ott), [Terry](Bill)(Bill Terry), [Mays](Willie)(Willie Mays), [Irvin](Monte)(Monte Irvin), and [Jackson](Travis)(Travis Jackson). During the club's tenure in New York, they produced five of the franchise's eight World Series wins ([1905](1905 World Series), [1921](1921 World Series), [1922](1922 World Series), [1933](1933 World Series), [1954](1954 World Series)) and 17 of its 23 National League pennants. Famous moments in the Giants' New York history include the 1922 World Series, in which the Giants swept the Yankees in four games, the 1951 home run by New York Giants outfielder and third baseman [Thomson](Bobby)(Bobby Thomson) known as the [Heard 'Round the World"]("Shot)(Shot Heard 'Round the World (baseball)), and the defensive feat by Mays during Game 1 of the 1954 World Series known as [Catch"]("the)(The Catch (baseball)).
The Giants had intense rivalries with their fellow New York teams, the [York Yankees](New)(New York Yankees) and the [Dodgers](Brooklyn)(Brooklyn Dodgers). The Giants faced the Yankees in six World Series and played the league rival Dodgers multiple times per season. Games between any two of these three teams were known collectively as the [Series](Subway)(Subway Series). The Dodgers-Giants rivalry continues, as both teams moved to [California](California) after the 1957 season, with the Dodgers relocating to Los Angeles. The [York Giants](New)(New York Giants) of the National Football League (NFL) are named after the team.
### San Francisco Giants
[[File:San Francisco Giants Fans Celebrating World Series Win 2014.jpg|thumb|Fans celebrating the Giants' [World Series](2014)(2014 World Series) victory at San Francisco City Hall.]]
The Giants, along with their rival [Angeles Dodgers](Los)(Los Angeles Dodgers), became the first Major League Baseball teams to play on the West Coast. On April 15, 1958, the Giants played their first game in San Francisco, defeating the former Brooklyn and now Los Angeles Dodgers, 8–0. The Giants played for two seasons at [Stadium](Seals)(Seals Stadium) (from 1931 to 1957, the stadium was the home of the [PCL](Pacific Coast League)'s [Francisco Seals](San)(San Francisco Seals (baseball))) before moving to [Park](Candlestick)(Candlestick Park) in [1960](1960 San Francisco Giants season). The Giants played at Candlestick Park until [1999](1999 San Francisco Giants season), before opening [Bell Park](Pacific)(Oracle Park) (now known as Oracle Park) in [2000](2000 San Francisco Giants season), where the Giants currently play.
The Giants struggled to sustain consistent success in their first 50 years in San Francisco. They made nine playoff appearances and won three NL pennants between 1958 and 2009. The Giants lost the [World Series](1962)(1962 World Series) in seven games to the New York Yankees. The Giants were swept in the [World Series](1989)(1989 World Series) by their cross-Bay rival [Athletics](Oakland)(1989 Oakland Athletics season), a series best known for the [Loma Prieta earthquake](1989)(1989 Loma Prieta earthquake), which caused a 10-day delay between Games 2 and 3. The Giants also lost the [World Series](2002)(2002 World Series) to the [Angels](Anaheim)(Los Angeles Angels). One of the team's biggest highlights during this time was the [2001](2001 San Francisco Giants season) season, in which outfielder [Bonds](Barry)(Barry Bonds) hit 73 [run](home)(home run)s, breaking the record for most home runs in a season. In 2007, Bonds would surpass [Aaron](Hank)(Hank Aaron)'s career record of 755 home runs. Bonds finished his career with 762 home runs (586 hit with the Giants), which is still the MLB record.
The Giants won three World Series championships in [2010](2010 World Series), [2012](2012 World Series), and [2014](2014 World Series), giving the team eight total World Series titles, including the five won as the New York Giants.
Players inducted into the [Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum](National)(National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum) as members of the San Francisco Giants include CF [Mays](Willie)(Willie Mays), 1B [Cepeda](Orlando)(Orlando Cepeda), P [Marichal](Juan)(Juan Marichal), 1B [McCovey](Willie)(Willie McCovey), and P [Perry](Gaylord)(Gaylord Perry).
## Uniforms
### 1958–1972
Upon moving to San Francisco, the Giants kept the same uniform they wore in New York, save for two changes. The cap logo now had an interlocking "SF" in orange, while the road uniform now featured "San Francisco" in black block letters with orange trim. Neckline, pants and sleeves feature thin black and orange stripes.
### 1973–1976
Changing to double-knit polyester, the Giants made a few noticeable changes to their uniform. The color scheme on the letters was changed to orange with black trim, and player names were added on the back. The cap logo remained the same.
### 1977–1982
For the 1977 season, the Giants switched to pullover uniforms. "Giants" on the home uniform was changed from serifed block lettering to cursive script, and the color scheme returned to black with orange trim. The road uniform became orange, with letters in black with white trim. Neck and sleeve stripes are in black, orange and white. Both uniforms received chest numbers. The standard cap was changed to feature an orange brim.
The 1978 season saw the Giants add a black alternate uniform, an inverse of their road orange uniform. All three uniforms now featured the "Giants" script previously exclusive to the home uniform.
### 1983–1993
Before the 1983 season, the Giants returned to a traditional buttoned uniform. This design returned to the classic look they wore early in their San Francisco tenure, but with a few exceptions. The lettering became more rounded (save for the player's name), the neck stripes were removed, and the interlocking "SF" and black piping was added on the road gray uniform. The caps returned to an all-black design.
### 1994–1999
In 1994, the Giants made a few changes to their uniform. The road uniform reverted to "San Francisco" in front and removed the piping. The front of both uniforms returned to stylized block letters with pointed edges, but kept the rounded numbers. The "SF" on the cap was also changed to reflect the lettering change.
### 2000–present
Coinciding with the move to [Park](Oracle)(Oracle Park) (then Pacific Bell Park) in 2000, the Giants unveiled new uniforms which were aesthetically close to the style they originally wore in their early years. On each uniform, numbers returned to a block letter style.
#### Home
The base of the home uniform was changed to cream. The "Giants" wordmark kept the same stylized block letter treatment but the arrangement was changed from a vertical to a radial arch. Neck stripes also returned with this uniform. Gold drop shadows were also added. A left sleeve patch containing the team logo and the words "San Francisco Baseball Club" was also featured.
#### Road
The gray road uniform returned to the classic "San Francisco" wordmark used in the 1960s, though in 2005 gold drop shadows were also added. This uniform was then tweaked to include black piping in 2012. Two sleeve patches were used. Between 2000 and 2010, the patch featured "SF" in orange letters in front of a baseball, with the full name added within a black circle. In 2011, this was changed to the sleeve patch used on the home uniform. Until 2020, only the road uniform featured player names; since 2021, all Giants uniforms have player names on the back.
#### Black alternate
In 2001, the Giants added a road and home alternate black uniform. Each uniform shared the same design as their home and road counterparts, with the exception of the road alternate receiving gold drop shadows. The home design was dropped after only one season, and the road version was retired the following year. Both sets were worn with an all-black cap but with the squatchee in black (the primary cap has an orange squatchee) and the "SF" wordmark changed to black with orange trim.
In 2015, the Giants unveiled a new black alternate uniform to be used on select Saturday home games. This set has the interlocking "SF" in front along with orange piping and a new sleeve patch containing the [Gate Bridge](Golden)(Golden Gate Bridge) atop the "Giants" wordmark. Initially, the letters were in black with orange trim, but this was changed to orange with black trim and orange drop shadows.
#### Orange alternate
Before the 2010 season, the Giants unveiled a new orange alternate uniform to be used on Friday home games. Initially, this design was similar to the home uniform save for a trim change to cream, but in 2011, the sleeve patch was changed to the one previously used on the team's road uniform. In 2014, the orange alternate were tweaked slightly, adding black piping and a new sleeve patch featuring the interlocking "SF" logo, and returning to the script "Giants" lettering previously used in the late 1970s. This design is usually paired with a black cap with orange brim featuring the "SF" logo.
#### Road alternate
Between 2012 and 2019, the Giants wore a second gray road uniform. This design was similar to the primary roads, but with the "SF" in place of the city name (a nod to the 1983–1993 road uniforms).
#### City Connect
In 2021, Major League Baseball and [Nike](Nike, Inc.) introduced the "City Connect" program, with teams wearing special uniforms that reflect the pride and personality of their community. The Giants' version is a white base with orange accents, featuring the stylized "G" in an orange/white gradient. The gradient represents the [Francisco fog](San)(San Francisco fog) that envelopes the Bay Area many months per year. An orange silhouette of the [Gate Bridge](Golden)(Golden Gate Bridge) is printed on the sleeves. The uniform is paired with an all-orange cap with the "SF" in orange with white trim. The uniforms are usually worn on Tuesday home games.
## Rivalries
The Giants' rivalry with the [Angeles Dodgers](Los)(Los Angeles Dodgers) dates back to when the two teams were based in New York, as does their rivalry with the [York Yankees](New)(New York Yankees). The Dodger and Giants rivalry is one of the longest rivalries in sports history. Their rivalry with the [Athletics](Oakland)(Oakland Athletics) dates back to when the Giants were in New York and the A's were in Philadelphia and played each other in the 1905, 1911, & 1913 World Series, and was renewed in 1968 when the Athletics moved from Kansas City and the teams again played each other in the earthquake-interrupted 1989 Bay Bridge World Series. The 2010 [NLCS](NLCS) inaugurated a Giants rivalry with the [Phillies](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia Phillies) after confrontations between [Sánchez](Jonathan)(Jonathan Sánchez) and [Utley](Chase)(Chase Utley), and between [Ramírez](Ramón)(Ramón Ramírez (Dominican pitcher)) and [Victorino](Shane)(Shane Victorino). However, with the [Phillies](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia Phillies) dropping off as one of the premier teams of the National League, this rivalry has died down since 2010 and 2011. Another rivalry that has intensified recently is with the [Louis Cardinals](St.)(St. Louis Cardinals), whom the team has faced 4 times in the [NLCS](NLCS).
The rivalry between the [York Giants](New)(New York Giants (NL)) and [Cubs](Chicago)(Chicago Cubs) in the early 20th century was once regarded as one of the most heated in baseball,*A Cunning Kind of Play: The Cubs–Giants Rivalry, 1876–1932* by Warren N. Wilbert with [Boner](Merkle's)(Merkle's Boner) leading to a 1908 season-ending matchup in New York of particular note. That historical rivalry was revisited when the Giants beat the Cubs in the 1989 NL playoffs, in their tiebreaker game in Chicago at the end of the 1998 season, and on June 6, 2012, in a "Turn Back The Century" game in which both teams wore replica 1912 uniforms.
### Los Angeles Dodgers
The **Giants-Dodgers rivalry** is one of the longest-standing rivalries in team sports.
The Giants-Dodgers feud began in the late 19th century when both clubs were based in New York City, with the Dodgers based in [Brooklyn](Brooklyn) and the Giants playing at the [Grounds](Polo)(Polo Grounds) in upper [Manhattan](Manhattan). After the 1957 season, Dodgers owner [O'Malley](Walter)(Walter O'Malley) decided to move the team to Los Angeles primarily for financial reasons. Along the way, he managed to convince Giants owner [Stoneham](Horace)(Horace Stoneham) (who was considering moving his team to [Minnesota](Minnesota)) to preserve the rivalry by taking his team to San Francisco as well. New York baseball fans were stunned and heartbroken by the move. Given that the cities of Los Angeles and San Francisco have long been competitors in economic, cultural and political arenas, their new California venues became fertile ground for transplantation of the ancient rivalry. In the wake of the Giants' and Dodgers' leaving New York, a new ballclub was born in 1962 in Queens: The New York Mets. The team's colors (blue and orange) were an homage to the recently departed teams.
Both teams' having endured for over a century while leaping across an entire continent, as well as the rivalry's growth from cross-city to cross-state, have led to its being considered one of the greatest in sports history.
The Giants-Dodgers rivalry has seen both teams enjoy periods of success at the expense of the other. While the Giants have more total wins, head-to-head wins, and [Series](World)(World Series) titles in their franchise histories, the Dodgers have won the [League West](National)(National League West) 11 more times than the Giants since the start of division play in 1969. Both teams have made the postseason as a [League wild card](National)(Major League Baseball wild card) twice. The Giants won their first world championship in California in 2010, while the Dodgers won their last world title in 2020. As of the end of the 2020 baseball season, the [Angeles Dodgers](Los)(Los Angeles Dodgers) lead the San Francisco Giants in California [Series](World)(World Series) triumphs, 6–3, whereas in 20th-century New York, the Giants led the Dodgers in World Series championships, 5–1. The combined franchise histories give the Giants an 8–7 edge in MLB championships, overall.
### Oakland Athletics
A geographic rivalry with the cross-Bay [League](American)(American League) Athletics greatly increased with the [World Series](1989)(1989 World Series), nicknamed the "Battle of the Bay", which Oakland swept (and which was interrupted by the [Prieta earthquake](Loma)(1989 Loma Prieta earthquake) moments before the scheduled start of Game 3 in San Francisco). This dates back to when The Giants and athletics were rivals when The Giants were in New York and the Athletics in Philadelphia They meet in 1905,1911, and 1913 World Series In addition, the introduction of [play](interleague)(interleague play) in 1997 has pitted the two teams against each other for usually six games every season since 1997, three in each city (but only four in 2013, two in each city). Before 1997, they played each other only in [League](Cactus)(Cactus League) [training](spring)(spring training). Their [play](interleague)(interleague play) wins and losses (63–57 in favor of the A's) have been fairly evenly divided despite differences in league, style of play, stadium, payroll, fan base stereotypes, media coverage and World Series records, all of which have heightened the rivalry in recent years. The intensity of the rivalry and how it is understood varies among Bay Area fans. A's fans generally view the Giants as a hated rival, while Giants fans generally view the A's as a friendly rival much lower on the scale. This is most likely due to the A's lack of a historical rival, while the Giants have their heated rivalry with the Dodgers. Some Bay Area fans are fans of both teams. The "split hats" that feature the logos of both teams best embodies the shared fan base. Other Bay Area fans view the competition between the two teams as a "friendly rivalry", with little actual hatred compared to similar ones such as the Subway Series ([York Mets vs. New York Yankees](New)(Mets–Yankees rivalry)), the Red Line Series ([Cubs vs. Chicago White Sox](Chicago)(White Sox – Cubs rivalry)) and the [Series](Freeway)(Freeway Series) (Los Angeles Dodgers vs. Los Angeles Angels).
The Giants and A's enjoyed a limited rivalry at the start of the 20th century before the Yankees began to dominate after the acquisition of [Ruth](Babe)(Babe Ruth) in 1920, when the Giants were in New York and the A's were in Philadelphia. The teams were managed by legendary leaders [McGraw](John)(John McGraw) and [Mack](Connie)(Connie Mack), who were considered not only friendly rivals but the premier managers during that era, especially in view of their longevity (Mack for 50 years, McGraw for 30) since both were majority owners. Each team played in five of the first 15 World Series (tying them with the Red Sox and Cubs for most World Series appearances during that time period). As the New York Giants and the Philadelphia A's, they met in three World Series, with the Giants winning in and the A's in & . After becoming the San Francisco Giants and Oakland A's, they met in a fourth Series in resulting in the A's last world championship (as of 2021).
### New York Yankees
Though in different leagues, the Giants have also been historical rivals of the Yankees, starting in New York before the Giants moved to the [Coast](West)(West Coast of the United States). Before the institution of [play](interleague)(interleague play) in 1997, the two teams had little opportunity to play each other except in seven [Series](World)(World Series): , , , , , and , the Yankees winning last five of the seven Series. The teams have met five times in regular season [play](interleague)(interleague play): In 2002 at the old [Stadium](Yankee)(Yankee Stadium (1923)), in 2007 at [Park](Oracle)(Oracle Park) (then known as AT&T Park), in 2013 and 2016 at the current [Stadium](Yankee)(Yankee Stadium), and in 2019 at Oracle Park. The teams' next regular season meetings will occur in 2023.
In a September 2013 meeting, Yankees 3B [Rodriguez](Alex)(Alex Rodriguez) hit a grand slam, breaking [Gehrig's](Lou)(Lou Gehrig) grand slam record.
In his July 4, 1939 farewell speech ending with the renowned "Today, I consider myself the luckiest man on the face of the earth", Yankee slugger [Gehrig](Lou)(Lou Gehrig), who played in 2,130 consecutive games, declared that the Giants were a team he "would give his right arm to beat, and vice versa".
## Baseball Hall of Famers
As of 2021, the [League Baseball Hall of Fame](Major)(Major League Baseball Hall of Fame) has inducted 66 representatives of the Giants (55 players and 11 managers) into the Hall of Fame, more than any other team in the history of baseball.
[[File:Christy Mathewson, pitcher, New York Giants, ca. 1910.jpg|thumb|upright=0.65|[Mathewson](Christy)(Christy Mathewson)]]
[[File:MelOttGoudeycard.jpg|thumb|upright|[Ott](Mel)(Mel Ott)]]
### Ford C. Frick Award recipients
Played as Giants
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### Other
The following inducted members of the Hall of Fame played or managed for the Giants, but either played for the Giants and were inducted as a manager having never managed the Giants, or managed the Giants and were inducted as a player having never played for the Giants:
* [Anson](Cap)(Cap Anson) – inducted as player, managed Giants in 1898.
* [Jennings](Hughie)(Hughie Jennings) – inducted as player, managed Giants from 1924 to 1925.
* [McKechnie](Bill)(Bill McKechnie) – inducted as manager, played for Giants in 1916.
* [Robinson](Frank)(Frank Robinson) – inducted as player, managed Giants from 1981 to 1984.
* [Stengel](Casey)(Casey Stengel) – inducted as manager, played for Giants from 1921 to 1923.
Broadcasters [Hodges](Russ)(Russ Hodges), [Simmons](Lon)(Lon Simmons), and [Miller](Jon)(Jon Miller) are permanently honored in the Hall's "Scribes & Mikemen" exhibit as a result of winning the [C. Frick Award](Ford)(Ford C. Frick Award) in 1980, 2004, and 2010 respectively. As with all Frick Award winners, none are officially recognized as an inducted member of the Hall of Fame.
### Bay Area Sports Hall of Famers
[[File:BarryBonds1993.jpg|thumb|upright|[Bonds](Barry)(Barry Bonds)]]
[[File:Madison Bumgarner on September 3, 2013.jpg|thumb|upright|[Bumgarner](Madison)(Madison Bumgarner)]]
[[File:Orlando Cepeda 1962.png|thumb|upright|[Cepeda](Orlando)(Orlando Cepeda)]]
[[File:1986 San Francisco Giants Postcards Will Clark.jpg|thumb|upright|[Clark](Will)(Will Clark)]]
[[File:Jeffrey Leonard 1983.jpg|thumb|upright|[Leonard](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Leonard)]]
[[File:Tim Lincecum (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[Lincecum](Tim)(Tim Lincecum)]]
[[File:Willie Mays SF67.png|thumb|upright|[Mays](Willie)(Willie Mays)]]
[[File:Juan Marichal 1967.png|thumb|upright|[Marichal](Juan)(Juan Marichal)]]
[[File:Willie McCovey 1961.jpg|thumb|upright|[McCovey](Willie)(Willie McCovey)]]
[[File:Gaylord Perry SF69.jpg|thumb|[Perry](Gaylord)(Gaylord Perry)]]
### Wall of Famers
The Giants Wall of Fame recognizes retired players whose records stand highest among their teammates on the basis of longevity and achievements.
Those honored have played a minimum of nine seasons for the San Francisco Giants, or five seasons with at least one All-Star selection as a Giant.
### Retired numbers
The Giants have retired 11 numbers in the history of the franchise, most recently Will Clark’s number 22 in 2022.
}}
Of the Giants whose numbers have been retired, all but Bonds and Clark have been elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame. In 1944, Carl Hubbell (#11) became the first National Leaguer to have his number retired by his team. Bill Terry (#3), Mel Ott (#4), and Hubbell played and/or managed their entire careers for the New York Giants. Willie Mays (#24) began his career in New York, moving with the Giants to San Francisco in 1958; he did not play in most of 1952 and all of 1953 due to his service in the [War](Korean)(Korean War). Mathewson and McGraw are honored by the Giants, but played in an era before uniform numbers became standard in baseball.
The Giants had originally scheduled to retire [Clark](Will)(Will Clark)'s #22 on July 11, 2020, but the ceremony was postponed until July 30, 2022, due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on sports#Baseball).
### Also honored
[McGraw](John)(John McGraw) (3B, 1902–06; manager, 1902–32) and [Mathewson](Christy)(Christy Mathewson) (P, 1900–16), who were members of the New York Giants before the introduction of uniform numbers, have the letters "NY" displayed in place of a number.
Broadcasters [Simmons](Lon)(Lon Simmons) (1958–73, 1976–78, 1996–2002 & 2006), [Hodges](Russ)(Russ Hodges) (1949–70), and [Miller](Jon)(Jon Miller) (1997–current) are each represented by an old-style radio microphone displayed in place of a number.
The Giants present the [Mac Award](Willie)(Willie Mac Award) annually to the player that best exemplifies the spirit and leadership shown by [McCovey](Willie)(Willie McCovey) throughout his career.
## Team captains
The Giants have had ten official recorded [captains](Captain (baseball)) over the years:
* [Doyle](Jack)(Jack Doyle (baseball)), 1902
* [McGann](Dan)(Dan McGann), 1903–1907
* [Doyle](Larry)(Larry Doyle (baseball)), 1908–16
* [Mancuso](Gus)(Gus Mancuso), 1937–38
* [Ott](Mel)(Mel Ott), 1939–47
* [Dark](Alvin)(Alvin Dark), 1950–56
* [Mays](Willie)(Willie Mays), 1961–72
* [McCovey](Willie)(Willie McCovey), 1977–80
* [Evans](Darrell)(Darrell Evans), 1980–83
* [Clark](Jack)(Jack Clark (baseball)), 1984
During the 2021-22 season, player [Belt](Brandon)(Brandon Belt) gave himself the title of self-proclaimed captain, but this was not considered an official captaincy.
## Season records
**All-time regular season record: 11,382–9,854 (.536)** (through 2022 season)
## Home stadiums
### New York
* [Grounds I](Polo)(Polo Grounds I) ([1883](1883 in baseball)–[1888](1888 in baseball))
* [Park](Oakland)(Oakland Park, New Jersey) ([1889](1889 in baseball))
* [George Cricket Grounds](St.)(St. George Cricket Grounds) ([1889](1889 in baseball))
* [Grounds II](Polo)(Polo Grounds II) ([1889](1889 in baseball)–[1890](1890 in baseball))
* [Grounds III](Polo)(Polo Grounds III) ([1891](1891 in baseball)–[1957](1957 in baseball))
** [Park](Hilltop)(Hilltop Park) ([1911](1911 in baseball) due to 1911 fire)
### San Francisco
* [Stadium](Seals)(Seals Stadium) ([1958](1958 in baseball)–[1959](1959 in baseball) after moved to [Francisco](San)(San Francisco))
* [Park](Candlestick)(Candlestick Park) ([1960](1960 in baseball)–[1999](1999 in baseball))
* [Park](Oracle)(Oracle Park) ([2000](2000 in baseball)–present) aka AT&T Park
## Roster
## Minor league affiliations
The San Francisco Giants [system](farm)(farm team) consists of eight [league](minor)(Minor League Baseball) affiliates.
## Radio and television
Giants' television telecasts are on [Sports Bay Area](NBC)(NBC Sports Bay Area) (cable) with select games simulcasted on [KNTV](KNTV) (broadcast). [KNTV's](KNTV) broadcast contract with the Giants began in 2008, one year after the team and [KTVU](KTVU) mutually ended a relationship that dated to 1961. [Miller](Jon)(Jon Miller) regularly called the action on KNTV, which used to be exclusive to the [Bay Area](NBC)(KNTV) channel, while the announcing team for [NBCSBA](NBC Sports Bay Area) telecasts is [Kuiper](Duane)(Duane Kuiper) and [Krukow](Mike)(Mike Krukow), affectionately known as "Kruk and Kuip" (pronounced "Kruke" and "Kype"). During the 2016 season, the Giants had an average 4.71 rating and 117,000 viewers on primetime TV broadcasts.[Here Are The 2016 MLB Prime Time Television Ratings For Each Team](https://www.forbes.com/sites/maurybrown/2016/09/28/here-are-the-2016-mlb-prime-time-television-ratings-for-each-team/2/) - Maury Brown, Forbes SportsMoney, 28 September 2016 Since the 2022 season, as Krukow is unable to travel with the team due to his [body myositis](inclusion)(inclusion body myositis), the pair only work home games and select road games, which the road games are done via "SplitKast" where Kuiper would be at the away ballpark and Krukow will be at the NBC Sports Bay Area studio in San Francisco. [Estes](Shawn)(Shawn Estes), [López](Javier)(Javier López (baseball)), and [Pence](Hunter)(Hunter Pence) serve as an alternate broadcast team for all other Giants road games.
The Giants' flagship radio station is [KNBR](KNBR (AM)) (680 AM). KNBR's owner, [Media](Cumulus)(Cumulus Media), is a limited partner in San Francisco Baseball Associates LP, the owner of the team.Cumulus Media, Inc. (December 31, 2012). "Notes to consolidated financial statements". *Annual report to the Securities and Exchange Commission on Form 10-K*. p. F-14. [Miller](Jon)(Jon Miller) and [Flemming](Dave)(Dave Flemming) are the regular play-by-play announcers. Joe Ritzo and [Santangelo](F.P.)(F. P. Santangelo) serves as a backup play by play when Jon is absent and Dave is on TV. In addition to KNBR, the Giants can be heard throughout Northern California and parts of Nevada, Oregon, and Hawaii on the [Radio Network](Giants)(San Francisco Giants Radio Network). Erwin Higueros and [Fuentes](Tito)(Tito Fuentes) handle Spanish-language radio broadcasts on [KXZM](KXZM) (93.7 FM).
### Home run call glitch
On May 28, 2006, Flemming called the 715th career home run of Barry Bonds, which moved Bonds into second on the all-time home run list. Unfortunately, the power from Flemming's [microphone](microphone) to the [transmitter](transmitter) cut off while the ball was in flight, so the radio audience heard only crowd noise. [Papa](Greg)(Greg Papa) took over the broadcast and apologized to listeners. Kuiper's TV call was submitted to the [Hall of Fame](Baseball)(Baseball Hall of Fame) as an artifact, instead of the usual radio call.
## Fight song and other music
First used for Giants radio broadcasts on [KSFO](KSFO), the team's fight song "Bye, Bye Baby!" is currently used following any Giants home run. The song is played in the stadium, and an instrumental version is played on telecasts when the inning in which the home run was hit concludes. The title and chorus "Bye bye baby!" coming from famed former Giants broadcaster [Hodges](Russ)(Russ Hodges), which was his home run call.
Following a Giants home win, [Bennett](Tony)(Tony Bennett)'s "[Left My Heart in San Francisco](I)(I Left My Heart in San Francisco)" is played in Oracle Park in celebration.
## Uniform schedule
Giants 2021 uniform schedule:
*Cream Home jerseys: Home games on Monday, Wednesday, Thursday, most Saturdays and Sunday.
*Gray Road jerseys: Road games from Monday to Sunday.
*Orange alternate jerseys: Every night game on Friday (known as Orange Friday).
*Black alternate jerseys: Every fourth Saturday of the month (away game).
*City Connect jerseys: Every Tuesday home game.
## See also
* [of San Francisco Giants team records](List)(List of San Francisco Giants team records)
* [Francisco Giants general managers and managers](San)(San Francisco Giants general managers and managers)
## References
### General reference
*
## External links
*
* [San Francisco Giants Team History & Encyclopedia](https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/SFG/) *Baseball Reference*
* [Sports E-Cyclopedia San Francisco Giants Page History and Pictures](http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nl/sfgiants/sfgiants.html)
* [Robert Lurie talks at the Commonwealth Club](https://archive.org/details/csth_000014) in 1976 about the process of keeping the Giants in San Francisco (from the Commonwealth Club records at the Hoover Institution)
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[ ](Category:San Francisco Giants)
[teams established in 1883](Category:Baseball)(Category:Baseball teams established in 1883)
[teams in San Francisco](Category:Baseball)(Category:Baseball teams in San Francisco)
[League Baseball teams](Category:Major)(Category:Major League Baseball teams)
[League](Category:Cactus)(Category:Cactus League)
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Melanie Griffith
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melanie_griffith
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# Melanie Griffith
*Revision ID: 1159402239 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T03:07:31Z*
---
| birth_place = New York City, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 1969–present
| party =
| spouse =
*
*
*
}}
| children = 3, including [Johnson](Dakota)(Dakota Johnson)
| parents = [Griffith](Peter)(Peter Griffith)[Hedren](Tippi)(Tippi Hedren)
| relatives = [Griffith](Tracy)(Tracy Griffith) (half-sister)
}}
**Melanie Richards Griffith** (born August 9, 1957) is an American actress. She began her career in the 1970s, appearing in several independent [film](thriller)(thriller film)s before achieving mainstream success in the mid-1980s.
Born in Manhattan, New York City, to actress [Hedren](Tippi)(Tippi Hedren) and advertising executive [Griffith](Peter)(Peter Griffith), she was raised mainly in Los Angeles, where she graduated from the [Professional School](Hollywood)(Hollywood Professional School) at age 16. In 1975, 17-year-old Griffith appeared opposite [Hackman](Gene)(Gene Hackman) in [Penn](Arthur)(Arthur Penn)'s [neo-noir](neo-noir) film *[Moves](Night)(Night Moves (1975 film))*. She later rose to prominence as an actor in films such as [De Palma](Brian)(Brian De Palma)'s thriller *[Double](Body)(Body Double)* (1984), which earned her a [Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actress](National)(National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actress). Griffith's subsequent performance in the comedy *[Wild](Something)(Something Wild (1986 film))* (1986) attracted critical acclaim before she was cast in 1988's *[Girl](Working)(Working Girl)*, which earned her a nomination for the [Award for Best Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actress) and won her a [Globe](Golden)(Golden Globe).
In the 1990s Griffith performed in a series of roles which received varying critical reception; she received Golden Globe nominations for her performances in *[Girls](Buffalo)(Buffalo Girls)* (1995), and as [Davies](Marion)(Marion Davies) in *[281](RKO)(RKO 281)* (1999), while also earning a [Raspberry Award for Worst Actress](Golden)(Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress) for her performances in *[Through](Shining)(Shining Through)* (1992), as well as receiving nominations for *[in Alabama](Crazy)(Crazy in Alabama)* (1999) and [Waters](John)(John Waters)' cult film *[B. Demented](Cecil)(Cecil B. Demented)* (2000). Other credits include [Schlesinger](John)(John Schlesinger)'s *[Heights](Pacific)(Pacific Heights (film))* (1990), *[Money](Milk)(Milk Money (film))* (1994), the [neo-noir](neo-noir) film *[Falls](Mulholland)(Mulholland Falls)* (1996), as Charlotte Haze in [Lyne](Adrian)(Adrian Lyne)'s *[Lolita](Lolita (1997 film))* (1997), and *[Day in Paradise](Another)(Another Day in Paradise (film))* (1998).
She played the voice of Margalo in *[Little 2](Stuart)(Stuart Little 2)* (2002), and later starred as [Marx](Barbara)(Barbara Marx) in *[Night We Called It a Day](The)(The Night We Called It a Day (film))* (2003), and spent the majority of the 2000s appearing on such television series as *[Nip/Tuck](Nip/Tuck)*, *[Hope](Raising)(Raising Hope)*, and *[Five-0](Hawaii)(Hawaii Five-0 (2010 TV series))*. After acting on stage in London, in 2003, she made her Broadway debut in a revival of the musical *[Chicago](Chicago (musical))*, receiving celebratory reviews. In the 2010s, Griffith returned to film, starring opposite her husband [Banderas](Antonio)(Antonio Banderas) in the science-fiction film *[Autómata](Autómata)* (2014) and as an acting coach in [Franco](James)(James Franco)'s *[Disaster Artist](The)(The Disaster Artist (film))* (2017).
## Life and career
### 1957–1969: Early life
Melanie Richards Griffith was born on August 9, 1957 in [Manhattan](Manhattan), New York City, to actress [Hedren](Tippi)(Tippi Hedren) and [Griffith](Peter)(Peter Griffith), a former child stage actor and advertising executive. Griffith's paternal ancestry is Welsh, while her maternal ancestry is Swedish, Norwegian, and German. Her parents separated when she was two years old, after which she relocated to Los Angeles with her mother; they divorced two years later, when Griffith was four. After divorcing Hedren, her father married model-actress Nanita Greene and had two more children: [Griffith](Tracy)(Tracy Griffith), who also became an actress, and Clay A. Griffith, a set designer. Her mother married agent and producer [Marshall](Noel)(Noel Marshall) when Griffith was seven years old.
During her childhood and adolescent years, she lived part of the time in New York with her father and part-time in [Valley, California](Antelope)(Antelope Valley, California), where her mother formed the animal preserve [Shambala](Shambhala Preserve). Griffith appeared in advertisements and briefly worked as a child model before abandoning the career, citing extreme shyness as the reason. While attending the [Professional School](Hollywood)(Hollywood Professional School), Griffith was advanced in her studies, which allowed her to skip a grade level and graduate at age 16.[Alumni](http://www.squareone.org/HPS/) Hollywood Conservatory of Music and Arts web site
### 1969–1979: Career beginnings and first marriage
[[File:Melanie Griffith by Yoni Hamenachem (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|left|A teenaged Griffith in *[Garden](The)(The Garden (1977 film))* (1977)]]
Griffith's first onscreen appearances were as an extra in *[Smith!](Smith!)* (1969) and *[Harrad Experiment](The)(The Harrad Experiment)* (1973). While on the set of the latter film, 14-year-old Griffith met actor [Johnson](Don)(Don Johnson), then 22. The two began dating, and the relationship culminated in a six-month marriage from January to July 1976. After divorcing Johnson, Griffith subsequently dated [O'Neal](Ryan)(Ryan O'Neal), who is 16 years her senior . In her autobiography, *A Paper Life*, [O'Neal](Tatum)(Tatum O'Neal) alleged that Griffith dragged her into an orgy with [Schneider](Maria)(Maria Schneider (actress)) and a male hairdresser during the time of her father's relationship with Griffith.
She had her first major role at age 17 in [Penn](Arthur)(Arthur Penn)'s [noir](film)(film noir) *[Moves](Night)(Night Moves (1975 film))* (1975), in which she portrayed a runaway teenager pursued across the United States by a private detective, portrayed by [Hackman](Gene)(Gene Hackman). In the film, she controversially appeared onscreen nude in several scenes. Griffith's performance in *Night Moves* drew attention to her and she was subsequently cast in two 1975 films: the comedy *[Smile](Smile (1975 film))*, playing a pageant contestant, and [Rosenberg](Stuart)(Stuart Rosenberg)'s *[Drowning Pool](The)(The Drowning Pool (film))*, a thriller in which she portrayed the daughter of a [Louisiana](Louisiana) woman (played by [Woodward](Joanne)(Joanne Woodward)) involved in a crime investigation. She was also named [Golden Globe](Miss)(Miss Golden Globe) for 1975, helping out at the [Globe Awards](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards). A contemporaneous profile of Griffith in *[Newsweek](Newsweek)* addressed her image at the time, in which it was noted: "She has the body of a sensuous woman, the pouting, chipmunk face of a teenager, and the voice of a childand, suddenly, she's showing them all."
In 1977, she had a supporting part playing a hitchhiker in the [Johnson](Lamont)(Lamont Johnson)-directed sports drama *[on One](One)(One on One (1977 film))*, where [Simon](John)(John Simon (critic)) in his review of *One on One* wrote, "Griffith is miscast in a PG picture, where she is obliged to hide her one talent (or two depending on how you count it...them)". Griffith appeared in the Israeli [film](experimental)(experimental film) *[Garden](The)(The Garden (1977 film))*, in which she portrayed a naked mute woman in Jerusalem whom a man mistakes for an angel. The same year, she had a supporting role in *[Joyride](Joyride (1977 film))* opposite [Carradine](Robert)(Robert Carradine), in which she played a young woman who leaves California with her boyfriend, hoping to start a fishing company in Alaska.
### 1980–1988: Breakthrough and motherhood
Griffith appeared opposite her mother, Hedren, in the film *[Roar](Roar (film))* (1981), directed by her then-stepfather [Marshall](Noel)(Noel Marshall). In the film, she portrayed the daughter of animal-keepers Madeleine (Hedren) and Hank (Marshall), whose various wild animals turn on them. *Roar* was a project devised by Hedren and Marshall, and has retrospectively been deemed one of the most dangerous film productions of all time. Filming of *Roar* had begun in 1970 and was intermittent over the following decade. On one occasion during the shoot, Griffith was mauled by a lion and had to undergo facial reconstructive surgery. Her attack and injury is visible in the finished film. Also in 1981, Griffith appeared as a [Army Corps](Women's)(Women's Army Corps) recruit in the made-for-television movie ''[in the Army Now](She's)(She's in the Army Now)'' (1981) with [Lee Curtis](Jamie)(Jamie Lee Curtis) and [Bauer](Steven)(Steven Bauer). Shortly after completing the film, Griffith and Bauer married.
Griffith's well-known drug and alcohol addictions temporarily stalled her career in the early 1980s, but she made a comeback at age 26 with her role as a [film actor](pornographic)(pornographic film actor) in the [De Palma](Brian)(Brian De Palma) thriller *[Double](Body)(Body Double)* (1984). The film, although a commercial failure, earned her the [Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actress](National)(National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actress). She then appeared in a supporting role in [Ferrara](Abel)(Abel Ferrara)'s thriller *[City](Fear)(Fear City)* (1985), playing a prostitute in [Square](Times)(Times Square) being stalked by a serial killer. Griffith gave birth to her first child, Alexander Griffith Bauer, on August 22, 1985, with Bauer. The following year, she had her first starring role opposite [Daniels](Jeff)(Jeff Daniels) in [Demme](Jonathan)(Jonathan Demme)'s comedy *[Wild](Something)(Something Wild (1986 film))* (1986), playing a mysterious woman who becomes involved with a straightlaced banker on a chance meeting. Critic [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) wrote of her acting: "Griffith's performance is based not so much on eroticism as on recklessness: She is able to convince us (and Daniels) that she is capable of doing almost anything, especially if she thinks it might frighten him." Griffith's performance earned her a Golden Globe Award nomination for [Actress in a Motion Picture Comedy or Musical](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical). Griffith also starred in the speculative science fiction film *[2000](Cherry)(Cherry 2000)*, which followed a business executive in the year 2017, and his relationship with a [robot](sex)(sex doll). The film was released directly to-video in 1987. She subsequently starred opposite [Bean](Sean)(Sean Bean), [Lee Jones](Tommy)(Tommy Lee Jones), and [Sting](Sting (musician)) in [Figgis](Mike)(Mike Figgis)'s neo-noir *[Monday](Stormy)(Stormy Monday (film))* (1988), portraying an American woman who becomes embroiled in her ex-boss's plot to acquire a jazz club in [upon Tyne](Newcastle)(Newcastle upon Tyne). [Maslin](Janet)(Janet Maslin) of *The New York Times* praised Griffith's performance, writing: "The stellar Miss Griffith, with her sexy, singular blend of kittenishness and strength, is entirely at home here, making an irrevocably strong impression."
[[File:Redford Milagro Cannes 1988.jpg|thumb|Griffith with [Redford](Robert)(Robert Redford) and [Braga](Sônia)(Sônia Braga), Cannes Film Festival 1988]]
Griffith achieved mainstream success when [Nichols](Mike)(Mike Nichols) cast her as spunky secretary Tess McGill in the box-office hit *[Girl](Working)(Working Girl)* (1988), co-starring [Ford](Harrison)(Harrison Ford), [Weaver](Sigourney)(Sigourney Weaver), [Baldwin](Alec)(Alec Baldwin), and [Cusack](Joan)(Joan Cusack). *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* noted of her performance: "Griffith stands apart, both for her eagerness to break out of her clerical rut and her tenacity dealing with whomever seems to be thwarting her." Griffith was nominated for an [Award for Best Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actress) for her performance, and won a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award) for [Actress in a Musical or Comedy](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy). The film marked a professional shift for Griffith earning her accolades as an A-list actress, characterized in a 1989 *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* piece: "Before *Working Girl*, Melanie Griffith was known mostly for her beautiful body and the way that nearly half her directors suggested she expose it."
Griffith and Bauer separated prior to her appearance in *Working Girl*. Griffith later admitted to having problems with [cocaine](cocaine) and liquor after her split from Bauer. "What I did was drink myself to sleep at night," she said. "If I wasn't with someone, I was an unhappy girl." In 1988, after completing rehabilitation, Griffith reconnected with Johnson, and the two remarried on June 26, 1989.
### 1989–1995: Mainstream success
On October 4, 1989, Griffith gave birth to her second child, daughter [Johnson](Dakota)(Dakota Johnson), with Don Johnson. After her pregnancy, Griffith began filming the thriller *[Heights](Pacific)(Pacific Heights (film))* (1990), directed by [Schlesinger](John)(John Schlesinger), in which she portrayed a woman, who along with her boyfriend, becomes embroiled in a dispute with a criminal boarder in their San Francisco home. Critic Roger Ebert gave the film a middling review, and characterized it as "a horror film for [yuppie](yuppie)s". The same year, she reunited with De Palma in *[Bonfire of the Vanities](The)(The Bonfire of the Vanities (film))*, a black comedy in which she portrayed a [belle](Southern)(Southern belle) gold-digger. [Travers](Peter)(Peter Travers) of *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* panned the film, noting that it "achieves a consistency of ineptitude rare even in this era of over-inflated cinematic air bags... Griffith has the curves and the Southern-belle voice of McCoy's mistress, Maria Ruskin, but the script robs this magnolia of her steel."
[[File:Don Johnson & Melanie Griffith.jpg|thumb|left|Griffith with then-husband [Johnson](Don)(Don Johnson) at the [APLA](AIDS Project Los Angeles) benefit in September 1990; Johnson and she appeared in two films together in the 1990s.]]
She was then cast in a lead role in *[Paradise](Paradise (1991 film))* (1991), a remake of the 1987 French film *[Grand Highway](The)(The Grand Highway)*, opposite then-husband Don Johnson, [Wood](Elijah)(Elijah Wood), and [Birch](Thora)(Thora Birch). In the film, Griffith portrayed a woman reeling from the death of her child, who takes in her friend's son. Owen Gleiberman of *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)* criticized Griffith's "cuddly, melting softness" in the film as being at odds with her character: "The way that Griffith has been directed, Lily never seems less than supremely nurturing. And so the movie — unlike, say, *The Doctor* — pulls back from revealing the dark side of an ordinary person's anguish." In 1992, she starred as Linda Voss, a German Jewish secretary in Berlin, opposite [Douglas](Michael)(Michael Douglas) in *[Through](Shining)(Shining Through)*, a World War II-set drama based on the [novel of the same name](1988)(Shining Through (novel)). Desson Howe of *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)* was critical of Griffith's portrayal of a German accent, writing: "In all fairness, Griffith shouldn't be lambasted for her incompetent accent. She should be lambasted for her acting, too. That baby voice of hers -- what's the deal with that? It's a liability in most of her movies. Here, it's completely ludicrous." Peter Travers of *Rolling Stone*, however, noted Griffith as being "cannily cast" and "just about perfect".
She followed this with the [Lumet](Sidney)(Sidney Lumet)-directed *[Stranger Among Us](A)(A Stranger Among Us)*, in which she portrayed a police officer posing as an Orthodox Jew while investigating a murder. Jay Boyar of the *[Sentinel](Orlando)(Orlando Sentinel)* criticized Griffith's speaking in the film, writing: "When Griffith tries to speak in the crude manner of a streetwise cop, her baby-doll voice turns the words into strained peaches. And while she's capable of projecting the wounded quality that the role demands, she's completely unconvincing when it comes to conveying a detective's intelligence... The miraculous thing about *A Stranger Among Us* is that Melanie Griffith's performance doesn't entirely ruin it. In fact, though the movie has other problems, there are sections that work quite well."
In the summer of 1992, Griffith filmed the comedy *[Yesterday](Born)(Born Yesterday (1993 film))* (1993), a remake of [1950 film](the)(Born Yesterday (1950 film)), in the role for which [Holliday](Judy)(Judy Holliday) won an [Award for Best Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actress). Billie Dawn is a naive, uneducated [showgirl](showgirl) whose wealthy, powerful and crude long-term fiancé ([Goodman](John)(John Goodman)) hires a reporter (Don Johnson) to give her enough polish to make her presentable as his wife in Washington, D.C. "This is supposed to be snappy material, and it comes across gloomy", Roger Ebert wrote at the time. He faulted the "dumbed down" screenplay, the casting and the lack of chemistry in a film that, in the end, was "morose and mean". In 1994, Griffith headlined the romantic comedy *[Money](Milk)(Milk Money (film))*, playing a prostitute. [Maslin](Janet)(Janet Maslin) of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* deemed the film a "brainless comedy," adding: "The film may try to renounce its own tawdriness, but not Ms. Griffith; she brings a certain irrepressible gusto to her role. Among the few genuinely amusing scenes here are those that show her flouncing through the small town where Frank and Dad live, scandalizing the locals and even finding one ex-client strolling with his wife on Main Street." The same year, she had a supporting role in ''[Fool](Nobody's)(Nobody's Fool (1994 film))'', a drama starring [Newman](Paul)(Paul Newman), [Tandy](Jessica)(Jessica Tandy), and [Willis](Bruce)(Bruce Willis). In the film, Griffith portrays the wife of a contractor (Willis) who has disputes with a free-spirited older man (Newman) in an upstate New York town. Kenneth Turan of the *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* noted both Willis and Griffith as "somewhat less reliable" than Newman and Tandy.
Griffith and husband Johnson separated in March 1994, reconciled later that year, but separated again in May 1995, eventually divorcing in 1996. In the midst of her separation, she appeared in an ensemble cast in the coming-of-age drama *[and Then](Now)(Now and Then (film))*, playing an actress who returns to her Indiana hometown to reunite with her childhood friends. Roger Ebert wrote of the film: "The adult actresses are completely superfluous to the movie, which is a contrived *[by Me](Stand)(Stand by Me (film))* kind of story." The same year, she starred opposite [Huston](Anjelica)(Anjelica Huston) and [McEntire](Reba)(Reba McEntire) in the Western miniseries *[Girls](Buffalo)(Buffalo Girls (miniseries))*, based on the [novel of the same name](1990)(Buffalo Girls). Tom Shales of *The Washington Post* wrote of the series that "Huston, Griffith, and McEntire make it not just bigger than life but, at times, better." For her performance, she was nominated for [Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film) in a Series, Miniseries or Television film.
### 1996–2002: Independent films and producing
[[File:Antonio Banderas and Melanie Griffith, 2010 Tribeca Film Festival.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Griffith and then husband [Banderas](Antonio)(Antonio Banderas) at the 2010 [Film Festival](Tribeca)(Tribeca Film Festival)]]
In 1996, Griffith co-starred with [Banderas](Antonio)(Antonio Banderas) in the comedy *[Much](Two)(Two Much)* (1996). Banderas and she began a relationship during the film's production, and were married that year. After their respective divorces were finalized, Griffith and Banderas married on May 14, 1996, at [Town Hall](Marylebone)(Marylebone Town Hall) in London. Their daughter, Stella del Carmen Banderas, was born on September 24, 1996. Following *Two Much*, Griffith starred in the neo-noir *[Falls](Mulholland)(Mulholland Falls)* (1996), playing the wife of a Los Angeles police detective (played by [Nolte](Nick)(Nick Nolte)), a performance that won her the [Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actress](Golden)(Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actress). Critics such as Roger Ebert praised the film as "the kind of movie where every note is put in lovingly. It's a 1950s crime movie, but with a modern, ironic edge," but the film was a box office flop.
Griffith was cast in the role of Charlotte Haze in [Lyne](Adrian)(Adrian Lyne)'s 1997 adaptation of *[Lolita](Lolita (1997 film))*, opposite [Irons](Jeremy)(Jeremy Irons). The film received a brief theatrical run and was subsequently shown on television, and grossed only $1.1 million against a $62 million budget. Caryn James of *The New York Times* noted that Griffith was "ideally cast as the annoying, widowed Charlotte. With her garish red nails, her screeching voice, her affected diction, Charlotte seems unbearable to the professorial Humbert." In 1998, Griffith had a supporting part playing a famous actress in [Allen](Woody)(Woody Allen)'s *[Celebrity](Celebrity (1998 film))* (1998), a performance characterized by critic Peter Travers as "playfully lusty". She followed this with a starring role as a free-spirited heroin addict in [Clark](Larry)(Larry Clark)'s independent film *[Day in Paradise](Another)(Another Day in Paradise (film))*, opposite [Woods](James)(James Woods). Roger Ebert praised the performances, writing: "Woods and Griffith play types they've played before, but with a zest and style that brings the movie alive--especially in the earlier scenes, before everything gets clouded by doom."
On February 5, 1999, Griffith made her stage debut at the [Vic](Old)(Old Vic) in London, England, where she acted with [Blanchett](Cate)(Cate Blanchett) in *[Vagina Monologues](The)(The Vagina Monologues)*. The same year, she starred in *[in Alabama](Crazy)(Crazy in Alabama)*, a film directed by Banderas and produced by Greenmoon Productions, the company that Banderas and she formed together. In the film, Griffith played an eccentric woman in 1960s Alabama who kills her husband and heads to Hollywood to become a movie star; this plot is set against a subplot involving a race-related murder. Rita Kempley of *The Washington Post* wrote that "Griffith manages to make [Streisand](Barbra)(Barbra Streisand) look downright camera-shy," but criticized its dual plots, writing that the "juxtapositions are not merely preposterous, but downright tasteless. Worse yet, they unintentionally trivialize the [rights movement](civil)(civil rights movement) by aligning it with a ding-dong belle's tenuous connection with the women's movement." This sentiment was echoed by Paul Clinton of [CNN](CNN), who wrote: "The deadly serious Alabama plot line of *Crazy in Alabama* is much more interesting than Griffith's wacky, comic cross-country trip. These dueling stories result in a film that's oddly uneven and unlikely to generate big box-office numbers." This was followed by a role in the [HBO](HBO) television film *[281](RKO)(RKO 281)*, in which Griffith portrayed 1920s and 1930s movie star [Davies](Marion)(Marion Davies). For her performance, she received an [Emmy](Emmy) Award nomination for [Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Movie](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Movie).
In 1999, Griffith was cast as Honey Whitlock, an arrogant actress kidnapped by a gang of underground filmmakers, in [Waters](John)(John Waters)'s black comedy *[B. Demented](Cecil)(Cecil B. Demented)*. Speaking on her being cast, Waters commented that Griffiths possessed "a combination of a good sense of humor and a little bit of defiance. Like me, she's someone with a past who has made peace with it. Nobody can blackmail her. So she's happy." Peter Travers of *Rolling Stone* wrote of that while the film's jokes are "hit-and-miss," Griffith "has a ball tweaking her diva image". Also in 2000, Griffith acted opposite [Swayze](Patrick)(Patrick Swayze) in *[Lulu](Forever)(Forever Lulu (2000 film))*, in which she portrayed a [schizophrenic](schizophrenia) woman attempting to contact her son. Derek Elley of *Variety* panned the film, referring to it as "a straight-to-vidbin stiff... this wannabe romantic comedy is chock full of phony sentiment."
In November 2000, Griffith returned to [rehabilitation](drug)(drug rehabilitation) for treatment of a painkiller addiction. While in treatment, Griffith began making public blog posts in an online journal detailing her battle to beat her substance abuse. She wrote in her first post: "I am starting this recovery journal because I wanted to share with you my experiences. I am still a little shaky, but I feel it is important that I share this with you, because an addiction to prescribed pain pills can happen to anyone, and you have to be careful." Griffith had a minor role in the 2001-released youth-oriented independent film *[Tart](Tart (film))*, which she co-produced with Banderas under their Green Moon Productions company. The film starred Griffith's former *Lolita* co-star [Swain](Dominique)(Dominique Swain), as well as [Renfro](Brad)(Brad Renfro), [Phillips](Bijou)(Bijou Phillips), and [Barton](Mischa)(Mischa Barton). In 2002, she voiced the character of Margalo the bird in the animated film *[Little 2](Stuart)(Stuart Little 2)*.
### 2003–2012: Theater and television
[[File:Melanie Griffith 2011 TIFF.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Griffith at the 2011 [International Film Festival](Toronto)(Toronto International Film Festival)]]
In August 2003, Griffith made her [Broadway](Broadway theater) debut playing [Hart](Roxie)(Roxie Hart) in a run of the musical *[Chicago](Chicago (play))*. The run was a box-office success. Though Griffith was previously untrained in song and dance, she still impressed *New York Times* theater critic [Brantley](Ben)(Ben Brantley), who wrote: "Ms. Griffith is a sensational Roxie, possibly the most convincing I have seen" and "[the] vultures who were expecting to see Ms. Griffith stumble...will have to look elsewhere." [Isherwood](Charles)(Charles Isherwood) of *Variety* noted some weaknesses in Griffith's performance, such as her singing and dancing abilities, but conceded: }}
She returned to the stage in 2012 in a play written by [Caan](Scott)(Scott Caan), titled *No Way Around but Through,* in which she played his mother.["The Sunday Conversation: Melanie Griffith returns to the stage"](https://articles.latimes.com/2012/jul/01/entertainment/la-ca-conversation-20120701), *LA Times*, July 1, 2012 She played Caan's mother again during 2014–16 in a recurring role on his television show *[Five-0](Hawaii)(Hawaii Five-0 (2010 TV series))*. In 2016, she filmed with Caan's father [Caan](James)(James Caan) and [Voight](Jon)(Jon Voight) in a TV movie titled *J.L. Ranch*.
Prior to *Hawaii Five-0*, Griffith's television work included the short-lived [WB](The WB Television Network) sitcom *[Twins](Twins (TV series))* (2005–06), and the 2007 series *[Laughlin](Viva)(Viva Laughlin)*, which was canceled after two episodes.
In August 2009, Griffith returned to rehabilitation again for what her publicist called "part of a routine plan". She had a three-month stay. In December of that year, Griffith had surgery to remove [cancer](skin)(skin cancer).
Her 2012 television pilot, *This American Housewife* (produced by Banderas), was not picked up by Lifetime. In the interim, Griffith guest-starred on *[Nip/Tuck](Nip/Tuck)* and *[in Cleveland](Hot)(Hot in Cleveland)*.
### 2013–present: Return to film
In June 2014, Griffith and Banderas released a statement announcing their intention to divorce "in a loving and friendly manner". According to the petition filed in the Los Angeles Superior Court, the couple had "irreconcilable differences" that led to the divorce. In December 2015, their divorce was finalized. Banderas has stated that he will always love Griffith, and Griffith appeared alongside Banderas in the 2014 science-fiction film *[Autómata](Autómata)*, which they filmed amid their divorce proceedings. She then had a role in *Day Out of Days* (2015), directed by [Cassavetes](Zoe)(Zoe Cassavetes). In 2016, she signed to be a guest star on Hulu's *[Path](The)(The Path (TV series))*.
In 2017, Griffith costarred opposite [Pacino](Al)(Al Pacino) and [Peters](Evan)(Evan Peters) in *[Pirates of Somalia](The)(The Pirates of Somalia (film))* (originally titled *Where the White Man Runs Away*), a biopic about journalist [Bahadur](Jay)(Jay Bahadur); and played Jean Shelton in [Franco](James)(James Franco)'s *[Disaster Artist](The)(The Disaster Artist (film))*, a comedy based on [Sestero](Greg)(Greg Sestero)'s book [the same name](of)(The Disaster Artist). In mid-2018, Griffith played Mrs. Robinson in a stage version of *The Graduate* at the Laguna Playhouse in California. In August 2018, she revealed she had undergone further and "final" surgical treatments to remove skin cancer from her face.
## Philanthropy
Griffith supports the efforts of [Hospital Los Angeles](Children's)(Children's Hospital Los Angeles) helping to lead Walk for Kids, a community 5K, to raise funds as part of the hospital's community awareness efforts in support of the opening of a new state-of-the-art pediatric inpatient facility. She also participated in the hospital's 2012 *Noche de Niños* gala as a presenter of a Courage to Care Award.
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
## References
## Sources
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## External links
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}}
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Amy Lee
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amy_lee
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# Amy Lee
*Revision ID: 1159619198 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T13:33:54Z*
---
| birth_place = [California](Riverside,)(Riverside, California), U.S.
| occupation =
| signature = Amy lee signature.png
| spouse =
| children = 1
| module =
| years_active = 1994–present
| genre =
| label =
| current_member_of = [Evanescence](Evanescence)
| website =
}}
}}
**Amy Lynn Lee** (born December 13, 1981) is an American singer-songwriter and musician. She is the co-founder, lead vocalist, lead songwriter and keyboardist of the rock band [Evanescence](Evanescence). Alongside her contributions with the band, Lee has also participated on other musical projects, including *[Revisited](Nightmare)(Nightmare Revisited)* and *[The Green Album](Muppets:)(Muppets: The Green Album)*, composed the soundtrack to the films *[Story](War)(War Story (2014 film))* (2014) and *[Grey: The Passage](Indigo)(Indigo Grey: The Passage)* (2015) with cellist [Eggar](Dave)(Dave Eggar), and the song "[to Me](Speak)(Speak to Me (Amy Lee song))" for the film *[from the Stone](Voice)(Voice from the Stone)* (2017). She has also collaborated with other artists such as [Korn](Korn), [Seether](Seether), [Me the Horizon](Bring)(Bring Me the Horizon), and [Stirling](Lindsey)(Lindsey Stirling). A classically trained pianist, Lee possesses a [mezzo-soprano](mezzo-soprano) vocal range.
Lee received the Songwriter Icon Award from the [Music Publishers Association](National)(National Music Publishers Association) in 2008. In 2012, she won Best Vocalist at the [Golden Gods Awards](*Revolver*)(Revolver (magazine)) and was also named Rock Goddess of the Year at the [Music Awards](*Loudwire*)(Loudwire). She was awarded Best Film Score by the [International Film Festival](Moondance)(Moondance International Film Festival) for *Indigo Grey: The Passage* in 2015. In 2017, she received the [Music in Media Award](Hollywood)(Hollywood Music in Media Award) for Best Original Song in Independent Film for "Speak to Me". Lee is the American [chairperson](Chairman) for the international [epilepsy](epilepsy) awareness foundation Out of the Shadows.
## Early life and education
Amy Lee was born on December 13, 1981 in [California](Riverside,)(Riverside, California), to parents John Lee, who worked as a [jockey](disc)(disc jockey) and [voice-over](voice-over) artist, and Sara Cargill. The oldest of five siblings, she has two living sisters. Lee had a younger sister who died at age three from an unidentified illness when Lee was six years old, and a younger brother who died in 2018 at age 24 after struggling with severe [epilepsy](epilepsy) for most of his life. Lee said that when her little sister died, her "whole perception of life changed", and it influenced her rumination on death. She wrote the songs "Hello" from *Fallen* and "Like You" from *The Open Door* for her late sister.
Lee discovered a passion for the piano in early childhood, wanting to play the instrument at age six after hearing her mother play. [music](Classical)(Classical music) was her first musical influence as a child, inspiring her to become a musician and composer. She was first inspired by [Mozart](Mozart) when she watched the 1984 film *[Amadeus](Amadeus (film))* at eight years old. [Beethoven](Beethoven) was another early classical inspiration, as well as [Elfman](Danny)(Danny Elfman)'s film scores. She wanted to take piano lessons, and studied classical piano for nine years. Lee considers the *Lacrimosa* movement of Mozart's [Requiem](Requiem (Mozart)) her favorite piece of music, and wove it into *The Open Door* song "[Lacrymosa](Lacrymosa (song))".
Lee began writing poetry about eternity and loneliness at age 10. Her mother had expressed concern about her writing, suggesting she see a therapist. Lee thought about taking [antidepressants](antidepressants) at the time but chose not to as she felt it would take her "soul away" and she "wouldn't be able to feel anything." One of the first songs she remembered writing was an instrumental piece called "Eternity of the Remorse", writing the sheet music when she was 11. Her first song with lyrics was called "A Single Tear", which she wrote for an eighth-grade assignment, recording it on a cassette tape and playing guitar while her friend from choir did backup vocals.
During her pre-teen years, Lee's family moved to many places, including [Palm Beach, Florida](West)(West Palm Beach, Florida) and [Illinois](Rockford,)(Rockford, Illinois), eventually settling in [Rock, Arkansas](Little)(Little Rock, Arkansas). When her family moved to Little Rock, Lee had a lot of pent-up "negativity". In Little Rock, she attended [Academy](Pulaski)(Pulaski Academy), a private college preparatory school, starting in [high](junior)(junior high). She described the school as a "weird fit" for her, where she was a loner for a while, and experienced bullying for dressing differently, which she would later embrace during high school.}} Lee found solace in writing, and joining the school choir helped her slowly gain confidence in her voice. She was initially insecure as a singer, and only used singing as a vehicle for her writing. A self-described "choir nerd", Lee became president of her high school's choir, and wrote a choir piece called "Listen to the Rain", which the choir teacher liked and asked her to direct. The piece was performed by the choir in graduation.
Originally wanting to focus on classical or film score composing, Lee's plan changed as her "tastes got darker". In late childhood and throughout her teens, she listened to a variety of musical styles, including [music](alternative)(alternative music), [grunge](grunge), [rock](hard)(hard rock), [music](industrial)(industrial music), [metal](death)(death metal), [metal](groove)(groove metal), and [electronica](electronica) artists like [Bjork](Bjork) and [Portishead](Portishead (band)).}} Lee's earliest memory of wanting to fuse various musical genres, especially contrasting styles, was when she was training in classical piano and noticed that a "real [shreddy](Shred guitar)" section of a composition from [Baroque](Baroque music) composer [Bach](Johann Sebastian Bach) resembled heavy metal. She found "so many similarities to be drawn, almost more so the further out you go on both sides".}}
Lee's extra-curricular activities involved working on music, playing music with others from school, and freelance painting.}} She spent most of her free time making music at her house late at night. By age 13, Lee was inspired to form her own band. In 1994, she met budding guitarist [Moody](Ben)(Ben Moody) when she was 13 at a Christian youth camp; when others in the camp were playing sports, she played piano and he played acoustic guitar and she thought they could play music together. Lee thinks what drew them together at the time was that they "didn't fit in that well" and were "out of [their] element in this silly camp environment."
## Career
### 1995–present: Evanescence
Within a month of meeting in 1994, Lee showed Moody a cassette tape of her playing guitar and singing a song she wrote. They began playing and working on music at Lee's home, and were soon performing acoustic sets at bookstores and coffee houses in the Little Rock area.
Lee and Moody co-founded Evanescence in 1995.}} After experimenting with band names, such as Childish Intentions and Stricken, they decided on Evanescence, which means "disappearance" or "fading away". What made Lee want to start a band was "the idea of combinations that were unlikely". With Evanescence, Lee aimed to combine her different musical tastes, "bringing something from the cinematic and classical symphonic world and marrying it to metal, hard rock and alternative music." "There was all this music that was inspiring me. And Evanescence was the product of these two extremes combining".
They eventually recorded three [EPs](Extended play): *Evanescence EP* (1998), of which about 100 copies were made and distributed at their early live performances; *Sound Asleep EP* (1999), also known as the *Whisper* EP; and *Mystary* EP (2003). Lee and Moody would perform with guest musicians in live gigs, but Evanescence remained a duo. "It was more because that's what we did and how we worked rather than not wanting any other input", Lee recalled.
[[File:AmyLee2003BillboardAwards.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Amy Lee at the [*Billboard* Music Awards](2003)(2003 Billboard Music Awards)]]
In 2000, Evanescence recorded the demo CD *[Origin](Origin (Evanescence album))*, which they self-released and sold at local shows. After graduating high school, Lee attended [Tennessee State University](Middle)(Middle Tennessee State University) to study music theory and composition, but dropped out after a semester to focus on Evanescence.}} Evanescence was signed by [Up Records](Wind)(Wind Up Records) in 2001. Lee and Moody moved to Los Angeles, where they worked on and completed their debut album.
Their debut album *[Fallen](Fallen (Evanescence album))* was released in 2003. Most of Lee's writing on the album was inspired by an abusive relationship she was in. Lee later stated that the creation of *Fallen* largely consisted of her and Moody writing music separately and then adding to each other's work, due to tension and significant creative differences between them.}} Lee and Moody composed some of the songs on *Fallen* when they were 15 and 16. In 2003, Lee stated she had opposed the label's initial promotion of the band in the Christian market, which Moody had originally supported and misrepresented the band. She said that Evanescence was not a Christian band and lyrically never had a religious affiliation.
On October 22, 2003, Moody left the band in the middle of the *Fallen* European tour, citing "creative differences". |title=Evanescence: Biography |publisher=[AllMusic](AllMusic)|access-date=October 7, 2022|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108214843/https://www.allmusic.com/artist/evanescence-mn0000787428/biography|archive-date=November 8, 2021}} Moody had previously called the band's management and informed them he was quitting. Lee got a call from their manager asking her to "beg [Moody] to stay", to which she said "that's exactly what he wants me to do" and expressed that if Moody was going to leave, the band "would appreciate it if he'd wait until the end of the tour. But if he can't, then go ahead and go." In an interview several months later, Lee said: "we'd gotten to a point that if something didn't change, we wouldn't have been able to make a second record". She said it was a relief that he left because of tensions created within the band. "It was a really uncomfortable situation for everybody ... completely unstable and unhappy. It was a scary time before he left because I knew something was going to happen and I didn't know what and I was afraid everything we worked for had the potential of going down the toilet." In Lee's termination letter to their manager, she stated that Moody was physically and verbally abusive to her. With Moody gone, "we felt like a weight had been lifted", she said. Guitarist John LeCompt said in a 2006 interview that Lee "gained authority as soon as Ben Moody walked out the door. They had an equal partnership, but he was the man, he had to strangle the band, all the life out of it".
Lee's creative disagreements with Moody included his strict approach to songwriting and focus on commerciality; he would "always be corralling" her ideas, and wanting to push the band in a more commercial, pop direction and she did not. His range of influences were "a lot different" than hers. "It was always a push and pull between us, for me", she said. *Fallen* "really is a lot of compromise. It definitely leaned toward what he wanted a lot of the time." "A lot of the reason it's been so much fun writing [post-Moody] is that we're not thinking about that. It's like, 'What do we like? What's fun?'", and there is "no pressure of wanting to rule the world", Lee explained. In a 2005 interview, Moody conceded that they had different approaches for the music, stating, "[Amy] is much more creative than I am ... I am a bit more commercial minded ... she is more educated musically, and she wanted to explore that. ... I think in my immaturity at the time, I did that in just a way-too-controlling manner — it was like my way or the highway. We just couldn't meet in the middle, so I was like, "The hell with it."
Ex-[Cold](Cold (band)) guitarist [Balsamo](Terry)(Terry Balsamo) replaced Moody on the *Fallen* tour, and soon became Evanescence's permanent lead guitarist and Lee's co-writing partner. Lee said that after Balsamo joined, she felt they were "finally a real band, not just Ben and I and a few others thrown together". During the tour, Lee wrote a song titled "The Last Song I'm Wasting on You", recording it in a bathroom on an [analog](Analog recording) recording device. It became a B-side on the single "Lithium" from Evanescence's second album. When asked if the track was about former bandmate Moody, Lee said, "If I answer that, then I'm not hiding anything anymore. But I just sort of answered it, didn't I?". She later deemed it "one of those personal, hard moments, when beauty is born out of pain".
After finishing another tour for Evanescence's 2004 live album and DVD *[but Home](Anywhere)(Anywhere but Home)* and overwhelmed by label pressure, Lee retreated to her house, cut off contact with people, and spent the next 10 months writing music again, painting and going to therapy. She said of her first therapy sessions, "For the first, I don't know, lots of sessions, I'd just go in and cry. Every time. I guess I was letting out all the ghosts of my past." Lee found comfort in therapy, an environment where she wasn't being judged, she felt she could speak freely and "not feel that anything I said was wrong". She referenced a session of interpreting recurring themes in her dreams, acknowledging a longstanding, deep-rooted feeling of "always something looming under the surface", which she later overcame. During this time, Lee had invasive experiences with stalkers that forced her to leave her house a couple of nights. This experience led her to write the song "Snow White Queen" from her and a stalker's perspective. Other songs Lee wrote throughout these months included "[Lacrymosa](Lacrymosa)" and "Together Again". Lee later collaborated with Balsamo, co-writing music together for Evanescence's second album, *[Open Door](The)(The Open Door)* (2006). The writing experience for *The Open Door* was "the best process" Lee ever had because she had "free reign"[sic] and could "do whatever I wanted without being judged". In 2006, Lee said that when she listened back to *Fallen*, she "hear[d] all the vulnerability and the fear and all the childish things in me that are just human." While Lee was drowning in the misery of her experiences in *Fallen*, she said *The Open Door* is largely about her acknowledging her issues and deliberating "what do I have to do to work this out." In the record, she is "purging the trials", but overall it comes from a less hopeless place and with a more reflective outlook.
Throughout the stages of writing *The Open Door*, Lee had moved from California, rented a place in Florida, and eventually settled in New York. After the end of *The Open Door*s tour, Lee took a break to recollect herself and live life away from the industry. After about 18 months, she began writing music again, and she took [harp](harp) lessons out of a desire to learn the instrument. In 2009, Evanescence began playing live shows again, with Lee realizing that she missed this part of her life, stating: "I had to get back together with all the guys, and we practiced all the old stuff ... and I enjoyed it so much. I started falling back in love with that part of me, the Evanescence part. I'd kind of been doing everything else, writing-wise, by myself, and I was like, 'Oh yeah, I love this stuff too. Maybe we should all make a record!'" Evanescence released their third studio album, the self-titled *[Evanescence](Evanescence (Evanescence album))* in 2011. Lee said that the decision for the album's title was her love towards Evanescence, as well as the record being composed more collaboratively than past albums, with all members contributing. The record is "about the band", Lee explained. Its lyrical themes include Lee "falling back in love" with Evanescence, her being inspired by nature and the ocean, brokenness, the quest for freedom, and falling in love. Different from *The Open Door*, which was "all about me and my personal experiences", *Evanescence* also includes Lee's musings on events that occurred to others in her life. "But really, whatever makes me feel the most, that's what's on the record, because that's what I need to get off my chest."
After the touring cycle for *Evanescence*, Lee took an extended break. In October 2013, Wind-up Records sold part of their catalog of artists, including Evanescence and their master recordings, to Bicycle Music Company. In January 2014, it was reported that Lee had filed a lawsuit against Wind-up Records for $1.5 million in unpaid royalties owed to the band. In March 2014, via her Twitter account, Lee announced that she and Evanescence had been released from her Wind-up Records contract and she was now an independent artist; she stated: "Today, for the first time in 13 years, I am a free and independent artist. I have wanted this for so long and I am so happy", adding that this meant she was "free to do anything, Ev[anescence] included."
[[at The Wiltern theatre in Los Angeles, California 16.jpg|thumb|right|Amy Lee performing with Evanescence in 2015](File:Evanescence)]
Following several solo projects by Lee from 2014–2017, including [scoring](film)(film scoring), and Evanescence's resumed touring in 2015,}} the band reconvened to work on their fourth studio album, *[Synthesis](Synthesis (Evanescence album))*. Released in 2017, *Synthesis* is an album of [orchestral](orchestral) and [electronica](electronica)–reworked arrangements of the band's previous material in addition to two new songs. The album's release was followed by the [Live](Synthesis)(Synthesis Live) concert tour in which the band performed with a live orchestra for the first time.
In April 2020, Lee announced the release date of Evanescence's fifth album, *[Bitter Truth](The)(The Bitter Truth)*. Four songs from the album were released as singles throughout 2020 and 2021 during the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic), while a virtual live-streamed show was performed by the band from their recording base at Rock Falcon Studio, [Nashville](Nashville), in December 2020. The album was released on March 26, 2021.
In a [Q&A](wikt:Q and A) with *[Forbes](Forbes)* in May 2020, Lee mentioned that the "image and idea" of the band from the early days was "something that combined multiple dramas, from the dramatic to the rock to the classical to the score", and that although many things have changed since, the "idea that started this whole thing is still there".
### 2000–present: Solo work
#### 2000–2007: Early solo projects
Lee performed backup vocals for "Missing You", a song on [Dismal](Big)(Big Dismal)'s 2003 debut album *Believe*, and sang backup vocals on two songs with [supergroup](supergroup (music)) [Damning Well](The)(The Damning Well), though her vocals were taken off the final release due to record label issues. Lee later performed a duet with her then-boyfriend [Morgan](Shaun)(Shaun Morgan) on the track "[Broken](Broken (Seether song))" for [Seether](Seether)'s 2004 album *[II](Disclaimer)(Disclaimer II)*. The song is in the soundtrack for the 2004 film *[Punisher](The)(The Punisher (2004 film))*.
[[File:Amy Lee in São Paulo 2.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Lee in [Paulo](São)(São Paulo), Brazil, in 2007]]
In 2004, Lee said she was working on music for *[Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe](The)(The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe)*, but that the music was rejected by the studio for being "too dark".}} The producers of *Narnia* then stated that Evanescence music was never planned for the soundtrack. Lee said that she used part of the instrumental she wrote to segue into the last track of the album, "[Enough](Good)(Good Enough (Evanescence song))".
Lee became the American chairperson for *Out of the Shadows* in 2006. This organization is an international foundation with the goal of providing education about [epilepsy](epilepsy). Lee's younger brother, Robby, was previously diagnosed with this condition. The singer also made a brief guest appearance in the music video for [Cash](Johnny)(Johnny Cash)'s "[Gonna Cut You Down](God's)(God's Gonna Cut You Down#Johnny Cash version)" in late 2006. As each celebrity featured in the shoot was allowed to choose what they would be doing for the video, Lee chose to appear laying flowers on a grave. Her scene was recorded at [Church](Trinity)(Trinity Church (Manhattan)) in Manhattan, during which she wore a black velvet coat that previously belonged to [Burton](Tim)(Tim Burton).
In February 2007, Lee performed with [Korn](Korn) on their song "[on a Leash](Freak)(Freak on a Leash)" for *[Unplugged: Korn](MTV)(MTV Unplugged: Korn)*. The song was also released as the first single from the album. In November 2007, [VH1](VH1) produced a [mockumentary](mockumentary) in the style of *[the Music](Behind)(Behind the Music)*, titled *Rock Band Cometh: The Rock Band Band Story*, to promote the video game *Rock Band*. She is one of the celebrity [cameo](cameo appearance)s featured on the show.
#### 2008–2012: Tribute albums
[[Lee 2011 Evanescence concert 10-25-11.jpg|thumb|Lee performing during a concert in 2011](File:Amy)]
In June 2008, the [Music Publishers Association](National)(National Music Publishers Association) presented Lee with their 2008 Songwriter Icon Award, which "recognizes outstanding songwriters for their personal achievement".
For [Disney Records](Walt)(Walt Disney Records)' September 2008 release of *[Revisited](Nightmare)(Nightmare Revisited)*, Lee sang a remake of "Sally's Song". The album contains new material and covers of songs from the original [Before Christmas* soundtrack](*Nightmare)(The Nightmare Before Christmas (soundtrack)). Lee performed live renditions of "Sally's Song" during the October 17 *Nightmare Before Christmas* re-release premiere in Hollywood, and for an October 13 appearance on *[Tonight Show with Jay Leno](The)(The Tonight Show with Jay Leno)*.
During an October 2008 interview for [Spin.com](Spin (magazine)), Lee noted that she was writing new songs, possibly for a solo album project. Citing influences in [folk](folk music) and [music](Celtic)(Celtic music), she says her current writings feel like she is going back to her "really old" roots. She gave no potential release date, but said of her reason for this new direction, "I need to show that I'm more than a one trick pony."
Lee stated during an October 2008 interview with *The Gauntlet* that she did not know whether or not she would begin a solo career, saying that she was "at a point where I don't know what is next". She noted that Evanescence was still together as a band but that she found touring to be monotonous. She reiterated that she was continuing to write songs, although she did not yet know what purpose they would serve.
In a *[Spin](Spin (magazine))* interview in March 2010, Lee stated that she was "in a very different creative space then" regarding her previous work on new material, and that while she wrote some good songs, nothing from those efforts would be included in the band's album *[Evanescence](Evanescence (Evanescence album))*, which was released on October 7, 2011.
In 2011, Lee covered "[Down the Stairs](Halfway)(Halfway Down (poem))" for *[The Green Album](Muppets:)(Muppets: The Green Album)* and "[So Lonesome I Could Cry](I'm)(I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry)" for the tribute album *[Walk the Line: A Celebration of the Music of Johnny Cash](We)(We Walk the Line: A Celebration of the Music of Johnny Cash)* in 2012.
#### 2013–2015: *Aftermath* and *Recover*
On December 2, 2013, it was announced that Lee had teamed up with American [composer](composer) [Eggar](Dave)(Dave Eggar) to create music for the American [film](drama)(drama film) *[Story](War)(War Story (2014 film))*. During an interview with [MTV](MTV), Lee explained that it would be a "surprise" to her fans; the fact that the film was "dark" and lacking of conversations made it a "beautiful, sad platform for music". She added that for the music she blended various sounds and tones, mostly consisting of keyboard. Speaking about the song "Push the Button" which she originally penned for the movie, Lee explained that it marked a departure for her due to its [electronic](electronic music) sound. She added, "I did it all myself, which was crazy, because I'm used to engineering and writing and mixing demos in my house, but being responsible for that being the end product was a new challenge for me." On August 6, Lee announced that the [album](soundtrack)(soundtrack album) would be called *[Aftermath](Aftermath (Amy Lee album))* and that it would be released on August 25. Lee contributes to all ten tracks, which features Eggar on eight of them and American/[Moroccan](Morocco) musician [Zarra](Malika)(Malika Zarra) on one. Lee revealed a 36-second teaser of the album on the same day. It is her first full-length solo album to not involve her band Evanescence.
[[Lynn Lee in 2015.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Lee in 2015](Image:Amy)]
In March 2015, Lee and Eggar announced that they were recording music, along with Chuck Palmer, for Hammerstep's short film *[Grey: The Passage](Indigo)(Indigo Grey: The Passage)*, which was released on September 14, 2015. The film features the songs "Between Worlds" and "Resurrection". Lee composed and recorded "Speak to Me", the title song to Eric D. Howell's 2017 film *[from the Stone](Voice)(Voice from the Stone)*, during August 2015. The accompanying music video was also directed by Howell. It was filmed on October 22, 2015, on the Castle of Celsa estate near [Siena](Siena), [Italy](Italy). During a radio interview in July 2015, Lee said that she had been recording [song](cover)(cover song)s and expressed an interest in releasing them online. On October 27, 2015, she released the first song from the collection with [Portishead](Portishead (band))'s 1994 song "[A Fire](It's)(Dummy (album))", followed by [U2](U2)'s 1987 song "[or Without You](With)(With or Without You)" on November 10, 2015, [Zeppelin](Led)(Led Zeppelin)'s 1971 song "[to California](Going)(Going to California)" on December 1, 2015, and [Isaak](Chris)(Chris Isaak)'s 1996 song "[Did a Bad, Bad Thing](Baby)(Baby Did a Bad Bad Thing)" on December 15, 2015. They are featured on Lee's debut extended play, *[Vol. 1](Recover,)(Recover, Vol. 1)*, which was released on February 19, 2016. The cover songs are accompanied by music videos directed by Eric Ryan Anderson.
Lee confirmed in an interview with *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* that she is "definitely working and making music with every intention of people hearing it at this point," as of October 2015. She also stated that she does not have "any news or plans" for new Evanescence music, but assured fans on Twitter that the band has not broken up saying, "We don't follow the rules of a commerce-driven timeline. Inspiration drives us. We're wide open." She later stated during an interview with *Loudwire* that "there is Evanescence in the future". In December 2015, Lee confirmed that she plans to complete some songs from an Evanescence album (originally produced by [Lillywhite](Steve)(Steve Lillywhite)) that was rejected by Wind-up Records in 2010. She explained that she was "devastated" and "furious" over the rejection, but was determined to move forward and ended up being "angry enough to write Evanescence's heaviest album", titled *[Evanescence](Evanescence (Evanescence album))*. Although three songs from the Lillywhite sessions ended up on it, Lee admitted, "I was still left feeling unsatisfied about what I lovingly refer to as my 'broken record'."
#### 2016–present: *Dream Too Much* and artist collaborations
[[10 15 2017 -15 (38577537252) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Amy Lee performing in October 2017](File:Evanescence)]
On June 17, 2016, [Amazon.com](Amazon.com) announced that Lee was scheduled to release the "family" album *[Too Much](Dream)(Dream Too Much)* exclusively through [Prime Music](Amazon)(Amazon Music). It features "original music for kids and families" and was released on September 30, 2016. The album was a collaboration that involved her father, who is the lead vocalist on "Goodnight My Love", and her sisters.
On September 14, 2016, [News](MTV)(MTV News) reported that Lee had worked on music for the film *[Blind](Blind (2016 film))*, starring [Baldwin](Alec)(Alec Baldwin) and [Moore](Demi)(Demi Moore). The film was premiered at the [Film Festival](Woodstock)(Woodstock Film Festival) on October 13, 2016. On February 10, 2017, Lee released an English-language cover of [Michielin](Francesca)(Francesca Michielin)'s "[esiste](L'amore)(L'amore esiste)" ("Love Exists"), which she heard while working on a film project in Italy. With [Sigsworth](Guy)(Guy Sigsworth) as producer and [Eggar](Dave)(Dave Eggar) providing string arrangements, Lee recorded her translated and reinterpreted version of the song over the course of a week at Flux Studios in New York City. In March 2017, the song "[to Me](Speak)(Speak to Me (Amy Lee song))" was made available on streaming platforms. It features as the end theme music for the film *[from the Stone](Voice)(Voice from the Stone)*. In 2018, Lee collaborated with Veridia on their single, "I'll Never Be Ready", where she played piano. She stated that collaborating on the song helped her cope with the passing of her brother, Robby.
In 2019 Amy collaborated with [Stirling](Lindsey)(Lindsey Stirling) on Stirling's 2019 album [Artemis](Artemis (album)) on the track and in the music video for "Love goes on and on".
Amy appeared on [Count](Body)(Body Count (band))'s song "When I'm Gone" off their seventh album *[Carnivore](Carnivore (Body Count album))*, which was released on March 6, 2020.
On July 31, 2020, American rock band [Halestorm](Halestorm) re-released their song "Break In", featuring Lee's vocals. The single was included on the *Halestorm: Reimagined* [EP](Extended play).
On September 19, 2020, Japanese rock band [Band](Wagakki)(Wagakki Band) released a song "Sakura Rising" featuring Lee. The song was written and recorded the day before their orchestral show in [Osaka](Osaka) on February 16, 2020, where Lee performed as a guest, but it was finished through file sharing due to the coronavirus pandemic.
On October 30, 2020, Lee featured on the [Me the Horizon](Bring)(Bring Me the Horizon) song "One Day The Only Butterflies Left Will Be In Your Chest As You March Towards Your Death" from their EP *[Human: Survival Horror](Post)(Post Human: Survival Horror)*.
Lee will feature in the upcoming *[Metalocalypse](Metalocalypse)* film titled *Army of the Doomstar*.
## Musical influences
Lee has cited influence from composers such as [Mozart](Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart) and [Elfman](Danny)(Danny Elfman), and artists like [Björk](Björk), [Portishead](Portishead (band)), [Attack](Massive)(Massive Attack), [Korn](Korn), [Inch Nails](Nine)(Nine Inch Nails), [Amos](Tori)(Tori Amos), [Plumb](Plumb (singer)), [Radiohead](Radiohead), [Manson](Shirley)(Shirley Manson) and [Garbage](Garbage (band)), [Nirvana](Nirvana (band)), [Soundgarden](Soundgarden), [Pantera](Pantera), [Mode](Depeche)(Depeche Mode), [Zombie](Rob)(Rob Zombie), [Zombie](White)(White Zombie (band)), [Smashing Pumpkins](The)(The Smashing Pumpkins), [Jam](Pearl)(Pearl Jam), [Metallica](Metallica), [Jett](Joan)(Joan Jett), and [Perfect Circle](A)(A Perfect Circle).
## Personal life
Lee was in a relationship with [Seether](Seether)'s singer [Morgan](Shaun)(Shaun Morgan) from 2003 to 2005. In May 2007, Lee married Josh Hartzler, a therapist and long-time friend. The couple's first child, a son, was born in July 2014.
In the early 2000s, Lee said that she has never been formally religious and does not attend church, but considers herself a Christian. She stated that regardless of any band member's beliefs, Evanescence was not a Christian band and lyrically did not have a religious affiliation.}}
## Public image
[[File:Evanescence miami 2007.jpg|thumb|upright|Lee performing in [Miami](Miami), Florida, in 2007]]
Lee has a recognizable fashion style, marked by her taste for [Victorian](Victorian fashion)-styled clothing and occasional use of [gothic](Goth subculture) make-up. She has been labelled a "[rock](gothic)(gothic rock) superstar" and a "style icon". She had a piercing on her left eyebrow since she was teenager until 2006; it is visible on the cover of *[Fallen](Fallen (Evanescence album))*. Her image was described as "independent and self-assured".
Lee designs many of her own clothes, including those worn in the music video for "[Under](Going)(Going Under (Evanescence song))", the dress worn for the cover of *[Open Door](The)(The Open Door)* and the dress she wore to the [Peace Prize Concert](Nobel)(Nobel Peace Prize Concert) in 2011. After she designed the dress she wore at the [Grammy Awards](2004)(2004 Grammy Awards), she chose Japanese designer [Naoto](H.)(H. Naoto) to make it for her. In 2003, Lee said she wears "lots of funky stuff onstage", and likes to "mix it up" with "two basic elements ... rock, metal and chains and stuff, mixed with fairies and Victorian clothing, fantasy".
Lee explained and showcased some of her wardrobe in 2011, commenting that she would rather make her own clothes because it is hard to find exactly what she wants elsewhere. She likes "asymmetrical things" and "a little bit of chaos" in her outfits, and "when it comes to the band, I want to dress to fit the music." Lee said she used to wear corsets more often in the early years when she wasn't as confident on stage, and it wasn't about "goth" but more about making her feel like "you're about to ride a rollercoaster and you're strapped in and not going to fall out."
Lee has a [mezzo-soprano](mezzo-soprano) vocal range. In a fan meet & greet, Lee stated she was in the [alto](alto) section in her school choir and was later told by a vocal coach that her range was higher than an alto.
In 2006, *[Blender](Blender (magazine))* listed Lee as one of the hottest women in rock alongside such singers as [Jett](Joan)(Joan Jett), [Love](Courtney)(Courtney Love) and [Phair](Liz)(Liz Phair). In 2013, Lee ranked first in NME.com's "Hottest Women in Music" award.
## Discography
**[Aftermath](Aftermath (Amy Lee soundtrack))* (2014, with [Eggar](Dave)(Dave Eggar))
**[Vol. 1](Recover,)(Recover, Vol. 1)* (2016)
**[Too Much](Dream)(Dream Too Much)* (2016)
## Filmography
**[Love the New Millennium](I)(I Love the New Millennium)* – Herself
*''VH1's 100 Greatest Hard Rock Songs – Herself
## Awards and nominations
## References
-->
}}
## External links
*
[ ](Category:Amy Lee)
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[metal singers](Category:Nu)(Category:Nu metal singers)
|
Imran Khan
|
imran_khan
|
# Imran Khan
*Revision ID: 1160155660 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T18:38:51Z*
---
| term_start = 18 August 2018
| term_end = 10 April 2022
| predecessor = [Mulk](Nasirul)(Nasirul Mulk) ([Caretaker](Caretaker Prime Minister of Pakistan))
| successor = [Sharif](Shehbaz)(Shehbaz Sharif)
| office1 = Chairman of the [Tehreek-e-Insaf](Pakistan)(Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf)
| deputy1 = [Mahmood Qureshi](Shah)(Shah Mahmood Qureshi)
| term_start1 = 25 April 1996
| term_end1 =
| predecessor1 = *Position established*
| successor1 =
| office2 = Member of the [Assembly](National)(National Assembly of Pakistan)
| term_start2 = 13 August 2018
| term_end2 = 21 October 2022
| predecessor2 = [Shadikhel](Obaidullah)(Obaidullah Shadikhel)
| successor2 =
| constituency2 = [(Mianwali-I)](NA-95)(NA-95 (Mianwali-I))
| majority2 = 113,523 (44.89%)
| term_start3 = 19 June 2013
| term_end3 = 31 May 2018
| predecessor3 = [Abbasi](Hanif)(Hanif Abbasi)
| successor3 = [Rashid Shafique](Sheikh)(Sheikh Rashid Shafique)
| constituency3 = [(Rawalpindi-VII)](NA-56)(Constituency NA-56)
| majority3 = 13,268 (8.28%)
| term_start4 = 10 October 2002
| term_end4 = 3 November 2007
| predecessor4 = *Constituency established*
| successor4 = [Malik Amad Khan](Nawabzada)(Nawabzada Malik Amad Khan)
| constituency4 = [(Mianwali-I)](NA-71)(Constituency NA-71)
| majority4 = 6,204 (4.49%)
| office5 = Chancellor of the [of Bradford](University)(University of Bradford)
| term_start5 = 7 December 2005
| term_end5 = 7 December 2014
| predecessor5 = [Lockwood](Betty)(Betty Lockwood, Baroness Lockwood)
| successor5 = [Swann](Kate)(Kate Swann)
| birth_name = Imran Ahmad Khan Niazi
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Lahore](Lahore), [Pakistan](Dominion of Pakistan)
| death_date =
| death_place =
| death_cause =
| residence = [Gala](Bani)(Bani Gala), [Islamabad](Islamabad)[Park](Zaman)(Zaman Park), [Lahore](Lahore)
| father = [Khan Niazi](Ikramullah)(Ikramullah Khan Niazi)
| mother = [Khanum](Shaukat)(Shaukat Khanum)
| relatives = [of Imran Khan](Family)(Family of Imran Khan)
| party = [Tehreek-e-Insaf](Pakistan)(Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf)(1996–present)
| spouse =
*
* }}
| children = [Isa Khan](Sulaiman)(Sulaiman Isa Khan)[Khan](Kasim)(Kasim Khan)
| education = [College, Oxford](Keble)(Keble College, Oxford) ([BA](Bachelor of Arts))
| awards = *[list](See)(List of awards and honours received by Imran Khan)*
| signature = Imran Khan signature.svg
| nickname = Kaptaan (Captain)
| module =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = ur
}}
**Imran Ahmad Khan Niazi** (}}}}; born 5 October 1952) is a Pakistani politician and former cricketer who served as the 22nd [minister of Pakistan](prime)(Prime Minister of Pakistan) from August 2018 until April 2022. He is the founder and chairman of the political party [Tehreek-e-Insaf](Pakistan)(Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf) (PTI).
Born to a [Niazi](Niazi) [Pashtun](Pashtuns) family in [Lahore](Lahore), Khan graduated from [College, Oxford](Keble)(Keble College, Oxford). He began his [cricket](international)(international cricket) in a [Test series](1971)(Pakistani cricket team in England in 1971) against [England](England cricket team). Khan played until 1992, served as the team's [captain](captain (cricket)) intermittently between 1982 and 1992, and won the [Cricket World Cup](1992)(1992 Cricket World Cup), Pakistan's only victory in the competition. Considered one of cricket's greatest [all-rounder](all-rounder)s, Khan was later inducted into the [Cricket Hall of Fame](ICC)(ICC Cricket Hall of Fame). Founding the [Tehreek-e-Insaf](Pakistan)(Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf) (PTI) in 1996, Khan won a seat in the [Assembly](National)(National Assembly of Pakistan) in the [general election](2002)(2002 Pakistani general election), serving as an opposition member from [Mianwali](Mianwali) until 2007. PTI boycotted the [general election](2008)(2008 Pakistani general election) and became the second-largest party by popular vote in the [general election](2013)(2013 Pakistani general election). In the [general election](2018)(2018 Pakistani general election), running on a [populist](Populism) platform, PTI became the largest party in the National Assembly, and formed a coalition government with independents with Khan as prime minister.
As prime minister, Khan addressed a [of payments](balance)(balance of payments) crisis with bailouts from the [Monetary Fund](International)(International Monetary Fund). He presided over a shrinking current account deficit, and limited defence spending to curtail the fiscal deficit, leading to some general economic growth. He enacted policies that increased tax collection and investment. His government committed to a [energy](renewable)(renewable energy) transition, launched the [Programme](Ehsaas)(Ehsaas Programme) and the [for Pakistan](Plant)(Plant for Pakistan) initiative, and expanded the [areas of Pakistan](protected)(protected areas of Pakistan). He presided over the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan), which caused economic turmoil and rising inflation in the country, and threatened his political position.
Amid [constitutional crisis](a)(2022 Pakistani constitutional crisis), Khan became the first prime minister to be removed from office through [no-confidence motion](a)(No-confidence motion against Imran Khan) in April 2022. In August, he was charged under anti-terror laws after accusing the police and judiciary of detaining and torturing an aide. In October, Khan was disqualified by the [Commission of Pakistan](Election)(Election Commission of Pakistan) from taking office regarding the [reference case](Toshakhana)(Toshakhana reference case). In November, he survived [assassination attempt](an)(attempted assassination of Imran Khan) during a political rally in [Wazirabad](Wazirabad), Punjab. On 9 May 2023 Khan was [arrested](Arrest of Imran Khan) on [charges](corruption)(Al-Qadir Trust case) at the High Court in Islamabad.
## Early life and family
Khan was born in [Lahore](Lahore) on
5 October 1952. Earler, some reports suggest he was born on 25 November 1952. It was reported that 5 October was wrongly mentioned by [Cricket Board](Pakistan)(Pakistan Cricket Board) officials on his passport. He is the only son of Ikramullah Khan Niazi, a civil engineer, and his wife Shaukat Khanum, and has four sisters. [settled](Long)(Pathans of Punjab) in [Mianwali](Mianwali) in northwestern [Punjab](Punjab, Pakistan), his paternal family are of [Pashtun](Pashtun people) ethnicity and belong to the [Niazi](Niazi) tribe,Encyclopaedia Asiatica, Comprising Indian Subcontinent, Eastern and Southern Asia: H. Jangtang By Edward Balfour Published by Cosmo Publications, 1976 Item notes: v. 4 Original from the University of Michigan Page 188 and one of his ancestors, [Khan Niazi](Haibat)(Haibat Khan Niazi), in the 16th century, "was one of [Shah Suri](Sher)(Sher Shah Suri)'s leading generals, as well as being the governor of Punjab."Catriona Luke (3 August 2018), ["The enigma inside a paradox wrapped in a conundrum"](http://www.thefridaytimes.com/tft/the-enigma-inside-a-paradox-wrapped-in-a-conundrum/), *[Friday Times](The)(The Friday Times)*. Retrieved 3 August 2018. Like his father, Khan's mother was an ethnic Pashtun, who belonged to the Burki tribe and whose ancestors had been settled in the [Jalandhar](Jalandhar) district of [Punjab](Punjab) for centuries. Following the creation of [Pakistan](Pakistan), she migrated to [Lahore](Lahore) with the rest of Khan's maternal relatives. Khan's maternal family has produced a number of cricketers, including those who have represented Pakistan, such as his cousins [Burki](Javed)(Javed Burki) and [Khan](Majid)(Majid Khan (cricketer, born 1946)). Maternally, Khan is also a descendant of the [Sufi](Sufi) warrior-poet and inventor of the [alphabet](Pashto)(Pashto alphabet), [Roshan](Pir)(Pir Roshan), who hailed from his maternal family's ancestral [Kaniguram](Kaniguram) town located in [Waziristan](South)(South Waziristan) in the tribal areas of northwest Pakistan.[Will Imran Khan go to Kaniguram?](http://tribune.com.pk/story/433550/will-imran-khan-go-to-kaniguram/) [Express Tribune](The)(The Express Tribune). 8 September 2012. His maternal family was based in Basti Danishmanda, [Jalandhar](Jalandhar), [India](India) for about 600 years.
A quiet and shy boy in his youth, Khan grew up with his sisters in relatively affluent, upper middle-class circumstances and received a privileged education. He was educated at the [College](Aitchison)(Aitchison College) and Cathedral School in Lahore,|date=6 August 2009|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers|isbn=978-0-00-734104-7|pages=68–|quote=Imran had, meanwhile, left Aitchison College, whose vaunted enthusiasm for sports seems not to have extended to sharing one of their own with a professional cricket team. He spent his sixth-form year at the nearby Cathedral School.}} and then the [Grammar School Worcester](Royal)(Royal Grammar School Worcester) in England, where he excelled at [cricket](cricket). In 1972, he enrolled in [College, Oxford](Keble)(Keble College, Oxford) where he studied [Politics and Economics](Philosophy,)(Philosophy, Politics and Economics), graduating in 1975. An enthusiast for college cricket at Keble, [Hayes](Paul)(Paul Hayes (historian)), was instrumental in securing the admission of Khan, after he had been turned down by Cambridge.Ivo Tennant, "Excellence exhausted", espncricinfo.com, 4 September 2008
## Cricket career
Khan made his first debut at the age of 16 in [Lahore](Lahore). By the start of the 1970s, he was playing for his home teams of Lahore A (1969–70), Lahore B (1969–70), Lahore Greens (1970–71) and, eventually, [Lahore](Lahore cricket teams) (1970–71). Khan was part of the [of Oxford](University)(University of Oxford)'s Blues Cricket team during the 1973–1975 seasons.
He played English county cricket from 1971 to 1976 for [Worcestershire](Worcestershire County Cricket Club). During this decade, other teams represented by Khan included Dawood Industries (1975–1976) and [International Airlines](Pakistan)(Pakistan International Airlines cricket team) (1975–1976 to 1980–1981). From 1983 to 1988, he played for [Sussex](Sussex County Cricket Club).
Khan made his [cricket](Test)(Test cricket) debut against [England](England cricket team) in June 1971 at [Edgbaston](Edgbaston cricket ground). Three years later, in August 1974, he debuted in the [Day International](One)(One Day International) (ODI) match, once again playing against England at [Bridge](Trent)(Trent Bridge) for the Prudential Trophy. After graduating from Oxford and finishing his tenure at Worcestershire, he returned to Pakistan in 1976 and secured a permanent place on his native national team starting from the 1976–1977 season, during which they faced [Zealand](New)(New Zealand national cricket team) and [Australia](Australia national cricket team). Following the Australian series, he toured the [Indies](West)(West Indies cricket team), where he met [Greig](Tony)(Tony Greig), who signed him up for [Packer](Kerry)(Kerry Packer)'s [Series Cricket](World)(World Series Cricket). His credentials as one of the fastest bowlers in the world started to become established when he finished third at 139.7 km/h in a [bowling](fast)(fast bowling) contest at [Perth](Perth) in 1978, behind [Thomson](Jeff)(Jeff Thomson) and [Holding](Michael)(Michael Holding), but ahead of [Lillee](Dennis)(Dennis Lillee), [Le Roux](Garth)(Garth Le Roux) and [Roberts](Andy)(Andy Roberts (cricketer)). During the late 1970s, Khan was one of the pioneers of the [swing](reverse)(reverse swing) bowling technique. He imparted this trick to the bowling duo of [Akram](Wasim)(Wasim Akram) and [Younis](Waqar)(Waqar Younis), who mastered and popularised this art in later years.
As a [bowler](Bowler (cricket)), Khan initially bowled with a relatively chest-on action, at medium-pace. However he worked hard to remodel his action to a more classical type, and to strengthen his body, to enable fast bowling. Khan attained his prime as a fast bowler in January 1980 till 1988 when he became out and out fast bowler. During this span Imran picked 236 test wickets at 17.77 apiece with 18 [haul](five-wicket)(five-wicket haul)s and 5 [wicket haul](10)(10 wicket haul)s. His bowling average and strike rate were better than [Hadlee](Richard)(Richard Hadlee) (19.03), [Marshall](Malcolm)(Malcolm Marshall) (20.20), [Lillee](Dennis)(Dennis Lillee) (24.07), [Garner](Joel)(Joel Garner) (20.62) and [Holding](Michael)(Michael Holding) (23.68). In January 1983, playing against [India](Indian Cricket Team), he attained a Test bowling rating of 922 points. Although calculated retrospectively ([Cricket Council](International)(International Cricket Council) (ICC) player ratings did not exist at the time), Khan's form and performance during this period ranks third in the ICC's All-Time Test Bowling Rankings.
Khan achieved the all-rounder's triple (securing 3000 runs and 300 wickets) in 75 Tests, the second-fastest record behind [Botham](Ian)(Ian Botham)'s 72. He also has the second-highest all-time batting average of 61.86 for a Test batsman playing at position 6 in the batting order. He played his last Test match for Pakistan in January 1992, against [Lanka](Sri)(Sri Lanka national cricket team) at [Faisalabad](Faisalabad). Khan retired permanently from cricket six months after his last ODI, the historic 1992 World Cup [final](1992 Cricket World Cup Final) against England in [Melbourne](Melbourne), Australia. He ended his career with 88 Test matches, 126 innings and scored 3807 runs at an average of 37.69, including six centuries and 18 fifties. His highest score was 136. As a bowler, he took 362 wickets in Test cricket, which made him the first Pakistani and world's fourth bowler to do so. In ODIs, he played 175 matches and scored 3709 runs at an average of 33.41. His highest score was 102 not out. His best ODI bowling was 6 wickets for 14 runs, a record for the best bowling figures by any bowler in an ODI innings in a losing cause.
### Captaincy
At the height of his career, in 1982,[Pakistan Test Captaincy record](http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=1;filter=advanced;groupby=captains;orderby=won;team=7;template=results;type=team) . *[Cricinfo](Cricinfo)*. Retrieved 18 December 2012. the thirty-year-old Khan took over the captaincy of the Pakistan cricket team from [Miandad](Javed)(Javed Miandad). As a captain, Khan played 48 Test matches, of which 14 were won by Pakistan, 8 lost and the remaining 26 were drawn. He also played 139 ODIs, winning 77, losing 57 and ending one in a tie.
In the team's second match, Khan led them to their first Test win on English soil for 28 years at [Lord's](Lord's). Khan's first year as captain was the peak of his legacy as a fast bowler as well as an all-rounder. He recorded the best Test bowling of his career while taking 8 wickets for 58 runs against Sri Lanka at Lahore in 1981–1982. He also topped both the bowling and batting averages against England in three-Test series in 1982, taking 21 wickets and averaging 56 with the bat. Later the same year, he put up a highly acknowledged performance in a home series against the formidable Indian team by taking 40 wickets in six Tests at an average of 13.95. By the end of this series in 1982–1983, Khan had taken 88 wickets in 13 Test matches over a period of one year as captain. This same Test series against India, however, also resulted in a stress fracture in his shin that kept him out of cricket for more than two years. An experimental treatment funded by the Pakistani government helped him recover by the end of 1984 and he made a successful comeback to international cricket in the latter part of the 1984–1985 season.
In 1987 in India, Khan led Pakistan in its first-ever Test series win and this was followed by Pakistan's first series victory in England during the same year. During the 1980s, his team also recorded three creditable draws against the West Indies. India and Pakistan co-hosted the [Cricket World Cup](1987)(1987 Cricket World Cup), but neither ventured beyond the semi-finals. Khan retired from international cricket at the end of the World Cup. In 1988, he was asked to return to the captaincy by the [of Pakistan](President)(President of Pakistan), General [Zia-Ul-Haq](Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq), and on 18 January, he announced his decision to rejoin the team. Soon after returning to the captaincy, Khan led Pakistan to another winning tour in the West Indies, which he has recounted as "the last time I really bowled well". He was declared Man of the Series against West Indies in 1988 when he took 23 wickets in 3 Tests. Khan's career-high as a captain and cricketer came when he led Pakistan to victory in the [Cricket World Cup](1992)(1992 Cricket World Cup). Playing with a brittle batting line-up, Khan promoted himself as a batsman to play in the top order along with Javed Miandad, but his contribution as a bowler was minimal. At the age of 39, Khan took the winning last wicket himself.
## Post-retirement
[[File:Imran in peshawar.jpg|thumb|Khan at a political rally in [Peshawar](Peshawar) in 1996]]
After retiring, Khan remarked that there was [tampering](ball)(ball tampering) during his early cricketing days when playing domestic cricket.
Khan had said that, during matches, he "occasionally scratched the side of the ball and lifted the seam." However, Khan defended his actions in the same interview, arguing his conduct was commonplace at the time, even that spin bowlers would lift the seam (i.e. mildly ball tamper), further Khan argued that as he did not lift the seam of the ball above the normal level he was not violating the rules and spirit of the game within the rules defined whilst he was a player. Further, Khan argued that umpires in his 21 years of cricket had not complained about his conduct, Khan remarked that "The sole judge of fair and unfair play on the cricket field is the umpire".
He had also added, "Only once did I use an object. When Sussex was playing Hampshire in 1981 the ball was not deviating at all. I got the 12th man to bring out a bottle top and it started to move around a lot." In 1996, Khan successfully defended himself in a [libel](libel) action brought forth by former English captain and all-rounder [Botham](Ian)(Ian Botham) and batsman [Lamb](Allan)(Allan Lamb) over comments they alleged were made by Khan in two articles about the above-mentioned [ball-tampering](ball-tampering) and another article published in an Indian magazine, *[Today](India)(India Today)*. They claimed that, in the latter publication, Khan had called the two cricketers "racist, ill-educated and lacking in class." Khan protested that he had been misquoted, saying that he was defending himself after having admitted that he tampered with a ball in a county match 18 years ago. Khan won the libel case, which the judge labelled a "complete exercise in futility", with a 10–2 majority decision by the jury. Also, Khan had served as a domestic league coach.
[[File:University of Bradford school of management.jpg|left|thumb|Khan served as the chancellor of the [of Bradford](University)(University of Bradford) between November 2005 and November 2014.]]
Since retiring, Khan has written opinion pieces on cricket for various British and Asian newspapers, especially regarding the Pakistani national team. His contributions have been published in India's [magazine](*Outlook*)(Outlook (Indian magazine)), *[Guardian](The Guardian)*, *[Independent](The)(The Independent)*, and *[Telegraph](The Daily Telegraph)*. Khan also sometimes appears as a cricket commentator on Asian and British sports networks, including [Urdu](BBC)(BBC Urdu) and the Star TV network. In 2004, when the Indian cricket team toured Pakistan after 14 years, he was a commentator on [Sports](TEN)(TEN Sports)' special live show, *Straight Drive*, while he was also a columnist for [sify.com](sify.com) for the [India-Pakistan Test series](2005)(Indian cricket team in Pakistan in 2005–06). He has provided analysis for every cricket World Cup since 1992, which includes providing match summaries for the [BBC](BBC) during the [World Cup](1999)(1999 Cricket World Cup).
He holds as a captain the world record for taking most wickets, best bowling strike rate and best bowling average in Test,
and best bowling figures (8 wickets for 60 runs) in a Test innings,
and also most five-wicket hauls (6) in a Test innings in wins.
On 23 November 2005, Khan was appointed as the [chancellor](chancellor (education)) of [of Bradford](University)(University of Bradford), succeeding [Lockwood](Betty)(Betty Lockwood, Baroness Lockwood). On 26 February 2014, [of Bradford Union](University)(University of Bradford Union) floated a motion to remove Khan from the post over Khan's absence from every graduation ceremony since 2010. Khan, however, announced that he will step down on 30 November 2014, citing his "increasing political commitments". The university [vice-chancellor](vice-chancellor) [Cantor](Brian)(Brian Cantor) said Khan had been "a wonderful role model for our students".
### Philanthropy
During the 1990s, Khan also served as [UNICEF](United Nations Children's Fund)'s Special Representative for Sports and promoted health and [immunisation](Immunization) programmes in [Bangladesh](Bangladesh), [Pakistan](Pakistan), [Lanka](Sri)(Sri Lanka) and [Thailand](Thailand). While in London, he also works with the [Taverners](Lord's)(Lord's Taverners), a cricket charity. Khan focused his efforts solely on social work. By 1991, he had founded the [Khanum Memorial Trust](Shaukat)(Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital and Research Centre), a charity organisation bearing the name of his mother, Mrs. Shaukat Khanum. As the Trust's maiden endeavour, Khan established Pakistan's first and only cancer hospital, constructed using donations and funds exceeding $25 million, raised by Khan from all over the world.
On 27 April 2008, Khan established a technical college in the [District](Mianwali)(Mianwali District) called [College](Namal)(Namal College).}} It was built by the Mianwali Development Trust (MDT), and is an associate college of the [of Bradford](University)(University of Bradford) in December 2005. Imran Khan Foundation is another welfare work, which aims to assist needy people all over Pakistan. It has provided help to [flood](2010 Pakistan floods) victims in Pakistan. Buksh Foundation has partnered with the Imran Khan Foundation to light up villages in [Ghazi Khan](Dera)(Dera Ghazi Khan), Mianwali and [Ismail Khan](Dera)(Dera Ismail Khan) under the project 'Lighting a Million Lives'. The campaign will establish several Solar Charging Stations in the selected off-grid villages and will provide villagers with solar lanterns, which can be regularly charged at the solar-charging stations.
## Political ideology
### Interior
[[File:Imran Khan (4276439704).jpg|thumb|left|Imran Khan speaking at the [House](Chatham)(Chatham House) in [London](London)]]
Basing his wider paradigm on the poet-philosopher [Iqbal](Muhammad)(Muhammad Iqbal) and the [Iran](Iran)ian writer-sociologist [Shariati](Ali)(Ali Shariati) he came across in his youth,Imran Khan, *Pakistan: A Personal History*, [House](Random)(Random House) (2011), p. 99 Khan is generally described as a [nationalist](Pakistani nationalism) and a [populist](populist). Khan's proclaimed political platform and declarations include: Islamic values, to which he rededicated himself in the 1990s; liberal economics, with the promise of deregulating the economy and creating a welfare state; decreased bureaucracy and the implementation of [anti-corruption](anti-corruption) laws, to create and ensure a clean government; the establishment of an independent judiciary; overhaul of the country's police system; and an anti-militant vision for a democratic Pakistan.
After the result of [Pakistani general election](2018)(2018 Pakistani general election), Imran Khan said he would try to remake Pakistan based on the ideology of [Ali Jinnah](Muhammad)(Muhammad Ali Jinnah).
During his government, Khan addressed a [of payments](balance)(balance of payments) crisis with a bailout from the [Monetary Fund](International)(International Monetary Fund). He presided over a shrinking current account deficit, and limited defence spending to curtail the fiscal deficit, leading to some general economic growth. He enacted policies which increased [collection](tax)(Taxation in Pakistan) and investment, and reforms were made to the [safety net](social)(Ehsaas Programme). His government committed to a [energy](renewable)(Energy policy of Pakistan) transition, launched a national [initiative](reforestation)(Plant for Pakistan) and expanded [areas](protected)(Protected areas of Pakistan), and led the country during the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan). His government committed to a [energy](renewable)(renewable energy) transition, launched the [Programme](Ehsaas)(Ehsaas Programme) and the [for Pakistan](Plant)(Plant for Pakistan) initiative, and expanded the [areas of Pakistan](protected)(protected areas of Pakistan). He presided over the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan), which caused economic turmoil and rising inflation in the country, and threatened his political position. He enacted policies that increased tax collection and investment.
However, his failure to revive the [economy](Economy of Pakistan) and the rising [inflation](inflation) rate caused him political problems. Despite his promised anti-corruption campaign, the perception of [in Pakistan](corruption)(corruption in Pakistan) worsened during his rule. He was accused of political victimisation of opponents and clamping down on [of expression](freedom)(freedom of expression) and [dissent](dissent).
On 10 April 2022, Khan became the country's first prime minister to be ousted through a no-confidence motion vote in parliament. On 22 August 2022, Khan was charged by the Pakistani police under anti-terror laws after Khan accused the police and judiciary of detaining and torturing his close aide.
### Foreign relations
In [relations](foreign)(Foreign relations of Pakistan), he dealt with [skirmishes against India](border)(2019 India–Pakistan border skirmishes), strengthened [with China](relations)(China–Pakistan relations) and [Russia](Pakistan–Russia relations), while [with the United States](relations)(Pakistan–United States relations) cooled.
In 2010, Khan said in an interview: "I grew up hating India because I grew up in [Lahore](Lahore) and there were [of 1947](massacres)(Partition of India), so much bloodshed and anger. But as I started touring India, I got such love and friendship there that all this disappeared."
Khan views the [issue](Kashmir)(Kashmir conflict) as a humanitarian issue, as opposed to a territorial dispute between two countries (India and Pakistan). He also proposed secret talks to settle the issue as he thinks the vested interests on both sides will try to subvert them. He ruled out a military solution to the conflict and denied the possibility of a fourth war between India and Pakistan over the disputed mountainous region.
Khan publicly demanded a Pakistani apology towards the Bangladeshi people for the [committed in 1971](atrocities)(1971 Bangladesh genocide). He called the [operation](1971)(Operation Searchlight) a "blunder" and likened it to today's treatment of [Pashtuns](Pashtun people) in the war on terror. However, he repeatedly criticised [war crimes trials in Bangladesh](the)(International Crimes Tribunal (Bangladesh)) in favour of the convicts. [Alt URL](https://web.)
In August 2012, the Pakistani Taliban issued death threats if he went ahead with his march to their tribal stronghold along the Afghan border to protest US drone attacks, because he calls himself a "liberal" – a term they associate with a lack of religious belief. On 1 October 2012, prior to his plan to address a rally in [Waziristan](South)(South Waziristan), senior commanders of Pakistani Taliban said after a meeting headed by the Taliban leader Hakimullah Mehsud that they now offered Khan security assistance for the rally because of Khan's opposition to drone attacks in Pakistan, reversing their previous stance.
His sympathetic position toward the Pakistani Taliban and Afghan Taliban, as well as his criticism of the US-led [on terror](war)(war on terror), has earned him the moniker "Taliban Khan" in [politics](Pakistani)(Pakistani politics). He believes in negotiations with Taliban and the pull out of the [Army](Pakistan)(Pakistan Army) from [Administered Tribal Areas](Federally)(Federally Administered Tribal Areas) (FATA). He is against US drone strikes and plans to disengage Pakistan from the US-led war on terror. Khan also opposes almost all military operations, including the [of Lal Masjid](Siege)(Siege of Lal Masjid).
In 2014, when Pakistani Taliban announced armed struggle against [Muslims](Isma'ili)(Ismailism) (denouncing them as non-Muslims) and the [people](Kalash)(Kalash people), Khan released a statement describing "forced conversions as un-Islamic". He has also condemned the incidents of forced conversion of Hindu girls in Sindh.
Following the [takeover of Kabul](Taliban)(Fall of Kabul (2021)) in 2021, Khan congratulated the [Taliban](Taliban) for their victory in the [war](2001–2021)(War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)), and urged the international community to support their new government. He also said that his government was negotiating a peace deal with the [Taliban (TTP)](Pakistani)(Pakistani Taliban) with the help of the Afghan Taliban.
On 8 January 2016, Khan visited the embassies of Iran and Saudi Arabia in Islamabad and met their head of commissions to understand their stances about the conflict that engulfed both nations after the [execution](Execution of Nimr al-Nimr) of [Nimr](Sheikh)(Nimr al-Nimr) by Saudi Arabia. He urged the Government of Pakistan to play a positive role to resolve the matter between both countries. After parliament passed a unanimous resolution keeping Pakistan out of the [in Yemen](War)(Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen) in April 2015, Khan claimed that his party was responsible for "many critical clauses" of the resolution. The Express Tribune|date=12 April 2015|work=The Express Tribune|access-date=25 August 2018|language=en-US}} In July 2018, the Saudi-based [Development Bank](Islamic)(Islamic Development Bank) activated its $4.5 billion oil financing facility for Pakistan.
## Political career
### Initial years
[[File:Iktearsoffpapers.jpg|thumb|Khan tearing his nomination paper for National Assembly at a press conference; he boycotted the [2008](2008 Pakistani general election) elections.]]
Khan was offered political positions more than a few times during his cricketing career. In 1987, president [Zia-ul-Haq](Muhammad)(Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq) offered him a political position in [Muslim League](Pakistan)(Pakistan Muslim League) (PML) which he politely declined. Khan was also invited by [Sharif](Nawaz)(Nawaz Sharif) to join his political party.
In 1993, Khan was appointed as the ambassador for tourism in the caretaker government of [Ahmad Qureshi](Moeenuddin)(Moeenuddin Ahmad Qureshi) and held the portfolio for three months until the government dissolved. In 1994, Khan joined the Jamiat-e-Pasban, a breakaway faction of [Jamaat-e-Islami](Jamaat-e-Islami (Pakistan)), of [Gul](Hamid)(Hamid Gul) and [Ali Durrani](Muhammad)(Muhammad Ali Durrani).
On 25 April 1996, Khan founded a political party, [Tehreek-e-Insaf](Pakistan)(Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf) (PTI). He ran for the seat of National Assembly of Pakistan in [Pakistani general election](1997)(1997 Pakistani general election) as a candidate of PTI from two constituencies – NA-53, Mianwali and NA-94, Lahore – but was unsuccessful and lost both the seats to candidates of PML (N).
Khan supported General [Musharraf](Pervez)(Pervez Musharraf)'s [coup in 1999](military)(1999 Pakistani coup d'état), believing Musharraf would "end corruption, clear out the political mafias". According to Khan, he was Musharraf's choice for prime minister in 2002 but turned down the offer. Khan participated in the October [Pakistani general election](2002)(2002 Pakistani general election) that took place across 272 constituencies and was prepared to form a coalition if his party did not get a majority of the vote. He was elected from [Mianwali](Mianwali). In the [referendum](2002)(2002 Pakistani referendum), Khan supported military dictator General Musharraf, while all mainstream democratic parties declared that referendum as unconstitutional. He has also served as a part of the Standing Committees on [Kashmir](Kashmir) and Public Accounts. On 6 May 2005, Khan was mentioned in *[New Yorker](The)(The New Yorker)* as being the "most directly responsible" for drawing attention in the Muslim world to the *[Newsweek](Newsweek)* story about the alleged [of the Qur'an](desecration)(Qur'an desecration controversy of 2005) in a U.S. military prison at the [Bay Naval Base](Guantánamo)(Guantánamo Bay Naval Base) in Cuba. In June 2007, Khan faced political opponents in and outside the parliament.
On 2 October 2007, as part of the [Parties Democratic Movement](All)(All Parties Democratic Movement), Khan joined 85 other MPs to resign from Parliament in protest of the presidential election scheduled for 6 October, which general Musharraf was contesting without resigning as army chief. On 3 November 2007, Khan was put under [arrest](house)(house arrest), after president Musharraf declared a [of emergency](state)(Pakistani state of emergency, 2007) in Pakistan. Later Khan escaped and went into hiding. He eventually came out of hiding on 14 November to join a student protest at the [of the Punjab](University)(University of the Punjab). At the rally, Khan was captured by student activists from the [Jamiat-e-Talaba](Islami)(Islami Jamiat-e-Talaba) and roughly treated.["Khan arrested under terror laws as Musharraf defends crackdown"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/nov/15/pakistan.declanwalsh) . Walsh, Declan. *The Guardian*. Published 14 November 2007. Accessed 25 August 2015. He was arrested during the protest and was sent to the Dera Ghazi Khan jail in the Punjab province where he spent a few days before being released.
[[File:Konferenz Pakistan und der Westen - Imran Khan.jpg|left|thumb|Imran Khan at the conference "Rule of Law: The Case of Pakistan" organised by the [Böll Foundation](Heinrich)(Heinrich Böll Foundation) in [Berlin](Berlin).]]
On 30 October 2011, Khan addressed more than 100,000 supporters in Lahore, challenging the policies of the government, calling that new change a "tsunami" against the ruling parties, Another successful public gathering of hundreds of thousands of supporters was held in [Karachi](Karachi) on 25 December 2011. Since then Khan became a real threat to the ruling parties and a future political prospect in Pakistan. According to an [Republican Institute](International)(International Republican Institute)'s survey, Khan's Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf tops the list of popular parties in Pakistan both at the national and provincial level.
On 6 October 2012, Khan joined a vehicle caravan of protesters from [Islamabad](Islamabad) to the village of Kotai in Pakistan's [Waziristan](South)(South Waziristan) region against [drone missile strikes](US)(Drone attacks in Pakistan). On 23 March 2013, Khan introduced the *[Pakistan](Naya)(Naya Pakistan) Resolution* (New Pakistan) at the start of his election campaign. On 29 April *[Observer](The)(The Observer)* termed Khan and his party Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf as the main opposition to the Pakistan Muslim League-Nawaz. Between 2011 and 2013, Khan and [Sharif](Nawaz)(Nawaz Sharif) began to engage each other in a bitter feud. The rivalry between the two leaders grew in late 2011 when Khan addressed his largest crowd at [Minar-e-Pakistan](Minar-e-Pakistan) in [Lahore](Lahore). From 26 April 2013, in the run up to the elections, both the PML-N and the PTI started to criticise each other.
### 2013 elections campaign
[[File:Secretary Kerry Meets With Pakistani Party President Imran Khan.jpg|thumb|Khan with [Secretary of State](US)(US Secretary of State) [Kerry](John)(John Kerry) after the 2013 elections]]
On 21 April 2013, Khan launched his final [relations](public)(public relations) campaign for the [elections](2013)(2013 Pakistani general election) from Lahore, where he addressed thousands of supporters at [Mall](the)(The Mall, Lahore). Khan announced that he would pull Pakistan out of the U.S.-led [on terror](war)(war on terror) and bring peace to the [tribal belt](Pashtun)(Federally Administered Tribal Areas). He addressed different public meetings in various cities of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and other parts of country, where he announced that PTI will introduce a uniform education system in which the children of rich and poor would have equal opportunities. Khan ended his south Punjab campaign by addressing rallies in various Seraiki belt cities.
Khan ended the campaign by addressing a rally of supporters in [Islamabad](Islamabad) via a video link while lying on a bed at a hospital in Lahore. The last survey before the elections by *[Herald](The)(Herald (Pakistan))* showed 24.98 percent of voters nationally planned to vote for his party, just a whisker behind former prime minister Nawaz Sharif's PML-N. On 7 May, just four days before the elections, Khan was rushed to [Khanum hospital](Shaukat)(Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital and Research Centre) in Lahore after he tumbled from a [forklift](forklift) at the edge of a stage and fell headfirst to the ground. Pakistan's [elections](2013)(2013 Pakistani general election) were held on 11 May 2013 throughout the country. The elections resulted in a clear majority of Pakistan Muslim League (N). Khan's PTI emerged as the second-largest party by popular vote nationally, including in Karachi. Khan's party PTI won 30 directly elected parliamentary seats and became the third-largest party in National Assembly behind Pakistan People's Party, which was second.
### In opposition
Khan led Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf became the opposition party in Punjab and Sindh. Khan became the [leader](parliamentary)(parliamentary leader) of his party. On 31 July 2013 Khan was issued a contempt of court notice for allegedly criticising the superior judiciary, and his use of the word *shameful* for the judiciary. The notice was discharged after Khan submitted before the [Court](Supreme)(Supreme Court of Pakistan) that he criticised the lower judiciary for their actions during the May 2013 general election while those judicial officers were working as returning officers. Khan's party swooped the [militancy](Terrorist)-hit northwestern [Pakhtunkhwa](Khyber)(Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), and formed the provincial government. PTI-led Khyber Pakhtunkhwa government presented a balanced, tax-free budget for the fiscal year 2013–14. During his provincial government, Khan was criticised for his support for [Sami-ul-Haq](Sami-ul-Haq), the "Father of the Taliban," and giving funds to his seminary, [Uloom Haqqania](Darul)(Darul Uloom Haqqania).
Khan believed that terrorist activities by the [Taliban](Pakistani)(Pakistani Taliban) could be stopped through dialogue with them and even offered them to open an office in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. He accused the United States of sabotaging peace efforts with the Pakistani Taliban by killing its leader [Mehsud](Hakimullah)(Hakimullah Mehsud) in a [strike](drone)(Drone strikes in Pakistan) in 2013. He demanded the government to block [supply line](NATO)(NATO logistics in the Afghan War) in retaliation for the killing of the TTP leader.
On 13 November 2013, Khan, being party leader, ordered [Khattak](Pervez)(Pervez Khattak) to dismiss ministers of [Watan Party](Qaumi)(Qaumi Watan Party) (QWP) who were allegedly involved in corruption. [Baidar](Bakht)(Bakht Baidar) and Ibrar Hussan Kamoli of Qaumi Watan Party, ministers for Manpower & Industry and Forest & Environment respectively, were dismissed. Khan ordered [Minister Khyber Pakhtunkhwa](Chief)(Pervez Khattak) to end the alliance with QWP. The Chief Minister also dismissed Minister for Communication and Works of PTI [Ayub Khan](Yousuf)(Yousuf Ayub Khan) due to a fake degree.
[[File:Pakistanprotests2014.webm|thumb|right|[of America](Voice)(Voice of America) reports on Imran Khan-led protests in late 2014]]
A year after elections, on 11 May 2014, Khan alleged that 2013 general elections were rigged in favour of the ruling PML (N).[Imran demands new ECP, resignation of its members](http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-13-30285-Imran-demands-new-ECP-resignation-of-its-members) 12 May 2014; *The News International*. Retrieved 15 August 2014 On 14 August 2014, Imran Khan led a [rally](2014 Azadi March) of supporters from Lahore to Islamabad, demanding Prime Minister [Sharif](Nawaz)(Nawaz Sharif)'s resignation and investigation into alleged electoral fraud.[Destination Islamabad: Azadi march takes off](http://tribune.com.pk/story/748978/destination-islamabad-azadi-march-takes-off/) By Anwer Sumra; Published: 15 August 2014; *The Express Tribune*. Retrieved 16 August 2014 On its way to the capital Khan's convoy was attacked by stones from PML (N) supporters in [Gujranwala](Gujranwala); however, there were no fatalities.[Azadi march attacked with stones, shoes in Gujranwala](http://tribune.com.pk/story/749397/azadi-march-attacked-with-stones-shoes-in-gujranwala/) 16 August 2014; By Anwer Sumra; *The Express Tribune*. Retrieved 16 August 2014 Khan was reported to be attacked with guns which forced him to travel in a bullet-proof vehicle.[Clashes in Pakistan after gun shots fired at Imran Khan's vehicle](http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/pakistan/Clashes-in-Pakistan-after-gun-shots-fired-at-Imran-Khans-vehicle/articleshow/40307754.cms) 15 August 2014; *The Times of India*. Retrieved 16 August 2014 On 15 August, Khan-led protesters entered the capital and a few days later marched into the high-security [Zone](Red)(Red Zone (Islamabad)); on 1 September 2014, according to [Jazeera](Al)(Al Jazeera), protesters attempted to storm Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif's official residence, which prompted the outbreak of violence. Three people died and more than 595 people were injured, including 115 police officers. Prior to the violence that resulted in deaths, Khan asked his followers to take law into their own hands.
By September 2014, Khan had entered into a de facto alliance with Canadian-Pakistani cleric [Tahir-ul-Qadri](Muhammad)(Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri); both have aimed to mobilise their supporters for regime change.[March PTI Workers Injured After PML-N Allegedly Attacked Azadi March](http://video.dunyanews.tv/index.php/en/mustwatch/6841/Gujranwala:-4-PTI-workers-injured-after-PML-N-allegedly-attacked-Azadi-4) 15 August 2014; *Dunya News* . Retrieved 16 August 2014 Khan entered into an agreement with the Sharif administration to establish a three-member high-powered judicial commission which would be formed under a presidential ordinance. The commission would make its final report public. If the commission finds a country-wide pattern of rigging proved, the prime minister would dissolve the national and provincial assemblies in terms of the articles 58(1) and 112(1) of the Constitution – thereby meaning that the premier would also appoint the caretaker setup in consultation with the leader of the opposition and fresh elections would be held. He also met [Mustafa Kamal](Syed)(Syed Mustafa Kamal), when he was in the opposition.
### 2018 elections campaign
[[File:Imran Khan Arif Alvi.jpg|thumb|Khan holding a media press with [Alvi](Arif)(Arif Alvi) during 2018 electoral campaign]]
Imran Khan contested the [election](general)(2018 Pakistani general election) from [(Bannu)](NA-35)(NA-35 (Bannu)), [(Islamabad-II)](NA-53)(NA-53 (Islamabad-II)), [(Mianwali-I)](NA-95)(NA-95 (Mianwali-I)), [(Lahore-IX)](NA-131)(NA-131 (Lahore-IX)), and [(Karachi East-II)](NA-243)(NA-243 (Karachi East-II)). According to early, official results, Khan led the poll, although his opposition, mainly PML-N, alleged large-scale vote rigging and administrative malpractices. On 27 July, election officials declared that Khan's party had won 110 of the 269 seats, giving PTI a plurality in the [Assembly](National)(National Assembly of Pakistan). At the conclusion of the count on 28 July, the [Commission of Pakistan](Election)(Election Commission of Pakistan) (ECP) announced that the PTI had won a total of 116 of the 270 seats contested. Khan became the first person in the history of [general elections](Pakistan)(Pakistan elections) who contested and won in all five constituencies, surpassing [Ali Bhutto](Zulfikar)(Zulfikar Ali Bhutto) who contested in four but won in three constituencies in 1970.
In May 2018, Khan's party announced a 100-day agenda for a possible future government. The agenda included sweeping reforms in almost all areas of government including creation of a new province in [Punjab](Southern)(Saraikistan), fast tracking of merger of [Administered Tribal Areas](Federally)(Federally Administered Tribal Areas) into [Pakhtunkhwa](Khyber)(Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), betterment of law and order situation in [Karachi](Karachi), and betterment of relations with Baloch political leaders.
### Post-2018 election reaction
A number of opposition parties have alleged "massive rigging" in Khan's favor amid allegations of military interference in the general elections. Nawaz Sharif and his PML-N party, in particular, claimed that a conspiracy between the judiciary and [military](Pakistan Armed Forces) had influenced the election in favour of Khan and PTI. The Election Commission, however, rejected allegations of rigging and Sharif and his PML-N later conceded victory to Khan, despite lingering 'reservations' regarding the result. Two days after the 2018 general elections were held, the chief observer of the [Union](European)(European Union) [Observation Mission](Election)(Election monitoring) to Pakistan [Gahler](Michael)(Michael Gahler) confirmed that the overall situation of the general election was satisfactory.
### Victory speech
During his victory speech, he laid out the policy outlines for his future government. Khan said his inspiration is to build Pakistan as a humanitarian state based on principles of the first Islamic state of [Medina](Medina). He described that his future government will put the poor and commoners of the country first and all policies will be geared towards elevating the standards of living of the lesser fortunate. He promised an investigation into rigging allegations. He said that he wanted a united Pakistan and would refrain from victimizing his political opponents. Everyone would be equal under the law. He promised a simple and less costly government, devoid of showy pompousness in which the prime minister's house will be converted into an educational institute and governor houses will be used for public benefit.
On foreign policy, he praised China and hoped to have better relations with Afghanistan, United States, and India. On [East](Middle)(Middle East), he said his government will strive to have a balanced relationship with [Arabia](Saudi)(Pakistan–Saudi Arabia relations) and [Iran](Iran–Pakistan relations).
### Nominations and appointments
On 6 August 2018, PTI officially nominated him as the candidate for prime minister. Delivering a speech during his nomination, he said that he will present himself for public accountability for an hour every week in which he will answer questions put forward by masses.
After the election, Khan made some appointments and nominations for national and provincial level public office holders as the head of the winning party. [Umar](Asad)(Asad Umar) was designated finance minister in the future government of Khan in the center. Khan nominated [Ismail](Imran)(Imran Ismail) for [of Sindh](Governor)(Governor of Sindh), [Khan](Mahmood)(Mahmood Khan) as future [Minister of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa](Chief)(Chief Minister of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), [Muhammad Sarwar](Chaudhry)(Mohammad Sarwar (politician)) as [of Punjab](Governor)(Governor of Punjab, Pakistan), [Qaiser](Asad)(Asad Qaiser) as [of the National Assembly of Pakistan](Speaker)(Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan), and [Farman](Shah)(Shah Farman) as [of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa](Governor)(Governor of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa). In Balochistan, his party decided to support [Awami Party](Balochistan)(Balochistan Awami Party) which nominated [Kamal Khan](Jam)(Jam Kamal Khan) for chief minister and former chief minister [Quddus Bizenjo](Abdul)(Abdul Quddus Bizenjo) for speaker. His party nominated [Muslim League (Q)](Pakistan)(Pakistan Muslim League (Q)) leader and former [Prime Minister of Pakistan](Deputy)(Deputy Prime Minister of Pakistan), [Elahi](Pervaiz)(Pervaiz Elahi) for the slot of Speaker of the Punjab Assembly. [Razak Dawood](Abdul)(Abdul Razak Dawood) was nominated to be the advisor to prime minister on economic affairs. [Khan Suri](Qasim)(Qasim Khan Suri) was nominated for deputy speaker of national assembly slot. [Ahmed Ghani](Mushtaq)(Mushtaq Ahmed Ghani) and [Jan](Mehmood)(Mehmood Jan) were nominated as speaker and deputy speaker of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa assembly respectively. [Muhammad Mazari](Dost)(Dost Muhammad Mazari) was nominated as Deputy Speaker for the Provincial Assembly of Punjab. Khan nominated [Usman Buzdar](Sardar)(Sardar Usman Buzdar) for [Minister of Punjab](Chief)(Chief Minister of Punjab, Pakistan). Announcing the nomination, Khan said that he chose Buzdar because he belongs to the most backward area of Punjab. According to some sources, Buzdar was nominated as a makeshift arrangement because it will be easier to remove a lesser-known individual when [Mahmood Qureshi](Shah)(Shah Mahmood Qureshi) is ready to become chief minister.
### 2022 Toshakhana reference case
The [Democratic Movement](Pakistan)(Pakistan Democratic Movement)'s [MNA](Member of Parliament, National Assembly of Pakistan)s brought the Toshakhana case against Imran Khan in August 2022 because he failed to disclose the specifics of the Toshakhana presents in his yearly asset report to the [Commission of Pakistan](Election)(Election Commission of Pakistan) (ECP). The investigation was started by the ECP, which then made its final determination on 21 October 2022, disqualifying Imran from holding public office for engaging in dishonest behavior, fabricating information, and making an inaccurate declaration in the reference under Article 63(1)(p) of the constitution of Pakistan. Following the verdict, Khan organized the [March II](Azadi)(2022 Azadi March II) to protest.
### 2023 arrest
As a result of an arrest warrant issued by the district and sessions court in [Islamabad](Islamabad), the [Police](Islamabad)(Islamabad Police) and [Police](Lahore)(Punjab Police (Pakistan)) started an operation to arrest the former prime minister Imran Khan on March 14, 2023. On May 9, Imran Khan was arrested at the Islamabad High Court by paramilitary forces over his alleged role in the [Trust](Al-Qadir)(Al-Qadir Trust) [case](Al-Qadir Trust case), Umer |date=2023-05-09 |title=Imran Khan arrested from outside IHC in Al-Qadir Trust case |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1751782 |access-date=2023-05-09 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}} after which PTI-party members had called for nationwide protests. His arrest led to [protests](widespread)(2023 Pakistani protests) and the [9 riots](May)(May 9 riots). The arrest was later declared illegal by the Supreme Court. Following the May 9 riots, many PTI members deserted Khan and founded the [Party](Istehkam-e-Pakistan)(Istehkam-e-Pakistan Party) under the leadership of [Tareen](Jahangir)(Jahangir Tareen).
#### Bailout
On 12 May, the Islamabad High Court declared the arrest illegal and mandated Khan's immediate release. Khan was granted protected bail and released on the same day, meaning he could not be re-arrested on those charges for two weeks.
## Prime Minister of Pakistan
[[File:President Trump Meets with the Prime Minister of Pakistan (48350243921).jpg|thumb|Khan with US President [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) and First Lady [Trump](Melania)(Melania Trump) at the [House](White)(White House) in July 2019]]
### First 100 days
On 17 August 2018, Khan secured 176 votes and became [22nd](List of Prime Ministers of Pakistan) [Minister of Pakistan](Prime)(Prime Minister of Pakistan) and took [of office](oath)(Swearing-in ceremony of Imran Khan) on 18 August 2018. Khan ordered top level reshuffling in the country's bureaucracy, including the appointment of [Mahmood](Sohail)(Sohail Mahmood) as [Secretary](Foreign)(Foreign Secretary of Pakistan), [Ahmed](Rizwan)(Rizwan Ahmed (civil servant)) as [Secretary](Maritime)(Maritime Secretary of Pakistan) and [Kamran Baloch](Naveed)(Naveed Kamran Baloch) as [Secretary](Finance)(Finance Secretary of Pakistan). His first major appointment in the [Army](Pakistan)(Pakistan Army) was that of Lieutenant General [Munir](Asim)(Asim Munir (general)) to the key slot of [of Inter-Services Intelligence](Director-General)(Director-General of Inter-Services Intelligence).
Khan announced his [cabinet](Khan ministry) soon after taking oath, choosing to keep the [of Interior](Ministry)(Ministry of Interior (Pakistan)) to himself. Though he later appointed [Ahmed Shah](Ijaz)(Ijaz Ahmed Shah) as interior minister. Many of his appointees were previously ministers during Musharraf era, although some were defectors from the left-wing People's Party. In 2019 Khan committed to a major cabinet reshuffle in the ministries of interior, finance, information and planning.
[[File:Dmitry Medvedev’s meeting with Prime Minister of Pakistan Imran Khan.jpg|thumb|Khan meeting with Russian Prime Minister [Medvedev](Dmitry)(Dmitry Medvedev) in November 2018]]
[[File:Pakistan PM Imran Khan met with Ali Khamenei 03.jpg|thumb|Khan with [Khamenei](Ali)(Ali Khamenei) and [Rouhani](Hassan)(Hassan Rouhani)]]
Khan stated that despite the [assassination](Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi) of Saudi journalist [Khashoggi](Jamal)(Jamal Khashoggi), Pakistan must prioritize good relations with [Arabia](Saudi)(Saudi Arabia) due to an economic crisis. He also added that [sanctions against Iran](U.S.)(U.S. sanctions against Iran) are affecting neighboring Pakistan, stating "The last thing the Muslim World needs is another conflict. The Trump administration is moving towards that direction." (updated 8 November 2018). Khan has prioritised close ties with [China](People's Republic of China), saying he "did not know" much about [camps](concentration)(Xinjiang re-education camps) for China's [Muslims](Islam in China). Though Khan confirmed he had raised the matter "privately" in discussions with China.
Khan was named one of *[Time](Time (magazine))* magazine's [Most Influential People](100)(Time 100) of 2019, in the section "*Leaders*".
### Economic policy
In domestic economic policy, Khan inherited a twin [of payments and debt crisis](balance)(balance of payments) with a large current account deficit and fiscal deficit in 2018, Khan's government sought a bailout from the IMF. In exchange for the bailout, Khan's government slashed subsidy spending in the energy sector and unveiled an austerity budget to curb the fiscal deficit and limit government borrowing. Also, the IMF demanded that the Pakistani government depreciate the rupee, and improve tax collection. Khan's government decided to raise import tariffs to collect higher tax revenues and devalued the currency, this alongside the heavy import duty helped to curtail the current account deficit (see [substitution](import)(import substitution)). Pakistan's overall balance of payment's position improved significantly following record-high remittances in 2020, which stabilised the central bank's foreign exchange reserves. The fiscal deficit narrowed to less than 1% of GDP by 2020 due to the government's austerity policies.
Thus the rate of debt accumulation had significantly slowed, but Pakistan's debt remained high due to the high borrowing of previous governments in which the current government had to allocate $24 billion to pay off loans taken during the tenure of previous governments.
Aside from IMF-mandated reforms, Khan's government introduced policies to improve the business operating climate. As a result, Pakistan climbed 28 places higher on the [Bank's](World)(World Bank) ease of doing business index. Pakistan ranked amongst the top 10 most improved countries in 2019. Pakistan's tax collection also hit record highs in 2019. As the government raised more revenue from domestic taxes with no increase in tax revenue from import taxes (given import compression had lowered the quantity being imported so the government collected less tax revenue from imports). This trend continued into 2020, albeit at a slower pace. The fiscal deficit was also controlled to less than 1% of GDP in the second half of 2020, Pakistan recorded a primary surplus (excluding interest payment and principal repayment of previous debt), but was in deficit once the interest payment on debt was accounted for, albeit the deficit was smaller. Economists primarily pinned this reduction in the fiscal deficit on an increase in non-tax revenues rather than an increase in tax revenues. For example, from the higher prices, consumers paid for oil from state-owned oil companies. Nevertheless, tax revenues also went on an upward trajectory with Pakistan's tax agency (FBR) both exceeding its tax collection target and collecting a record amount for the first quarter of the fiscal year 2021 in the calendar year 2020.
In economic policy with respect to international trade, from January 2020 Khan's government implemented the second phase of the [Free Trade Agreement](China–Pakistan)(China–Pakistan Free Trade Agreement) these renegotiations with China led to concessionary rates by China on Pakistani exports of goods and services to mainland China such as reduced tariffs or zero tariffs. The negotiations were termed a "significant milestone" in the country's foreign policy by expanding trade relations in a relationship traditionally dominated by defence and security matters.
In June 2018 (before Khan became Prime Minister), the [FATF](Financial Action Task Force) placed [Pakistan](Pakistan) onto its grey list and demanded a series of actions be taken by Pakistan to remedy terror financing laws. Khan's government had initially used constitutional provisions of Presidential power held by [Alvi](Arif)(Arif Alvi) to issue ordinances (temporary legislation via Presidential decree) and the country became compliant with 14 points on the FATF agenda. Subsequently, a series of bills were presented in [Parliament](Pakistan's)(Parliament of Pakistan) to ensure the legislation would permanently remain in place beyond a temporary Presidential decree. Minor parts of the legislation passed both the lower house and upper house of Pakistan's parliament with the support of Khan's ruling coalition and part of the opposition parties too. However, the opposition-dominated Senate did not pass a significant portion of the FATF bills and walked out on crucial moments, creating hurdles for Khan's government.
Subsequently, Khan summoned a joint session of both upper and lower house of parliament in which the bills passed given the government held a majority and without the support of the opposition. By October 2020, Pakistan became successfully compliant on 21 out of 27 points on the FATF agenda, an increase from the 14 points in February 2020, with the remaining 6 points outstanding reviewed in February 2021. In FATF's February 2021 review, Khan's government had successfully implemented about 90% of the FATF agenda with 24 out of 27 points 'largely addressed' and the remaining 3 out of 27 points 'partially addressed'. The FATF President remarked that as Pakistan was progressing with its action plan so it "is not the time to put a country on the blacklist". In FATF's June 2021 review, the Khan government implemented more progress, the FATF found that Pakistan has now largely addressed 26 out of the 27 action items, US State Department spokesperson [Price](Ned)(Ned Price) praised Pakistan's progress but encouraged Pakistan to tackle its remaining action item saying "We do recognise and we support Pakistan's continued efforts to satisfy those (first action plan) obligations. Pakistan has made significant progress on its first action plan with 26 of 27 action items largely addressed — We encourage Pakistan to continue working with the FATF and the international community to swiftly complete the remaining action item by demonstrating that terrorism financing, investigations and prosecutions target senior leaders and commanders of UN-designated groups," he said. On 8 April 2022 the Khan government made progress on its remaining action plan by sentencing [Saeed](Hafiz)(Hafiz Saeed) a mastermind of the [Mumbai attacks](2008)(2008 Mumbai attacks) and a UN-designated terrorist to 31 years in prison.
Due to the efforts of [Azhar](Hammad)(Hammad Azhar), Pakistan eventually made it out of the FATF greylist in October 2022.
### Security and terrorism
In national security policy, Khan's government presided over an improved overall security climate with foreign investors expressing greater confidence in the security of their investments in Pakistan.
On 5 March 2019, the Khan government formally banned the Hafiz Saeed-led Jamaat-ud-Dawa and its affiliate Falah-e-Insaniat Foundation under the Anti Terrorism Act 1997.
On 25 June 2020, Khan came under criticism, both in the international press and from the domestic opposition, for calling [al-Qaeda](al-Qaeda) founder and [9/11](September 11 attacks) mastermind [bin Laden](Osama)(Osama bin Laden) a [martyr](martyr). Voice of America – English |language=en |work=[of America](Voice)(Voice of America) |url=https://www.voanews.com/south-central-asia/pakistani-pm-says-americans-martyred-osama-bin-laden |access-date=30 June 2020}} Khan, on a previous occasion during a local television interview, had refused to call bin Laden a terrorist.
In October 2020, Imran Khan spoke out about the growing [extremism](extremism) and violence against [Muslims](Muslims), across the world. In a letter posted on [Twitter](Twitter), he urged [Facebook](Facebook)'s CEO [Zuckerberg](Mark)(Mark Zuckerberg) to ban [Islamophobic](Islamophobic) content on its platform.
In July 2021, the [Pegasus](Project)(Project Pegasus revelations) revealed a spyware surveillance list that included at least one number once used by Khan.
In 2019, Pakistan arrested [Saeed](Hafiz)(Hafiz Saeed) a mastermind of the 26/11 Mumbai attacks also a UN-designated terrorist, and on 8 April 2022 he was sentenced to 31 years in prison.
### Social policy
In social policy, Khan's government has taken steps to restore religious sites belonging to religious minorities this included the [Corridor](Kartarpur)(Kartarpur Corridor). Khan's government took a significantly different position on the policy of minorities than the main opposition party, the [PML-N](PML-N), who had opposed the building of the corridor for Indian pilgrims.
Khan's government also instituted reforms to [education](Education in Pakistan) and [healthcare](Healthcare in Pakistan) on a national and regional level respectively.
Khan's government introduced reforms to Pakistan's [safety net](social)(Ehsaas Programme) and the system of welfare in Pakistan more broadly. This included broadening welfare payments which was initially for widows only, to include the disabled as well as provide health insurance coverage.
In June 2021, Khan explained a surge of publicly known [rape](rape) cases in Pakistan with what he called "common sense", namely that women who wear "very few clothes" will "have an impact on the men unless they are robots". His comments lead to outrage by female rights activists.
### Environment and energy
Khan pushed for an increase in [energy production](renewable)(Energy policy of Pakistan) and [coal power](halted)(Coal phase-out) from future construction working toward an aim to make Pakistan mostly renewable by 2030. In 2020, Khan's government commenced building work for the [Dam](Diamer-Bhasha)(Diamer-Bhasha Dam), as part of his government's investment in [energy](renewable)(Renewable energy in Pakistan) projects. The World Bank loaned Pakistan $450mn for investment in renewable energy projects as part of the government's stated aim of making Pakistan a renewable-energy reliant economy and reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat [change](climate)(Climate change in Pakistan).
The government also introduced an [vehicle](electric)(electric vehicle) (EV) policy, the first in South Asia.
Further efforts to [climate change](combat)(Climate change mitigation) consisted of [re-foresting](Reforestation) Pakistan with over 10 billion trees under the [for Pakistan](Plant)(Plant for Pakistan) project with the government on course to plant 3.3 billion trees in the first three and a half years of Khan's government, the reforestation programme includes an agreement with the UN [and Agriculture Organisation](Food)(Food and Agriculture Organization) (FAO), [Wildlife Fund](World)(World Wide Fund for Nature) (WWF) and others to independently monitor the projects in order to maintain transparency about funding. Khan also expanded [parks](national)(List of national parks of Pakistan) under a [areas](protected)(Protected areas of Pakistan) initiative.
### Governance and anti-corruption
Khan's government introduced reforms to Pakistan's bloated public sector. The public sector consisted of state-owned enterprises that were consistently making losses and accumulating debt for decades, including national services such as railways, airlines, postal services as well as other state-owned companies such as Pakistan's state-owned steel company. In 2019, [International Airlines](Pakistan)(Pakistan International Airlines) reached breakeven in operating profit however the halt in air travel in the following year due to [COVID-19](COVID-19) meant further reforms had to be made. This led to a proposal to cut the airline's workforce almost by half in order to save costs and thus help the state-owned airline breakeven on a net profit level in addition to the operating profit level. The national airline confirmed it would layoff employees in phases as part of PIA's restructuring plan in line with the government's policy of reversing the losses at state-owned companies. Khan's government is set to axe many PIA workers due to the fact that those appointments were politically motivated to reward loyalty to previous governments.
In 2019, Khan's government launched an [anti-corruption](anti-corruption) campaign which was premised on the basis that no amnesty (known as NRO or [Reconciliation Ordinance](National)(National Reconciliation Ordinance) in Pakistani political parlance) would be given to politicians or relatives who benefitted from a politician's patronage. The campaign has been criticised for targeting Khan's political opponents. Nevertheless, Khan's supporters argue that the campaign is genuine, as senior members of Khan's own ruling party, including [Khan Tareen](Jahangir)(Jahangir Khan Tareen) and [Khan](Aleem)(Aleem Khan), have faced investigation or prosecution, with Khan going as far as rejecting the formation of a "judicial commission" demanded by supporters of Tareen.
Under Khan's premiership, the performance of Pakistan's anti-corruption agency, the [Accountability Bureau](National)(National Accountability Bureau) improved significantly when measured in terms of recovery of money in cases involving plea bargains and/or convictions. The recovery of the anti-corruption agency had risen to [Rs](Pakistani rupee). 487 billion over three years from the start of 2018 to the beginning of 2021. This recovery was significantly higher than the anti-corruption agency's 10-year performance from 2008 to 2018 prior to Khan's government taking office.
### COVID-19 pandemic
During the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan), Khan's government rolled out the largest welfare programme in Pakistan's history, with a fund of almost $1 billion aimed at the country's poorest segment of the population. The PM's advisor Dr. Sania Nishtar confirmed that the programme would use pre-existing data of other welfare programmes under 'Ehsaas' system and the much smaller [Income Support Programme](Benazir)(Benazir Income Support Programme) which provided a more limited safety-net, while the Ehsaas programme targeted lower-income households more broadly. Following a drop in COVID-19 cases, declining positivity rates, and falling hospitalisations, Khan's government lifted lockdown restrictions. In a Gallup survey released in 2021, 7 out of 10 (or roughly 70%) of Pakistanis had a favourable view of the government's handling of the coronavirus pandemic. Economically, a V-shaped recovery was observed in both business confidence and expected employment index. The current account was in surplus for 3 out of 4 months after June 2020 although this was due to higher remittances (which tend to be volatile) offsetting decrease in exports. Fiscal prudence meant Pakistan's debt-to-GDP ratio remained broadly unchanged in 2021 according to the IMF, Pakistan defied the trend of rising debt, as most emerging/developing economies had witnessed a substantial rise in the debt-to-GDP ratio in order to deal with the pandemic with other developing countries seeing a 10% rise in debt-to-GDP on average. Furthermore, credit rating agency Fitch forecasted a fall in Pakistan's public debt to GDP ratio, reflecting lower debt incurred by the incumbent government and higher GDP growth in 2021.
In economic policy, Khan's government presided over a recovery in Pakistan's textile sector, with demand measured by the number of orders pending hitting historic highs. Khan's government facilitated the textile sector by offering concessionary rates on utilities such as electricity as well as reducing the electricity tariff during peak hours. Furthermore, the [Development Bank](Asian)(Asian Development Bank) stated that it sees an "economic recovery" in Pakistan. Also, signs of recovery emerged as exports reached pre-covid levels towards the end of 2020. Following the recovery in the textile sector, export growth was almost in double-digits by February 2021, with a 9% growth in exports – especially value-added textile exports. In early 2021, Pakistan's apparel exports to the US had surged upwards in value and volume outperforming India and Bangladesh, both of which are the nearest regional economies similar to Pakistan's in South Asia. Khan's government facilitated the textile sector by removing all import tariffs on cotton yarn, in order to address a shortfall in the main raw material input of textiles and apparel. This policy of tax concessions was codified at least in the short term when Khan's government unveiled its budget for 2021–22 which had reduced customs duty on imports of inputs (raw materials) for final manufactured goods.
### Foreign affairs
[[File:Meeting of SCO leaders - 20190614 - 02.jpg|thumb|Khan at the 2019 [Cooperation Organisation](Shanghai)(Shanghai Cooperation Organisation) summit]]
[[File:-UNGA (48784545487).jpg|thumb|Khan with U.S. President [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) in September 2019]]
In foreign policy, Khan voiced support for the [Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria](2019)(2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria) against the [Kurdish](Kurds in Syria)-led [Democratic Forces](Syrian)(Syrian Democratic Forces). On 11 October 2019, Khan told the Turkish president [Tayyip Erdoğan](Recep)(Recep Tayyip Erdoğan) that "Pakistan fully understands Turkey's concerns relating to terrorism". Khan's foreign policy towards neighbouring Afghanistan consists primarily of support for the [peace process](Afghan)(Afghan peace process) and also inaugurated a 24/7 border crossing with Afghanistan to facilitate travel and trade. He said that Pakistan will never recognize [Israel](Israel) until a [state](Palestinian)(State of Palestine) is created, a statement in line with the vision of Pakistan's founder [Ali Jinnah](Muhammad)(Muhammad Ali Jinnah).
According to the British newspaper *[Independent](The)(The Independent)*, Khan's government had improved Pakistan's reputation abroad by stepping into its role as a 'world player'. In 2019, Khan was included in the [100](*Time*)(Time 100), [*Time*](Time (magazine))'s annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world.
Khan also pursued a reset in ties with Gulf Arab states such as the [Arab Emirates](United)(United Arab Emirates) and [Arabia](Saudi)(Saudi Arabia), with the UAE agreeing to roll over Pakistan's debt on an interest-free loan. Subsequently, Khan embarked on a three-day visit to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in order to reset ties, where he was personally received at the airport by Mohammad bin Salman. The ties had become tense previously due to the unwillingness of Pakistan to contribute militarily to the [Arabian–led intervention in Yemen](Saudi)(Saudi Arabian–led intervention in Yemen). Saudi Arabia's ambassador to Pakistan confirmed that the Saudi government had approved a concessionary loan for building a hydroelectric dam, the Mohmand dam. Khan's government also improved ties with the Gulf state of Kuwait, as Kuwait confirmed it had lifted a ten-year visa ban on Pakistani nationals.gulfnews.com/amp/world/asia/pakistan/kuwait-resumes-visas-for-pakistani-citizens-after-10-year-suspension-1.1622444455991 Khan's government enhanced economic ties with [Qatar](Qatar) which is expected to benefit Pakistan by US$3 billion over 10 years by renegotiating terms in an energy supply deal which saw a significant reduction in Pakistan's energy import bill compared to the previous deal. Khan was mediating between [Iran](Iran) and Saudi Arabia in an effort to end the war in [Yemen](Yemen), which is part of an [Arabia proxy conflict](Iran–Saudi)(Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict).
On 9 May 2021, Khan condemned the [police actions](Israeli)(2021 Israel–Palestine crisis) at [Mosque](Al-Aqsa)(Temple Mount), stating that such actions violated "all norms of humanity and [international] law". Also, Khan has been vocal on the Kashmir issue, and his government adopted the foreign policy stance that no talks will be held with India on the [dispute](Kashmir)(Kashmir dispute) until autonomy was restored in Indian-held Kashmir. Khan's national security adviser [Yusuf](Moeed)(Moeed Yusuf) confirmed that backdoor contacts with India (ostensibly brokered by the UAE) had broken down after India had refused to restore the region's autonomy.
In August 2021, Khan celebrated the [of the United States from Afghanistan](departure)(Withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan (2020–2021)), describing it as Afghans breaking "the shackles of slavery".
#### Interests with Russian Federation
[[File:Vladimir Putin and Imran Khan (2022-02-24) 01.jpg|thumb|Khan met with Russian president [Putin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Putin) in [Moscow](Moscow) just hours after [invasion of Ukraine began](Russia's)(2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine).]]
After twenty-three years without a premiere of Pakistan visiting Moscow, Khan became the first such official of the century when he landed in the Russian capital on 23 February, for a two-day trip, where he planned to discuss "key issues of bilateral interest with top leadership," according to the Foreign Office of Pakistan. [Sharif](Nawaz)(Nawaz Sharif), in March 1999, was the last to visit Moscow until then.
The meeting between the two heads of state was planned months in advance, and [Vladimir Putin](President)(Vladimir Putin) met with Khan just hours after the Russian "special military operation" into the Donbas in an attack on neighboring Ukraine, during the second day of Khan's visit. [Pakistan](Radio)(Radio Pakistan) reported the two discussed "economic and energy cooperation," namely, a several billion dollar [Stream Gas Pipeline](Pakistan)(Pakistan Stream gas pipeline) project that Russian enterprise partnered in developing southward from Karachi to Punjab.
The pipeline, which was begun in 2020, is the result of a 2015 agreement for a 1,100 km pipeline with a designed capacity ranging from 12.4 to 16 billion cubic meters, with Russia financing 26% of costs, which ranged from US$1.5–3.5 billion. It was expected that even under sanctions against Russia Pakistan could still import up to 14 billion cubic meters of [natural gas](liquid)(Liquefied natural gas) (LNG) from the vast [reserves](Russian)(Natural gas in Russia) to the "energy-starved power plants" in Pakistan. The Eurasian Pipeline Consortium and pipeline supplier [TMK](OAO TMK) were tasked with the completion of the pipeline.
Of the timing on the talks, Khan explained that he was invited by Putin months in advance, but furthermore that he was not interested in joining any "blocs" and welcomed neutrality, in hopes of "peace and harmony within and among societies."
Following the visit, Khan repeatedly refused to submit to Western pressure calling for his condemnation of Russia's invasion of Ukraine, at one point remarking: "What do you think of us? Are we your slaves…that whatever you say, we will do?" During the UN General Assembly emergency meeting on the invasion he expressed regret for the situation while registering an abstention, and called for deescalation with adherence to international law as laid out in the UN Charter.
### No-confidence motion and removal from office
After Khan disclosed to the public, in violation of state secret legislation, a diplomatic [cable](Lettergate) from the US urging action be taken to remove Khan in a coup on 8 March 2022, opposition parties submitted a [of no confidence](motion)(motion of no confidence) against him to the [Assembly](National)(National Assembly of Pakistan)'s secretariat. On 1 April 2022, Prime Minister Khan announced that in context of the no-confidence motion against him in the National Assembly, the three options were discussed with "[establishment](The Establishment (Pakistan))" to choose from viz: "resignation, no-confidence [vote] or elections". On 3 April 2022, [President](President of Pakistan) [Alvi](Arif)(Arif Alvi) dissolved the National Assembly of Pakistan on Khan's advice, after the Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly rejected and set-aside the motion of no confidence; this move would have required elections to the National Assembly to be held within 90 days. On 10 April, after a Supreme Court ruling that the no-confidence motion was illegally rejected, a no-confidence vote was conducted and he was ousted from office, becoming the first prime minister in Pakistan to be removed from office by a vote of no confidence. Khan claimed the US was behind his removal because he conducted an independent foreign policy and had friendly relations with China and Russia. His removal led to protests from his supporters across Pakistan.
## Wealth
He has a house in Zaman Park, Lahore worth . Khan is also an [investor](investor), investing more than in various businesses. He is also owner of agriculture land of 39 kanals at Talhar, Islamabad, and 530 kanals at [Khanewal](Khanewal). Further, he also has a share in 363 kanals of agricultural land which he inherited. Khan has paid to buy two apartments at [Shahra-e-Dastoor](Constitution Avenue (Islamabad)) in Islamabad Other assets include [furniture](furniture) of and [livestock](livestock) of . However he has no vehicle registered in his name.
Khan owns a 300 [kanal](Kanal (unit)) mansion in Bani Gala, Islamabad worth . Khan declared it as a gift in his statement to the [Commission of Pakistan](Election)(Election Commission of Pakistan). The mansion is located within a gated enclosure and is accessible through a private driveway.
In November 2019, using FBR statements, Pakistani media revealed how much tax Khan had paid in 37 years. Khan paid of tax in 2017, and over 37 years, he paid a total of in tax up to 2019. The documents released by the FBR also state that during this period he was exempted for some years from paying tax. On 3 January 2022, [FBR](Federal Board of Revenue) released its 2019 tax directory for parliamentarians and it was revealed that Khan had paid in taxes in 2019.
## Public profile
After the May 2013 elections, [Hanif](Mohammed)(Mohammed Hanif) writing for *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* termed Khan's support as appealing "to the educated middle classes but Pakistan's main problem is that there aren't enough educated urban middle-class citizens in the country". [Mishra](Pankaj)(Pankaj Mishra) writing for *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* in 2012, charactised Khan as a "cogent picture out of his—and Pakistan's—clashing identities" adding that "his identification with the suffering masses and his attacks on his affluent, English-speaking peers have long been mocked in the living rooms of Lahore and Karachi as the hypocritical ravings of "Im the Dim" and "Taliban Khan"—the two favored monikers for him." Mishra concluded with "like all populist politicians, Khan appears to offer something to everyone. Yet the great differences between his constituencies—socially liberal, upper-middle-class Pakistanis and the deeply conservative residents of Pakistan's tribal areas—seem irreconcilable." His critics have often called him "Fitna Khan" and "Zinayi Khan".
[[Christmas Dinner 2014 (2).jpg|left|thumb|Khan addressing an Interfaith Christmas Dinner in 2014](File:Interfaith)]
On 18 March 2012, [Rushdie](Salman)(Salman Rushdie) criticised Khan for refusing to attend the *[Today](India)(India Today)* Conference because of Rushdie's attendance. Khan cited the "immeasurable hurt" that Rushdie's writings have caused Muslims around the world. Rushdie, in turn, suggested that Khan was a "dictator in waiting." In 2011, While writing for *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)*, Richard Leiby termed Khan as an underdog adding that he "often sounds like a pro-democracy liberal but is well known for his coziness with conservative Islamist parties." [Siddiqa](Ayesha)(Ayesha Siddiqa), in September 2014, writing for *[Express Tribune](The)(The Express Tribune)*, claimed that "while we can all sympathise with Khan's right to change the political tone, it would be worthwhile for him to envision how he would, if he did become the prime minister of this country, put the genie back into the bottle." [M. Naqvi](H.)(H. M. Naqvi) termed Khan as a "sort of a [Paul](Ron)(Ron Paul) figure", adding that "there is no taint of corruption and there is his anti-establishment message."
During the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, Khan was a popular [symbol](sex)(sex symbol). He became known as a socialite in English [society](high)(High society (social class)), and sported a [playboy](playboy (lifestyle)) image amongst the British press and [paparazzi](paparazzi) due to his "non-stop partying" at London nightclubs such as [Annabel's](Annabel's) and Tramp, though he claims to have hated English pubs and never drank alcohol. British heiress Sita White, daughter of [White, Baron White of Hull](Gordon)(Gordon White, Baron White of Hull), became the mother of his alleged [lovechild](out of wedlock) daughter, Tyrian Jade White. A judge in the US ruled him to be the father of Tyrian due to his failure to appear in court, but Khan has denied paternity and asked for the case to be open in Pakistani courts. Later in 2007, [Commission of Pakistan](Election)(Election Commission of Pakistan) ruled in favour of Khan and dismissed the *[parte](ex)(ex parte)* judgment of the US court, on grounds that it was neither admissible in evidence before any court or tribunal in Pakistan nor executable against him. About his lifestyle as a bachelor, he has often said that, "I never claim to have led an angelic life."
[Walsh](Declan)(Declan Walsh (journalist)) in *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* newspaper in England in 2005 described Khan as a "miserable politician," observing that, "Khan's ideas and affiliations since entering politics in 1996 have swerved and skidded like a [rickshaw](Auto rickshaw) in a rainshower... He preaches democracy one day but gives a vote to reactionary mullahs the next." Khan has also been accused by some opponents and critics of hypocrisy and opportunism, including what has been called his life's "playboy to puritan U-turn." Political commentator [Sethi](Najam)(Najam Sethi), stated that, "A lot of the Imran Khan story is about backtracking on a lot of things he said earlier, which is why this doesn't inspire people." Author [Bhutto](Fatima)(Fatima Bhutto) has criticised Khan for "incredible coziness not with the military but with dictatorship" as well as some of his political decisions. Nevertheless, Khan's approval rating since he became Prime Minister remained comparatively robust for an officeholder in Pakistani politics with a majority approving (51%), compared to 46% disapproval and 3% undecided. Other polls suggested his approval was as high as 57%.
### In popular culture
During his cricketing days, Khan featured in many advertisements and television commercials as a celebrity [endorser](brand)(Celebrity branding). These included [Pepsi](Pepsi) Pakistan, [Bond](Brooke)(Brooke Bond), [Up](Thums)(Thums Up) (along with [Gavaskar](Sunil)(Sunil Gavaskar)), and the Indian soap brand Cinthol, at a time when Bollywood legend [Khanna](Vinod)(Vinod Khanna) was also endorsing the same product. His popularity in India was such that it was "unmatched in an era when there were no smartphones to take selfies. He was mobbed everywhere he went." The late veteran Bollywood actor [Anand](Dev)(Dev Anand) even offered him a role in his sports action-thriller movie *[Number](Awwal)(Awwal Number)* (1990), that of a cricket star in decline opposite an upcoming cricketer essayed by [Khan](Aamir)(Aamir Khan), and as he refused, citing his lack of acting skills, the role eventually went to [Pancholi](Aditya)(Aditya Pancholi).Correspondonent (5 December 2011), ["Dev Anand wanted Imran to star in Awwal Number"](https://www.mid-day.com/articles/dev-anand-wanted-imran-to-star-in-awwal-number/144861), *Mid-Day*. Retrieved 19 April 2019. In 2010, a Pakistani production house produced a biographical film based on Khan's life, titled *Kaptaan: The Making of a Legend*. The title, which is Urdu for 'Captain', depicts Khan's captaincy and career with the Pakistan cricket team which led them to victory in the 1992 cricket world cup, as well as events which shaped his life; from being ridiculed in cricket to being labelled a [playboy](playboy (lifestyle)); from the death of his mother to his efforts and endeavours in building the first cancer hospital in Pakistan; from being the first Chancellor of the [of Bradford](University)(University of Bradford) to the building of Namal University.
Canadian rock band [Nickelback](Nickelback) released a music video for its politically themed single Edge of a Revolution, featuring a short clip of a [Tehreek-e-Insaf](Pakistan)(Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf) (PTI) rally among other protests. The brief clip from the PTI rally shows red and green party flags along with a poster of PTI Chairman Imran Khan who was the most popular opposition leader.
### Views on the Pashtuns and Afghans
In his virtual address at the [Session](76th)(Seventy-sixth session of the United Nations General Assembly) of the [Nations General Assembly](United)(United Nations General Assembly) on 24 September 2021, Khan remarked that many Pakistani Pashtuns "had strong sympathies with the Afghan Taliban, not because of their religious ideology, but because of Pashtun nationalism." His comments prompted outrage among many Pashtuns who called on him to apologise. Khan made similar comments also on 11 October, which triggered a protest in Peshawar the next day by the leftist [Kisan Party](Mazdoor)(Mazdoor Kisan Party) (MKP). The [National Party](Awami)(Awami National Party) (ANP) and the [Tahafuz Movement](Pashtun)(Pashtun Tahafuz Movement) (PTM) also condemned Khan for "linking the Pashtuns with terrorists."
During his keynote address at the [of Islamic Cooperation](Organisation)(Organisation of Islamic Cooperation)'s (OIC) Extraordinary Session of [Ministers](Foreign)(OIC Council of Foreign Ministers) on 19 December 2021, which was held in Islamabad to discuss the humanitarian situation in Afghanistan, Khan said not allowing girls to study was part of Afghan culture, and that the world should respect that. His remarks were criticised by many people from Afghanistan and Pakistan, including former [President](Afghan)(President of Afghanistan) [Karzai](Hamid)(Hamid Karzai). [Nobel](Nobel Prize) laureate [Yousafzai](Malala)(Malala Yousafzai) also slammed Khan's remarks, saying "I nearly lost my life fighting against the Taliban's ban on girls' education."
## Personal life
He had numerous relationships during his bachelor life. He was then known as a [hedonistic](hedonistic) bachelor and a playboy who was active on the London nightclub circuit. Many girlfriends are unknown and were called "mysterious blondes" by British newspaper *[Times](The)(The Times)*. Some of the women he has been associated with include [Aman](Zeenat)(Zeenat Aman), Emma Sergeant, Susie Murray-Philipson, [White](Sita)(Sita White), Sarah Crawley, [Beacham](Stephanie)(Stephanie Beacham), [Hawn](Goldie)(Goldie Hawn), [Backer](Kristiane)(Kristiane Backer), [Constantine](Susannah)(Susannah Constantine), [Helvin](Marie)(Marie Helvin), [Kellett](Caroline)(Caroline Kellett), [Campbell](Liza)(Liza Campbell), Anastasia Cooke, [Mary Rothschild](Hannah)(Hannah Mary Rothschild), and Lulu Blacker.
His first girlfriend, Emma Sergeant, an artist and the daughter of British investor Sir [Sergeant](Patrick)(Patrick Sergeant), introduced him to socialites. They first met in 1982 and subsequently visited Pakistan. She accompanied him on various Pakistani cricket team tours including in Peshawar and Australian tour. After long separations, his relationship with Sergeant was broken in 1986. He then had a short relationship with Susie Murray-Philipson whom he invited to Pakistan and had dinner with in 1982. She also made various artistic portraits of Khan during their relationship.
In a book published in 2009, [Sandford](Christopher)(Christopher Sandford (biographer)) claimed that former Pakistani Prime Minister [Bhutto](Benazir)(Benazir Bhutto) and Imran Khan had a close relationship when both were students in Oxford. He wrote that Bhutto at the age of 21 first became close to Khan in 1975. They remained in a relationship for about two months. His mother also tried to have an arranged marriage between them. He further claimed that they had a "romantic relationship", which was refuted by Khan who said they were only friends.
Khan had a notable relationship with the heiress Sita White, daughter of the British industrialist [White](Gordon)(Gordon White, Baron White of Hull). They remained in the relationship for about six years having met in 1987–88. White claimed that Khan agreed to have a child with her in 1991; her daughter, Tyrian Jade, was born in June 1992 at [Medical Center](Cedars-Sinai)(Cedars-Sinai Medical Center) in Los Angeles. White claimed that Khan subsequently refused to accept Tyrian as his child because she was a girl, and had urged White to have an abortion. Tyrian was noted for her resemblance to Khan. A court in Los Angeles ruled that Khan was the girl's father in 1997. In 2004, after Sita White's death, Khan agreed to accept Tyrian as his child and welcomed her into his family.
Khan's former wife, [Khan](Reham)(Reham Khan), alleged in [book](her)(Reham Khan (memoir)) that he had told her that he had four other children out of wedlock in addition to Tyrian White. Allegedly, some of his children had Indian mothers and the eldest was aged 34 in 2018. Reham subsequently conceded that she did not know the identities of Khan's children or the veracity of his statements and that "you can never make out whether he tells the truth." Reham's book was published on 12 July 2018, 13 days before the [Pakistani general election](2018)(2018 Pakistani general election), leading to claims that its publication was intended to damage Imran Khan's electoral prospects.
On 16 May 1995, Khan married [Goldsmith](Jemima)(Jemima Goldsmith), in a two-minute ceremony conducted in [Urdu](Urdu) in Paris. A month later, on 21 June, they were married again in a [ceremony](civil)(civil ceremony) at the [Richmond](Richmond, London) registry office in England. Jemima converted to Islam upon marriage. The couple have two sons, Sulaiman Isa and Kasim. On 22 June 2004, it was announced that the couple had divorced, ending the nine-year marriage because it was "difficult for Jemima to adapt to life in Pakistan."
In January 2015, it was announced that Khan married British-Pakistani journalist Reham Khan in a private [Nikah](Nikah) ceremony at his residence in Islamabad. However, Reham Khan later states in her autobiography that they in fact got married in October 2014 but the announcement only came in January the year after. On 22 October, they announced their intention to file for divorce.
In mid-2016, late 2017 and early 2018, reports emerged that Khan had married his [mentor](spiritual)(Spiritual direction) (*[murshid](murshid)*), [Bibi](Bushra)(Bushra Bibi). Khan, PTI aides and members of the Manika family denied the rumour. Khan termed the media "unethical" for spreading the rumour, and PTI filed a complaint against the news channels that had aired it. On 7 January 2018, however, the PTI central secretariat issued a statement that said Khan had proposed to Manika, but she had not yet accepted his proposal. On 18 February 2018, PTI confirmed Khan has married Manika. According to Khan, his life has been influenced by [Sufism](Sufism) for three decades, and this is what drew him closer to his wife. The Mufti who conducted the marriage later testified to a court that Khan's nikah had been conducted twice. The first nikah was conducted on 1 January 2018, while his to-be wife was still in her [Iddat](Iddah), as Khan believed he would become prime minister if he married her on that date.
Khan resides in his sprawling farmhouse at [Gala](Bani)(Bani Gala). In November 2009, Khan underwent emergency surgery at Lahore's Shaukat Khanum Cancer Hospital to remove an obstruction in his [intestine](small)(small intestine).
As of 2018, he owned [pet dogs](five)(Pets of Imran Khan), who resided in his estate.
## Awards and honours
## Literary work
Khan has published six works of non-fiction, including an autobiography co-written with Patrick Murphy. He has also written about the modern history of Pakistan in his book *Main Aur Mera Pakistan* published in 2014 in [Urdu](Urdu) and [Hindi](Hindi). The book contains details about Pakistan's wars with India in [1965](1965 India-Pakistan War) and [1971](1971 India-Pakistan War), the impact of [Iranian Revolution](1979)(1979 Iranian Revolution) and capture of terrorist [bin Laden](Osama)(Osama bin Laden) at [Abbottabad](Abbottabad) in 2011. He periodically writes editorials on cricket and Pakistani politics in several leading Pakistani and British newspapers. It was revealed in 2008 that Khan's second book, *Indus Journey: A Personal View of Pakistan*, had required heavy editing from the publisher. The publisher Jeremy Lewis revealed in a memoir that when he asked Khan to show his writing for publication, "He handed me a leather-bound notebook or diary containing a few jottings and autobiographical snippets. It took me, at most, five minutes to read them; and that, it soon became apparent, was all we had to go on." Khan's most recent book was published in 2011, an autobiography about his transition from cricketer to politician, as well as the challenges he faced in his philanthropic work.
Khan has also penned op-eds in various media outlets, including CNN where he advocated for conversation and restoration of damaged natural ecosystems.
### Bibliography
*
*
*
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*
*
*
*
## Assassination attempt
[[File:Imran_Khan_injuries_2022.jpg|left|thumb|Khan speaking to media at [Khanum hospital](Shaukat)(Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital and Research Centre) after treatment ]]
On 3 November 2022, Khan was shot in the leg or in the foot by a gunman while giving a speech to supporters at a rally in [Wazirabad](Wazirabad), Punjab, and leading a march to the capital [Islamabad](Islamabad) to demand snap elections after he was ousted. Automatic gunfire was heard in footage aired on local news channels which also showed Khan being carried away and put in a car, with a bandage visible on his leg. Khan's conditions were not described as critical. A PTI party's supporter was killed during the shooting, and eight other people were also wounded. The perpetrator was arrested at the scene and claimed that he wanted only to target Khan for "spreading hatred and misleading the people".
## See also
* [of Imran Khan](Family)(Family of Imran Khan)
* [family](Goldschmidt)(Goldschmidt family)
* [of Imran Khan](Pets)(Pets of Imran Khan)
* [of international cricket five-wicket hauls by Imran Khan](List)(List of international cricket five-wicket hauls by Imran Khan)
* [of the Match awards (cricket)](Player)(Player of the Match awards (cricket))
* [of sportsperson-politicians](List)(List of sportsperson-politicians)
* [Sharma Oli](KP)(KP Sharma Oli)
## References
### Bibliography
* |title=Goldsmith: Money, Women and Power|date=2015|publisher=BookBaby|page=163|isbn=978-0-9933566-3-6}}
*
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* |title=The Insider: The Private Diaries of a Scandalous Decade|date=2012|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-1-4464-9168-3|page=81}}
## External links
* (English)
* (Arabic)
*
* [Column archive](https://www.theguardian.com/profile/imrankhan) at *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*
* [Imran Khan's journey from cricketing Playboy to Politician – Journeyman Pictures](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ui_oECjOoCE)
* [1990s Interview, Cricketer Imran Khan at Home – thekinolibrary](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j_p6AWtDgKU)
*
}}
}}
}}
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Designated Survivor _TV series
|
designated_survivor__tv_series
|
# Designated Survivor (TV series)
*Revision ID: 1156049512 | Timestamp: 2023-05-20T23:43:32Z*
---
| creator = [Guggenheim](David)(David Guggenheim)
| starring =
| theme_music_composer =
* [Leonard-Morgan](Paul)(Paul Leonard-Morgan)
}}
| composer =
| country = United States
| language = English
| num_seasons = 3
| num_episodes = 53
| list_episodes = List of Designated Survivor episodes
| executive_producer =
* Nicholas Pepper
* [Melvoin](Jeff)(Jeff Melvoin)
* [Harmon Feldman](Jon)(Jon Harmon Feldman)
* Kiefer Sutherland
* Suzan Bymel
* [McGuigan](Paul)(Paul McGuigan (filmmaker))
* Amy Harris
* Aditya Sood
* David Guggenheim
* [Kinberg](Simon)(Simon Kinberg)
* [Baer](Neal)(Neal Baer)
}}
| producer =
| editor = Michael Schweitzer
| location =
| cinematography =
| camera = [Single-camera](Single-camera setup)
| runtime = 42 minutes (seasons 1–2) 46–53 minutes (season 3)
| company =
| network = [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) (seasons 1–2)[Netflix](Netflix) (season 3 worldwide; seasons 1–2 outside North America)
| picture_format =
| audio_format = [surround sound](5.1)(5.1 surround sound)
| first_aired =
| last_aired =
| related = *[Survivor: 60 Days](Designated)(Designated Survivor: 60 Days)*
| alt =
}}
***Designated Survivor*** is an American [thriller drama](political)(political thriller) television series created by [Guggenheim](David)(David Guggenheim). It aired for three seasons, first on [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) and then exclusively on [Netflix](Netflix) for the third and final season. [Sutherland](Kiefer)(Kiefer Sutherland) stars as Thomas Kirkman, an American academic named as the [survivor](designated)(designated survivor) for the [of the Union](State)(State of the Union) address, who suddenly ascends from the position of [Secretary of Housing and Urban Development](U.S.)(United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development) to [of the United States](President)(President of the United States) after an explosion kills everyone ahead of him in the [line of succession](presidential)(United States presidential line of succession). Kirkman deals with his inexperience as head of state while looking to uncover the truth behind the attack.
The project skipped the [pilot](Television pilot) stage. It was ordered straight to series on December 14, 2015, with a formal announcement on May 6, 2016. The first episode premiered on September 21, 2016, to an audience of over 10 million viewers. Eight days later, a full-season order was announced. The series was renewed for a second season on May 11, 2017, which premiered on September 27, 2017. In May 2018, ABC cancelled the series after two seasons. In September 2018, Netflix and [One](Entertainment)(Entertainment One) announced they had reached a deal to pick up *Designated Survivor* for a third season of 10 episodes, with the latter being solely responsible for the production of the series. The third season premiered on Netflix on June 7, 2019. In July 2019, the series was cancelled by Netflix due to complications with the actors' contracts.
## Premise
On the night of the [of the Union](State)(State of the Union), an explosion destroys the [Building](Capitol)(United States Capitol), killing the [President](President of the United States) and everyone in the [of succession](line)(United States presidential line of succession) except for [of Housing and Urban Development](Secretary)(United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development) Thomas Kirkman, who had been named the [survivor](designated)(designated survivor). Kirkman is immediately sworn in, unaware that the attack is just the beginning of what is to come. He faces many challenges throughout the series, struggling to balance his political aspirations with the challenge of being seen as a legitimate president.
## Episodes
## Cast and characters
### Main
* [Sutherland](Kiefer)(Kiefer Sutherland) as Thomas Adam "Tom" Kirkman, the [of the United States](President)(President of the United States), sworn in following an unprecedented attack on the [building](Capitol)(United States Capitol) which killed the entire government. He formerly held the office of [of Housing and Urban Development](Secretary)(United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development). Kirkman is elected for a second term at the end of the third season.
* [McElhone](Natascha)(Natascha McElhone) as Alexandra Jane "Alex' Kirkman (seasons 1–2), the [Lady of the United States](First)(First Lady of the United States). Prior to becoming First Lady, Alex was an immigration attorney in private practice. In season two, Alex was killed after a truck crashed into the motorcade she was traveling in.
* [Canto](Adan)(Adan Canto) as Aaron Shore (né Rivera), the [President-elect of the United States](Vice)(Vice President-elect of the United States). Before being put on President Kirkman's ticket in his re-election campaign last season, Aaron worked as Kirkman's first [of Staff](Chief)(White House Chief of Staff) until resigning after being interrogated about the terrorist attack on the Capitol in the first season. During that time, he worked as a senior aide to the [of the House](Speaker)(Speaker of the House of Representatives (United States)) Kimble Hookstraten, before returning to the White House as Kirkman's [Security Advisor](National)(National Security Advisor (United States)).
* [Ricci](Italia)(Italia Ricci) as Emily Rhodes, the [spokesperson](spokesperson) of Kirkman's presidential campaign. Since his days as HUD Secretary, she has worked for Tom, where she was his chief of staff. After Kirkman became President, she was appointed Special Advisor, and, following Aaron's resignation, his [of Staff](Chief)(White House Chief of Staff) until resigning from the White House to live in [Florida](Florida) with her mother. She later returned and was reinstated as Special Advisor.
* [Garrett](LaMonica)(LaMonica Garrett) as Mike Ritter (seasons 1–2), a [Service](Secret)(United States Secret Service) agent, assigned to President Kirkman's personal protection detail. Ritter was responsible for the safety of the entire Kirkman family following the Capitol attack. His character is written off the series without an explanation after season two.
* [Buchanan](Tanner)(Tanner Buchanan) as Leo Kirkman (season 1; recurring season 2), Tom and Alex's son and Penny's older brother. Leo is tasked with supporting his sister Penny while his parents are busy in their new jobs. Later Leo leaves the White House for his freshman year at [University](Stanford)(Stanford University).s Tanner Buchanan (Exclusive) |last=Ge |first=Linda |date=March 2, 2016 |website=[TheWrap](TheWrap) |access-date=March 12, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308222108/http://www.thewrap.com/abcs-designated-survivor-casts-girl-meets-worlds-tanner-buchanan-exclusive/ |archive-date=March 8, 2016}}
* [Penn](Kal)(Kal Penn) as Seth Wright, the [House Communications Director](White)(White House Communications Director). He initially doubts Tom's abilities as President but quickly becomes one of his closest advisors. He was named [Secretary](Press)(White House Press Secretary) due to his strong social skills. He was Press Secretary until his promotion to Communications Director in Season 3 by Chief of Staff Mars Harper.
* [Q](Maggie)(Maggie Q) as Hannah Wells, a [CIA](Central Intelligence Agency) [Officer](Case)(Agent handling). Formerly an [Special Agent](FBI)(Federal Bureau of Investigation), she is assigned to investigate the Capitol attack, eventually solving the case and bringing those responsible to justice. In season three, after being fired from the Bureau, Hannah investigates a possible threat of [bioterrorism](bioterrorism) for the CIA, ultimately leading to her death.
*[Epstein](Jake)(Jake Epstein) as Chuck Russink (seasons 1–2), an FBI analyst. Chuck regularly assists Wells in her investigations, becoming one of her most trusted allies. He tends to be the behind the scenes man or the brains because of his technological genius.
* [Costanzo](Paulo)(Paulo Costanzo) as Lyor Boone (season 2), the [House Political Director](White)(White House). Lyor is a highly skilled, yet socially inept political consultant who is hired to help develop the political strategy of Kirkman's administration.
* [McLellan](Zoe)(Zoe McLellan) as Kendra Daynes (season 2), a [House Counsel](White)(White House Counsel). Kendra is a no-nonsense attorney who previously served as counsel for the [Homeland Security sub-committee](Senate)(United States Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs).
* [Lawson](Ben)(Ben Lawson) as Damian Rennett (season 2), an [MI6](Secret Intelligence Service) agent. He is assigned to assist Wells in finding the Capitol attack perpetrator. He is shot multiple times and killed by a Russian intelligence agent in a drive-by-shooting.
### Recurring
* [McNally](Kevin)(Kevin McNally) as Harris Cochrane, former [of the Joint Chiefs of Staff](Chairman)(Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff). Harris initially refuses to accept Kirkman as the new commander-in-chief and attempts to have him removed from office. Kirkman fires him after disobeying a direct order.
* [Madsen](Virginia)(Virginia Madsen) as Kimble Hookstraten, the [of the House](Speaker)(Speaker of the United States House of Representatives). Kimble is a [Republican](Republican Party (United States)) from Missouri, who is selected as the designated survivor for the party. She supports Kirkman’s authority while secretly harbouring her own agenda. Kimble later becomes the [States Secretary of Education](United)(United States Secretary of Education) after an investigation that forces her to resign from the [States House of Representatives](United)(United States House of Representatives).
* [Zukerman](Ashley)(Ashley Zukerman) as Peter MacLeish, former Congressman from Oregon and later [President of the United States](Vice)(Vice President of the United States). Peter is initially established as the sole survivor of the Capitol bombing and hailed a national hero. MacLeish eventually becomes Vice President. After investigating him for months, Hannah Wells concludes that he was involved in the preparation of the Capitol attack, leading to MacLeish being shot and killed by his wife before taking her own life so that the [FBI](Federal Bureau of Investigation) could not gather any more information on the conspiracy.
* George Tchortov as Nestor Lozano, a former CIA agent. The FBI wants Nestor due to him being heavily involved in the Capitol attack conspiracy. He operates under the name "Catalan". At the end of Season One, he is killed by [FBI](FBI) Agent Hannah Wells.
* [Diamond](Reed)(Reed Diamond) as John Foerstel, former [of the FBI](Director)(Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation). John occasionally assists Wells with her investigations into the Capitol attack while continuously establishing that he is in charge, not her. In season two, John is killed in a subway station bombing after running inside to alert his agents and evacuate them.
* [Williamson](Mykelti)(Mykelti Williamson) as Admiral Chernow, the [of the Joint Chiefs of Staff](Chairman)(Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff). Chernow becomes one of Kirkman’s most trusted advisors after succeeding Cochrane as Chairman after he is fired for disobedience.
* [Gaston](Michael)(Michael Gaston) as James Royce, former [of Michigan](Governor)(Governor of Michigan). James openly and repeatedly defies the Kirkman administration while trying to establish his own supreme authority. After Royce begins to violently detain protestors for going against his own beliefs, he is arrested for committing treason against the United States.
* [Klaveno](Mariana)(Mariana Klaveno) as Brooke Mathison, a self-claimed contractor. Brooke abducts Luke, Atwood’s son, and blackmails Jason into falsely confessing to the murder of Majid Nassar in exchange for his safety. She fails to hold up her end of the deal, and Luke is later found dead on a riverbank. Atwood later kills her after she pulls out a gun to kill either Hannah Wells or Atwood.
* [Jean Chorostecki](Lara)(Lara Jean Chorostecki) as Beth MacLeish, the wife of Peter MacLeish. Beth, alongside her husband, is a part of the Capitol attack conspiracy. She goads Peter into following through with their premeditated agenda. Whenever her husband feels upset, she always tells him that they'll be okay and that nothing bad will happen to them. She eventually shoots and kills Peter before committing suicide after learning that Wells had uncovered their plan and involvement.
* [Morrow](Rob)(Rob Morrow) as Abe Leonard, a newspaper journalist. Abe is an old friend of Kimble Hookstraten who harbors some hatred toward Seth. He is determined to find something to incriminate the Kirkman family.
* [Pierson](Geoff)(Geoff Pierson) as Cornelius Moss, former 44th [of the United States](President)(President of the United States). He decided not to seek re-election due to the death of his wife and comes out of retirement to give President Kirkman a list of candidates for the empty Cabinet positions. President Kirkman brings Moss back into the spotlight, appointing him to be his [of State](Secretary)(United States Secretary of State). Moss is later removed from this position after working covertly in opposition to Kirkman. He develops a hatred for Kirkman and becomes the [Republican](Republican Party (United States)) nominee for President in the third season.
* [Deklin](Mark)(Mark Deklin) as Jack Bowman, a Republican [senator](United States Senate) from [Montana](Montana). Senator Bowman is one of President Kirkman's most rivaled members of [Congress](United States Congress). Bowman seeks to raise his profile by continuously opposing Kirkman’s legislative agenda, especially his stance on [control](gun)(Gun politics in the United States).
* [Giovanni](Kearran)(Kearran Giovanni) as Diane Hunter, a Democratic [senator](United States Senate) from [Massachusetts](Massachusetts). She is also the [Minority Leader](Senate)(Party leaders of the United States Senate), who has a habit of sparring with Bowman.
* [Serpico](Terry)(Terry Serpico) as Patrick Lloyd, former [CEO](Chief Executive Officer) of Browning Reed. Patrick is the founder and leader of True Believers, the organization responsible for the Capitol attack. Wells uncovers Lloyd as the mastermind behind the attack, subsequently leading to Kirkman ordering a drone strike on his bunker, killing him because of the threat of him carrying [gas](sarin)(sarin gas) that can kill thousands.
* [Waugh](Richard)(Richard Waugh (actor)) as Jay Whitaker, former [Security Advisor](Homeland)(Homeland Security Advisor). While working at the White House, Jay hacks into the computers and downloads a file containing a false confession to the bombing of the Capitol by Majid Nassar, also deleting files that could compromise his secret. Jay is the person responsible for Kirkman becoming a designated survivor. After receiving images and an audio file sent by Atwood before his death, Hannah discovers Jay’s secrets, leading to his arrest in the West Wing. He was considered the traitor in the White House for a large portion of Season 1.
* [Meyer](Breckin)(Breckin Meyer) as Trey Kirkman, Tom’s estranged younger brother. Trey is a financial expert, and after reconciling their relationship, he becomes a confidant and advisor to the President.
* [Raver](Kim)(Kim Raver) as Andrea Frost, the Chief Executive of Apache Aerospace. Andrea is an aerospace engineer and a colleague of Kirkman. She becomes Wells’ prime suspect in her investigation into Gamine’s identity. President Kirkman and Agent Wells eventually find that she is not the perpetrator. Since most of her time on the show was after the death of [Lady](First)(First Lady of the United States) Alexandra Kirkman, there were rumors that Kirkman would develop a romantic relationship with Dr. Frost.
* [J. Fox](Michael)(Michael J. Fox) as Ethan West, an attorney. Ethan is hired by Kirkman’s administration to oversee an inquiry investigating Kirkman’s fitness to serve as President.
* [Zehetner](Nora)(Nora Zehetner) as Valeria Poriskova, a Russian intelligence agent. Valeria is assigned to become an undercover [Embassy](Russian)(Embassy of Russia in Washington, D.C.) cultural attaché; she is Damian Rennett’s handler. In season two, Valeria attempts to kill Hannah in a drive-by-shooting instead of Rennett, who shielded Wells. She is later killed in the United Kingdom after being shot by Hannah.
* [Ellis](Aunjanue)(Aunjanue Ellis) as Ellenor Derby, former [President of the United States](Vice)(Vice President of the United States). Ellenor previously served as the [of Washington D.C.](Mayor)(Mayor of Washington D.C.) until being nominated by Kirkman as the next Vice President, following their successful collaboration and response to the power failure caused by a cyberattack. Vice President Darby leads an investigation with the [Cabinet](Cabinet of the United States) into President Kirkman's mental health after the death of his wife, Alex. After the investigation, Darby resigns intending to seek the [Democratic](Democratic Party (United States)) presidential nomination, which proves unsuccessful.
* [Edwards](Anthony)(Anthony Edwards (actor)) as Mars Harper, the [House Chief of Staff](White)(White House Chief of Staff). Mars is appointed after Emily’s resignation. He is known for his strict policies with the [House](White)(White House) staff, including his rule about standing in meetings. He spends much of his time dealing with his wife Lynn's [opiate](opiate) addiction problem.
* [White](Julie)(Julie White) as Lorraine Zimmer, the [manager](campaign)(campaign manager) for Kirkman’s presidential campaign. She has a raunchy, no-nonsense attitude that is contrary to President Kirkman.
* [Tovar](Elena)(Elena Tovar) as Isabel Pardo, the [House Deputy Chief of Staff](White)(White House Deputy Chief of Staff). Before being promoted, Isabel held [House Director of Social Innovation](White)(Office of Social Innovation and Civic Participation). She is Aaron Shore's girlfriend for a lot of Season 3 but breaks up with him after she finds out Shore slept with Emily Rhodes during Shore and Pardo's relationship.
* [Holly](Lauren)(Lauren Holly) as Lynn Harper, the daughter of a renowned Virginia senator and the wife of Mars Harper. She is known for her addiction to [opiates](opiates) that lands her in rehabilitation thrice.
* [Watson](Ben)(Ben Watson (actor)) as Dontae Evans, the [House Digital Officer](White)(Office of Digital Strategy). He had previously worked in the [House](White)(White House) as a digital team member but was promoted by Seth Wright. He identifies as [gay](gay) and strikes a relationship with Aaron Shore's personal detail, Troy.
* [Iwuji](Chukwudi)(Chukwudi Iwuji) as Dr. Eli Mays, a [biohacker](DIY)(Do-it-yourself biology) and [geneticist](geneticist). He works closely with Hannah to thwart an expected bioterrorist attack before she is killed.
* [Clayton](Jamie)(Jamie Clayton) as Sasha Booker, Alex’s sister and Tom's sister-in-law. She lived in [France](Paris,)(Paris, France) for most of Kirkman's presidency but moves back to the [States](United)(United States) when Kirkman comes under fire for hiding Sasha (who is [trans](transgender)) for most of his presidency. She does not like the spotlight, but as Kirkman's [campaign](presidential)(presidential campaign) goes on, she becomes more used to it after a push from Seth Wright and Dontae Evans.
}}
## Production
### Development
*Designated Survivor* was ordered straight to series by [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) in December 2015, with a formal announcement of 13 episodes in May 2016. A month later, ABC revealed that the series would premiere on September 21, 2016. Eight days after the premiere, on September 29, 2016, ABC gave the series a full season order.
Created by [Guggenheim](David)(David Guggenheim), the series is executive produced by [Kinberg](Simon)(Simon Kinberg), Sutherland, Suzan Bymel, Aditya Sood, and Nick Pepper. [McGuigan](Paul)(Paul McGuigan (filmmaker)) directed the pilot episode. [B. Harris](Amy)(Amy B. Harris) was set to be the [showrunner](showrunner) in February 2016, but after the series' official pick-up in May, it was announced she would be stepping down due to creative differences, and that [Harmon Feldman](Jon)(Jon Harmon Feldman) was in talks to replace her. In July 2016, Feldman was confirmed as showrunner/executive producer. In December 2016, [Melvoin](Jeff)(Jeff Melvoin) was hired as [showrunner](showrunner), replacing the departing Feldman, and supervised the second half of the season. The series was renewed for a second season on May 11, 2017, which premiered on September 27, 2017. For the second season, writer Keith Eisner serves as the showrunner. [Penn](Kal)(Kal Penn), who served as the associate director of the [House Office of Public Engagement and Intergovernmental Affairs](White)(Office of Public Liaison) from 2009 to 2011, works as a consultant for the series in addition to his portraying Seth Wright.
On May 11, 2018, ABC canceled the series after two seasons due to a high turnover of showrunners and declining ratings. Shortly after, [eOne](Entertainment One) announced they were in "active discussions" with other networks to revive the show, including [Netflix](Netflix), which streams the series internationally. On September 5, 2018, it was confirmed that Netflix had picked up the series for a third season of 10 episodes, which was released in 2019. Neal Baer served as the series showrunner, the fifth person to do so. On April 24, 2019, it was announced that the third season was set to premiere on Netflix on June 7, 2019.
The first two seasons were produced by [Studios](ABC)(ABC Studios), The [Gordon](Mark)(Mark Gordon (film)) Company, and [eOne](Entertainment One), with filming in [Toronto](Toronto), [Ontario](Ontario). For the third season, ABC Studios was not involved, with eOne (which had fully acquired the Mark Gordon Company) being the sole production company for the series.
On July 24, 2019, Netflix announced the series would not be renewed a fourth season, stating that the third season made for a satisfying final season. However, Netflix will continue to stream all three seasons on their platform.
### Writing
Producers Jon Harmon Feldman and Guggenheim described the series as more than one genre, drawing inspiration from other thriller-dramas, with Guggenheim explaining, "There is a *[Wing](West)(The West Wing)* component of a man governing and his team governing our nation at this critical time. It's also the *[Homeland](Homeland (TV series))* aspect of investigating the conspiracy. It also has a *[of Cards](House)(House of Cards (U.S. TV series))* component, which is the characters and the business of government through the eyes of these characters."
### Casting
[[File:Kiefer Sutherland 2 SDCC 2014.jpg|thumb|right|140px|[Sutherland](Kiefer)(Kiefer Sutherland) plays the lead role, Tom Kirkman]]
[Sutherland](Kiefer)(Kiefer Sutherland) joined the cast in December 2015, playing Tom Kirkman, the United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development who suddenly becomes President of the United States. Sutherland had no intention of returning to television; he read the first script of the series and changed his mind, saying, "I remember getting to the end of the script and thinking I was potentially holding the next 10 years of my life in my hands."
In February 2016, it was announced that [Penn](Kal)(Kal Penn) had been cast as Kirkman's speech writer, [Q](Maggie)(Maggie Q) as Hannah, the lead FBI agent on the bombing of the U.S. Capitol, [McElhone](Natascha)(Natascha McElhone) as Kirkman's wife, an EEOC attorney, as well as [Ricci](Italia)(Italia Ricci) as Emily, Kirkman's chief of staff. Shortly after, [Canto](Adan)(Adan Canto) had joined the series as Aaron Shore, the [House Deputy Chief of Staff](White)(White House Deputy Chief of Staff). In early March, [Garrett](LaMonica)(LaMonica Garrett) joined the cast as Mike Ritter, Kirkman's [Service](Secret)(United States Secret Service) agent, and [Buchanan](Tanner)(Tanner Buchanan) and [Grace](Mckenna)(Mckenna Grace) had been cast as Kirkman's children.
In July 2016, [Yoba](Malik)(Malik Yoba) was announced for a recurring role as Jason Atwood, the seasoned Deputy Director of the FBI, to appear in seven episodes, while [Madsen](Virginia)(Virginia Madsen) had been cast in the recurring role of Kimble Hookstraten, a conservative Congresswoman and the designated survivor for the rival political party. A month later, [Zukerman](Ashley)(Ashley Zukerman) joined the series in a recurring role as Peter MacLeish, an [War](Afghan)(Afghan War) veteran and popular third-term Congressman. In September 2016, [Williamson](Mykelti)(Mykelti Williamson) was cast as Admiral Chernow, a career military man and the [of the Joint Chiefs of Staff](Chairman)(Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff). On November 4, 2016, it was announced that [Klaveno](Mariana)(Mariana Klaveno) had been cast for the show as the Dark-Haired Woman, a clandestine operator in league with the people behind the Capitol attack.
For the second season, [Costanzo](Paulo)(Paulo Costanzo), [McLellan](Zoe)(Zoe McLellan), and [Lawson](Ben)(Ben Lawson) joined the cast as series regulars, portraying White House Political Director Lyor Boone, [House Counsel](White)(White House Counsel) Kendra Daynes, and Damian Rennett, respectively.
After the third season renewal announcement, it was confirmed that Kiefer Sutherland, Adan Canto, Italia Ricci, Kal Penn and Maggie Q would return as series regulars. On October 18, 2018, it was reported that [Edwards](Anthony)(Anthony Edwards (actor)), [White](Julie)(Julie White) and [Tovar](Elena)(Elena Tovar) were cast in the recurring roles of Mars Harper, Lorraine Zimmer and Isabel Pardo respectively. On November 15, 2018, [Holly](Lauren)(Lauren Holly) and Benjamin Watson were cast in recurring roles as Lynn Harper and Dontae Evans, respectively.
## Release
### Broadcast
*Designated Survivor* began airing on September 21, 2016, on ABC in the United States, and CTV in Canada. [Netflix](Netflix) aired the series outside the United States and Canada, adding the episodes weekly, with distribution handled by [eOne](Entertainment One). For the third season, *Designated Survivor* was released globally on Netflix. Before Netflix announced it would release the third season, an agreement had to be reached with [Hulu](Hulu), who held the streaming rights to the first two seasons in the United States; the first two seasons moved to Netflix in the United States and Canada during October 2018.
ABC aired the series with a [TV-14](TV Parental Guidelines#TV-14) rating (some episodes were [TV-PG](TV Parental Guidelines#TV-PG)), while Netflix applied a [TV-MA](TV Parental Guidelines#TV-MA) rating on the show's third and final season.
### Marketing
A teaser trailer for *Designated Survivor* was released on May 6, 2016, with the full trailer released on May 17. Producers and some of the cast members promoted the series at [Diego Comic-Con](San)(San Diego Comic-Con) in July 2016, showing a special preview screening with co-stars Maggie Q and Kal Penn in attendance.
### Home media
The first season was released on DVD in Region 1 on August 29, 2017.
The complete series featuring all three seasons was released on DVD in Region 1 on October 12, 2021.
## Reception
### Critical reception
[aggregator](Review)(Review aggregator) website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) gave Season 1 of the series an approval rating of 87% based on 62 reviews, with an average rating of 7.07/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Kiefer Sutherland skillfully delivers the drama in *Designated Survivor*, a fast-paced, quickly engrossing escapist political action fantasy." [Metacritic](Metacritic) reported a score of 71 out of 100 based on 35 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Terri Schwartz from [IGN](IGN) gave the first episode a rating of 8.0/10, saying, "*Designated Survivor* is a strong debut for a show that will fit well alongside *[Quantico](Quantico (TV series))* and *[Scandal](Scandal (TV series))* in ABC's government-set political drama lineup." *[Variety](Variety.com)* said that the episode "does everything it needs to, checking off the necessary boxes for the unwilling American hero-president in efficient, compelling scenes." Chuck Barney from *[News](Mercury)(Mercury News)* called the first episode "suspenseful". Writing for *[Insider](TV)(TV Insider)*, Matt Roush compared *Designated Survivor* with other series as he said "fall's niftiest new drama has *West Wing* idealism, *Homeland* suspense and *House of Cards* political intrigue in its robust and compelling DNA." Zack Handlen from *[A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club)* wrote positively about the show and the premiere, praising Sutherland's performance and commented on the symbol of Sutherland's glasses as he said, "The glasses he's wearing serve as a way to tell us this is a different kind of hero, but they're also a form of camouflage, making it easier for us to understand why so many people would underestimate this man."
The editors of *[Guide](TV)(TV Guide)* placed *Designated Survivor* first among the top ten picks for the most anticipated new shows of the 2016–17 season. In writer Alexander Zalben's overall review, he pointed out the keys to one of the strongest pilots he had seen so far: "*Designated Survivor* is the rare show that delivers on the hype, and surpasses it," and later stating "It's shocking that a show can balance all of these elements, but credit a magnetic cast that hits the ground running, a crack script that makes the first hour feel like 10 minutes and, of course, Sutherland as the anchor that keeps it all grounded." Zalben's review concluded with this recommendation: "There's a reason *Designated Survivor* wasn't just the top pick across all of our Editors' lists, but also on the list compiled from TVGuide.com viewers' Watchlist adds: this is a show that delivers on its premise, feels timely, and most importantly, is a ton of fun."
On the other hand, after watching the first episode of the first season, *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*s Brian Moylan criticized the dialogue, writing in his review that "this drama needs dialogue that won't make the citizenry's eyeballs roll", adding that the show features "meaningless platitudes" of a "we're going to do this my way" attitude, and concluded by writing, "All we're left with is a really great concept without the backing of a real leader behind it." Moylan also wrote that "there's not enough family tension for it to be a domestic drama, not enough government intrigue to make it a political show, and not enough investigation to make it a procedural." *[TVLine](TVLine)*s Dave Nemetz drew references between Kirkman and [Bauer](Jack)(Jack Bauer), Kiefer Sutherland's role in drama thriller *[24](24 (TV series))*, writing that "Sutherland does a good job portraying Kirkman's deep ambivalence about the situation he's been handed. But when he has to play hardball with an Iranian ambassador, the tough talk comes too easily to him. It's like Kirkman has been possessed by the ghost of Jack Bauer." Nemetz also questioned the series' longevity; "As compelling as *Designated Survivor*s concept is, it's hard to see how it will sustain itself as a weekly series."
On Rotten Tomatoes, Season 2 of the series holds an approval rating of 60% based on ten reviews, with an average rating of 5.92/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Kiefer Sutherland remains commanding enough in *Designated Survivor* to get him re-elected, but this White House series' escalating earnestness may strike viewers as glaringly naive."
On Rotten Tomatoes, Season 3 of the series holds an approval rating of 67% based on nine reviews, with an average of 6.36/10. Many felt that Netflix moved the show to the left politically, taking away the sense of balance that President Kirkman was known for in the first two seasons, which made the show different from other political dramas on network television. Others criticized the overabundance of vulgarity once the show went from network television to streaming.
### Ratings
The first episode set a record for DVR viewers with 7.67 million, surpassing the September 25, 2014, record of almost 7 million set by the pilot of *[to Get Away with Murder](How)(How to Get Away with Murder)*.
### Accolades
## International adaptation
A South Korean remake titled *[Survivor: 60 Days](Designated)(Designated Survivor: 60 Days)*, developed by [Dragon](Studio)(Studio Dragon) and produced by DK E&M, premiered on [tvN](TVN (South Korean TV channel)) in South Korea and Netflix worldwide on July 1, 2019. [Jin-hee](Ji)(Ji Jin-hee) portrays the lead role in the series.
## References
## External links
*
*
[ ](Category:Designated Survivor (TV series))
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|
Brittney Griner
|
brittney_griner
|
# Brittney Griner
*Revision ID: 1160103497 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T12:38:25Z*
---
| weight_lb = 205
| league = [WNBA](Women's National Basketball Association)
| team = Phoenix Mercury
| number = 42
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Texas](Houston,)(Houston, Texas), U.S.
| highschool = [Nimitz](Nimitz High School (Harris County, Texas)) (Houston, Texas)
| college = [Baylor](Baylor Bears women's basketball) (2009–2013)
| draft_league = WNBA
| draft_year = 2013
| draft_round = 1
| draft_pick = 1
| draft_team = [Mercury](Phoenix)(Phoenix Mercury)
| career_start = 2013
| career_end =
| years1 = –present
| team1 = [Mercury](Phoenix)(Phoenix Mercury)
| years2 = 2013–2014
| team2 = [Golden Bulls](Zhejiang)(Zhejiang Golden Bulls)
| years3 = 2014–2022
| team3 = [Ekaterinburg](UMMC)(UMMC Ekaterinburg)
| highlights =
* [champion](WNBA)(List of WNBA champions) ([2014](2014 WNBA Finals))
* 8× [All-Star](WNBA)(WNBA All-Star Game) ([2013](2013 WNBA All-Star Game)–[2015](2015 WNBA All-Star Game), [2017](2017 WNBA All-Star Game)–[2019](2019 WNBA All-Star Game), [2021](2021 WNBA All-Star Game), [2022](2022 WNBA All-Star Game))
* 2× [scoring champion](WNBA)(List of Women's National Basketball Association season scoring leaders) (2017, 2019)
* 8× [blocks leader](WNBA)(List of Women's National Basketball Association season blocks leaders) (2013–2019, 2021)
* 2× [Peak Performer](WNBA)(WNBA Peak Performers) (2017, 2019)
* 3× [First Team](All-WNBA)(All-WNBA Team) (2014, 2019, 2021)
* 3× [Second Team](All-WNBA)(All-WNBA Team) (2015, 2017, 2018)
* 2× [Defensive Player of the Year Award](WNBA)(WNBA Defensive Player of the Year Award) (2014, 2015)
* 3× [All-Defensive First Team](WNBA)(WNBA All-Defensive Team) (2014, 2015, 2018)
* 4× [All-Defensive Second Team](WNBA)(WNBA All-Defensive Team) (2016, 2017, 2019, 2021)
* [All-Rookie Team](WNBA)(WNBA All-Rookie Team) (2013)
* [25th Anniversary Team](WNBA)(The W25) (2021)
* 3× [National League](Russian)(Russian Women's Basketball Premier League) champion (2015–2017)
* 4× [EuroLeague](EuroLeague Women) champion (2016, 2018, 2019, 2021)
* Russian Cup winner (2017)
* [champion](NCAA)(List of NCAA Women's Division I Basketball champions) ([2012](2012 NCAA Division I women's basketball tournament))
* [Final Four Most Outstanding Player](NCAA)(NCAA basketball tournament Most Outstanding Player) ([2012](2012 NCAA Division I women's basketball tournament))
* [AP](Associated Press) Player of the Year (2012)
* [Sports Award](Honda)(Honda Sports Award) (2012)
* 2× [Trophy](Wade)(Wade Trophy) Player of the Year (2012, 2013)
* 2× First-team [All-American](NCAA Women's Basketball All-Americans) – AP (2011, 2012)
* Second-team All-American – AP (2010)
* 3× [12 Player of the Year](Big)(Big 12 Conference Women's Basketball Player of the Year) (2011–2013)
* 4× Big 12 Defensive Player of the Year (2010–2013)
* [All-American](McDonald's)(McDonald's All-American Game) (2009)
* [WBCA](Women's Basketball Coaches Association) High School Player of the Year (2009)
| bbr_wnba = grinebr01w
| wnba_profile = brittney_griner
| medaltemplates =
}}
}}
[[Griner accepting Wade Trophy 2.jpg|thumb|Brittney Griner accepting Wade Trophy at the WBCA Awards show in Denver Colorado 2012](File:Brittney)]
**Brittney Yevette Griner** (; born October 18, 1990) is an American professional [basketball](basketball) player for the [Mercury](Phoenix)(Phoenix Mercury) of the [National Basketball Association](Women's)(Women's National Basketball Association) (WNBA). She is a two-time Olympic gold medalist with the [women's national basketball team](U.S.)(United States women's national basketball team)["Brittney Griner"](https://www.teamusa.org/usa-basketball/athletes/Brittney-Griner#:~:text=Two%2Dtime%20Olympian%20(2016%2C,Olympic%20Games%20Rio%202016%2C%20gold), United States Olympic & Paralympic Committee. Retrieved December 12, 2022 and a six-time [All-Star](WNBA)(WNBA All-Star Game).["Brittney Griner"](https://www.wnba.com/player/brittney-griner), WNBA.com. Retrieved December 12, 2022 She was additionally named one of the [most influential people in the world](100)(Time 100) by *[Time](Time (magazine))* magazine in 2023.
In 2009, Griner was named the nation's No. 1 high school women's basketball player by [Rivals.com](Rivals.com).Jeff Fedotin, [Griner named nation's no. 1 player](http://highschool.rivals.com/content.asp?CID=916007) , [Yahoo](Yahoo) Sports. Retrieved April 19, 2013. She was selected to the 2009 [All-American](All-American) basketball team. She played [basketball](college)(college basketball) for the [Lady Bears](Baylor)(Baylor Bears women's basketball) in [Texas](Waco,)(Waco, Texas). She had a breakout senior year in 2012, as the three-time [All-American](All-American) was named the AP Player of the Year, the Most Outstanding Player of the [Four](Final)(Final Four), led Baylor in winning the National Championship, and won the [Female Athlete ESPY Award](Best)(Best Female Athlete ESPY Award). Griner is also the only [NCAA](NCAA) basketball player to both score 2,000 points and block 500 shots.
Professionally, Griner was selected as the first overall pick in [WNBA draft](2013)(2013 WNBA draft) by the Phoenix Mercury, with whom she won the 2014 [championship](WNBA)(WNBA championship). Standing tall, Griner wears a men's U.S. size 17 shoe and has an [span](arm)(arm span) of .
Griner led the U.S. national women's basketball team to victory at the [Olympics](Rio)(Basketball at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's tournament) in 2016. In 2020, Griner protested "[Star-Spangled Banner](The)(The Star-Spangled Banner)" and stated she would not be on the court while the national anthem was played during game openers. Griner was named to the national team for the [Olympics](2020)(Basketball at the 2020 Summer Olympics – Women's tournament) (held in 2021 in [Japan](Tokyo,)(Tokyo, Japan)), where she won her second gold medal. She is also a two-time [Women's World Cup](FIBA)(FIBA Women's World Cup) winner with Team USA (2014 and 2018)
On February 17, 2022, Griner was detained and [on smuggling charges](arrested)(Arrest of Brittney Griner) by [customs](Russian)(Federal Customs Service of Russia) officials after cartridges containing less than a gram of medically prescribed [oil](hash)(hash oil) were found in her luggage. She had been playing basketball with the [Premier League](Russian)(Russian Women's Basketball Premier League) during the WNBA off-season. Her trial began on July 1, and she pleaded guilty to the charges. On August 4, she was sentenced to nine years in prison. In November 2022, Griner was transferred to the Russian penal colony [IK-2](Corrective colony No. 2, Mordovia). US officials stated that she was "wrongfully detained". On December 8, Griner was released [a prisoner exchange](in)(Viktor Bout–Brittney Griner prisoner exchange) for Russian arms dealer [Bout](Viktor)(Viktor Bout).
## Early life and high school career
Griner was born October 18, 1990, in [Houston](Houston), the daughter of Raymond Griner, a Harris County deputy sheriff and two-tour [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War) veteran, and Sandra Griner. She has three older siblings, D, Shkera and Pier.
Griner attended [High School](Nimitz)(Nimitz High School (Harris County, Texas)) in Houston. In addition to lettering in basketball throughout high school, she played [varsity](varsity team) [volleyball](volleyball) as a freshman. Starting in her sophomore year, Griner practiced with the boys' basketball team, and worked with a Nimitz football coach to develop her leg strength in preparation for learning to [dunk](Slam dunk). During her junior season, a YouTube video featuring her dunks was watched more than 6.6 million times, leading to a meeting with [O'Neal](Shaquille)(Shaquille O'Neal).
During her senior year, Griner led the Nimitz Cougars to the Texas 5A girls basketball state [championship](Final (competition)) game, where Nimitz lost 52–43 to [Summit High School](Mansfield)(Mansfield Summit High School). Griner dunked 52 times in 32 games as a senior, setting a single-game record of seven dunks against Aldine High School. Houston mayor Bill White declared May 7, 2009, Brittney Griner Day. On November 11, 2008, she recorded 25 blocks in a game against Houston Alief Hastings, the most ever recorded by a female in a high school game in the U.S. In her 2008–09 season, she recorded 318 blocks, a single-season record.
Griner was named a WBCA All-American and participated in the 2009 WBCA High School All-America Game, leading the team by scoring 20 points and collecting 9 rebounds.
## College career
Griner played college basketball at Baylor University in Waco, Texas. As a freshman, Griner's 223 blocked shots set the all-time single-season record, establishing her as one of the greatest shot blockers in women's basketball history. On December 16, 2009, Griner recorded Baylor's first [triple-double](triple-double) with 34 points, 13 rebounds, and [12 Conference](Big)(Big 12 Conference) record 11 blocked shots. In January 2010, she became only the seventh player to dunk during a women's college basketball game, and only the second woman to dunk twice in a single college game, making the second and third dunks of her college career in a lopsided 99–18 victory against [State University](Texas)(Texas State University).
On March 3, 2010, Griner and [Tech](Texas)(Texas Tech Lady Raiders basketball) player Jordan Barncastle were battling for position near the lane. As a [foul](Foul (basketball)) was being called on Barncastle, Griner took two steps forward and threw a right-handed roundhouse punch which broke Barncastle's nose. Griner was then [ejected](ejection (sports)) from the game. Lady Bears coach [Mulkey](Kim)(Kim Mulkey) then imposed another one-game [suspension](suspension (punishment)) in addition to the one-game suspension mandated by [NCAA](NCAA) rules.["Griner punches Barncastle after foul"](http://sports.espn.go.com/ncw/news/story?id=4963605&campaign=rss&source=ESPNHeadlines) , [ESPN.com](ESPN.com), March 4, 2010.["Baylor Freshman Suspended for Punching Opponent in the Face"](https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/05/sports/ncaabasketball/05hoops.html) , [AP](Associated Press) in *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, March 4, 2010.
Baylor entered the NCAA Tournament as a 4th seed, and knocked off top-seeded [Tennessee](Tennessee Lady Volunteers basketball) in the Sweet 16. On March 22, Griner set an [tournament](NCAA)(NCAA Women's Division I Basketball Championship) record with 14 blocked shots in a 49–33 win against the [Hoyas](Georgetown)(Georgetown Hoyas women's basketball). In the Elite Eight, Baylor defeated [Duke](Duke Blue Devils) 51–48, and Griner blocked 9 shots, totaling 35 for the tournament, a new NCAA Women's Tournament record. Duke's [Bales](Alison)(Alison Bales) had held the previous record of 30 blocks in the 2006 NCAA Women's Tournament. Baylor reached the Final Four, before losing to eventual-champion UConn, 70–50. Griner was named an AP Second Team All-American.
As a sophomore, Griner received First Team All-American honors after averaging 23 points a game, including a career-high 40 points against [Bay](Green)(Green Bay Phoenix) in the Sweet 16. Her sophomore season ended with a 48-56 loss to the eventual national champion and conference rival, Texas A&M University.
In her [season](junior)(2011–12 Baylor Lady Bears basketball team), Griner averaged 23.2 points, 9.4 rebounds and 5 blocks per game. She blocked more shots than any other [I](Division)(Division I (NCAA)) women's *team* that season. Griner was named AP Player of the Year and The 2012 Premier Player of Women's College Basketball.
On April 3, 2012, Griner led Baylor with 26 points, 13 rebounds and 5 blocked shots to win the Division I Women's Basketball Championship, 80–61 over [Dame](Notre)(Notre Dame Fighting Irish women's basketball). Griner was named the Final Four's Most Outstanding Player. Baylor finished its undefeated season with 40 wins, the most in NCAA history.John Altavilla, [Herald-Mail](http://www.herald-mail.com/sports/chi-baylor-women-top-notre-dame-to-complete-perfect-400-season-20120403,0,3438038.story) Baylor women top Notre Dame to complete 40–0 season, April 3, 2012.
After winning the championship on April 3, 2012, Griner decided to withdraw her candidacy for a roster spot on the 2012 U.S. Olympic women's basketball team. A month later Griner broke her wrist after jumping off her skateboard when she was going down a ramp.
Her college career came to an end in the 2013 NCAA women's basketball tournament when Baylor lost to the [of Louisville](University)(University of Louisville) Cardinals in the Sweet 16.[Game's biggest upset stuns Baylor](http://espn.go.com/womens-college-basketball/tournament/2013/story/_/id/9119261/women-ncaa-tournament-2013-louisville-cardinals-stun-baylor-lady-bears-game-biggest-upset) ESPN. March 31, 2013.
### College statistics
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[2009–10](2009–10 NCAA Division I women's basketball season)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Baylor](2009–10 Baylor Lady Bears basketball team)
| 35 || 35 || 33.5 || .503 || .000 || .684 || 8.5 || 1.0 || 0.5 || 6.4 || 2.8 || 18.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2010–11
| style="text-align:left;"|[Baylor](2010–11 Baylor Lady Bears basketball team)
| 37 || 37 || 31.8 || .543 || .500 || .777 || 7.8 || 1.4 || 0.4 || 4.6 || 2.1 || 23.0
|-
| style="background:#afe6ba; text-align:left;"|2011–12†
| style="text-align:left;"|[Baylor](2011–12 Baylor Lady Bears basketball team)
| 40 || 40 || 32.7 || .609 || .500 || .800 || 9.5 || 1.6 || 0.6 || 5.2 || 1.7 || 23.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|[2012–13](2012–13 NCAA Division I women's basketball season)
| style="text-align:left;"|[Baylor](2012–13 Baylor Lady Bears basketball team)
| 36 || 36 || 30.3 || .607 || .000 || .712 || 9.4 || 2.4 || 0.7 || 4.1 || 1.9 || 23.8
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 148 || 148 || 32.0 || .569 || .400 || .747 || 8.8 || 1.6 || 0.5 ||5.1 || 1.4 || 22.2
## Professional career
### WNBA
[[dunking at 2015 All-Star game.jpg|thumb|Griner dunking at the 2015 WNBA All-Star game held at the Mohegan Sun in Uncasville, Connecticut](File:Griner)]
The only female WNBA players surpassing Griner's height of have been the late [Dydek](Margo)(Margo Dydek) of Poland, at , [Határ](Bernadett)(Bernadett Határ) of Hungary, at Mansfield, Taylor. ["How tall is Brittney Griner and is she the tallest WNBA player?"](https://wegotthiscovered.com/celebrities/how-tall-is-brittney-griner-and-is-she-the-tallest-wnba-player), We Got This Covered, December 8, 2022 and [Xu](Han)(Han Xu (basketball)) of China at .Powell, Jackie. ["Age is no longer a limit for Han Xu"](https://www.thenexthoops.com/wnba/new-york-liberty/age-is-no-longer-a-limit-for-han-xu), The Next Hoops, June 24, 2022
#### 2013
In the [WNBA draft](2013)(2013 WNBA draft), the [Mercury](Phoenix)(Phoenix Mercury) selected Griner as the first overall pick. In her debut on May 27, 2013, against [Sky](Chicago)(Chicago Sky), Griner equaled the WNBA dunk record, recording two dunks to equal [Parker](Candace)(Candace Parker)'s career total. She thus became the third WNBA player to dunk and first to do so twice in one game. She was a dominant defensive force in the league over the season, averaging 3.0 blocks per game. Griner was named a WNBA All-Star, but missed the [WNBA All-Star Game](2013)(2013 WNBA All-Star Game) with a right knee injury, and was replaced by [Thompson](Tina)(Tina Thompson).
In April 2013, [Mavericks](Dallas)(Dallas Mavericks) owner [Cuban](Mark)(Mark Cuban) said he would consider drafting Griner to the [NBA](National Basketball Association), and Griner expressed interest in the opportunity, but no offer to try out was extended by the team.
#### 2014
In the 2014 season, Griner's stats would improve, as she averaged 15.6 points per game, 8.0 rebounds per game and 3.7 blocks per game. On June 29, 2014, Griner had set a WNBA record with 11 blocks in a regular season game win against the [Shock](Tulsa)(Tulsa Shock), along with 21 points and 8 rebounds. On August 24, 2014, Griner became the first WNBA player to dunk in a playoff game when she helped the Mercury defeat the Los Angeles Sparks, 93–68, at Staples Center.
The 2014 season would be a historic season for the Mercury with the combination of Brittney Griner, [Taurasi](Diana)(Diana Taurasi) and [Dupree](Candice)(Candice Dupree) as the dominant Big 3 to carry the team plus the arrival of new head coach [Brondello](Sandy)(Sandy Brondello), the Mercury finished 29–5, setting the WNBA record for most wins in a regular season. They made it all the way to the WNBA finals and swept the [Sky](Chicago)(Chicago Sky) 3 games to 0, to capture the Mercury's third championship in franchise history. During the series, Griner set WNBA finals records in game 1 for most blocks in a game (8) and most blocks in a quarter (5).
#### 2015
In the 2015 season, despite missing the first seven games due to a suspension stemming from her domestic violence case, Griner would have the most prolific defensive season in WNBA history, averaging a career high and WNBA record 4.0 blocks per game, surpassing Margo Dydek's record back in the 1998 season. Although the Mercury were playing without their all-star guard Diana Taurasi (who sat out the season to play overseas), the Mercury still made it to the playoffs. In the 2015 playoffs, Griner set a WNBA playoff record with 11 blocks (along with 18 points and 8 rebounds) in a game 1 victory against the Tulsa Shock, whom she also had 11 blocks against in a regular season game the year before. The Mercury advanced to the second round where they were swept by the [Lynx](Minnesota)(Minnesota Lynx) who won the championship that year.
#### 2016
In the 2016 season, with the return of Diana Taurasi, the Mercury had a more successful playoff run. En route to the playoffs, Griner averaged 14.5 points per game, 6.5 rebounds per game and 3.1 blocks per game as the Mercury finished 16–18. During the season, Griner had recorded the sixth [triple-double](triple-double) in WNBA history in a win against the [Dream](Atlanta)(Atlanta Dream) where she had 27 points, 10 rebounds and 10 blocks. With the WNBA's new playoff format in effect, the Mercury were the number 8 seed in the league as they faced the [Fever](Indiana)(Indiana Fever) in the first round.
The Mercury upset the Fever in the first round elimination game, as Griner had 18 points, 8 rebounds and 3 blocks. In the second round elimination game, the Mercury defeated the number 3 seeded [York Liberty](New)(New York Liberty), Griner had 22 points 10 rebounds and 4 blocks in the win. The Mercury advanced to the semifinals (the last round before the WNBA finals) against the championship defending Minnesota Lynx in a best-of-5 series but would get swept 3–0.
#### 2017
[[Griner.jpg|thumb|Griner performing a layup in 2017](File:Brittney)]On March 12, 2017, Griner re-signed with the Mercury to a multi-year deal once her rookie contract expired. In 2017, Griner would have the best season of her career thus far. On June 7, 2017, Griner scored a career-high 38 points along with 9 rebounds in a 98–90 overtime win against the [Fever](Indiana)(Indiana Fever). Griner would miss 8 games of the season and the [WNBA All-Star Game](2017)(2017 WNBA All-Star Game) due to an ankle and knee injury (replaced by [Brunson](Rebekkah)(Rebekkah Brunson)), but finished off the season leading the league in scoring with 21.9 points per game and also led the league in blocks for the fifth consecutive season.
The Mercury finished with an 18–16 record as the number 5 seed. In the first round elimination game, the Mercury defeated the [Storm](Seattle)(Seattle Storm) 79–69, advancing to the second round. Griner scored 23 points along with 11 rebounds and 3 blocks in the win. In the second round elimination game, the Mercury defeated the [Sun](Connecticut)(Connecticut Sun) 88–83 and advanced to the semi-finals. Griner scored 26 points along with 9 rebounds in the win. In the semi-finals, the Mercury were eliminated by the [Angeles Sparks](Los)(Los Angeles Sparks) in a 3-game sweep.
#### 2018
[[File:Bonner-Lyttle-Griner-Augustus-20180601.jpg|thumb|alt=Very tall woman with arms raised, young woman passing the ball forward under strain, surrounded by players|Griner and the Mercury guarding [Augustus](Seimone)(Seimone Augustus) of the [Lynx](Minnesota)(Minnesota Lynx) in 2018]]In 2018, Griner played all 34 games for the third time in her career. She was voted into the [WNBA All-Star Game](2018)(2018 WNBA All-Star Game), making it her fifth all-star game appearance. On August 18, 2018, Griner scored a season-high 33 points along with 18 rebounds and 7 blocks in a 104–95 victory over the Atlanta Dream. This season was also her first season shooting from beyond the arc. Griner also led the league in blocks for the sixth consecutive year. The Mercury finished off the season 20–14 with the number 5 seed in the league.
In the first round elimination game, the Mercury defeated the Dallas Wings 101–83. Griner scored 17 points in the win. In the second round elimination game, the Mercury defeated the Connecticut Sun 96–86, advancing to the semi-finals for the third year in a row, they would face off against the Seattle Storm. Down 2–0, the Mercury came back to tie up the series 2–2. In game 5, the Mercury lost 94–84, ending their season.
#### 2019
In 2019, Griner would be voted into the [WNBA All-Star Game](2019)(2019 WNBA All-Star Game), making it her sixth career all-star game appearance. On August 25, 2019, Griner scored a season-high 34 points in a 94–86 loss to the [Sky](Chicago)(Chicago Sky). By the end of the season, Griner led the league in the scoring for the second time in her career and would continue to lead the league in blocks for the seventh straight season. The Mercury finished with a 15–19 record and the number 8 seed and were eliminated 105–76 by the [Sky](Chicago)(Chicago Sky) in the first round elimination game. Griner left in the second half of the game with a knee injury.
#### 2020
The 2020 season was delayed and shortened to 22 games in a bubble at [Academy](IMG)(IMG Academy) due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in North America). After 12 games played, Griner left the bubble for undisclosed personal reasons. Without Griner, the Mercury finished 13–9 as the number 5 seed. They would make it as far as the second round where they lost to the [Lynx](Minnesota)(Minnesota Lynx) in the elimination game.
#### 2021
In 2021 during the regular season, the Mercury were the 4th seed in the Western Conference, going 19-13, with Griner averaging 20.5 points, 9.5 rebounds, 2.7 assists, and 32.8 minutes per game in the season, while playing 30 of 36 games. She scored the most points in the playoffs, 240 points, helping the Mercury beat the New York Liberty, Seattle Storm, the first seed [Vegas Aces](Las)(Las Vegas Aces) and helping the Mercury reach the WNBA finals, where they lost to the Chicago Sky in 4 games.
### Overseas
Griner has played overseas in the WNBA off-season. In the 2013–14 off-season, she played in China for the [Golden Bulls](Zhejiang)(Zhejiang Golden Bulls) of the [WCBA](Women's Chinese Basketball Association) where she signed a four-month contract for $600,000, which was 12 times the amount she made in her rookie season with the Mercury. She was named as the MVP of the 2014 WCBA All-Star Game. In the 2014–15 off-season, she played in China for the [Great Wall](Beijing)(Beijing Great Wall) of the WCBA. Beijing Great Wall finished the season as the runner-up in the playoff.
In the 2014–15 and 2015–16 off-seasons, Griner played in Russia for [Ekaterinburg](UMMC)(UMMC Ekaterinburg) with teammate Diana Taurasi, winning back-to-back championships.
In August 2016, Griner re-signed with UMMC Ekaterinburg for the 2016–17 off-season. In 2017, she re-signed once again with UMMC Ekaterinburg for the 2017–18 off-season, and in 2018, she returned to UMMC Ekaterinburg for a fifth stint in the 2018–19 off-season.
## National team career
In September 2011, Griner spent two weeks playing under coach [Auriemma](Geno)(Geno Auriemma) for the U.S. national team as part of its European training tour. Griner was the only college player in the group. She averaged 12.8 points and 7.3 rebounds a game with the U.S. team in Europe.
Griner was the sole player still playing in college on the 2012 U.S. Olympic women's basketball team finalists roster. Excluding Griner, the average age on the finalists roster was approximately 30 years, while Griner was 22 years old at the time of the Olympics. Griner decided in April 2012 not to participate in the 2012 Olympics due to family illness and her school schedule.
In 2016, she played for the U.S. Olympic women's basketball team at the [Olympics](Summer)(Basketball at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's tournament) and earned her first Olympic gold medal as they beat Spain 101–72 in the final, becoming one of 11 players who have earned an Olympic gold medal, FIBA World Cup gold medal, WNBA title, an NCAA title, joining [Bird](Sue)(Sue Bird), [Cash](Swin)(Swin Cash), [Catchings](Tamika)(Tamika Catchings), [Cooper](Cynthia)(Cynthia Cooper-Dyke), [Jones](Asjha)(Asjha Jones), [Moore](Maya)(Maya Moore), [Stewart](Breanna)(Breanna Stewart), [Swoopes](Sheryl)(Sheryl Swoopes), [Taurasi](Diana)(Diana Taurasi), and [Wolters](Kara)(Kara Wolters) on the list.
Griner was selected for her [Olympics in 2021](second)(Basketball at the 2020 Summer Olympics – Women's tournament), going undefeated and winning the gold medal as part of Team USA.
## Honors
Along with being selected as the number one high school player in the country by [Rivals.com](Rivals.com), Griner was featured on the cover of [ESPN](ESPN)'s *Rise* magazine, and was selected by the [Basketball Coaches Association](Women's)(Women's Basketball Coaches Association) as the 2009 [Farm](State)(State Farm)/[WBCA](Women's Basketball Coaches Association) High School Player of the Year. Griner also won the 2013 [Award](ESPY)(ESPY Award) for best female college athlete. She was the 2012 winner of the [Sports Award](Honda)(Honda Sports Award (basketball)) for basketball and the overall [Cup](Honda-Broderick)(Honda-Broderick Cup) winner for all sports.
She was the 2012 recipient of the [Trophy](Wade)(Wade Trophy), presented to the best female NCAA Division I basketball player who embodies the "Spirit of Margaret Wade." She was the winner of the Ann Meyers Drysdale Award, in 2012, and again in 2013. The award is given by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association to the nation's top Division I women's player.
Among other accolades, Griner is credited with bringing the women's game more attention due to her ability to dunk. She holds the NCAA record for dunks in a career with 18 total dunks. She passed Candace Parker as the all-time NCAA women's dunks leader.
* 2009—WBCA High School Coaches' All-America Team
* 2011—[NCAA Division I Defensive Player of the Year](WBCA)(WBCA Defensive Player of the Year)
* 2012—WBCA NCAA Division I Defensive Player of the Year
* 2013—WBCA NCAA Division I Defensive Player of the Year
* 2014—FIBA World Championship All-Star Five
In 2014, Griner was included as part of [Advocate''s](''The)(The Advocate (LGBT magazine)) annual "40 under 40" list.
The WNBA included Griner in [W25](The)(The W25), a list of the best players of the league's first 25 years.
She was also named one of ESPNW's Impact 25 in 2014.
## Personal life and activism
In an interview with [SI.com](Sports Illustrated) on February 11, 2013, Griner publicly [out](came)(came out) as a lesbian. She also revealed in the interview that she was bullied as a child, explaining, "It's hard. Just being picked on for being different. Just being bigger, my sexuality, everything." She said she is very passionate about working with children in order to bring attention to the issue of bullying, particularly against [LGBT](LGBT) people. Griner had previously come out to her parents in high school, which her father did not accept gracefully, forcing her to live with an assistant coach for six weeks during her senior year. She later wrote a memoir with Sue Hovey addressing bullying and self-acceptance, *In My Skin: My Life On and Off the Basketball Court*, published in 2014.
In a 2019 interview with *[People](People (magazine))*, Griner stated, "People tell me I'm going to break the barrier and trailblaze. I just kind of look at it like, I'm just trying to help out, I'm just trying to make it not as tough for the next generation." In 2013, Griner was featured on the cover of *[Magazine](ESPN)(ESPN Magazine)*. She appeared in "The Taboo Issue"*.* She is pictured holding a snake, which is her favorite animal because they are "misunderstood". She says, "You just have to look at it in a different way."
Her endorsement deal with [Nike](Nike, Inc.) was the first time the company had signed such a deal with an [gay athlete](openly)(Gay athlete). Griner continues to push back on traditional gender roles as she regularly models clothes branded as "menswear" for Nike. Nike spokesman Brian Strong said of signing Griner, "We can't get into specifics, but it's safe to say we jumped at the opportunity to work with her because she breaks the mold."
In 2020, Griner, along with teammate [Turner](Brianna)(Brianna Turner), called for the WNBA to stop playing the [States national anthem](United)(The Star-Spangled Banner) before the games. She made her remarks after Mercury players refused to take the floor during a pre-season game in [Florida](Bradenton,)(Bradenton, Florida). Griner said she was protesting the [of Breonna Taylor](killing)(killing of Breonna Taylor) as part of the wider [Floyd protests](George)(George Floyd protests). She said later during a media teleconference, "I honestly feel we should not play the national anthem during our season. I think we should take that much of a stand." She said she does not believe that the national anthem should be played at sporting events.
Since her release from detention in Russia in December 2022, Griner has championed the return of others detained in foreign countries;Radde, Kaitlyn. ["Brittney Griner calls for the release of an American reporter detained in Russia"](https://www.npr.org/2023/04/02/1167656541/wall-street-journal-reporter-detained-russia-evan-gershkovich-brittney-griner), NPR, April 2, 2023 she has also stated her experiences of being detained in a Russian jail have led her to appreciate the "uniquely American freedoms" citizens of her country take for granted or overlook. As such, her agent has stated Griner intends to stand while the United States national anthem is played before every game during the 2023 WNBA season.
### Marriages and domestic violence case
On August 14, 2014, Griner got engaged to fellow WNBA player [Johnson](Glory)(Glory Johnson). On April 22, 2015, they were both arrested on charges of assault and disorderly conduct after police responded to a fight between the two in their suburban home in [Arizona](Phoenix,)(Phoenix, Arizona). Both had sustained some injuries. Despite this incident, they married the following month on May 8, 2015, in Phoenix. On May 15, 2015, the WNBA suspended Griner and Johnson for seven games each after Griner pleaded guilty to disorderly conduct charges. Griner was also required to complete 26 weeks of domestic violence counseling.
On June 4, 2015, Griner and Johnson revealed that Johnson was pregnant with twins, conceived with Johnson's eggs through [vitro fertilization](in)(in vitro fertilization). The following day, and after less than a month of marriage, Griner filed for an annulment of the marriage citing fraud and duress; the annulment was denied. Johnson gave birth to twin girls on October 12, 2015, 16 weeks premature. Griner was ordered to pay child support to Johnson. The couple's divorce was finalized in June 2016.
Griner became engaged to Cherelle Watson in August 2018, and they married in June 2019. Watson later changed her name to Cherelle Griner.
## 2022 arrest and imprisonment in Russia
On February 17, 2022, Griner was arrested on drug smuggling charges in Russia. She was detained at [International Airport](Sheremetyevo)(Sheremetyevo International Airport) after the [Customs Service](Federal)(Federal Customs Service of Russia) found she was carrying [vaporizer](Vaporizer (inhalation device)) cartridges containing less than a gram of hash oil. In Arizona, she had been prescribed [cannabis](medicinal)(Medical cannabis), which is illegal in Russia.
Some U.S. officials expressed concern that Russia may have been [Griner as leverage](using)(Hostage diplomacy) in response to the [sanctions](Western)(International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War) imposed against Russia for its [of Ukraine](invasion)(2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine). The former [Pentagon](The Pentagon) official [Farkas](Evelyn)(Evelyn Farkas) expressed concern that Griner could be used as a "high-profile hostage" by Russia. In May 2022, the U.S. State Department stated that they had determined Griner was being "wrongfully detained". On May 15, it was reported that the United States and Russia would consider a prisoner swap, with Russia exchanging Griner for arms dealer [Bout](Viktor)(Viktor Bout), who had served 10 years of a 25-year federal prison sentence in the United States.
### Trial, sentencing, imprisonment and release
[[File:2022 NWSL Championship 88 - letter to Britney Griner.jpg|thumb|Fans at the 2022 [Championship](NWSL)(NWSL Championship) were invited to write letters to Griner.]]
On the second day of her trial, July 7, Griner pleaded guilty but said she had no [intent](Intention (criminal law)) to break the law. Griner requested that she be allowed to give testimony to the court.
On August 4, the court found Griner guilty and sentenced her to nine years in prison and fined her 1 million [rubles](Russian ruble) (US$16,301), even though the standard sentence for possession of no more than 2 grams of hash oil is 15 days. On November 17, Griner's lawyers said that she was transferred to [IK-2](Corrective colony No. 2, Mordovia), a female penal colony in the town of [Yavas](Yavas) in the region of [Mordovia](Mordovia); previously she was held in an undisclosed location.
Griner's family enlisted the help of [Our Families Home](Bring)(Bring Our Families Home) to appeal for her release. On December 8, she was released by Russia in a 1-for-1 prisoner swap for Bout, though at the same time as the exchange, Russia deported another American, Sarah Krivanek, detained for a domestic violence dispute.
## WNBA career statistics
### Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2013](2013 WNBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Phoenix](Phoenix Mercury)
| 27 || 27 || 25.9 || .556 || .000 || .724 || 6.3 || 1.0 || 0.4 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|3.0° || **1.7** || 14.5
|-
|style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"| [2014](2014 WNBA season)†
| style="text-align:left;"| [Phoenix](Phoenix Mercury)
| **34** || **34** || 30.7 || **.578** || .000 || .802 || 8.0 || 1.6 || 0.6 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|3.7° || 1.9 || 15.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2015](2015 WNBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Phoenix](Phoenix Mercury)
| 26 || 26 || 30.7 || .565 || .000 || .773 || 8.1 || 1.3 || 0.3 || style="background:#E0CEF2;"|**4.0** || 2.1 || 15.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2016](2016 WNBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Phoenix](Phoenix Mercury)
| **34** || **34**|| 29.2 || .548 || .000 || .831 || 6.5 || 1.0 || 0.3 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|3.1° || 2.0 || 14.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2017](2017 WNBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Phoenix](Phoenix Mercury)
| 26 || 26 || 31.5 || .577 || .000 || .812 || 7.6 || 1.9 || 0.6 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|2.5° || 2.4 || **21.9**
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2018](2018 WNBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Phoenix](Phoenix Mercury)
| **34** || **34** || 32.6 || .544 || .250 || .800 || 7.7 || 2.1 || 0.5 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|2.6° || 2.3 || 20.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2019](2019 WNBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Phoenix](Phoenix Mercury)
| 31 || 31 || **32.8** || .564 || .333 || .808 || 7.2 || 2.4 || **0.7** || style="background:#D3D3D3"|2.0° || 2.4 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|20.7°
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2020](2020 WNBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Phoenix](Phoenix Mercury)
| 12 || 12 || 31.8 || .497 || .000 || .809 || 7.5 || **3.0** || 0.3 || 1.8 || 2.5 || 17.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2021](2021 WNBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Phoenix](Phoenix Mercury)
| 30 || 30 || **32.8** || .575 || **.444** || **.846** || **9.5** || 2.7 || 0.4 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|1.9° || 2.2 || 20.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Career
|
| 254 || 254 || 30.9 || .560 || .353 || .804 || 7.6 || 1.8 || 0.5 || style="background:EOCEF2;"|2.8 || 2.2 || 17.7
|}
### Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2013](2013 WNBA Playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Phoenix](Phoenix Mercury)
| 5 || 5 || 26.6 || .533 || .000 || .556 || 6.4 || 0.2 || 0.2 || 0.8 || **1.6** || 10.6
|-
|style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"| [2014](2014 WNBA Playoffs)†
| style="text-align:left;"| [Phoenix](Phoenix Mercury)
| 7 || 7 || 31.0 || .627 || .000 || **.920** || 6.0 || 1.6 || 0.4 || style="background:#D3D3D3"|3.4° || 1.8 || 16.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2015](2015 WNBA Playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Phoenix](Phoenix Mercury)
| 4 || 4 || 29.7 || .583 || .000 || .885 || **8.0** || 1.3 || **0.7** || style="background:#D3D3D3"|**4.5**° || 2.0 || 16.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2016](2016 WNBA Playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Phoenix](Phoenix Mercury)
| 5 || 5|| 31.2 || **.643** || .000 || .813 || 6.0 || 1.6 || 0.6 || 2.2 || 2.2 || 13.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2017](2017 WNBA Playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Phoenix](Phoenix Mercury)
| 5 || 5|| **36.8** || .407 || .000 || .795 || 7.0 || 2.0 || 0.6 || 1.6 || 2.4 || 20.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2018](2018 WNBA Playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Phoenix](Phoenix Mercury)
| 7 || 7 || 36.4 || .631 || .000 || .750 || 8.0 || **3.1** || **0.7** || 2.2 || 1.7 || 21.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2019](2019 WNBA Playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Phoenix](Phoenix Mercury)
| 1 || 1 || 13.8 || .375 || .000 || .000 || 3.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 1.0 || 1.0 || 6.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2021](2021 WNBA Playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Phoenix](Phoenix Mercury)
| **11** || **11** || 35.1 || .562 || .000 || .800 || **8.4** || 3.0 || 0.4 || 1.6 || 2.1 || **21.8**
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Career
|
| 45 || 45 || 32.5 || .562 || .000 || .808 || 7.2 || 2.0 || 0.5 || 2.2 || 2.0 || 17.8
|}
## See also
* [of NCAA Division I basketball career triple-doubles leaders](List)(List of NCAA Division I basketball career triple-doubles leaders)
* [of NCAA Division I women's basketball players with 2,500 points and 1,000 rebounds](List)(List of NCAA Division I women's basketball players with 2,500 points and 1,000 rebounds)
* [of American people imprisoned in Russia](List)(List of American people imprisoned in Russia)
## Notes
## References
}}
## External links
* [Brittney Griner](https://www.wnba.com/player/brittney-griner/) at [WNBA](Women's National Basketball Association)
*
*
*
*
*
* [griner42.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20110308191136/http://www.griner42.com/) (archived)
[Vonn](Lindsey)(Lindsey Vonn)
| after = [Williams](Serena)(Serena Williams)
| title = [Female Athlete ESPY Award](Best)(Best Female Athlete ESPY Award)
| years = 2012
}}
}}
[births](Category:1990)(Category:1990 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[college women's basketball players](Category:All-American)(Category:All-American college women's basketball players)
[expatriate basketball people in China](Category:American)(Category:American expatriate basketball people in China)
[expatriate basketball people in Russia](Category:American)(Category:American expatriate basketball people in Russia)
[women's basketball players](Category:American)(Category:American women's basketball players)
[players at the 2016 Summer Olympics](Category:Basketball)(Category:Basketball players at the 2016 Summer Olympics)
[players at the 2020 Summer Olympics](Category:Basketball)(Category:Basketball players at the 2020 Summer Olympics)
[players from Houston](Category:Basketball)(Category:Basketball players from Houston)
[Bears women's basketball players](Category:Baylor)(Category:Baylor Bears women's basketball players)
[Great Wall players](Category:Beijing)(Category:Beijing Great Wall players)
[(basketball)](Category:Centers)(Category:Centers (basketball))
[sportswomen](Category:Lesbian)(Category:Lesbian sportswomen)
[basketball players](Category:LGBT)(Category:LGBT basketball players)
[people from Texas](Category:LGBT)(Category:LGBT people from Texas)
[LGBT sportspeople](Category:American)(Category:American LGBT sportspeople)
[High School All-Americans](Category:McDonald's)(Category:McDonald's High School All-Americans)
[at the 2016 Summer Olympics](Category:Medalists)(Category:Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics)
[at the 2020 Summer Olympics](Category:Medalists)(Category:Medalists at the 2020 Summer Olympics)
[gold medalists for the United States in basketball](Category:Olympic)(Category:Olympic gold medalists for the United States in basketball)
[High School All-Americans (girls' basketball)](Category:Parade)(Category:Parade High School All-Americans (girls' basketball))
[from Maricopa County, Arizona](Category:People)(Category:People from Maricopa County, Arizona)
[Mercury draft picks](Category:Phoenix)(Category:Phoenix Mercury draft picks)
[Mercury players](Category:Phoenix)(Category:Phoenix Mercury players)
[from the Phoenix metropolitan area](Category:Sportspeople)(Category:Sportspeople from the Phoenix metropolitan area)
[National Basketball Association first-overall draft picks](Category:Women's)(Category:Women's National Basketball Association first-overall draft picks)
[National Basketball Association All-Stars](Category:Women's)(Category:Women's National Basketball Association All-Stars)
[American LGBT people](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American LGBT people)
[States women's national basketball team players](Category:United)(Category:United States women's national basketball team players)
[people imprisoned in Russia](Category:American)(Category:American people imprisoned in Russia)
[sportspeople convicted of crimes](Category:American)(Category:American sportspeople convicted of crimes)
[American criminals](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American criminals)
[people convicted of drug offenses](Category:American)(Category:American people convicted of drug offenses)
[women](Category:Queer)(Category:Queer women)
[American sportswomen](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American sportswomen)
|
Linus Torvalds
|
linus_torvalds
|
# Linus Torvalds
*Revision ID: 1160287109 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T14:19:09Z*
---
| birth_place = [Helsinki](Helsinki), Finland
| alma_mater = [of Helsinki](University)(University of Helsinki) (M.S.)
| nationality = Finnish (by birth)American (naturalized, 2010)
| known_for = [Linux](Linux), [Git](Git)
| employer = [Foundation](Linux)(Linux Foundation)
| occupation = [engineer](Software)(Software engineer)
| parents = [Torvalds](Nils)(Nils Torvalds) (father)
Anna "Mikke" Torvalds (née Törnqvist, mother)
| spouse = Tove Torvalds
| relatives = Sara Torvalds (sister)[Törnqvist](Leo)(Leo Törnqvist) (grandfather)[Torvalds](Ole)(Ole Torvalds) (grandfather)
}}
**Linus Benedict Torvalds** ( , ; born 28 December 1969) is a Finnish software engineer who is the creator and, historically, the lead developer of the [kernel](Linux)(Linux kernel), used by [distribution](Linux)(Linux distribution)s and other operating systems such as [Android](Android (operating system)). He also created the [version control](distributed)(distributed version control) system [Git](Git).
He was honored, along with [Yamanaka](Shinya)(Shinya Yamanaka), with the 2012 [Technology Prize](Millennium)(Millennium Technology Prize) by the [Academy Finland](Technology)(Technology Academy Finland) "in recognition of his creation of a new [source](open)(open source) [system](operating)(operating system) for [computer](computer)s leading to the widely used Linux [kernel](Kernel (operating system))." He is also the recipient of the 2014 [Computer Society Computer Pioneer Award](IEEE)(Computer Pioneer Award) and the 2018 [Masaru Ibuka Consumer Electronics Award](IEEE)(IEEE Masaru Ibuka Consumer Electronics Award).
## Life and career
### Early years
Torvalds was born in [Helsinki](Helsinki), Finland, the son of journalists Anna and [Torvalds](Nils)(Nils Torvalds),[Torvalds](#Torvalds) the grandson of statistician [Törnqvist](Leo)(Leo Törnqvist) and of poet [Torvalds](Ole)(Ole Torvalds), and the great-grandson of journalist and soldier [Karanko](Toivo)(Toivo Karanko). His parents were campus radicals at the [of Helsinki](University)(University of Helsinki) in the 1960s. His family belongs to the [minority](Swedish-speaking)(Swedish-speaking Finns) in Finland. He was named after [Pauling](Linus)(Linus Pauling), the Nobel Prize–winning American chemist, although in the book *[Code](Rebel)(Rebel Code): Linux and the Open Source Revolution*, he is quoted as saying, "I think I was named equally for [Linus](Linus van Pelt) the [Peanuts](Peanuts) cartoon character", noting that this made him "half Nobel Prize–winning chemist and half blanket-carrying cartoon character".
Torvalds attended the [of Helsinki](University)(University of Helsinki) from 1988 to 1996,Torvalds & Diamond 2001, p. 38, 94. graduating with a master's degree in [science](computer)(computer science) from the NODES research group. His academic career was interrupted after his first year of study when he joined the [Navy](Finnish)(Finnish Navy) [Brigade](Nyland)(Nyland Brigade) in the summer of 1989, selecting the 11-month officer training program to fulfill the [military service of Finland](mandatory)(Conscription in Finland). He gained the rank of [lieutenant](second)(second lieutenant), with the role of an [observer](artillery)(artillery observer).[Torvalds](#Torvalds), p. 29 He bought computer science professor [Tanenbaum](Andrew)(Andrew Tanenbaum)'s book *[Systems: Design and Implementation](Operating)(Operating Systems: Design and Implementation)*, in which Tanenbaum describes [MINIX](MINIX), an educational stripped-down version of [Unix](Unix). In 1990, Torvalds resumed his university studies, and was exposed to Unix for the first time in the form of a [DEC](Digital Equipment Corporation) [MicroVAX](MicroVAX) running [ULTRIX](ULTRIX).[Torvalds](#Torvalds), p. 53 His MSc thesis was titled *[Linux](Linux): A Portable Operating System*.
His interest in computers began with a [VIC-20](VIC-20)[Torvalds](#Torvalds), pp. 6–7 at the age of 11 in 1981. He started programming for it in [BASIC](BASIC), then later by directly accessing the [6502](MOS Technology 6502) CPU in [code](machine)(machine code) (he did not utilize [language](assembly)(assembly language)). He then purchased a [QL](Sinclair)(Sinclair QL), which he modified extensively, especially its operating system. "Because it was so hard to get software for it in Finland", he wrote his own assembler and [editor](text editor) "(in addition to [Pac-Man](Pac-Man) graphics libraries)" for the QL, and a few games.[Torvalds](#Torvalds), pp. 41–46Torvalds, Linus: *GMOVE*. Program listing. In *[MikroBitti](MikroBitti)* 11/1986, p. 63. He wrote a *[Pac-Man](Pac-Man)* clone, *Cool Man*. On 5 January 1991 he purchased an [80386](Intel)(Intel 80386)-based clone of [PC](IBM)(IBM PC compatible)[Torvalds](#Torvalds), p. 60 before receiving his [MINIX](MINIX) copy, which in turn enabled him to begin work on Linux.
### Linux
The first Linux prototypes were publicly released in late 1991. Version 1.0 was released on 14 March 1994.
Torvalds first encountered the [Project](GNU)(GNU Project) in fall of 1991 when another Swedish-speaking computer science student, Lars Wirzenius, took him to the University of Technology to listen to free software guru [Stallman](Richard)(Richard Stallman)'s speech. Torvalds would ultimately switch his original license (which forbade commercial use) to Stallman's [General Public License](GNU)(GNU General Public License) version 2 (GPLv2) for his [kernel](Linux)(Linux kernel).
After a visit to [Transmeta](Transmeta) in late 1996, Torvalds accepted a position at the company in California, where he worked from February 1997 to June 2003. He then moved to the [Source Development Labs](Open)(Open Source Development Labs), which has since merged with the [Standards Group](Free)(Free Standards Group) to become the [Foundation](Linux)(Linux Foundation), under whose auspices he continues to work. In June 2004, Torvalds and his family moved to [Oregon](Dunthorpe,)(Dunthorpe, Oregon) to be closer to the OSDL's headquarters in [Beaverton](Beaverton, Oregon).
From 1997 to 1999, he was involved in [86open](86open), helping select the standard binary format for [Linux](Linux) and [Unix](Unix). In 1999, he was named by the *[Technology Review](MIT)(MIT Technology Review)* [TR100](TR35) as one of the world's top 100 innovators under age 35.
In 1999, [Hat](Red)(Red Hat) and [Linux](VA)(VA Linux), both leading developers of Linux-based software, presented Torvalds with [option](stock)(stock option)s in gratitude for his creation. That year both companies [public](went)(initial public offering) and Torvalds's share value briefly shot up to about US$20 million.
His personal mascot is a penguin nicknamed [Tux](Tux (mascot)), which has been widely adopted by the Linux community as the Linux kernel's mascot.. linux.org
Although Torvalds believes "[source](open)(open source model) is the only right way to do software", he also has said that he uses the "best tool for the job", even if that includes [software](proprietary)(proprietary software)., 9:50–10:00 He was criticized for his use and alleged advocacy of the proprietary [BitKeeper](BitKeeper) software for version control in the Linux kernel. He subsequently wrote a free-software replacement for it called [Git](Git).
In 2008, Torvalds stated that he used the [Linux](Fedora)(Fedora Linux) distribution because it had fairly good support for the [PowerPC](PowerPC) processor architecture, which he favored at the time. He confirmed this in a 2012 interview. He has also posted updates about his choice of [environment](desktop)(desktop environment), often in response to [feature regressions](perceived)(GNOME#Criticism).
The [Foundation](Linux)(Linux Foundation) currently sponsors Torvalds so he can work full-time on improving Linux.
Torvalds is known for vocally disagreeing with other developers on the [kernel mailing list](Linux)(Linux kernel mailing list). Calling himself a "really unpleasant person", he explained, "I'd like to be a nice person and curse less and encourage people to grow rather than telling them they are idiots. I'm sorry—I tried, it's just not in me." His attitude, which he considers necessary for making his points clear, has drawn criticism from [Intel](Intel) programmer [Sharp](Sage)(Sage Sharp) and [systemd](systemd) developer [Poettering](Lennart)(Lennart Poettering), among others.
On Sunday, 16 September 2018, the Linux kernel *Code of Conflict* was suddenly replaced by a new *Code of Conduct* based on the [Covenant](Contributor)(Contributor Covenant). Shortly thereafter, in the release notes for Linux 4.19-rc4, Torvalds apologized for his behavior, calling his personal attacks of the past "unprofessional and uncalled for" and announced a period of "time off" to "get some assistance on how to understand people's emotions and respond appropriately". It soon transpired that these events followed *[New Yorker](The)(The New Yorker)* approaching Torvalds with a series of questions critical of his conduct. Following the release of Linux 4.19 on 22 October 2018, Torvalds returned to maintaining the kernel.
## The Linus/Linux connection
Initially, Torvalds wanted to call the kernel he developed *Freax* (a combination of "free", "freak", and the letter X to indicate that it was a Unix-like system), but his friend [Lemmke](Ari)(Ari Lemmke), who administered the [FTP](File Transfer Protocol) [server](server (computing)) where the kernel was first hosted, named Torvalds' directory *linux*.
## Authority and trademark
As of 2006, approximately 2% of the Linux kernel was written by Torvalds himself. Despite the thousands who have contributed to it, his percentage is still one of the largest. However, he said in 2012 that his own personal contribution is now mostly merging code written by others, with little programming. He retains the highest authority to decide which new code is incorporated into the standard Linux kernel. OpenLife.cc |url=https://www.openlife.cc/onlinebook/open-life-philosophy-open-source-html-book |website=www.openlife.cc |access-date=4 August 2020}}
Torvalds holds the *Linux* trademark and monitors its use, chiefly through the [Mark Institute](Linux)(Linux Mark Institute).
## Other software
;Git
On 3 April 2005, Torvalds began development on Git, [control software](version)(version control software) that later became widely used. On 26 July 2005, he turned over Git's maintenance to Junio Hamano, a major project contributor.
;Subsurface
Subsurface is software for logging and planning [dives](scuba)(Scuba diving), which Torvalds began developing in late 2011. It is [and open-source software](free)(free and open-source software) distributed under the terms of the [General Public License](GNU)(GNU General Public License) version 2. Dirk Hohndel became its head maintainer in late 2012. An open source divelog|url=https://subsurface-divelog.org/|access-date=2021-12-17|website=subsurface-divelog.org}}
## Personal life
[[Torvalds.jpeg|thumb|175px|Torvalds in 2002](File:Linus)]
Torvalds is married to Tove Torvalds (née Monni), a six-time Finnish national [karate](karate) champion, whom he met in late 1993. He was running introductory computer laboratory exercises for students and instructed the course attendees to send him an e-mail as a test, to which Tove responded with an e-mail asking for a date. They were later married and have three daughters, two of whom were born in the United States. The Linux kernel's *reboot* system call accepts their dates of birth (written in hexadecimal) as [values](magic)(Magic number (programming)).
Torvalds has described himself as "completely [a-religious](irreligion)—[atheist](Atheism)", adding, "I find that people seem to think religion brings morals and appreciation of nature. I actually think it detracts from both. It gives people the excuse to say, 'Oh, nature was just created,' and so the act of creation is seen to be something miraculous. I appreciate the fact that, 'Wow, it's incredible that something like this could have happened in the first place. He later added that while in Europe religion is mostly a personal issue, in the United States it has become very politicized. When discussing the issue of [and state separation](church)(separation of church and state), he said, "Yeah, it's kind of ironic that in many European countries, there is actually a kind of legal binding between the state and the [religion](state)(state religion)." In "Linus the Liberator", a story about the March [LinuxWorld](LinuxWorld Conference and Expo) Conference, Torvalds says: "There are like two golden rules in life. One is 'Do unto others as you would want them to do unto you.' For some reason, people associate this with Christianity. I'm not a Christian. I'm agnostic. The other rule is 'Be proud of what you do.
In 2004, Torvalds moved with his family from Silicon Valley to Portland, Oregon.
In 2010, Torvalds became a United States citizen and [to vote in the United States](registered)(Voter registration#United States). As of that year, he was unaffiliated with any U.S. political party, saying, "I have way too much personal pride to want to be associated with any of them, quite frankly."
Linus developed an interest in [diving](scuba)(scuba diving) in the early 2000s and has achieved numerous certifications, leading him to create the Subsurface project.
## Awards and achievements
[[File:Linus-Torvalds_IEEE_Ibuka_Award_2018.jpg|thumb|right|Linus Torvalds receiving 2018 IEEE Masaru Ibuka Consumer Electronics Award from ICCE 2018 Conference Chair [P. Mohanty](Saraju)(Saraju Mohanty) and IEEE President James A. Jefferies at ICCE 2018 on 12 January 2018 in Las Vegas]]
## Media recognition
[magazine](*Time*)(Time (magazine)) has recognized Torvalds multiple times:
* In 2000, he was 17th in their [100: The Most Important People of the Century](Time)(Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century) poll.
* In 2004, he was named one of the most influential people in the world by *Time* magazine.
* In 2006, the magazine's Europe edition named him one of the revolutionary heroes of the past 60 years.
*InfoWorld* presented him with the 2000 Award for Industry Achievement. In 2005, Torvalds appeared as one of "the best managers" in a survey by *[BusinessWeek](BusinessWeek)*. In 2006, *[2.0](Business)(Business 2.0)* magazine named him one of "10 people who don't matter" because the growth of Linux has shrunk Torvalds's individual impact.
In summer 2004, viewers of [YLE](YLE) (the Finnish Broadcasting Company) placed Torvalds 16th in the network's [Greatest Finns](100)(Suuret Suomalaiset). In 2010, as part of a series called ''[Britannica Guide](The)(Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.) to the World's Most Influential People*, Torvalds was listed among *The 100 Most Influential Inventors of All Time'' ().
On 11 October 2017, the Linux company [SUSE](SUSE) made a song titled "Linus Said".
## Bibliography
* *
*
*
*
* Moody, Glyn: Rebel Code. Engl. the beginning of work: Rebel Code. Eng. Riikka Toivanen and Heikki Karjalainen. In January 2001. .
* Nikkanen, Tuula: The Linux story. Satku, 2000. .
## See also
* [law](Linus's)(Linus's law)
* [debate](Tanenbaum–Torvalds)(Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate)
* [of computer pioneers](List)(List of computer pioneers)
## References
## Further reading
*
## External links
*
* [Linus' blog](http://torvalds-family.blogspot.com/) at [Blogger](Blogger (service)) (last post in 2011)
* [Linus Torvalds and His Five Entrepreneurial Lessons](http://www.allbusiness.com/technology/computer-hardware-desktop-computers/4315737-1.html) at [AllBusiness.com](AllBusiness.com)
*
*
* [Ten years of NODES](http://www.cs.helsinki.fi/docs/NodesTenYearsEversion.pdf)
* [Linus Torvalds: Linux succeeded thanks to selfishness and trust](https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-18419231)
* [Torvalds interview](http://www.itwire.com/opinion-and-analysis/open-sauce/44975-linus-torvalds-looking-back-looking-forward)
*
[ ](Category:Linus Torvalds)
[births](Category:1969)(Category:1969 births)
[staff of the University of Helsinki](Category:Academic)(Category:Academic staff of the University of Helsinki)
[agnostics](Category:American)(Category:American agnostics)
[atheists](Category:American)(Category:American atheists)
[male bloggers](Category:American)(Category:American male bloggers)
[computer programmers](Category:American)(Category:American computer programmers)
[software engineers](Category:American)(Category:American software engineers)
[agnostics](Category:Finnish)(Category:Finnish agnostics)
[atheists](Category:Finnish)(Category:Finnish atheists)
[male bloggers](Category:Finnish)(Category:Finnish male bloggers)
[computer programmers](Category:Finnish)(Category:Finnish computer programmers)
[emigrants to the United States](Category:Finnish)(Category:Finnish emigrants to the United States)
[software programmers](Category:Free)(Category:Free software programmers)
[kernel programmers](Category:Linux)(Category:Linux kernel programmers)
[people](Category:Linux)(Category:Linux people)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[source people](Category:Open)(Category:Open source people)
[from Dunthorpe, Oregon](Category:People)(Category:People from Dunthorpe, Oregon)
[in information technology](Category:People)(Category:People in information technology)
[Finns](Category:Swedish-speaking)(Category:Swedish-speaking Finns)
[of Helsinki alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of Helsinki alumni)
[from Helsinki](Category:Writers)(Category:Writers from Helsinki)
[source advocates](Category:Open)(Category:Open source advocates)
[software engineers](Category:Finnish)(Category:Finnish software engineers)
[Linus](Category:Torvalds family)
[with acquired American citizenship](Category:People)(Category:People with acquired American citizenship)
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Peter Dinklage
|
peter_dinklage
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# Peter Dinklage
*Revision ID: 1159718186 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T03:19:48Z*
---
| birth_place = [Shore](Jersey)(Jersey Shore), [Jersey](New)(New Jersey), U.S. or [New Jersey](Morristown,)(Morristown, New Jersey)
| alma_mater = [College](Bennington)(Bennington College)
| occupation =
| years_active = 1993–present
| spouse =
| children = 2
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Peter Dinklage)
| works = [list](Full)(Peter Dinklage on screen and stage)
| height =
}}
**Peter Hayden Dinklage** (; born June 11, 1969) is an American film, television and stage actor. He received international recognition for portraying [Lannister](Tyrion)(Tyrion Lannister) on the [HBO](HBO) television series *[of Thrones](Game)(Game of Thrones)* (2011–2019), for which he won the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series) a record of four times. He also received a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film) in 2011 and a [Actors Guild Award](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series) in 2020 for the role. Dinklage has a common form of [dwarfism](dwarfism) known as [achondroplasia](achondroplasia); he stands tall. He has used his celebrity status to raise social awareness concerning dwarfs.
Dinklage studied acting at [College](Bennington)(Bennington College), performing in a number of amateur stage productions. He made his film debut in the [comedy](black)(black comedy) *[in Oblivion](Living)(Living in Oblivion)* (1995), and had his breakthrough with a starring role in the 2003 comedy-drama *[Station Agent](The)(The Station Agent)*. His other films include *[Elf](Elf (film))* (2003), *[Lassie](Lassie (2005 film))* (2005), *[Me Guilty](Find)(Find Me Guilty)* (2006), [*Penelope*](Penelope (2006 film)) (2006), *[Underdog](Underdog (2007 film))* (2007), *[at a Funeral](Death)(Death at a Funeral (2007 film))* (2007), *[Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian](The)(The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian)* (2008), *[at a Funeral](Death)(Death at a Funeral (2010 film))* (2010), *[Days of Future Past](X-Men:)(X-Men: Days of Future Past)* (2014), *[Pixels](Pixels (2015 film))* (2015), and *[Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri](Three)(Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri)* (2017). In 2018, he appeared as [Eitri](Eitri (comics)) in the [Marvel](Marvel Cinematic Universe) film *[Infinity War](Avengers:)(Avengers: Infinity War)* and [Villechaize](Hervé)(Hervé Villechaize) in the [biopic](biopic) film *[Dinner with Hervé](My)(My Dinner with Hervé)*. He also provided voice-acting for the video game *[Destiny](Destiny (video game))*.
Dinklage has also performed in theater, with roles such as the [character](title)(Richard III) in *[III](Richard)(Richard III (play))* (2003) at the [Theatre](Public)(Public Theatre), Rakitin in *[Month in the Country](A)(A Month in the Country (play))* (2015) at [Stage Company](Classic)(Classic Stage Company), and [de Bergerac](Cyrano)(Cyrano de Bergerac) in *[Cyrano](Cyrano (film))* at the [Roth Theatre](Daryl)(Daryl Roth Theatre) in 2019.
## Early life
Dinklage was born on June 11, 1969, either at the [Shore](Jersey)(Jersey Shore) region of New Jersey, or in [New Jersey](Morristown,)(Morristown, New Jersey),[*Britannica 2017 Book of the Year*](https://books.google.com/books?id=mmvlQ3dxpwoC&q=%22June+11+,+1969+,+Morristown+,+N.J.%22), p. 21. [Britannica, Inc.](Encyclopædia)(Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.), 2017.. Accessed February 3, 2023. "Dinklage, Peter (b. June 11, 1969, Morristown, N.J.)"Doyle, Bill. ["‘Game of Thrones’ actor Peter Dinklage is a Jersey guy"](https://nj1015.com/game-of-thrones-actor-peter-dinklage-is-a-jersey-guy/), [WKXW](WKXW), June 11, 2019. Accessed February 2, 2023. "Peter Dinklage, who played Tyrion Lannister, was born June 11th, 1969 in Morristown."["The Garden State at Sundance"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/117784918/the-garden-state-at-sundance/), *[Record](The)(The Record (North Jersey))*, January 18, 2018. Accessed February 2, 2023, via [Newspapers.com](Newspapers.com). "Peter Dinklage of *Game of Thrones,* was born in Morristown and grew up in Brookside."Biese, Alex. ["'‘Game of Thrones'’ returns – and Jersey is ready"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/117784978/game-of-thrones-and-peter-dinklage/), *[Park Press](Asbury)(Asbury Park Press)*, April 14, 2019. Accessed February 2, 2023. "That vibe is particularly felt in the fan-favorite character of Tyrion Lannister played by Emmy-winner Peter Dinklage, who was born in Morristown and grew up in Mendham." to John Carl Dinklage, an insurance salesman, and Diane Dinklage, an elementary-school music teacher. Of German and Irish descent, he grew up in the historic [Brookside](Brookside, New Jersey) section of [Township](Mendham)(Mendham Township, New Jersey), with his parents and older brother, Jonathan. He is the only member of his family with [achondroplasia](achondroplasia).
As a child, Dinklage and his brother performed puppet musicals for people in their neighborhood. He has described his brother Jonathan as being the "real performer of the family," saying that his brother's passion for the violin was the only thing that kept him from pursuing acting. (Jonathan graduated from the [Gross School of the Arts](Mason)(Mason Gross School of the Arts) at [University](Rutgers)(Rutgers University) and is a violinist and [concertmaster](concertmaster) for the musical *[Hamilton](Hamilton (musical))*.)
Dinklage had his first theatrical success in a fifth-grade production of *[Velveteen Rabbit](The)(The Velveteen Rabbit)*. Playing the lead, he was delighted by the audience's response to the show. He attended [School](Delbarton)(Delbarton School), a Catholic preparatory school for boys, where he developed his acting skills. In 1984, he was inspired by a production of the play *[West](True)(True West (play))*, by American playwright [Shepard](Sam)(Sam Shepard), to pursue an acting career.
He then attended [College](Bennington)(Bennington College), where he studied for a drama degree and appeared in numerous productions before graduating in 1991. He moved to New York City with his friend Ian Bell to build a theater company. Failing to pay the rent, they moved out of their apartment. He lived in New York for 20 years in Williamsburg and the West Village. He then worked at a data-processing company for six years before pursuing a career as a full-time actor.
## Career
### Early career (1995–2002)
Dinklage initially struggled to find acting work, partially because he refused to take the roles typically offered to actors with his condition, such as "elves or leprechauns".
He made his credited film debut in the low-budget independent comedy-drama *[in Oblivion](Living)(Living in Oblivion)* (1995), where he performed alongside [Buscemi](Steve)(Steve Buscemi). It tells the story of a director, crew, and cast filming a low-budget independent film in the middle of New York City. Dinklage's role was that of a frustrated actor with dwarfism who complains about his [cliché](cliché)d roles. The next year, he appeared as a building manager in the crime drama *[Bullet](Bullet (1996 film))* starring rapper [Shakur](Tupac)(Tupac Shakur). Even after his well-received performance in *Living in Oblivion*, Dinklage could not find someone willing to be his agent. After a recommendation from Buscemi to director [Rockwell](Alexandre)(Alexandre Rockwell), Dinklage was cast in the comedy *[Moons](13)(13 Moons)* (2002). When later interviewed for a theater website, he was asked what his ideal role was, and he replied "the romantic lead" who gets the girl.
### Breakthrough (2003–2010)
[[File:Penelope 001.jpg|thumb|upright|Dinklage at the [Film Festival](Toronto)(Toronto International Film Festival) in 2006, for the premiere of *[Penelope](Penelope (2006 film))*]]
Dinklage found his [breakthrough](Breakthrough role) playing Finbar McBride, who is a quiet, withdrawn, unmarried man in the 2003 [McCarthy](Tom)(Tom McCarthy (director))-directed film *[Station Agent](The)(The Station Agent)*. According to co-star [Cannavale](Bobby)(Bobby Cannavale), the film took three years to make and was not at first written with Dinklage in mind. Cannavale said McCarthy "set out to tell a story about a guy who was a train enthusiast who had chosen to isolate himself from the world," but when McCarthy actually started "putting pen to paper" for the screenplay, he decided to write the role for him. Speaking about the role, Dinklage noted that usually "roles written for someone my size are a little flat"—often either comical or "sort of *[of the Rings](Lord)(The Lord of the Rings)*" type characters filled with wisdom; further: "They're not sexual, they're not romantic" and "they're not flawed." What attracted him to the character McCarthy had written was that it was not one of the stereotypical roles people with dwarfism play; rather, McBride has "romantic feelings" as well as "anger and ... flaws." The role earned him the [Spirit Award](Independent)(Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead) and [Actors Guild Award for Best Actor](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role) nominations. In the *[York Observer](New)(New York Observer)*, reviewer [Sarris](Andrew)(Andrew Sarris) wrote, "Dinklage projects both size and intelligence in the fascinating reticence of his face." Besides being Dinklage's highest-rated film on the review aggregator [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), *The Station Agent* was modestly successful at the box office, earning over $8 million against its small budget.
Dinklage later appeared in the [direct-to-DVD](Direct-to-video) film *[Tiptoes](Tiptoes)* (2003) with [Oldman](Gary)(Gary Oldman) and [McConaughey](Matthew)(Matthew McConaughey). The film met with negative reviews, particularly Oldman's role as a person with dwarfism. According to Dinklage, the original cut of the film was "gorgeous," but the director was fired shortly after turning it in, and the film was re-cut into a "rom-com with dwarfs." Speaking on the Oldman controversy, Dinklage said, "There was some flak: 'Why would you put Gary Oldman on his knees? That's almost like blackface.' And I have my own opinions about political correctness, but I was just like, It's Gary Oldman. He can do whatever he wants, and I'm so happy to be here."
That year, Dinklage also starred in several off-Broadway productions, such as *[III](Richard)(Richard III (play))*. Dinklage appeared in the Christmas comedy film *[Elf](Elf (film))* as Miles Finch, an irritable children's author who beats up Buddy Hobbs ([Ferrell](Will)(Will Ferrell)) after he mistakes him for an elf. In 2005, he starred in the short-lived [CBS](CBS) science fiction series *[Threshold](Threshold (TV series))* and appeared as a wedding planner in the comedy film *[Baxter](The)(The Baxter)*. He also made an appearance in the adventure comedy-drama *[Lassie](Lassie (2005 film))* as a traveling circus performer.
In 2006, Dinklage co-starred with [Diesel](Vin)(Vin Diesel) in *[Me Guilty](Find)(Find Me Guilty)*, a courtroom drama directed by [Lumet](Sidney)(Sidney Lumet). The film tells the true story of the longest [Mafia](American Mafia) trial in American history; Dinklage played Ben Klandis, the lead defense attorney. Critical reaction to the film was mostly positive, though it was a commercial failure. Writing for *[Sun-Times](Chicago)(Chicago Sun-Times)*, film critic [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) praised Dinklage's performance, saying that the character he plays stands apart as "concise, articulate and professional." The same year, he portrayed the character [Sawyer](Marlowe)(Marlowe Sawyer) in episodes of *[Nip/Tuck](Nip/Tuck)*. He played a fictionalized version of himself in an episode of the [HBO](Home Box Office) series *[Entourage](Entourage (U.S. TV series))* and appeared in [NBC](NBC)'s *[Rock](30)(30 Rock)* as Stewart. The same year, Dinklage appeared in the British romantic comedy *[Penelope](Penelope (2006 film))* playing Lemon, a tabloid reporter. The film received mixed reviews from critics.
Dinklage appeared in the 2007 British comedy film *[at a Funeral](Death)(Death at a Funeral (2007 film))*, reprising the role in the [American remake](2010)(Death at a Funeral (2010 film)); the films tell the story of a family trying to deal with a variety of issues after the death of their father. Later in 2007, he played the villainous [Bar Sinister](Simon)(Simon Bar Sinister) in *[Underdog](Underdog (2007 film))*, which was poorly received, but had some commercial success.
Dinklage played [Trumpkin](Trumpkin) in the 2008 film *The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian*. The film was a box office disappointment, with global revenues of $419.7 million, and film critic Bill Gibron described Dinklage's role as a "cutesy stereotype he has tried to avoid." Later that year, he played the title role in *[Vanya](Uncle)(Uncle Vanya)* (directed by his wife, Erica Schmidt) in [College](Bard)(Bard College)'s annual [SummerScape](Bard)(Bard SummerScape), the [New York](Upstate)(Upstate New York) summer stage on the [Annandale-on-Hudson](Annandale-on-Hudson, New York) campus. In 2010, he appeared in the Australian movie *[Love You Too](I)(I Love You Too (2010 film))* alongside [Cowell](Brendan)(Brendan Cowell) and [Helliar](Peter)(Peter Helliar).
### Mainstream and critical success (2011–present)
[[File:Peter Dinklage 2012 cropped.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Dinklage attending the [Annual Golden Globes Awards](69th)(69th Golden Globe Awards) in 2012]]
#### *Game of Thrones*
Between 2011 and 2019, Dinklage portrayed [Lannister](Tyrion)(Tyrion Lannister) in HBO's [fantasy](fantasy) [drama](Drama (film and television)) *[of Thrones](Game)(Game of Thrones)*, an adaptation of author [R. R. Martin](George)(George R. R. Martin)'s *[Song of Ice and Fire](A)(A Song of Ice and Fire)* novels. *Game of Thrones* takes place on the fictional continents of [Westeros](Westeros) and [Essos](Essos) and chronicles the power struggles among noble families as they fight for control of the [Throne](Iron)(Iron Throne (A Song of Ice and Fire)) of the Seven Kingdoms. Tyrion is a member of [Lannister](House)(House Lannister), one of the wealthiest and most powerful families in Westeros, and uses his status as a Lannister to mitigate the impact of the marginalization and derision he has received all of his life.
In May 2009, he was the first actor to be cast, as showrunners [Benioff](David)(David Benioff) and [B. Weiss](D.)(D. B. Weiss) noted that Dinklage, whom they described as funny, smart and witty, was their first choice for the role, as the actor's "core of humanity, covered by a shell of sardonic dry wit, is pretty well in keeping with the character."
Unfamiliar with the source material, Dinklage was cautious in his first meeting with the producers; as a dwarf, "he wouldn't play elves or leprechauns" and was choosy about genre roles. Benioff and Weiss told Dinklage that the character was "a different kind of fantasy little person," or in the actor's words, "No beard, no pointy shoes, a romantic, real human being." Dinklage signed on to play Tyrion before the meeting was half over, in part because, he said, "They told me how popular he was." Martin said of Dinklage's casting, "If he hadn't accepted the part, oh, boy, I don't know what we would have done." The series proved to be a commercial success; it was renewed for multiple seasons and concluded with its eighth season in May 2019.
Dinklage received widespread critical praise for his performance. Matthew Gilbert from *[Boston Globe](The)(The Boston Globe)* said that Dinklage "gives a winning performance that is charming, morally ambiguous, and self-aware." Dan Kois of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* noted that Dinklage's performance has made the character "all the more popular." The *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* wrote "In many ways, *Game of Thrones* belongs to Dinklage." *[HuffPost](HuffPost)* called Tyrion the "most quotable" character and "one of the most beloved characters" of the series.
For his performance, he has gone on to win an [Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series](Emmy)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series) in 2011, 2015, 2018, and 2019, as well as the 2012 [Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film). As a result of his performance and increased screen time, Dinklage was given [billing](top)(Billing (filmmaking)) starting in the series' second season. In 2014, he said on *[Late Show with David Letterman](The)(The Late Show with David Letterman)* that he had once tried to read the books the show is based upon, but had found them confusing. He joked, "George Martin, our author, is probably going to kill my character soon because I mentioned that."Grow, Kory. (March 27, 2014) [Peter Dinklage Has Not Read Any 'Game of Thrones' Books | Movies News](https://www.rollingstone.com/movies/news/peter-dinklage-has-not-read-any-game-of-thrones-books-20140327) . *Rolling Stone*. Retrieved May 7, 2015. In 2014, Dinklage and four of his *Game of Thrones* co-stars became some of the [paid actors on television](highest)(List of highest paid American television stars), although sources differ on the actors' per-episode salaries.}} In 2015, Dinklage lent his voice for the role of Tyrion in *[of Thrones: A Telltale Games Series](Game)(Game of Thrones (2014 video game))*, a video game based on the show.
#### Other performances
In 2012, Dinklage voiced [Gutt](Captain)(List of Ice Age characters#Captain Gutt) in *[Age: Continental Drift](Ice)(Ice Age: Continental Drift).* Dinklage said he prepared himself by making sure to rest his voice before the recording sessions as it was his first voice acting role, and that he prefers doing roles he has not done before. After appearing in an episode of [NBC](NBC)'s late-night sketch comedy *[Night Live](Saturday)(Saturday Night Live)* in 2013, Dinklage hosted an episode of the show in April 2016; his appearances included a sketch of him and [Stefani](Gwen)(Gwen Stefani) singing a new song called "Space Pants." He received praise for his performance.
In 2014, Dinklage starred in the comedy horror film *[of Badassdom](Knights)(Knights of Badassdom)* opposite [Kwanten](Ryan)(Ryan Kwanten) and [Zahn](Steve)(Steve Zahn). The film is about three best friends that go to the woods and reenact a live action *[& Dragons](Dungeons)(Dungeons & Dragons)* role play, when they mistakenly conjure up a demon from Hell. The same year, he played the villain [Trask](Bolivar)(Bolivar Trask) in the superhero film *[Days of Future Past](X-Men:)(X-Men: Days of Future Past)*. In preparation for his role, Dinklage stated that he did not want to approach the character necessarily as a villain, saying that Trask "actually sees what he's doing as a good thing." He also voiced the [AI](Artificial intelligence) Ghost in the 2014 video game *[Destiny](Destiny (video game))*, but was replaced by [North](Nolan)(Nolan North) in August 2015. Executive producer Mark Noseworthy said that it was due to scheduling difficulties caused by Dinklage's other acting commitments.
In 2015, Dinklage starred in the science fiction comedy film *[Pixels](Pixels (2015 film))* as a former arcade champion named Eddie Plant. According to director [Columbus](Chris)(Chris Columbus (filmmaker)), Plant was partially inspired by [Mitchell](Billy)(Billy Mitchell (gamer)). The film was critically panned. *The Guardian* praised Dinklage's performance in an otherwise "dreary romp".
In 2016, Dinklage provided the voice of The Mighty Eagle in *[Angry Birds Movie](The)(The Angry Birds Movie)*, and recorded a song for the [soundtrack](musical's)(The Angry Birds Movie#Music).
His next release, the independent film *[Rememory](Rememory)* (2017), failed to impress reviewers, but his role of Sam Bloom was praised. Freelance film critic Yasmin Kleinbart stated that "Dinklage deserves better than this film" and John DeFore in *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* said that he "delivers a soulful lead performance that will attract fans' attention." Also in 2017, Dinklage had a supporting role in the drama-dark comedy film *[Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri](Three)(Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri)*, from director [McDonagh](Martin)(Martin McDonagh), and the drama *[Christs](Three)(Three Christs)*, both of which played at the [International Film Festival](Toronto)(Toronto International Film Festival), with the former receiving widespread critical success. In 2018, Dinklage produced and starred in ''[Think We're Alone Now](I)(I Think We're Alone Now (film))'', a post-apocalyptic drama based on the companionship between Del, played by Dinklage, and Grace, played by [Fanning](Elle)(Elle Fanning). The film premiered at the [Sundance Film Festival](2018)(2018 Sundance Film Festival), and was later released to theaters on September 14, 2018.
In 2016, Dinklage and his longtime manager David Ginsburg founded their joint-venture production company, Estuary Films. ''I Think We're Alone Now* is the first film under Estuary.
Dinklage appeared in the 2018 [Studios](Marvel)(Marvel Studios) film *[Infinity War](Avengers:)(Avengers: Infinity War)* as the character [Eitri](Eitri (comics)), a [giant](giant) dwarf.
Dinklage and writer-director [Gervasi](Sacha)(Sacha Gervasi) spent several years writing and producing a film based on the final days of actor [Villechaize](Hervé)(Hervé Villechaize), who died by suicide shortly after his 1993 interview with Gervasi. In 2018, Dinklage starred and played the title role in *[Dinner with Hervé](My)(My Dinner with Hervé)*. The movie was approved by HBO, with Dinklage co-starring alongside [Dornan](Jamie)(Jamie Dornan).
In August and September 2018, he starred in the title role of *Cyrano*, a stage musical adaptation of *[de Bergerac](Cyrano)(Cyrano de Bergerac (play))* written by his wife Erica Schmidt, with songs by the band [National](The)(The National (band)). He reprised the role in a [film adaptation of the musical](2021)(Cyrano (film)), for which he was nominated for the [Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy).[2022 Golden Globe Nominations: ‘Licorice Pizza’, ‘Squid Game’, ‘West Side Story’, and More](https://www.indiewire.com/2021/12/golden-globe-nominations-2022-see-full-list-1234685129/), indiewire.com. December 2021.
In 2021, Dinklage portrayed mobster Roman Lunyov in the crime thriller *[Care a Lot](I)(I Care a Lot)*. His performance was praised, with [Sokol](Tony)(Tony Sokol) favorably comparing his character to Russian mobsters in other media, including *[Day](Training)(Training Day)* and *[is the New Black](Orange)(Orange is the New Black)*.
In 2023, Dinklage voiced Terrorcon [Scourge](List of Transformers film series cast and characters#Terrorcons), the main antagonist in *[Rise of the Beasts](Transformers:)(Transformers: Rise of the Beasts)*.
#### Upcoming projects
In 2017, it was announced that Dinklage has been attached to star in the American comedy *O Lucky Day*, which is to be directed by [S. Baird](Jon)(Jon S. Baird) where he will play a con-man who pretends to be a leprechaun.
On October 5, 2017, Dinklage purchased the rights to the film adaptation of [R. Lansdale](Joe)(Joe R. Lansdale)'s novel, *[Thicket](The)(The Thicket (novel))*.
In 2020, it was announced Dinklage will voice Hitpig in the upcoming animated film, *Hitpig*. More recently, his production company Estuary Films signed a first look deal with [One](Entertainment)(Entertainment One).
## Personal life
[[File:Peter Dinklage at the 2013 San Diego Comic Con, closeup.jpg|thumb|upright|200px|Dinklage at the [Diego Comic-Con](San)(San Diego Comic-Con) in 2013]]
In 2005, Dinklage married Erica Schmidt, a theater director. They have two children: a daughter born in 2011 and a son born in 2017.
Dinklage's face was injured in the early 1990s, when he was in a "punk-funk-rap" band called Whizzy. It gave him a scar that runs from his neck to his eyebrow. He was playing at the nightclub [CBGB](CBGB) in New York City, where he was accidentally kneed in the face and started bleeding on the stage.
In 2008, Dinklage described himself as a [Catholic](lapsed)(lapsed Catholic).
Dinklage has been a [vegetarian](vegetarian) since the age of 16. An advocate for [rights](animal)(animal rights), he supports [Sanctuary](Farm)(Farm Sanctuary) and has served as the spokesman for the organization's Walk for Farm Animals. He also narrated the video *Face your Food,* a film on behalf of [PETA](PETA) advocating a [vegan](vegan) diet on ethical grounds. He appeared in another PETA campaign, asking *Game of Thrones* fans to adopt from shelters rather than to buy huskies that might look like direwolves.
In 2017, Dinklage attended the [March](Women's)(2017 Women's March) demonstration in [City, Utah](Park)(Park City, Utah), to advocate legislation and policies regarding human rights and other issues.
### Dwarfism
Dinklage has a form of dwarfism, [achondroplasia](achondroplasia), a genetic disorder which affects bone growth. As a result, he is tall, with an average-sized head and torso but shorter than average limbs. While Dinklage has come to accept his condition, he sometimes found it challenging when growing up. In 2003, he said that when he was younger he was often angry and bitter about his condition, but as he got older, he realized that he "just ha[s] to have a sense of humor," to know "that it's not your problem. It's theirs."
When asked in 2012 whether he saw himself as "a spokesman for the rights of little people," Dinklage responded: "I don't know what I would say. Everyone's different. Every person my size has a different life, a different history. Different ways of dealing with it. Just because I'm seemingly okay with it, I can't preach how to be okay with it." Despite his own sentiment about the matter, Dinklage has been viewed as a role model for people sharing his condition.
At the [Golden Globe](2012)(69th Golden Globe Awards) ceremony, when Dinklage won the award for [Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film), he told the audience that he had been thinking about "a gentleman, his name is Martin Henderson," and suggested that they Google his name. Henderson was a man with dwarfism from Somerset, England, who was badly injured after being tossed by a rugby fan in a bar. The speech by Dinklage brought media and public attention to the act of [dwarf-tossing](dwarf-tossing) with Henderson's name being trended worldwide on social media. Henderson eventually died of his injuries in 2016, 5 years after the incident. Dinklage turned down offers from talk shows to discuss the topic. He later explained that 20 years earlier he might have accepted these offers but that he's a "little bit more at peace with things now and I—said what I wanted to say. I have a friend who says the world doesn't need another angry dwarf."
In January 2022, Dinklage appeared on an episode of the *[with Marc Maron](WTF)(WTF with Marc Maron)* podcast, in which he criticized Disney's portrayal of the [Dwarfs](Seven)(Seven Dwarfs) in the [upcoming](Snow White (2024 film)) live-action remake of the 1937 animated film *[White and the Seven Dwarfs](Snow)(Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film))*. He stated that [Disney](The Walt Disney Company) tried to be progressive in one way by casting [Latina actress](a)(Rachel Zegler) as [White](Snow)(Snow White (Disney character)), but retained the [stereotype](damaging)(Seven Dwarfs#Response from people with dwarfism) of the Seven Dwarfs.Salam, Maya (January 25, 2022) [Peter Dinklage Calls Disney’s ‘Snow White’ Remake ‘Backward’](https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/25/movies/peter-dinklage-snow-white.html). *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*. Retrieved January 26, 2022. In response, Disney issued a statement, saying "We are taking a different approach with these seven characters and have been consulting with members of the dwarfism community. We look forward to sharing more as the film heads into production after a lengthy development period". Fellow dwarf actor and professional wrestler [Hornswoggle](Hornswoggle) criticised Dinklage for his comments, claiming he is trying to reduce the number of roles available that dwarf actors can play.
## Works and accolades
According to the review aggregator site [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), Dinklage's most critically acclaimed films are *[in Oblivion](Living)(Living in Oblivion)* (1995), *[Station Agent](The)(The Station Agent)* (2003), *[Lassie](Lassie (2005 film))* (2005), *[Days of Future Past](X-Men:)(X-Men: Days of Future Past)* (2014), and *[Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri](Three)(Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri)* (2017).
Dinklage won a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award) and a [Actor Guild Award](Screen)(Screen Actor Guild Award) for his performance in *[of Thrones](Game)(Game of Thrones)*. He has also won four [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award)s: [Supporting Actor in a Drama Series](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series) for the same role. He is also the only member of the cast to receive a Primetime Emmy. Dinklage has been nominated for the [Actors Guild Award](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award) for [Performance by a Male Actor](Outstanding)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series) each year from 2013 to 2017. He has also been nominated for [Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor](Critics')(Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series) three times, in 2012, 2016 and 2017. , Dinklage has won twelve awards from 58 nominations. He has been nominated for eight Primetime Emmy Awards and 15 Screen Actor Guild Awards, winning four Primetime Emmy Awards, two Screen Actors Guild Award and a Golden Globe Award.
## Notes
## References
## External links
**General**
*
*
*
*
**Interviews**
* [Interview with Peter Dinklage about The Station Agent](https://web.archive.org/web/20040914213145/http://romanticmovies.about.com/cs/thestationagent/a/stationagentpd.htm)
* [BBC Movies Interview about The Station Agent](https://www.bbc.co.uk/films/2004/03/12/peter_dinklage_the_station_agent_interview.shtml)
* [Playboy 20Q Interview with Peter Dinklage](https://web.archive.org/web/20130508212235/http://www.playboy.com/playground/view/20q-peter-dinklage-game-of-thrones)
**Talks**
* [Peter Dinklage '91 Addresses Bennington College's Class of 2012](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CuEfEv0OlsY)
}}
[ ](Category:Peter Dinklage)
[births](Category:1969)(Category:1969 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[American male actors](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American male actors)
[American male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male actors)
[with dwarfism](Category:Actors)(Category:Actors with dwarfism)
[actors with disabilities](Category:American)(Category:American actors with disabilities)
[film producers](Category:American)(Category:American film producers)
[male film actors](Category:American)(Category:American male film actors)
[male stage actors](Category:American)(Category:American male stage actors)
[male television actors](Category:American)(Category:American male television actors)
[male video game actors](Category:American)(Category:American male video game actors)
[male voice actors](Category:American)(Category:American male voice actors)
[people of German descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of German descent)
[people of Irish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Irish descent)
[narrators](Category:Audiobook)(Category:Audiobook narrators)
[Supporting Actor Golden Globe (television) winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe (television) winners)
[producers from New Jersey](Category:Film)(Category:Film producers from New Jersey)
[actors from New Jersey](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from New Jersey)
[Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Screen Actors Guild Award winners](Category:Outstanding)(Category:Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Screen Actors Guild Award winners)
[Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners](Category:Outstanding)(Category:Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners)
[Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners](Category:Outstanding)(Category:Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners)
[from Williamsburg, Brooklyn](Category:People)(Category:People from Williamsburg, Brooklyn)
[from Mendham Township, New Jersey](Category:People)(Category:People from Mendham Township, New Jersey)
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Gen V
|
gen_v
|
# Gen V
*Revision ID: 1160228798 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T05:43:32Z*
---
| developer =
| based_on =
| starring =
| theme_music_composer =
| opentheme =
| endtheme =
| composer =
| country = United States
| language = English
| num_seasons =
| num_episodes =
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer =
| producer =
| location = [Ontario](Toronto,)(Toronto, Ontario), Canada
| cinematography =
| editor =
| camera =
| runtime =
| company =
| network = [Prime Video](Amazon)(Amazon Prime Video)
| picture_format =
| audio_format =
| first_aired =
| last_aired =
| related = [Boys* (franchise)](*The)(The Boys (franchise))
}}
***Gen V*** (also known as ***The Boys: Gen V****The Boys* Renewed For Season 4 By Amazon; Vernon Sanders On Show's Ratings Growth & Spinoffs' Status|website=[Hollywood](Deadline)(Deadline Hollywood)|first=Nellie|last=Andreeva|date=June 10, 2022|access-date=June 10, 2022}}) is an upcoming American [superhero](superhero) television series, developed by Craig Rosenberg, [Goldberg](Evan)(Evan Goldberg), and [Kripke](Eric)(Eric Kripke), serving as a [spin-off](Spin-off (media)) of *[Boys](The)(The Boys (TV series))* by Kripke, and based on *[Boys](The)(The Boys (franchise))* [book](comic)(American comic book) [arc](story)(story arc) "We Gotta Go Now" by [Ennis](Garth)(Garth Ennis) and [Robertson](Darick)(Darick Robertson). The series, set concurrently with the [season](fourth)(The Boys (season 4)) of *The Boys*, is expected to premiere on [Prime Video](Amazon)(Amazon Prime Video) in 2023.
## Plot
Young adult superheroes, or "supes", are tested in [royal](battle)(battle royal) challenges at the Godolkin University School of Crimefighting, run by Vought International.
## Cast
### Main
* [Sinclair](Jaz)(Jaz Sinclair) as Marie Moreau, a [manipulative](blood)(Bloodbender) with a tragic past.
* [Perdomo](Chance)(Chance Perdomo) as Andre Anderson, a popular metal bender.
* [Broadway](Lizze)(Lizze Broadway) as Emma Shaw, a [YouTuber](YouTuber) who can shrink to 0.5 inches.
* [Phillips](Maddie)(Maddie Phillips) as Cate Dunlap, a mind empath.
* [Luh](Derek)(Derek Luh) and London Thor as Jordan, a [gender](Gender bender)-[shifter](Shapeshifter).
* Asa Germann
* [Conn](Shelley)(Shelley Conn)
### Recurring
* [Schwarzenegger](Patrick)(Patrick Schwarzenegger) as Jason/Golden Boy, a popular student and [manipulator](fire)(pyrokinesis).
* [Patrick Thomas](Sean)(Sean Patrick Thomas) as Polarity
* [Pigossi](Marco)(Marco Pigossi) as Doctor Edison Cardosa
* [Ritter](Jason)(Jason Ritter)
* [Calvert](Alexander)(Alexander Calvert)
* [Brown](Clancy)(Clancy Brown) as Richard "Rich Brink" Brinkerhoff Gallery Richard "Rich Brink" Brinkerhoff *Gen V* |url=https://www.godolkinuniversity.com/gallery |access-date=2023-05-08 |website=GodolkinUniversity.com |language=en}}
### Guest
* [T. Usher](Jessie)(Jessie T. Usher) as [Franklin / A-Train](Reggie)(List of The Boys characters#A-Train)
* [Minifie](Colby)(Colby Minifie) as [Barrett](Ashley)(List of The Boys characters#Ashley Barrett)
* [J. Byrne](P.)(P. J. Byrne) as Adam Bourke
* [Ackles](Jensen)(Jensen Ackles) as [/ B.C.L. RED / Soldier Boy](Ben)(Soldier Boy)
## Production
### Development
On September 20, 2020, a [spin-off](Spin-off (media)) of *[Boys](The)(The Boys (TV series))* was announced, with Craig Rosenberg writing and executive producing the series with [Kripke](Eric)(Eric Kripke), [Rogen](Seth)(Seth Rogen), [Goldberg](Evan)(Evan Goldberg), James Weaver, [H. Moritz](Neal)(Neal H. Moritz), Pavun Shetty, Michaela Starr, [Ennis](Garth)(Garth Ennis), [Robertson](Darick)(Darick Robertson), Sarah Carbiener, Erica Rosbe, Aisha Porter-Christie, Judalina Neira, and Zak Schwartz. On September 27, 2021, Amazon gave the order for the series and Michele Fazekas and Tara Butters were set as showrunners and executive producers of the series. On October 2, 2020, Kripke stated the *[Games](Hunger)(The Hunger Games (film series))*-inspired series would focus on the [G-Men](List of The Boys characters#G-Men) team mentioned in the first season of *The Boys*, originally created as a [parody](parody) of [Comics](Marvel)(Marvel Comics)' [X-Men](X-Men) for the fourth volume of Ennis' and Robertson's [book series](comic)(American comic book): [Gotta Go Now"]("We)(The Boys (comics)#We Gotta Go Now), from which the series is "loosely inspired".
On January 5, 2023, it was announced that a writing room for a potential second season will soon come together, which will be led by Michele Fazekas who also has become sole showrunner after Tara Butters has taken a break from work.
### Casting
On March 11, 2021, [Broadway](Lizze)(Lizze Broadway) and [Sinclair](Jaz)(Jaz Sinclair) were cast in the series. On March 19, [Paul McGhie](Shane)(Shane Paul McGhie), [Carrero](Aimee)(Aimee Carrero), and [Phillips](Maddie)(Maddie Phillips) were cast in the series. On April 15, 2021, Reina Hardesty was cast in the series. On March 10, 2022, Carrero and McGhie exited the series. A few days later, [Perdomo](Chance)(Chance Perdomo) joined the main cast in a recasting, replacing McGhie. On April 25, 2022, Hardesty left the series. On May 9, 2022, London Thor was cast to replace Hardesty. [Luh](Derek)(Derek Luh), Asa Germann, and [Conn](Shelley)(Shelley Conn) also joined the cast as series regulars. Two days later, [Schwarzenegger](Patrick)(Patrick Schwarzenegger), [Patrick Thomas](Sean)(Sean Patrick Thomas), and [Pigossi](Marco)(Marco Pigossi) were cast in recurring capacities. In November 2022, [Brown](Clancy)(Clancy Brown) joined the cast as Richard "Rich Brink" Brinkerhoff. In December 2022, [T. Usher](Jessie)(Jessie T. Usher), [Minifie](Colby)(Colby Minifie), and [J. Byrne](P.)(P. J. Byrne) were confirmed to be reprising their roles from *The Boys*, in guest appearances, as [Franklin / A-Train](Reggie)(List of The Boys characters#A-Train), [Barrett](Ashley)(List of The Boys characters#Ashley Barrett), and Adam Bourke, respectively.
### Filming
Filming began at the [of Toronto Mississauga](University)(University of Toronto Mississauga) campus in May 2022 and the [Conservation Area](Claireville)(Claireville Conservation Area), [Brampton](Brampton) in July, intended for an October wrap, under the working title of *The Boys Presents: Varsity*. In July 2022, it was announced that the series would officially be titled *Gen V*. In September 2022, members of the cast announced on social media that production had wrapped.
## References
## External links
*
[Boys (franchise)](Category:The)(Category:The Boys (franchise))
[American television series debuts](Category:2023)(Category:2023 American television series debuts)
[American college television series](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American college television series)
[American comic science fiction television series](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American comic science fiction television series)
[American superhero comedy television series](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American superhero comedy television series)
[American black comedy television series](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American black comedy television series)
[American teen drama television series](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American teen drama television series)
[Prime Video original programming](Category:Amazon)(Category:Amazon Prime Video original programming)
[television spin-offs](Category:American)(Category:American television spin-offs)
[Entertainment adaptations](Category:Dynamite)(Category:Dynamite Entertainment adaptations)
[television shows](Category:English-language)(Category:English-language television shows)
[shows based on DC Comics](Category:Television)(Category:Television shows based on DC Comics)
[shows filmed in Toronto](Category:Television)(Category:Television shows filmed in Toronto)
[series about teenagers](Category:Television)(Category:Television series about teenagers)
[series by Amazon Studios](Category:Television)(Category:Television series by Amazon Studios)
[series by Sony Pictures Television](Category:Television)(Category:Television series by Sony Pictures Television)
[drama television series](Category:Upcoming)(Category:Upcoming drama television series)
[comedy television series](Category:Upcoming)(Category:Upcoming comedy television series)
|
Georgia Tennant
|
georgia_tennant
|
# Georgia Tennant
*Revision ID: 1159368048 | Timestamp: 2023-06-09T21:43:48Z*
---
|birth_place = [Hammersmith](Hammersmith), [London](London), England
|citizenship = }}
|occupation = Actress, producer
|yearsactive = 1999–present
|education = [Edward's School, Oxford](St)(St Edward's School, Oxford)
|spouse =
| children = 5, including [Ty](Ty Tennant)
|father = [Davison](Peter)(Peter Davison)
|mother = [Dickinson](Sandra)(Sandra Dickinson)
|relatives =
}}
**Georgia Elizabeth Tennant** (; born 25 December 1984) is an English actress and producer. She played Detective Inspector [Nixon](Samantha)(Samantha Nixon)'s daughter Abigail in *[Bill](The)(The Bill)*, [Jenny](Jenny (Doctor Who)) in the *[Who](Doctor)(Doctor Who)* episode "[Doctor's Daughter](The)(The Doctor's Daughter)" and Lady Vivian in the show *[Merlin](Merlin (2008 TV series))*.
## Early life
Tennant was born on [Day](Christmas)(Christmas Day) at [Charlotte's and Chelsea Hospital](Queen)(Queen Charlotte's and Chelsea Hospital) in [Hammersmith](Hammersmith), [London](West)(West London), the daughter of actors Peter Moffett (known by his stage name, [Davison](Peter)(Peter Davison)) and [Dickinson](Sandra)(Sandra Dickinson). She attended [Edward's School](St)(St Edward's School, Oxford) in [Oxford](Oxford).
## Career
Tennant made her television debut at the age of 15 in *[Practice](Peak)(Peak Practice)* (1999), playing Nicki Davey. Tennant has appeared in television dramas such as *The Second Quest* and *Like Father Like Son*. She played downtrodden Alice Harding in the [ITV](ITV Network) drama *[the Heart Is](Where)(Where the Heart Is (British TV series))* in 2004 and 2005 and has performed alongside [father](her)(Peter Davison) in ''[Stress & Anger](Fear,)(Fear, Stress & Anger) * and *[Last Detective](The)(The Last Detective).*
In 2007, she made her theatrical debut as Mathilde Verlaine in *Total Eclipse'' at London's Menier Chocolate Factory. In May 2008, Tennant appeared in the [BBC](BBC) series *[Who](Doctor)(Doctor Who)* as [Tenth Doctor](the)(Tenth Doctor)'s artificially-created daughter, [Jenny](Jenny (Doctor Who)), in the episode "[Doctor's Daughter](The)(The Doctor's Daughter)", with her future husband [Tennant](David)(David Tennant) playing the Doctor (her father Peter Davison played the [Doctor](Fifth)(Fifth Doctor) in the 1980s). In August 2008, Tennant starred in series one of [Three](BBC)(BBC Three)'s spy spin-off *[Code 9](Spooks:)(Spooks: Code 9)* as Kylie Roman.
Tennant voiced the role of Cassie Rice in *[Who: Dreamland](Doctor)(Dreamland (Doctor Who))* in 2009, and portrayed Lady Vivian in the "Sweet Dreams" episode of the BBC drama *[Merlin](Merlin (2008 TV series))*. She joined the cast of BBC medical drama *[Casualty](Casualty (TV series))* as junior doctor Heather Whitefield, but her character was killed off at the start of her second episode.
In June 2010, she performed in the short play *Hens*, which ran for four performances at the [Studios](Riverside)(Riverside Studios) and was later broadcast on [Arts 2](Sky)(Sky Arts#Sky Arts 2), and played a cameo role in the television drama *[Sleepyhead](Thorne:)(Thorne (TV series))* as the wife of one of the junior detectives (appearing in one scene in episode two, and one non-speaking scene in episode three). In March 2011, she landed the role of Emma in the BBC Three sitcom *[Van Man](White)(White Van Man (TV series))*, which ran for two series before being cancelled. In May 2012, Tennant made her West End debut in the play *What the Butler Saw* at the Vaudeville Theatre in London. The play received poor reviews and ticket sales, and on 13 July the production announced via their official website that the play had been cancelled and would be ending the following week, a month earlier than scheduled.
In November 2013, Tennant appeared in and produced the *Doctor Who* homage anniversary webcast *[Five(ish) Doctors Reboot](The)(The Five(ish) Doctors Reboot)*; as a producer she was credited under her married name of Georgia Tennant (though her initial acting appearances were credited under Georgia Moffett). It was written and directed by her father, and featured cameo appearances by her husband and her two older children (she was at the time of filming heavily pregnant with her third, and the webcast features a scripted scene of her going into labour).
Tennant produced and starred in a short film called *96 Ways To Say I Love You*, which also co-starred her husband David Tennant. The film premiered at the [Independent Film Festival](London)(London Independent Film Festival) in April 2015. In 2017, she returned to acting, appearing in BBC drama miniseries *[the Dark](In)(In the Dark (miniseries))*, credited as Georgia Tennant.BBC – *In the Dark* pages: [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b08y7p10] [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b08ysx09] [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b08zj2wv] [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b09052h3] (Accessed 5 August 2017) That same year, she produced the comedy film *[Me and Him](You,)(You, Me and Him (2017 film))*. Since 2019, she has produced her husband's podcast series *David Tennant Does a Podcast With...* In 2020, Tennant co-starred and produced the six-part comedy *[Staged](Staged),* filmed during the [lockdown](COVID-19)(COVID-19 lockdowns) with her husband and [Sheen](Michael)(Michael Sheen).
## Personal life
Tennant became pregnant after a brief relationship with a university student and in 2002, at age 17, had her first child, a son named [Ty](Ty Tennant), who became an actor.
She became engaged to actor [Tennant](David)(David Tennant) in January 2011. She gave birth to the couple's daughter in March 2011. They married on 30 December 2011.[David Tennant 'to marry Georgia Moffett today' – Digital Spy](http://www.digitalspy.com.au/showbiz/news/a357856/david-tennant-to-marry-georgia-moffett-today.html). Retrieved 1 January 2012 The couple live in [Chiswick](Chiswick) and have three daughters and two sons, including Georgia's firstborn son Ty, whom David Tennant adopted.
Tennant is a patron of *Straight Talking*, a charity set up to educate young people about teenage pregnancy.
In 2018, Tennant was diagnosed with and successfully treated for early stage cervical cancer.
## Filmography
### Television
### Film
### Radio
## Stage
## References
## External links
*
*
*
[births](Category:1984)(Category:1984 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[English actresses](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century English actresses)
[from London](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from London)
[film actresses](Category:English)(Category:English film actresses)
[people of American descent](Category:English)(Category:English people of American descent)
[people of Finnish descent](Category:English)(Category:English people of Finnish descent)
[people of Guyanese descent](Category:English)(Category:English people of Guyanese descent)
[radio actresses](Category:English)(Category:English radio actresses)
[stage actresses](Category:English)(Category:English stage actresses)
[television actresses](Category:English)(Category:English television actresses)
[voice actresses](Category:English)(Category:English voice actresses)
[educated at St Edward's School, Oxford](Category:People)(Category:People educated at St Edward's School, Oxford)
[from Hammersmith](Category:People)(Category:People from Hammersmith)
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Pituffik Space Base
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pituffik_space_base
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# Pituffik Space Base
*Revision ID: 1160343399 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T22:00:21Z*
---
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| pushpin_map = Greenland
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| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Greenland
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| pushpin_label = Pituffik Space Base
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| operator = [States Space Force](United)(United States Space Force)
| controlledby = [Base Delta 1](Space)(Space Base Delta 1)
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| used = 1943 – present
| builder =
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| fate =
| condition = Operational
| battles =
| events = [crash](B-52)(1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash) (1968)
| current_commander =
| past_commanders =
| garrison = 821st Space Base Group
| occupants =
| designations =
| website =
| IATA = THU
| ICAO = BGTL
| FAA =
| TC =
| LID =
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| WMO = 042020
| elevation =
| r1-number = 08T/26T
| r1-length =
| r1-surface = [Asphalt](Asphalt concrete)
| h1-number =
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| h1-surface =
| airfield_other_label =
| airfield_other =
| footnotes = **Source:** Danish [AIS](Aeronautical Information Service)Greenland [AIP](Aeronautical Information Publication) for [BGTL – Thule Air Base](https://aim.naviair.dk/media/files/oay0obeosck/BG_AD_2_BGTL_en.pdf) from [Naviair](Naviair)
}}
[[Air Base aerial view.jpg|thumb|1989 aerial view](File:Thule)]
**Pituffik Space Base** ( ; ) , formerly **Thule Air Base** ( or ), is the [States Space Force](United)(United States Space Force)'s northernmost base, and the northernmost installation of the U.S. Armed Forces, located north of the [Circle](Arctic)(Arctic Circle) and from the [Pole](North)(North Pole) on the northwest coast of the island of [Greenland](Greenland). Pituffik's Arctic environment includes icebergs in [Star Bay](North)(North Star Bay), two islands ([Island](Saunders)(Saunders Island, Greenland) and [Island](Wolstenholme)(Wolstenholme Island)), a polar ice sheet, and [Fjord](Wolstenholme)(Wolstenholme Fjord) – the only place on Earth where four active glaciers join together. The base is home to a substantial portion of the global network of missile warning sensors of [Delta 4](Space)(Space Delta 4), and space surveillance and space control sensors of [Delta 2](Space)(Space Delta 2), providing space awareness and advanced missile detection capabilities to [American Aerospace Defense Command](North)(North American Aerospace Defense Command) (NORAD), the United States Space Force, and joint partners.
Pituffik Space Base is also home to the 821st Space Base Group and is responsible for space base support within the Pituffik Defense Area for the multinational population of "Team Pituffik". The base hosts the [Space Warning Squadron](12th)(12th Space Warning Squadron) (12 SWS) which operates a [Missile Early Warning System](Ballistic)(Ballistic Missile Early Warning System) (BMEWS) designed to detect and track [ICBM](ICBM)s launched against North America. The base is also host to Detachment 1 of the [Space Operations Squadron](23rd)(23rd Space Operations Squadron), part of the [Delta 6](Space)(Space Delta 6)'s global satellite control network. The airfield's runway handles more than 3,000 US and international flights per year. Finally, the base is home to the northernmost deep water port in the world.
Pituffik Space Base has served as the regional hub for nearby installations, including [Atholl](Cape)(Cape Atholl) ([LORAN](LORAN) station), [Century](Camp)(Camp Century) (Ice Cap Camp), [TUTO](Camp)(Camp TUTO) (Ice Cap Approach Ramp and Airstrip), Sites 1 and 2 (Ice Cap Radar Stations), P-Mountain (radar and communications site), J-Site (BMEWS), North and South Mountains (research sites), and a research rocket firing site. It also was essential in the construction and resupply of High Arctic weather stations, including [Alert](CFS)(CFS Alert) ([Airport](Alert)(Alert Airport)) and [Nord](Station)(Nord, Greenland).
## History
### Location and original population
In 1818, Sir [Ross](John)(John Ross (Royal Navy officer))'s expedition made first contact with nomadic [Inuktun](Inuktun) in the area. [Saunders](James)(James Saunders (naval commander))'s expedition aboard [*North Star*](HMS)(HMS North Star (1824)) was marooned in [Star Bay](North)(North Star Bay) 1849–50 and named landmarks. [Peary](Robert)(Robert Peary) built a support station by a protected harbor at the foot of iconic [Dundas](Mount)(Mount Dundas) in 1892. It served as a base camp for his expeditions and attracted a permanent population. In 1910 explorer [Rasmussen](Knud)(Knud Rasmussen) established a missionary and trading post there. He called the site "Thule" after classical *[Thule](ultima)(Thule)*; the Inuit called it *Umanaq* ("heart-shaped"), and the site is commonly called "Dundas" today. The United States abandoned its territorial claims in the area in 1917 in connection with the purchase of the [Islands](Virgin)(United States Virgin Islands). Denmark assumed control of the village in 1937.
A cluster of huts known as [Pituffik](Pituffik) ("the place the dogs are tied") stood on the wide plain where the base was built in 1951. (A main base street was named Pituffik Boulevard.) The affected locals moved to Thule. However, in 1953 the USAF planned to construct an air defense site near that village, and in order to limit contact with soldiers, the Danish government relocated "Old Thule" with about 130 inhabitants to a newly constructed, modern village north, known as [Qaanaaq](Qaanaaq), or "New Thule". In a Danish Supreme Court judgment of 28 November 2003 the move was considered an expropriative intervention. During the proceedings it was recognized by the Danish government that the movement was a serious interference and an unlawful act against the local population. The Thule tribe was awarded damages of 500,000 kroner, and the individual members of the tribe who had been exposed to the transfer were granted compensation of 15,000 or 25,000 each. A Danish radio station continued to operate at Dundas, and the abandoned houses remained. The USAF only used that site for about a decade, and it has since returned to civilian use.
Knud Rasmussen was the first to recognize the Pituffik plain as ideal for an airport. USAAF Colonel [Balchen](Bernt)(Bernt Balchen), who built [Air Base](Sondrestrom)(Sondrestrom Air Base), knew Rasmussen and his idea. Balchen led a flight of two [PBY Catalina](Consolidated)(Consolidated PBY Catalina) flying boats to Thule on 24 August 1942 and then sent a report advocating an air base to [USAAF](USAAF) chief ["Hap" Arnold](Henry)(Henry "Hap" Arnold). However, the 1951 air base site is a few miles inland from the original 1946 airstrip and across the bay from the historical Thule settlement, to which it is connected by an ice road. The joint Danish-American defense area, designated by treaty, also occupies considerable inland territory in addition to the air base itself.
### World War II
After the [occupation of Denmark](German)(Denmark in World War II) on 9 April 1940, [Kauffmann](Henrik)(Henrik Kauffmann), Danish Ambassador to the United States, made an agreement "In the name of the king" with the United States, authorizing the United States to defend the Danish colonies on Greenland from German aggression – this agreement faced Kauffmann with a charge of [treason](high)(high treason) by the [Government](protectorate)(Denmark in World War II#Protectorate Government 1940–1943). The first US-sponsored installations at Thule were established after the US Secretary of State [Hull](Cordell)(Cordell Hull) and the defected Danish Minister to the United States Henrik Kauffmann signed *The Agreement relating to the Defense of Greenland* in [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.), on the symbolically chosen date of 9 April 1941. The treaty, denounced by the Danish government, allowed the United States to operate military bases in Greenland "for as long as there is agreement" that the threat to North America existed. Beginning in the summer of 1941, the US Coast Guard and the War Department established weather and radio stations at [Airport](Narsarsuaq)(Narsarsuaq Airport) ([West-1](Bluie)(Narsarsuaq Air Base)), [Air Base](Sondrestrom)(Sondrestrom Air Base) (Bluie West-8), Ikateq ([East Two](Bluie)(Bluie East Two)), and [Gronnedal](Kangilinnguit) (Bluie West-9). In 1943 the [Air Forces](Army)(United States Army Air Forces) set up [station](weather)(weather station)s [Scoresbysund](Ittoqqortoormiit) (Bluie East-3) on the east coast around the southern tip of Greenland, and Thule ([Bluie](Bluie) West-6) to be operated by Danish personnel. Many other sites were set up, but BW-6, isolated in the far North, was then of very minor importance.Bo Lidegaard: *I Kongens Navn (In the Name of the King)*. Copenhagen, 2013
### Joint weather station
After liberation, Denmark ratified the Kauffmann treaty but began efforts to take over US installations. Nonetheless, in summer 1946, the radio and weather station was enhanced with a gravel airstrip and an upper-air (balloon) observatory. This was part of an American-Canadian initiative to construct joint weather stations in the High Arctic. This station was under joint US-Danish operation. The location changed from the civilian village at Thule (Dundas) to mainland Pituffik. In 1946–1951, the airstrip played an important role in Arctic resupply, aerial mapping, research, and search-and rescue.
The ratification of the treaty in 1951 did not change much, except that the [national flag](Danish)(Flag of Denmark) must be side by side with the [national flag](US)(Flag of US) on the base.
### Modern air base
In 1949, Denmark joined [NATO](NATO) (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) and abandoned its attempt to remove the United States bases. By the outbreak of the [War](Korean)(Korean War) next year, the USAF embarked on a global program of base-building in which Thule (at the time) would be considered the crown jewel owing to its location across the Pole from the [USSR](USSR), as well as its merit of being the northernmost port to be reliably resupplied by ship. Thule became a key point in American nuclear retaliation strategy. [Air Command](Strategic)(Strategic Air Command) (SAC) bombers flying over the [Arctic](Arctic) presented less risk of early warning than using bases in the United Kingdom. Defensively, Thule could serve as a base for intercepting bomber attacks along the northeastern approaches to Canada and the US.
A board of Air Force officers headed by [P. Saville](Gordon)(Gordon P. Saville) made a recommendation to pursue a base at Thule in November 1950. It was subsequently supported by the [Chiefs of Staff](Joint)(Joint Chiefs of Staff) and approved by [Truman](President)(Harry S. Truman). To replace the agreement entered into during World War II between the US and Denmark, a new agreement with respect to Greenland was ratified on 27 April 1951 (effective on 8 June 1951). At the request of NATO, the agreement became a part of the NATO defense program. The pact specified that the two nations would arrange for the use of facilities in Greenland by NATO forces in defense of the NATO area known as the Greenland Defense Area.
Thule Air Base was constructed in secret under the code name [Blue Jay](Operation)(Operation Blue Jay), but the project was made public in September 1952. Construction for Thule Air Base began in 1951 and was completed in 1953. The construction of Thule is said to have been comparable in scale to the enormous effort required to build the [Canal](Panama)(Panama Canal). The [States Navy](United)(United States Navy) transported the bulk of men, supplies, and equipment from the naval shipyards in [Virginia](Norfolk,)(Norfolk, Virginia). On 6 June 1951 an armada of 120 ships sailed from [Station Norfolk](Naval)(Naval Station Norfolk). On board were 12,000 men and 300,000 tons of cargo. They arrived at Thule on 9 July 1951. Construction, aided by continuous daylight in summer, took place around the clock. The workers lived on board the ships until quarters were built. Once they moved into the quarters, the ships returned home.
On 16 June 1951, the base was accidentally discovered by French cultural anthropologist and geographer [Malaurie](Jean)(Jean Malaurie) and his Inuit friend Kutikitsoq, on their way back from the geomagnetic North Pole.
### Strategic Air Command
[[Fighter-Interceptor Squadron F-89s Thule 1955.jpg|thumb|left|74th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron F-89s, Thule Air Base, Greenland, 1955](File:74th)]
Originally established as a Strategic Air Command installation, Thule would periodically serve as a dispersal base for [Peacemaker](B-36)(Convair B-36 Peacemaker) and [Stratojet](B-47)(B-47 Stratojet) aircraft during the 1950s, as well as providing an ideal site to test the operability and maintainability of these weapon systems in extreme cold weather. Similar operations were also conducted with [Stratofortress](B-52)(B-52 Stratofortress) aircraft in the 1950s and 1960s.
In 1954, the [Tower](Globecom)(Globecom Tower), a tower for military radio communication, was built at Northmountain. At the time of its completion it was the third tallest man-made structure on earth and the tallest structure north of the Arctic Circle in the Western hemisphere.
[[from Thule Air Base.jpg|thumb|Reconnaissance route from Thule Air Base to Soviet Union](File:Reconnaissance)]
In the winter of 1956/57 three [KC-97](KC-97 Stratofreighter) [tankers](Aerial refueling) and alternately one of two [RB-47H](B-47 Stratojet) aircraft made polar flights to inspect Soviet defenses. Five KC-97s prepared for flight with engines running in temperatures of in order to ensure three could achieve airborne status. After a two-hour head start, a B-47 would catch up with them at the northeast coastline of Greenland where two would offload fuel to top off the B-47's tanks (the third was an air spare). The B-47 would then fly seven hours of reconnaissance, while the tankers would return to Thule, refuel, and three would again fly to rendezvous with the returning B-47 at northeast Greenland. The B-47 averaged ten hours and in the air, unless unpredictable weather closed Thule. In that case the three tankers and the B-47 had to additionally fly to one of three equidistant alternates: England, [Alaska](Alaska), or [Labrador](Labrador). All of this sometimes took place in moonless, 24-hour [darkness](Arctic)(Polar night), December through February. These flights demonstrated the capabilities of the US [Air Command](Strategic)(Strategic Air Command) to [Anti-Air Defense](Soviet)(Soviet Air Defence Forces).
In 1959, the airbase was the main staging point for the construction of [Century](Camp)(Camp Century), some from the base.[Hole Oceanographic Institution](Woods)(Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution), [Thule Air Base/Camp Century information](http://www.whoi.edu/beaufortgyre/history/history_dew.html), verified 31 August 2008 Carved into the ice, and powered by a [reactor](nuclear)(nuclear reactor), [PM-2A](PM-2A) Camp Century was officially a scientific research base, but in reality was the site of the top secret [Iceworm](Project)(Project Iceworm). The camp operated from 1959 until 1967.
In the late 1950s, the [DEW](Distant Early Warning Line) 1 to 4 were built as "weather stations". Thule Air Base would act as a supply station for the DYE bases.
### Aerospace defense
In 1957 construction began on four [Missile](Nike)(Project Nike) sites around the base, and they and their radar systems were operational by the end of 1958.
In 1961, a Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) radar was constructed at "J-Site," northeast of main base. BMEWS was developed by the [RCA](RCA) Corporation in order to provide North America warning of a transpolar missile attack from the Russian mainland and submarine-launched missiles from the Arctic and North Atlantic oceans. At this time, Thule was at its peak with a population of about 10,000. Starting in July 1965, there was a general downsizing of activities at Thule. The base host unit, the [Air Defense Wing](4683d)(4683d Air Defense Wing), was discontinued. By January 1968, the population of Thule was down to 3,370. On 21 January 1968, a B-52G bomber carrying four nuclear weapons crashed just outside Thule – see below.
Thule is the location where the fastest recorded sea level surface wind speed in the world was measured, when a peak speed of was recorded on 8 March 1972, immediately prior to the instrument's destruction.
### Air Force Space Command from 1982 to 2019
[[AB, Greenland (39033264061).jpg|thumb|Aurora over Thule Air Base in 2017](File:Thule)]
Thule became an Air Force Space Command base in 1982. Today Thule is home to the 821st Air Base Group, which exercises Air Base support responsibilities within the Thule Defense Area. The base hosts the [Space Warning Squadron](12th)(12th Space Warning Squadron) (21st Operations Group, 21st Space Wing), a Ballistic Missile Early Warning Site designed to detect and track ICBMs launched against North America. Missile warning and space surveillance information flows to NORAD command centers located at [Space Force Base](Peterson)(Peterson Space Force Base), [Colorado](Colorado). Thule is also host to Detachment 1 of the [Space Operations Squadron](23rd)(23rd Space Operations Squadron), part of the [Space Wing](50th)(50th Space Wing)'s global satellite control network, as well as operating many new weapons systems. In addition, the airfield boasts a asphalt runway, with 3,000 US and international flights per year.
A delegation from the [Parliamentary Assembly](NATO)(NATO Parliamentary Assembly) visited Thule in early September 2010 and were told by the base commander that, at that time (summer), approximately 600 personnel were serving at Thule, a mix of mostly US and Danish active duty personnel and contractors.NATO Parliamentary Assembly, press release 6 September 2010, [30 August – 4 September 2010, Visit to Denmark, Greenland and Iceland](http://www.nato-pa.int/default.asp?CAT2=0&CAT1=0&CAT0=2151&SHORTCUT=2209) see "full report"; accessed 26 September 2010.
There is only a brief period each year in the summer when sea ice thins sufficiently to send supply ships to the base. The US sends one heavy supply ship each summer in what is called [Pacer Goose](Operation)(Operation Pacer Goose).
### Space Force Command from 2020
In 2020, Thule was formally reorganized under the control of the [States Space Force](United)(United States Space Force). On 6 April 2023, Thule Air Base was renamed Pituffik Space Base, reflecting its status as a Space Force base and the native name for the region.
### Major commands to which assigned
* [Air Command](Northeast)(Northeast Air Command), 1 July 19511 April 1957
* [Air Command](Strategic)(Strategic Air Command)
*: [Air Force](Eighth)(Eighth Air Force), 1 April 19571 July 1960
* [Defense Command (later redesignated Aerospace Defense Command) 15 January 1968](Air)(Aerospace Defense Command), 1 July 19601 December 1979
* Strategic Air Command, 1 December 197930 September 1992
* [Force Space Command](Air)(Air Force Space Command), 30 September 199220 December 2019
* [States Space Force](United)(United States Space Force), 20 December 2019 - Present
### Major air and space units assigned
Fletcher, Harry R. (1989) Air Force Bases Volume II, Active Air Force Bases outside the United States of America on 17 September 1982. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History.
* 6622d Air Base Squadron, 20 July 1951
*: Redesignated: 6612th Air Base Group, 1 January 1952
*: Redesignated: 6607th Air Base Wing, 1 June 19541 April 1957
* [Fighter Interceptor Squadron](318th)(318th Fighter Interceptor Squadron), 1 July 19535 August 1954
* [Fighter-Interceptor Squadron](74th)(74th Fighter Squadron), 20 August 195425 June 1958
* [Air Refueling Squadron](320th)(320th Air Refueling Squadron), 4 May 195510 June 1957
*: Detached from [Bombardment Wing](320th)(320th Air Expeditionary Wing), [AFB](March)(March Joint Air Reserve Base), California
* [Air Refueling Squadron](509th)(509th Air Refueling Squadron), c. 17 June 1955c. 3 August 1955
*: Detached from [Bombardment Wing](509th)(509th Bomb Wing), [AFB](Walker)(Walker Air Force Base), [Mexico](New)(New Mexico)
* [Air Refueling Squadron](96th)(96th Air Refueling Squadron), 13 July 195514 September 1955
*: Detached from [Bombardment Wing](96th)(96th Air Base Wing), [AFB](Altus)(Altus Air Force Base), [Oklahoma](Oklahoma)
* [Air Refueling Squadron](26th)(26th Air Refueling Squadron), 9 September 19552 November 1955; 5 September 195615 December 1956
*: Detached from [Bombardment Wing](380th)(380th Air Expeditionary Wing), [AFB](Plattsburgh)(Plattsburgh Air Force Base), New York
* [Air Refueling Squadron](42d)(42d Air Refueling Squadron), 2 November 195528 December 1955; 1 January 19577 March 1957
*: Detached from [Bombardment Wing](42d)(42d Air Base Wing), [AFB](Loring)(Loring Air Force Base), [Maine](Maine)
* [Air Refueling Squadron](71st)(71st Air Refueling Squadron), 29 December 195527 March 1956
*: Detached from [Bombardment Wing](2d)(2d Bomb Wing), [AFB](Barksdale)(Barksdale Air Force Base), [Louisiana](Louisiana)
* [Air Refueling Squadron](341st)(341st Air Refueling Squadron), 27 March 195626 June 1956
*: Detached from [Bombardment Wing](341st)(341st Missile Wing), [AFB](Dyess)(Dyess Air Force Base), [Texas](Texas)
* [Air Refueling Squadron](40th)(40th Air Refueling Squadron), 27 June 19564 September 1956; c. 1 October 1958January, 9 1959
*: Detached from [Bombardment Wing](40th)(40th Air Expeditionary Wing), [Hill AFB](Smoky)(Schilling Air Force Base), [Kansas](Kansas)
* [Air Refueling Squadron](340th)(340th Air Refueling Squadron), 29 October 195630 December 1956
*: Detached from [Bombardment Wing](340th)(340th Flying Training Group), [AFB](Whiteman)(Whiteman Air Force Base), [Missouri](Missouri)
* [Air Refueling Squadron](100th)(100th Air Refueling Squadron) c. 2 Jan 19582 Apr 1958, Detached from 100th Bomb Wing Pease AFB New Hampshire
* [Air Refueling Squadron c. 3 Apr 19584 Jul 1959](509th)(509th Air Refueling Squadron c. 3 Apr 19584 Jul 1959), Detached from 509th Bomb Wing Pease AFB New Hampshire
* [Strategic Wing](4083d)(4083d Strategic Wing), 1 April 19571 July 1959
* 4083d Air Base Group, 1 April 1957
*: Redesignated: 4083d Air Base Wing, 1 July 1960
*: Redesignated: 4083d Air Base Group, 1 October 1960
*: Redesignated: 4683d Combat Support Group, 1 July 1965
*: Redesignated: 4683d Air Base Group, 1 July 19701 October 1977
* [Air Defense Wing](4683d)(4683d Air Defense Wing), 1 July 19601 July 1965
* [Fighter-Interceptor Squadron](327th)(327th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron), 3 July 195825 March 1960
* [Fighter-Interceptor Squadron](332d)(332d Fighter-Interceptor Squadron), 1 September 19601 July 1965
* OL-5, 6594th Test Wing (Satellite), Air Force Systems Command, 15 October 1961
*: Redesignated: 22nd Space Operations Squadron, 1 June 1997
*: Redesignated: Det 3, 22d Space Operations Squadron, 1 May 2004
*: Redesignated: Det 1, 23d Space Operations Squadron, 1 October 2010 – present
* 12th Missile Warning Group, 31 March 1977
*: Redesignated: 12th Missile Warning Squadron, 15 June 1983
*: Redesignated: 12th Missile Warning Group, 1 October 1989
*: Redesignated: 12th Space Warning Squadron, 15 May 1992 – present
* 4711th Air Base Squadron, 31 March 1977
*: Redesignated: 4685th Air Base Squadron, 1 October 198031 March 1981
* 821st Air Base Group, 1 June 2002present
### Major Army units assigned
* 4th Battalion, [Artillery](55th)(55th Air Defense Artillery Regiment), 1 Sep 195820 Dec 1965. ([Nike](Nike Missile))
* 7th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Group, 1 July 1955 – 20 December 1965 (Redesignated 7th Artillery Group 20 March 1958) [B, C, and D Batteries 90mm AAA cannon; 549th 75mm AAA BN (Sky Sweeper); 51st Ordnance Company](A,)
## Remote tracking station
Thule Tracking Station (TTS) is operated by Pituffik Space Base, using the callsign POGO. The station ) is a U.S. Space Force installation in Greenland, near the base, and has a [Tracking Station](Remote)(Remote Tracking Station) (callsign: Polar Orbiting Geophysical Observatory (POGO)) of the Satellite Control Network.
It was originally the classified [Test Wing](6594th)(6594th Test Wing)'s Operating Location 5 designated by [Force Systems Command](Air)(Air Force Systems Command) on 15 October 1961: the station was operational on 30 March 1962, with "transportable antenna vans parked in an old [Air Command](Strategic)(Strategic Air Command) bomb assembly building."
The permanent RTS equipment was emplaced in 1964, and a communications terminal was emplaced on Pingarssuit Mountain—Thule Site N-32 (moved to [Site J](Thule)(Thule Site J) in 1983.
## Based units
Notable units based at Pituffik Space Base:
### United States Space Force
**[Operations Command](Space)(Space Operations Command)**
* [Base Delta 1](Space)(Space Base Delta 1)
** 821st Space Base Group
*** 821st Support Squadron
*** 821st Security Forces Squadron
* [Delta 4](Space)(Space Delta 4)
** [Space Warning Squadron](12th)(12th Space Warning Squadron)
* [Delta 6](Space)(Space Delta 6)
** [Space Operations Squadron](23rd)(23rd Space Operations Squadron)
*** Detachment 1
## Accidents
### C-124 plane crash (1954)
In 1954 a [C-124C Globemaster II](Douglas)(Douglas C-124C Globemaster II) operated by the US Air Force crashed on approach to the air base, killing ten people.["Accident description"](http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19540912-1) Aviation Safety Network. Accessed 13 October 2016
### B-52 nuclear bomber crash (1968)
On 21 January 1968, a [Stratofortress](B-52G)(B-52G Stratofortress) from the [Strategic Aerospace Wing](380th)(380th Strategic Aerospace Wing), [Air Force Base](Plattsburgh)(Plattsburgh Air Force Base), New York, on a secret airborne nuclear alert crashed and burned on the ice near Thule Air Base. The impact detonated the [explosives](high)(Explosive material#High explosives) in the primary units of all four of the [nuclear bomb](B28)(B28 nuclear bomb)s it carried, but nuclear and [reactions](thermonuclear)(Nuclear fusion) did not take place due to the [PAL](Permissive_Action_Link#Misfire) and [fail-safe](fail-safe) mechanisms in the weapons, thus preventing the actual detonation of the weapons themselves. The resulting fire caused extensive [contamination](radioactive)(radioactive contamination). More than 700 Danish civilians and US military personnel worked under hazardous conditions, the former without protective gear, to clean up the [waste](nuclear)(nuclear waste). In 1987, nearly 200 of the Danish workers tried unsuccessfully to sue the United States. Kaare Ulbak, chief consultant to the Danish National Institute of Radiation Hygiene, said Denmark had carefully studied the health of the Thule workers and found no evidence of increased mortality or cancer.
[Pentagon](The)(The Pentagon) maintained that all four weapons had been destroyed. Although many of the details of the accident are still classified, some information was released by the US authorities under the [of Information Act](Freedom)(Freedom of Information Act (United States)). After reviewing these files, an investigative reporter from [News](BBC)(BBC News) claimed in May 2007 that the USAF was unable to account for one of the weapons. In 2009, the assertions of the BBC were refuted by a Danish report after a review of the available declassified documentation.
## Airlines and destinations
### Airlines
As of 2010, one airline provided commercial service to Thule.
[Savissivik](Savissivik Heliport) **Charter:** [Copenhagen](Copenhagen Airport), [Kangerlussuaq](Kangerlussuaq Airport)
}}
### Cargo Shipping
**Ocean Transportation** is provided by Schuyler Line Navigation Company, a US Flag Ocean Carrier. Schuyler Line operates under government contract to supply sustainment and building supplies to the Base.
## Geography
Pituffik has a [tundra](tundra) [climate](Polar climate) ([ET](Köppen climate classification)) with long, severely cold winters lasting most of the year and short and cool summers. Precipitation is very low year round, but peaks during summer. The structures of the base are built on [permafrost](permafrost) which makes them vulnerable to the effects of [change](climate)(climate change).
## See also
* [Greenland](Etah,)(Etah, Greenland)
* [Annoatok](Annoatok)
* [Air Defense Force](Eastern)(Eastern Air Defense Force) (Air Defense Command)
* [people](Thule)(Thule people)
* *[Bird](Kee)(Kee Bird)*
* [Fistclench](Camp)(Camp Fistclench)
* [Century](Camp)(Camp Century)
* [Gustafson](Gerald)(Gerald Gustafson)
## Further reading
* Maria Ackrén. 2019. "[From bilateral to trilateral agreement: The case of Thule Air Base.](https://arcticyearbook.com/images/yearbook/2019/Scholarly-Papers/2_AY2019_Ackren.pdf)" *Arctic Yearbook 2019*.
## References
## Other sources
*
*
* Balchen, Bernt. *Come North With Me*. EP Dutton, New York, 1958.
* Maurer, Maurer. *Air Force Combat Units of World War II*. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office 1961 (republished 1983, Office of Air Force History, ).
* Ravenstein, Charles A. *Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947–1977*. [Air Force Base](Maxwell)(Maxwell Air Force Base), [Alabama](Alabama): Office of Air Force History 1984. .
* Fletcher, Harry R. (1989) Air Force Bases Volume II, Active Air Force Bases outside the United States of America on 17 September 1982. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History.
## External links
* [Pituffik SB, Greenland](https://www.spacebasedelta1.spaceforce.mil/Pituffik-SB-Greenland/) — [Base Delta 1](Space)(Space Base Delta 1)
* [www.thule.af.mil](https://web.archive.org/web/20021004013436/http://www.thule.af.mil/index2.htm) (original website)
*
* [The Ultimate Guide to Thule Air Base](https://web.archive.org/web/20040110185454/http://www.thuleab.dk/)
* Joergen Dragsdahl (2005) [US-Danish politics on Thule Air Base: A few dilemmas bypassed in Denmark and Greenland](http://www.dragsdahl.dk/A20050814.htm)
;Photos
* [Greenland Photos and Stories from Thule Air Base](https://web.archive.org/web/20070520022828/http://greenland.dreanged.com/)
*
*
;weather
* [Current weather conditions at Thule Air Base, Greenland](http://weather.noaa.gov/weather/current/BGTL.html)
*
* [Thule weather CCTV feed](https://web.archive.org/web/20160108010625/http://www.thuleweather.com/wx_sensors/thule)
}}
[in the Arctic](Category:Airports)(Category:Airports in the Arctic)
[of the United States Air Force in Greenland](Category:Installations)(Category:Installations of the United States Air Force in Greenland)
[in Greenland](Category:Airports)(Category:Airports in Greenland)
[Bay](Category:Baffin)(Category:Baffin Bay)
[of the United States Army Air Forces in Greenland](Category:Airfields)(Category:Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces in Greenland)
[of Strategic Air Command](Category:Installations)(Category:Installations of Strategic Air Command)
[airbases established in 1953](Category:Military)(Category:Military airbases established in 1953)
[establishments in Denmark](Category:1953)(Category:1953 establishments in Denmark)
[establishments in Greenland](Category:1950s)(Category:1950s establishments in Greenland)
|
Silicon Valley _TV series
|
silicon_valley__tv_series
|
# Silicon Valley (TV series)
*Revision ID: 1158809968 | Timestamp: 2023-06-06T11:00:22Z*
---
| starring =
| opentheme = "Stretch Your Face" by [Tobacco](Tobacco (musician))
| composer = [Cardoni](Jeff)(Jeff Cardoni)
| country = United States
| language = English
| num_seasons = 6
| num_episodes = 53
| list_episodes = List of Silicon Valley episodes
| executive_producer =
| producer =
| cinematography =
| editor = Tim RocheBrian MerkenAl Levine
| camera = [Single-camera](Single-camera setup)
| runtime = 28–47 minutes
| company =
| picture_format = [HDTV](High-definition television) ([1080i](1080i))
| first_aired =
| last_aired =
| channel = [HBO](HBO)
}}
***Silicon Valley*** is an American [television series](comedy)(television comedy) created by [Judge](Mike)(Mike Judge), [Altschuler](John)(John Altschuler) and [Krinsky](Dave)(Dave Krinsky). It premiered on [HBO](HBO) on April 6, 2014, and concluded on December 8, 2019, running for [seasons for a total of 53 episodes](six)(List of Silicon Valley episodes). Parodying the culture of the [industry](technology)(Technology company) in [Valley](Silicon)(Silicon Valley), the series focuses on [Hendricks](Richard)(List of Silicon Valley characters) ([Middleditch](Thomas)(Thomas Middleditch)), a programmer who founds a startup company called Pied Piper, and chronicles his struggles to maintain his company while facing competition from larger entities. Co-stars include [Miller](T.J.)(T.J. Miller), [Brener](Josh)(Josh Brener), [Starr](Martin)(Martin Starr), [Nanjiani](Kumail)(Kumail Nanjiani), [Woods](Zach)(Zach Woods), [Crew](Amanda)(Amanda Crew), [Ross](Matt)(Matt Ross (actor)), and [O. Yang](Jimmy)(Jimmy O. Yang).
The series received critical acclaim, with praise for its writing and humor. It was nominated for numerous accolades, including five consecutive [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award) nominations for [Comedy Series](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series).
## Plot
### Season 1
Richard Hendricks, an employee of a tech company named Hooli, creates in his spare time an [app](Application software) called Pied Piper that contains a revolutionary [compression](data)(data compression) algorithm. Peter Gregory acquires a stake in Pied Piper, and Richard hires the residents of Erlich Bachman's [incubator](business)(business incubator), including Bertram Gilfoyle and Dinesh Chugtai, along with Jared Dunn, who also defected from Hooli. Meanwhile Richard's best friend, Nelson "Big Head" Bighetti, chooses to accept a substantial promotion at Hooli instead, despite his lack of merit for the job.
Gavin Belson instructs his Hooli employees to [engineer](reverse)(reverse engineering) Pied Piper and develop a similar product called Nucleus. Both companies are scheduled to present at [Disrupt](TechCrunch)(TechCrunch#TechCrunch Disrupt). Pied Piper rushes to produce a feature-rich [storage](cloud)(cloud storage) platform based on their compression technology. At the TechCrunch event, Belson presents Nucleus, which is integrated with all of Hooli's services and has compression performance equal to Pied Piper. However, Richard has a new idea and spends the entire night [coding](Computer programming). The next morning, he makes Pied Piper's final presentation and demonstrates a product that strongly outperforms Nucleus; he is then mobbed by eager investors.
### Season 2
In the immediate aftermath of their TechCrunch Disrupt victory, multiple [capital](venture)(venture capital) firms offer to finance Pied Piper's [A round](Series)(Series A round). Peter Gregory has died and is replaced by Laurie Bream to run Raviga Capital. Richard finds out that Hooli is suing Pied Piper for [infringement](copyright)(copyright infringement), falsely claiming that Richard developed Pied Piper's compression algorithm on Hooli time using company equipment. As a result, Raviga and all the other VC firms retract their offers. Richard turns down Hooli's [buyout](buyout) and accepts funding from controversial billionaire Russ Hanneman, though Richard quickly begins questioning his decision after learning about Hanneman's mercurial reputation and his excessive interference in day-to-day operations.
Belson promotes Big Head to Hooli [xyz], to make people think he created the compression algorithm and that Richard stole it to create Pied Piper. Belson agrees to drop the lawsuit in favor of [arbitration](binding)(binding arbitration) to prevent the press from finding out about how bad Nucleus is. Due to a clause in Richard's Hooli contract, the lawsuit is ruled in Pied Piper's favor. Raviga buys out Hanneman's stake in Pied Piper, securing three of Pied Piper's five board seats. However, they decide to remove Richard from the [CEO](Chief executive officer) position due to previous incidents.
### Season 3
After a failed stint with Jack Barker as CEO of Pied Piper, Richard eventually regains his CEO position. Due to Jack wasting all their money on offices and useless marketing, a cash strapped Richard hires contract engineers from around the world to help construct their application platform. Big Head receives a $20 million [package](severance)(severance package) from Hooli in exchange for [non-disclosure](Non-disclosure agreement) and non-disparagement agreements. Big Head uses his money to set up his own incubator and Erlich partners with him. However, because of their spending habits, they declare bankruptcy, and Erlich is forced to sell his stake in Pied Piper to repay the debts. Gavin Belson hires Jack Barker as the new head of development at Hooli.
After release, their platform is positively reviewed by members of the industry. However, only a small fraction of the people installing the platform remain as [active users](daily)(daily active users) due to its complex interface design. Meanwhile, Jared secretly employs a [farm](click)(click farm) to artificially inflate usage statistics. An anxious Richard reveals the source of the uptick at a [B funding](Series)(Series B funding) signing meeting, leading to the deal being scrapped. Laurie no longer wishes for Raviga to be associated with Pied Piper and moves to sell majority control to any investor. Erlich and Big Head are able to buy control of the company after an unexpected windfall from the sale of a blog they bought. Pied Piper now prepares to pivot again, this time to become a video chat company, based on the sudden popularity of Dinesh's video chat application which he included on the platform.
### Season 4
Richard steps down as CEO of Pied Piper, and instead begins working on a new project: a decentralized, peer-to-peer internet, that would be powered by a network of cell phones without any [firewalls](Firewall (computing)), viruses, or government regulations. Gavin Belson is removed as CEO of Hooli after an incident involving [COPPA](COPPA) violations from when he seized PiperChat. Jack Barker takes his place as CEO. Gavin temporarily works with Richard, until he has an existential crisis and leaves Palo Alto for [Tibet](Tibet).
Laurie and Monica form their own VC company, Bream-Hall. Big Head becomes a lecturer at [University](Stanford)(Stanford University)'s Department of Computer Science. Erlich gets into business with Keenan Feldspar, whose VR headset is the Valley's latest sensation. However, Erlich is left out of a signing deal and is abandoned by Feldspar, leaving Erlich disillusioned. Erlich then goes to Tibet to meet with Gavin. Gavin meets up with Erlich in Tibet. Belson eventually returns home, while Erlich stays behind.
Richard gets into business with FGI, an insurance company, who uses Pied Piper for their data storage needs. After a crisis involving FGI's data storage, the team discovers that the decentralized internet is a working concept after the data from their Pied Piper server had backed itself up to Jian-Yang's smart refrigerator, as Gilfoyle used some of the Pied Piper code when he was trying to hack it, which in turn connected itself to a network of other refrigerators like it and distributing the data. Gavin ousts Jack from Hooli and regains his position as CEO. He offers a very generous acquisition deal to Richard, who turns it down and decides to be funded by Bream-Hall.
### Season 5
In the fifth season, the Pied Piper team gets new offices and hires a large team of coders to help work on Richard's new internet. Meanwhile, Jian-Yang manages to convince a judge that Erlich is dead so that he can inherit Erlich's estate, including the idea incubator and the 10% share of Pied Piper. Richard promotes Jared to be the new [operating officer](chief)(chief operating officer) for Pied Piper, and Jian-Yang goes to [China](China) to build a [knock-off](Counterfeit consumer goods) version of Pied Piper.
Bream-Hall forces Richard to team up with Eklow, an AI team, and Pied Piper puts together a group of developers. When Eklow's CEO almost destroys Pied Piper's credibility, Richard becomes fed up with Laurie and considers using Gilfoyle's idea to create a [cryptocurrency](cryptocurrency) for Pied Piper as a way to secure an independent source of funding. After initially opposing the idea, Monica realizes that Laurie plans to make Richard sell ads for his [decentralized](decentralized) internet, and warns him. In gratitude, Richard offers her the newly vacated role of [CFO](Chief Financial Officer) at Pied Piper, and she accepts, finally cutting ties with Laurie.
After unimpressive results from their [cryptocurrency](cryptocurrency), Pied Piper is distraught when Laurie teams up with a wealthy Chinese manufacturer, Yao, who had been working with Belson to steal Jian-Yang's Pied Piper patent. Yao and Laurie add users to Pied Piper's network via a large number of newly manufactured phones, and prepare for a [attack](51%)(51% attack) against Pied Piper's network in order to take control of developing it. Richard asks Belson to put their software onto Hooli's Signature Box 3 network in order to stop Yao and Laurie, and Belson does so, but betrays Richard by teaming up with Laurie and Yao to delete Pied Piper. At the last minute, Pied Piper recruits Colin, another developer betrayed by Laurie, to run his popular video game *Gates of Galloo* on the Pied Piper network, adding users and allowing Pied Piper to maintain control of enough of the network to block Yao's and Hooli's machines from accessing it. Meanwhile, due to the losses incurred in launching the unsuccessful Signature Box 3, Hooli's board of directors announce plans that force Belson to sell the company to [Amazon](Amazon (company)) and [Bezos](Jeff)(Jeff Bezos). PiedPiperCoin gains traction, and the season ends with the Pied Piper team moving into a huge new office space vacated by Hooli.
### Season 6
Pied Piper has become a large company of 500 employees with Richard speaking before [Congress](United States Congress) on his ideology of a new internet that doesn't collect user data. He is shocked to learn that Colin's online game *Gates of Galloo*, part of the Pied Piper family, has been collecting user data the entire time. Colin refuses to stop, but Pied Piper depends on his game's revenue, so Richard seeks new investment in order to cut Colin loose. He finds shady Chilean billionaire Maximo Reyes, who offers Richard $1 billion. When Richard turns him down, Maximo begins staging a hostile takeover of Pied Piper. Meanwhile, Richard's right-hand man Jared has left Pied Piper to seek a new up-and-coming talent in need of his support. Hooli, once a tech giant headed by Richard's rival Gavin Belson, downsizes drastically after most of the company is sold to Amazon. Pied Piper purchases what remains of Hooli, including its subsidiary FoxHole. [CFIUS](Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States) judges foreign ownership of FoxHole to be a threat to national security, and Maximo is forced to sell all of his shares of Pied Piper. Gavin, free from his Hooli position, launches a new campaign for "Tethics" (tech ethics) which leads to an investigation that would tie up Pied Piper's business dealings. Richard is able to maneuver out of this with the help of Russ Hanneman. However, Pied Piper must now help Russ with his music festival RussFest. At RussFest, Richard suspects Laurie may be sabotaging their software as it is failing. It turns out that neither Yao Net USA nor Pied Piper scale. Instead of quitting, Richard integrates Gilfoyle's AI (with some edits from Dinesh) into PiperNet and it works better than anyone could have expected, allowing Pied Piper to close a deal with [AT&T](AT&T). However, the team soon realizes that in this effort to maximize compression and efficiency, PiperNet's AI has found a way to bypass all encryption, causing a potential global threat if launched. Thus PiedPiper is forced to intentionally fail in order to save the world from their own creation. They are successful in crashing the launch. There is a 10 year flash forward to see where everyone is, ending with Richard misplacing a flash drive with the potential world security-threatening code on it.
## Cast and characters
* [Middleditch](Thomas)(Thomas Middleditch) as Richard Hendricks, a [coder](Programmer) and founder/CEO of Pied Piper.
* [Miller](T.J.)(T.J. Miller) as Erlich Bachman (seasons 1–4), an [entrepreneur](entrepreneur) who runs an [incubator](innovation)(Business incubator) in his house and owns 10% of Pied Piper.
* [Brener](Josh)(Josh Brener) as Nelson "Big Head" Bighetti, Richard's best friend who works at Hooli. Despite possessing few skills as a programmer, he often finds himself being promoted and finding success.
* [Starr](Martin)(Martin Starr) as Bertram Gilfoyle, the [engineer](network)(network engineer) of Pied Piper who is known for his stolid and [sardonic](Sardonicism) personality. He is a [Satanist](LaVeyan)(LaVeyan Satanism).
* [Nanjiani](Kumail)(Kumail Nanjiani) as Dinesh Chugtai, a programmer specializing in [Java](Java (programming language)) and member of Pied Piper. He is often the victim of Gilfoyle's ridicule, pranks, and racist slurs and also delivers them in kind as he becomes obsessed with one-upmanship.
* [Evan Welch](Christopher)(Christopher Evan Welch) as Peter Gregory (season 1), the socially awkward billionaire founder and CEO of Raviga Capital as well as a 5% equity owner of Pied Piper after his $200,000 [investment](investment).
* [Crew](Amanda)(Amanda Crew) as Monica Hall, an employee of Raviga Capital and associate partner.
* [Woods](Zach)(Zach Woods) as Donald "Jared" Dunn, an ex-[VP](Vice president) of Hooli who quits the company in order to join the Pied Piper team as its COO and business advisor.
* [Ross](Matt)(Matt Ross (actor)) as Gavin Belson (seasons 2–6; recurring season 1), the CEO and founder of Hooli and the series' main antagonist.
* [Cryer](Suzanne)(Suzanne Cryer) as Laurie Bream (seasons 2–6), the replacement for Peter Gregory as CEO of Raviga Capital, and later co-founder of Bream Hall Capital with Monica. Like her predecessor, she is highly intelligent and socially inept.
* [O. Yang](Jimmy)(Jimmy O. Yang) as Jian-Yang (seasons 2–6; recurring season 1), another tenant of Erlich's incubator, but has no involvement with Pied Piper. He and Erlich have frequent disagreements.
* [Tobolowsky](Stephen)(Stephen Tobolowsky) as "Action" Jack Barker (season 4; recurring season 3), briefly CEO of Pied Piper and later Hooli.
* [Diamantopoulos](Chris)(Chris Diamantopoulos) as Russ Hanneman (seasons 4, 6; recurring season 2–3; guest season 5), a brash, loud and fiery [billionaire](billionaire) investor who provides Pied Piper with their [A](Series)(Series A round).
## Production
[[Judge by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumbnail|upright|Mike Judge, co-creator of *Silicon Valley*](File:Mike)]
Co-creator and [producer](executive)(executive producer) [Judge](Mike)(Mike Judge) had worked in a [Valley](Silicon)(Silicon Valley) [startup](startup company) early in his career. In 1987, he was a programmer at [Parallax](Parallax, Inc. (company)), a company with about 40 employees. Judge disliked the company's culture and his colleagues ("The people I met were like [Wives](Stepford)(The Stepford Wives). They were true believers in something and I don't know what it was") and quit after less than three months, but the experience gave him the background to later create a show about the region's people and companies. He recollects also how startup companies pitched to him to make a Flash-based animation in the past as material for the first episode: "It was one person after another going, 'In two years, you will not own a TV set!' I had a meeting that was like a gathering of acolytes around a cult leader. 'Has he met Bill?' 'Oh, I'm the VP and I only get to see Bill once a month.' And then another guy chimed in, 'For 10 minutes, but the 10 minutes is amazing!
The idea of Pied Piper is inspired by real attempts for creating a [web](decentralized)(decentralized web) by a company called MaidSafe. Several of its team members served as advisors and consulted on the series.
Filming for the [pilot](Television pilot) of *Silicon Valley* began on March 12, 2013, in [Alto, California](Palo)(Palo Alto, California). HBO [green-lit](green-lit) the series on May 16, 2013.
[Evan Welch](Christopher)(Christopher Evan Welch), who played [billionaire](billionaire) Peter Gregory, died in December 2013 of [cancer](lung)(lung cancer), having finished his scenes for the first five episodes. The production team decided against recasting the role and reshooting his scenes; on his death, Judge commented: "The brilliance of Chris' performance is irreplaceable, and inspired us in our writing of the series." He went on to say, "The entire ordeal was heartbreaking. But we are incredibly grateful to have worked with him in the brief time we had together. Our show and our lives are vastly richer for his having been in them." In the eighth episode of season 1, a memoriam is made in his honor at the end of the credits roll. The character of Peter Gregory was not killed off until the premiere of Season 2.
The show refers to a metric in comparing the compression rates of applications called the *[score](Weissman)(Weissman score)*, which did not exist before the show's run. It was created by Stanford Professor [Weissman](Tsachy)(Tsachy Weissman) and graduate student Vinith Misra at the request of the show's producers.
[Tarver](Clay)(Clay Tarver) was named co-showrunner in April 2017 alongside Mike Judge and Alec Berg, also serving as an executive producer. In May 2017, it was announced that T.J. Miller would be exiting the series after the fourth season.
### Title sequence
The series' [sequence](title)(title sequence) is a pan over an animated city of isometric-style buildings with famous technology brands. Its composition changed each season, with visuals being added or replaced in reference to real-life developments in the technology industry. *[Wired](Wired (magazine))* called it "by far the most efficiently entertaining thing on television".
The first season's title sequence featured references to [Apple](Apple Inc.), [Netscape](Netscape), [SGI](Silicon Graphics International), [Intel](Intel), [eBay](eBay), [PayPal](PayPal), [LinkedIn](LinkedIn), [Zynga](Zynga), [MySpace](Myspace), [Twitter](Twitter), [Napster](Napster), [YouTube](YouTube), [Pets.com](Pets.com), Energy Pod, [Google](Google) (including Chrome and Android), [AOL](AOL), [Facebook](Facebook), [Blogger](Blogger (service)), [Adobe](Adobe Inc.), [Yahoo!](Yahoo!), [Oracle](Oracle Corporation), and [Hewlett-Packard](Hewlett-Packard).
In season 2, references were added for [Anybots](Anybots), [AllThingsD.com](All Things Digital), [Uber,](Uber) [23andMe](23andMe), [Clinkle](Clinkle), [Appcelerator](Appcelerator), [VR](Oculus)(Reality Labs), [WhatsApp](WhatsApp), [Recode](Recode), and [Alibaba](Alibaba Group).
In season 3, references were added for [Amazon](Amazon (company)), [Tesla](Tesla, Inc.), [Alphabet](Alphabet Inc.), [Lyft](Lyft), and [Soylent](Soylent (meal replacement)).
In season 4, references were added for [Reddit](Reddit), [Snapchat](Snapchat), [Pinterest](Pinterest), [Airbnb](Airbnb), [Yelp](Yelp), [Financial](KIND)(KIND Financial), [Dropbox](Dropbox), [Twitch](Twitch (service)), [Nest](Google Nest), [Vine](Vine (service)), [Theranos](Theranos), [Slack](Slack (software)), [DiDi](DiDi), [Samsung](Samsung), and [Waymo](Waymo).
In season 5, references were added for [Foods Market](Whole)(Whole Foods Market), [Coinbase](Coinbase), and [Juicero](Juicero).
In season 6, references were added for [Foods](Impossible)(Impossible Foods), [Instagram](Instagram), [Eaze](Eaze), [Postmates](Postmates), [Instacart](Instacart), and [DoorDash](DoorDash).
The title music for each season is a sample of "Stretch Your Face" by [Tobacco](Tobacco (musician)).
## Reception
### Critical response
*Silicon Valley* has received critical acclaim since its premiere. [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes) presented the first season with a 95% "Certified Fresh" rating and an average score of 7.94 out of 10 based on 57 reviews, with the critical consensus "*Silicon Valley* is a relevant, often hilarious take on contemporary technology and the geeks who create it that benefits from co-creator Mike Judge's real-life experience in the industry." [Metacritic](Metacritic), a website that gathers critics' reviews, presents the first season with an 84 out of 100 Metascore based on 36 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".
Tim Goodman of *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* said "HBO finds its best and funniest full-on comedy in years with this Mike Judge creation, and it may even tap into that most elusive thing, a wide audience." Matt Roush of *[Guide](TV)(TV Guide)* said "The deft, resonant satire that helped make Judge's *[Space](Office)(Office Space)* a cult hit takes on farcical new dimension in *Silicon Valley*, which introduces a socially maladroit posse of computer misfits every bit the comic equal of *[Big Bang Theory](The)(The Big Bang Theory (TV series))*s science nerds." Emily VanDerWerff of *[A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club)* said "It feels weirdly like a tech-world *[Entourage](Entourage (U.S. TV series))*—and that's meant as more of a compliment than it seems." Brian Tallerico of [RogerEbert.com](RogerEbert.com) praised the jokes of the series but commented on the slow progression of the character development in the first two episodes and the reliance on common stereotypes in technology, including "the nerd who can't even look at a girl much less talk to her or touch her, the young businessman who literally shakes when faced with career potential." He went on to say that the lack of depth to the characters creates "this odd push and pull; I want the show to be more realistic but I don't care about these characters enough when it chooses to be so."
[Auerbach](David)(David Auerbach) of *[Slate](Slate (magazine))* stated that the show did not go far enough to be called risky or a biting commentary of the tech industry. "Because I'm a software engineer, Silicon Valley might portray me with my pants up to my armpits, nerdily and nasally complaining that Thomas' compression algorithm is impossible or that nine times F in hexadecimal is 87, not 'fleventy five' (as Erlich says), but I would forgive such slips in a second if the show were funny." Auerbach claimed that he used to work for [Google](Google), and that his wife also worked for them at the time of the review.
The second season received critical acclaim. On Metacritic, the season has a score of 86 out of 100 based on nine reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season holds a 96% approval rating with an average rating of 8.51 out of 10 based on 23 reviews. The site's consensus reads, "*Silicon Valley* re-ups its comedy quotient with an episode that smooths out the rough edges left behind by the loss of a beloved cast member."
The third season also received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a 100% approval rating with an average rating of 8.78 out of 10 based on 24 reviews. The site's consensus reads, "*Silicon Valley*s satirical take on the follies of the tech industry is sharper than ever in this very funny third season." On Metacritic, the season has a score of 90 out of 100 based on 15 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".
The series continued to receive critical acclaim in its fourth season. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season's approval rating is 94%, with an average rating of 7.64 out of 10 based on 34 reviews. The site's consensus reads, "*Silicon Valley*s fourth season advances the veteran comedy's overall arc while adding enough new wrinkles – and delivering more than enough laughs – to stay fresh." On Metacritic, the season has a score of 85 out of 100 based on 10 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".
The fifth season received generally positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season's approval rating dipped to 89%, with an average rating of 7.25 out of 10 based on 28 reviews. The site's consensus reads, "Five seasons in, *Silicon Valley* finds a new way to up the ante with tighter, less predictable plots, while still maintaining its clever brand of comedic commentary." On Metacritic, the season has a score of 73 out of 100 based on 5 reviews.
The sixth and final season received very positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season's approval is 94%, with an average rating of 7 out of 10 based on 18 reviews. The site's consensus reads, "Though the strangeness of reality threatens to one-up it, *Silicon Valley*s final season is funny, fearless, and still playing by its own rules to the very end." On Metacritic, the season has a score of 78 out of 100 based on 4 reviews.
### Other reactions
Businessman [Musk](Elon)(Elon Musk), after viewing the first episode of the show, said: "I really feel like Mike Judge has never been to [Man](Burning)(Burning Man), which is Silicon Valley [...] If you haven't been, you just don't get it. You could take the craziest L.A. party and multiply it by a thousand, and it doesn't even get close to what's in Silicon Valley. The show didn't have any of that." In response to Musk's comments, actor [Miller](T.J.)(T.J. Miller), who plays Erlich on the show, pointed out that "if the billionaire power players don't get the joke, it's because they're not comfortable being satirized... I'm sorry, but you could tell everything was true. You guys *do* have bike meetings, motherfucker." Other software engineers who also attended the same premiere stated that they felt like they were watching their "reflection". Musk later changed his mind on the show. He said "It starts to get very accurate around episode 4...so it took a few episodes to kinda get grounded. The first episodes struck me as Hollywood making fun of Hollywood's idea of Silicon Valley...which is not on point. But by about the 4th or 5th episode of Season 1 it starts to get good, and by Season 2, it's amazing."
In January 2017, in an audience interaction by [Gates](Bill)(Bill Gates) and [Buffett](Warren)(Warren Buffett), Gates recounted the episode in *Silicon Valley* in which the protagonists try to pitch their product to various venture capitalists, saying it reminded him of his own experiences. Gates would later go on to have a cameo in the series finale.
In conference talks, [Crockford](Douglas)(Douglas Crockford) has called *Silicon Valley* "the best show ever made about programming". He goes on to cite the episode "Bachmanity Insanity" to illustrate the absurdity of the [versus spaces](tabs)(Indent style) argument.
### Accolades
## Home media
The complete first season was released on DVD and Blu-ray on March 31, 2015; bonus features include audio commentaries and behind-the-scenes featurettes. The second season was released on DVD and Blu-ray on April 19, 2016; bonus features include six audio commentaries, a behind-the-scenes featurette, and deleted scenes. The third season was released on DVD and Blu-ray on April 11, 2017; bonus features include deleted scenes. The fourth season was released on DVD and Blu-ray on September 12, 2017; bonus features include deleted scenes.
## International broadcast
In Australia, the series premiered on April 9, 2014, and aired on [Comedy Channel](The)(The Comedy Channel). In the United Kingdom, it premiered on July 16, 2014, airing on [Atlantic](Sky)(Sky Atlantic), while also being available on internet view-on-demand services such as [Blinkbox](Blinkbox). In New Zealand, the series airs on [SoHo](SoHo (TV channel)) (owned by [Network Television Limited](Sky)(Sky (New Zealand))) and the series is available for streaming on Sky GO and NEON. In [India](India), the series is available for streaming on [Hotstar](Hotstar).
## References
## External links
*
*
* [*Silicon Valley*](https://rottentomatoes.com/tv/silicon_valley) on [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes)
* In-universe websites: [Pied Piper](http://www.piedpiper.com), [Hooli](http://www.hooli.com/), [Code/Rag](http://www.coderag.com/), [Aviato](http://www.aviato.com/), [Homicide](http://drinkhomicide.com/), [BreamHall](https://breamhall.com/)
}}
[ ](Category:Silicon Valley (TV series))
[American television series debuts](Category:2014)(Category:2014 American television series debuts)
[American television series endings](Category:2019)(Category:2019 American television series endings)
[American single-camera sitcoms](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s American single-camera sitcoms)
[American workplace comedy television series](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s American workplace comedy television series)
[television shows](Category:English-language)(Category:English-language television shows)
[original programming](Category:HBO)(Category:HBO original programming)
[series about computing](Category:Television)(Category:Television series about computing)
[series by 3 Arts Entertainment](Category:Television)(Category:Television series by 3 Arts Entertainment)
[series by Home Box Office](Category:Television)(Category:Television series by Home Box Office)
[series created by Dave Krinsky](Category:Television)(Category:Television series created by Dave Krinsky)
[series created by John Altschuler](Category:Television)(Category:Television series created by John Altschuler)
[series created by Mike Judge](Category:Television)(Category:Television series created by Mike Judge)
[shows set in Santa Clara County, California](Category:Television)(Category:Television shows set in Santa Clara County, California)
|
Bugatti Automobiles
|
bugatti_automobiles
|
# Bugatti Automobiles
*Revision ID: 1159591793 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T09:06:36Z*
---
| key_people = [Rimac](Mate)(Mate Rimac) (CEO of Bugatti Rimac)
| industry = [Automotive](Automotive industry)
| products = [Chiron](Bugatti)(Bugatti Chiron)[Divo](Bugatti)(Bugatti Divo)[Veyron](Bugatti)(Bugatti Veyron)
| production = 76 vehicles (2018)
| num_employees = 297 (2016)
| parent = [Rimac](Bugatti)(Bugatti Rimac) [d.o.o.](d.o.o.)
| subsid = |Bugatti International S.A.}}
| founded =
| location_city = [Molsheim](Molsheim)
| location_country = France
| homepage =
}}
**Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S.** () is a French luxury [car](sports)(Hypercar (car classification)) manufacturer. The company was founded in 1998 as a subsidiary of the [Group](Volkswagen)(Volkswagen Group) and is based in [Molsheim](Molsheim), [Alsace](Alsace), France. The Bugatti name was first made famous by [Bugatti](Ettore)(Ettore Bugatti) (1881–1947), who established the original [Bugatti](Bugatti) automobile brand in 1909 at Molsheim and built sports, racing and luxury cars.
In November 2021, the company became part of [Rimac](Bugatti)(Bugatti Rimac), a [venture](joint)(joint venture) between [Group](Rimac)(Rimac Automobili) and [AG](Porsche)(Porsche AG). Since November 1, 2021, the company has been led by [Rimac](Mate)(Mate Rimac) as [executive officer](chief)(chief executive officer) of Bugatti Rimac.
## History
On December 22, 1998, [AG](Volkswagen)(Volkswagen Group), a German automotive manufacturer now controlled by [SE](Porsche)(Porsche SE), established Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. as a French-registered, [subsidiary](wholly-owned)(wholly owned subsidiary). On the same day, the company took over the design and naming rights to Bugatti from Italian businessman [Artioli](Romano)(Romano Artioli), who built supercars (such as the EB 110 and EB 112) with Bugatti SpA in Italy between 1987 and 1998. Since 2000, the Bugatti automobile [brand](brand) has officially existed as Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S., still abbreviated to Bugatti. Since then, the company's headquarters have once again been located in Molsheim, France.
On 22 December 2000, Volkswagen officially incorporated Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S., with former VW drivetrain chief Karl-Heinz Neumann as president. The company purchased the 1856 [Saint-Jean](Château)(Château Saint-Jean), formerly [Bugatti](Ettore)(Ettore Bugatti)'s guest house in [Dorlisheim](Dorlisheim), near Molsheim, and began refurbishing it to serve as the company's headquarters. The original factory was still in the hands of [Snecma](Snecma), who were unwilling to part with it. At the [Beach Concours d'Elegance](Pebble)(Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance) in August 2000, VW announced that they would instead build a new modern *atelier* (factory) next to and south of the château. The *atelier* was officially inaugurated on 3 September 2005.
In September 2020, it was announced that Volkswagen was preparing to sell its Bugatti automobile brand, and talks began with the [Croatian](Croatia) company [Automobili](Rimac)(Rimac Automobili). Around 700 Bugatti cars had been sold since 2005, but Volkswagen Group CEO [Diess](Herbert)(Herbert Diess) saw the unprofitable brand as ballast, the company said.
In 2020, Bugatti delivered 77 vehicles to customers. In January 2021, Bugatti announced that it had increased its operating profit for the third year in a row. This marked the most successful year in the company's history.
In July 2021, it was announced that Bugatti Automobiles and the sports car operations of [Automobili](Rimac)(Rimac Automobili) will be merged to form [Rimac](Bugatti)(Bugatti Rimac), a [venture](joint)(joint venture) between Rimac Group and [AG](Porsche)(Porsche AG). The newly formed Rimac Group will be the majority shareholder with a 55% stake in Bugatti Rimac, while Porsche AG will hold the remaining 45% stake, as well as a 24% stake in Rimac Group. The formation of Bugatti Rimac [d.o.o.](d.o.o.) took place in the fourth quarter of 2021.
After years of building one-offs and limited edition models, in December 2021, Bugatti officially created its own bespoke division – Sur Mesure. The phrase means 'tailored' in [French](French language).
## Concept cars
### Italdesign Giugiaro designs
Volkswagen commissioned [Italdesign](Italdesign)'s [Giugiaro](Giorgetto)(Giorgetto Giugiaro) to design a series of [car](concept)(concept car)s to return the marque to prominence. The first example, the [118](EB)(Bugatti EB 118), was a two-door [coupé](coupé) and was introduced at the [Motor Show](Paris)(Paris Motor Show) in 1998. It was followed by the four-door [218](EB)(Bugatti EB 218) touring [sedan](sedan (car)), introduced at the [Motor Show](Geneva)(Geneva Motor Show#1999) in 1999. Later that year, the [Chiron](18/3)(Bugatti 18/3 Chiron) was shown at the [IAA](Frankfurt Motor Show) in Frankfurt.
### Volkswagen designs
Volkswagen designed the final Bugatti concept, the [18/4](EB)(Bugatti EB 18/4) GT in-house. Bugatti introduced the EB 18/4 at the [Tokyo Motor Show](1999)(Tokyo Motor Show#1999).
### W18 Engine
All of these early concepts featured a [engine](18-cylinder)(W18 engine). This was the first-ever [W-configuration](W engine) engine on a passenger vehicle, with three blocks of 6 cylinders each. It shared many components with Volkswagen's modular engine family.
### 16C Galibier
The 16C Galibier was unveiled during the Celebration of the Centenary of the Marque in Molsheim. The presentation was only for Bugatti customers. The car show in Molsheim showed the car in blue [fibre](carbon)(Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers) and [aluminum](Aluminium) parts. One year later Bugatti showed the world the [Galibier Concept](16C)(Bugatti 16C Galibier Concept) at "VW Group Night" at the [Auto Show](Geneva)(Geneva Motor Show) in a new black and aluminum color combination.
The Galibier, a 1020 HP sedan, was first shown as a concept in 2010 and when they planned to put it into production in 2015, it would have cost about $1.4 million. It would use the same 16-cylinder 8.0-litre engine as the Veyron but instead of four [turbos](Turbochargers), the 16C Galibier would instead use two [superchargers](superchargers) to deliver better torque. Production would require new facilities in Molsheim, France, to be refitted, which pushed back potential deliveries until 2015.
In 2013, it was announced that the car will never be produced as they wish to focus on a Veyron replacement.
## Production cars
[[File:Bugatti EB110 GT 1991.jpg|thumb|[EB110 GT](Bugatti)(Bugatti EB 110)]]
In the 1980s the Bugatti brand was brought back as Bugatti Automobili S.p.A. in [Italy](Italy). The company produced the [EB110](Bugatti EB 110) in the 1990s, which put Bugatti back on the modern super-car scene. The company was then bought by Volkswagen at the end of the 20th century.
### Veyron
[[Veyron 16.4 – Frontansicht (2), 5. April 2012, Düsseldorf.jpg|thumb|Bugatti Veyron](File:Bugatti)]
In 2000, the company introduced a new engine concept. At the [Paris](Paris Motor Show), [Geneva](Geneva International Motor Show), and [auto shows](Detroit)(North American International Auto Show), Bugatti presented the EB 16/4 Veyron concept car, an all-wheel-drive [16-cylinder](Engine configuration) car with an engine output of . The EB 16/4 Veyron has an 8.0-liter engine with four [turbochargers](Turbocharger). It reached a top speed of . At the time, the Veyron was the most potent and fastest supercar ever built. In acceleration tests, it reached a speed of after 2.5 s, after 7.3 s, and after 16.8 s.
Development initially lasted until 2001; the EB 16/4 Veyron was given "advanced concept" status in [advertising](advertising). At the end of 2001, Bugatti announced that the car was now officially called the Bugatti Veyron 16.4. The combination of numbers means 16 cylinders and a fourth design study. Initially, production was scheduled to start in 2003. Technical difficulties with the dual-clutch transmission and the unusual, extreme requirements at speeds well over 300 km/h led to several delays. Finally, production began in September 2005, and annual production was increased to 70 units due to long waiting times.
On June 26, 2010, the Bugatti Veyron 16.4 Super Sport set the world speed record for road-legal production sports cars with a top speed of . In August of the same year, this vehicle with was presented for the first time in [Beach](Pebble)(Pebble Beach, California) (U.S.). In April 2013, the Veyron 16.4 Grand Sport Vitesse reached , the fastest speed ever recorded for a roadster. The Vitesse World Record Car Edition, limited to eight units, was subsequently presented to the world public for the first time at the [Shanghai trade show](Auto)(Auto Shanghai) and sold out shortly after that.
At the 2015 [IAA](International Motor Show Germany), the company unveiled a show car of its Vision Gran Turismo project. With the Bugatti Vision Gran Turismo, the luxury manufacturer presented a possible new super sports car following the sale of all 450 Veyron. The Bugatti Vision Gran Turismo design is intended to recall the racing tradition of the 1920s and 1930s. The [scheme](color)(color scheme) represents the brand's victories in the [Mans 24-hour race](Le)(24 Hours of Le Mans). On November 6, 2015, the first [showrooms](Showroom) in Bugatti's new CI look were opened simultaneously.
### Chiron
[[Chiron (36559710091).jpg|thumb|Bugatti Chiron](File:Bugatti)]
On November 30, 2015, Bugatti announced that the successor to the Veyron would be called the Chiron. The name is dedicated to the [Monegasque](Demographics of Monaco) [driver](racing)(Auto racing) [Chiron](Louis)(Louis Chiron), who began his racing career on a Bugatti Type 35 and won several [Prix races](Grand)(Grand Prix motor racing). On February 29, 2016, Bugatti unveiled its new Chiron hypercar at the Geneva Motor Show. It continues to be powered by an 8.0-liter 16-cylinder with four turbochargers, but now with and 1,600 Newton meters of torque. The Chiron accelerates to in 2.4 seconds from a standstill, reaches in 6.1 seconds, and in 13.1 seconds. The top speed is . Bugatti is the only automaker to build a W16 engine that produces over 1,500 hp. Since 2016, the Chiron has been home to the first mass-produced [printed](3-D)(3D printing) component, a small console on the transmission oil duct.
This makes the Chiron the fastest hypercar globally, and its base price is 2.4 million euros net. Production in Molsheim is limited to 500 vehicles, and the first production car was delivered to customers in March 2017. The Chiron made its debut on the US market in April 2016. On August 21, 2016, Bugatti unveiled the Vision Gran Turismo concept car, a real-life study of the vehicle in the Gran Turismo Sport video game. On September 11, 2017, the Chiron set a new world record. From 0 to and back to , the coupé took just 42 seconds.
The [BBC's](BBC) [magazine](TopGear)(Top Gear (magazine)) named the Chiron "hypercar of the year" on November 27, 2017, and a month later, the Chiron also received the award from Evo magazine in the UK.
At the Geneva Motor Show on March 6, 2018, Bugatti unveiled the Chiron Sport, a hypercar optimized for lateral acceleration. It takes 5 seconds off the Chiron on the Nardò handling circuit thanks to numerous changes, such as the increased use of new materials (the first production car with [wipers](windshield)(Windscreen wiper) made of [carbon](carbon)), the resulting weight saving of 18 kilograms, and the new Dynamic Torque Vectoring function. The engine remains untouched, producing and 1,600 Newton-meters of torque, as in the Chiron. In June 2018, [Technic](Lego)(Lego Technic) recreated a [scale](1:8)(1:18 scale) Chiron with Lego bricks.
In November 2018, Lego collaborated with Bugatti to design a [scale](1:1)(Scale (ratio)) Chiron made of Lego bricks. Technic™ Offiziellen LEGO® Shop DE|url=https://www.lego.com/de-de/product/bugatti-chiron-42083|access-date=2021-05-02|website=www.lego.com|language=de}} The Lego Technic Chiron produces 5.3 horsepower and travels at speeds of up to 20 mph.
In 2019, Bugatti ringed in its 110th anniversary with the unique "110ans" edition of the Chiron Sport. The hypercar adorns the Tricolore inside and out as a nod to France. The powertrain remains the 8-liter 16-cylinder with four turbochargers and 1,103 kW/1,500 hp. The vehicle was first shown at the Geneva Motor Show.
In July 2019, Bugatti built the 200th Chiron, as "110 ans Bugatti".
In September 2019, Bugatti broke through the 300 mph barrier with a modified Chiron, breaking the top speed record. Ex-racing driver and [driver](test)(test driver) [Wallace](Andy)(Andy Wallace (racing driver)) reached on the VW test track in [Ehra-Lessien](Ehra-Lessien). The Chiron thus becomes the first production car to exceed .
Bugatti celebrated its 110th birthday with customers and friends of the brand at the Grand Fête in Molsheim in September 2019 and unveiled the Chiron Super Sport 300+ as part of the celebration. The car, which has been boosted to 1,600 hp, has a body optimized for top speed and was limited to 30 units. One vehicle cost 3.5 million euros.
The French introduced another derivative, the Chiron Pur Sport, in March 2020. The new model was developed and designed with lateral dynamics in mind. To achieve this, the engineers modified the chassis, engine, transmission, and aerodynamics. A new transmission improved with a 15 percent shorter overall ratio; total power is available at . The Chiron Pur Sport accelerates from 0 to in 2.3 seconds instead of 2.4 seconds, and 0 to now takes 5.9 seconds instead of 6.1 seconds. The vehicle's top speed is electronically governed at , and the maximum gearshift speed is 6,900 rpm. At the rear, the Chiron Pur Sport carries a 1.90-meter-wide rear wing for massive downforce. A new chassis set-up with stiffer springs at the front and back, a control strategy for the adaptive dampers designed for performance, and modified camber values ensured more dynamic handling and greater agility in corners. The Chiron Pur Sport is limited to 60 vehicles and costs 3 million euros each. The first vehicle was delivered in August 2020.
In September, Bugatti presented the special Chiron Sport model "Les Légendes du Ciel." Limited to 20 units, the edition is dedicated to Bugatti's legendary pilots and works drivers. Each vehicle costs 2.88 million euros net.
### Divo
[[File:Bugatti Divo, Paris Motor Show 2018, IMG 0708.jpg|thumb|Bugatti Divo at the [Paris Motor Show](2018)(2018 Paris Motor Show)|alt=]]
In July 2018, Bugatti announced that it would build 40 units of the Divo hypercar, a track-focused vehicle based on the Chiron. The cars, at a net unit price of €5 million, were sold within days. In August 2018, the Divo was shown to the public for the first time at "The Quail: A Motorsports Gathering" as part of [Car Week](Monterey)(Monterey Car Week). With the Divo, Bugatti began modern [coachbuilding](coachbuilding).
### La Voiture Noire
[[La Voiture Noire, GIMS 2019, Le Grand-Saconnex (GIMS0950).jpg|thumb|Bugatti La Voiture Noire|alt=](File:Bugatti)]
The La Voiture Noire (*The Black Car*) was a special edition car built and sold by Bugatti in 2019. It was presented at the [Geneva Motor Show](2019)(Geneva Motor Show#2019). Classic Driver|url=https://www.classicdriver.com/en/magazine/tag/les-legendes-de-bugatti|access-date=2021-01-01|website=www.classicdriver.com|language=en-US}} The car pays homage to the legendary 'missing' Bugatti Type 57 SC Atlantic of [Bugatti](Jean)(Jean Bugatti). Only one unit was built and sold for a price of $12.5 million; making it the most expensive new car ever sold.
===Centodieci===
In August 2019, Bugatti presented the "Centodieci" (Italian for 110) at "The Quail: A Motorsports Gathering" as part of Monterey Car Week. The hypercar "reinterprets the historic EB 110." It is based on the Bugatti Chiron with its 8.0-liter W16 engine, but in the Centodieci, it produces at 7,000 rpm. An additional air intake in the area of the oil cooler regulates the temperature of the performance-enhanced engine. In purely arithmetical terms, the Centodieci will sprint from 0 to in 2.4 seconds, to in 6.1 seconds and in 13.1 seconds, with the top speed, electronically capped at . Visually, its wedge shape is based on the EB 110. The small series, limited to ten vehicles at a unit price of eight million euros, was sold immediately.
### Bolide
[[Bolide Milano.jpg|thumb|Bugatti Bolide at Milano Motor Show 2021](File:Bugatti)]
The Bolide is Bugatti's first track-only hyper-car, digitally unveiled in October 2020. Built around Bugatti's existing 8.0-liter [W16 engine](Bugatti)(Bugatti W16 engine), the engineers designed only a minimum of bodywork. The result is the smallest possible shell. Although the concept version boasted a power output of 1,361 kW (1,825 hp; 1,850 PS), this was achieved using 110-octane racing fuel. The production version will have a power output of 1,177 kW (1,578 hp; 1,600 PS) with a torque figure of 1,600 N⋅m (1,180 lbf⋅ft) at 2,250 rpm using 98 RON gas. The top speed is expected to be over . As part of its Monterey Car Week announcement, Bugatti has said that it will build 40 production-spec Bolide models. Currently, the hypercar is being pushed through the final stages of its development programme, but Bugatti aims to commence deliveries in 2024. Prices will start from €4 million (around £3.3 million).
### Mistral
The Mistral was unveiled on 19 August 2022 and is claimed by Bugatti to be the fastest roadster in the world. Although the Mistral is based on the Chiron platform, the Mistral is not a cabriolet model for the [Chiron](Bugatti)(Bugatti Chiron), but a unique roadster model for Bugatti that marks the last vehicle to use the [engine](W16)(list of Volkswagen Group petrol engines#W16) that was introduced with the [Veyron](Bugatti)(Bugatti Veyron) in 2005.
## Innovations
In 2019, the French manufacturer unveiled a titanium [caliper](brake)(brake caliper), the largest printed [titanium](titanium) component ever in the world.
## Awards
Bugatti retrospectively received three design awards in December 2019 for its exhibition stands in Geneva: Automotive Brand Contest and Iconic Awards. At the [Design Award](German)(German Design Award), Bugatti became "Winner" in the category "Excellent Architecture - Fair and Exhibition." At the [Gear Award](Top)(Top Gear (2002 TV series)), the Bugatti Super Sport 300+ won the 2019 "Physics Lesson of the year" category. At the Auto Bild Sportscars Award in the same year, the car was judged the best sports car of the year in the "Super Sports Car Import" category.
Bugatti changed its corporate design in February 2020. The first showroom with the new look opened in [Paris](Paris). The partner was Groupe Schumacher, founded in 1947 and specializing in [supercars](Supercar) and hypercars. In the same month, Bugatti reported that 250 vehicles of the Chiron had now been built, exactly half the planned number.
## See also
* [of car brands](List)(List of car brands)
## References
## Further reading
*
}}
*
*
}}
## External links
*
*
[ ](Category:Bugatti automobiles)
[manufacturers of France](Category:Car)(Category:Car manufacturers of France)
[motor vehicle manufacturers](Category:Luxury)(Category:Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers)
[car manufacturers](Category:Sports)(Category:Sports car manufacturers)
[Group](Category:Volkswagen)(Category:Volkswagen Group)
[racing teams in France](Category:Auto)(Category:Auto racing teams in France)
[racecar constructors](Category:French)(Category:French racecar constructors)
[based in Grand Est](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies based in Grand Est)
[companies established in 1998](Category:French)(Category:French companies established in 1998)
[manufacturing companies established in 1998](Category:Vehicle)(Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1998)
[brands](Category:French)(Category:French brands)
[Category:Molsheim](Category:Molsheim)
[subsidiaries of foreign companies](Category:French)(Category:French subsidiaries of foreign companies)
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Henri Boulad
|
henri_boulad
|
# Henri Boulad
*Revision ID: 1160336830 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T21:08:27Z*
---
| birth_place = [Alexandria](Alexandria), [Egypt](Kingdom of Egypt)
| death_date =
| death_place = [Cairo](Cairo), Egypt
| death_cause =
| education =
| spouse =
| known_for =
| religion = [Catholic](Catholic)
| occupation = Priest, author
| children =
| parents =
| family =
}}
**Henri Boulad**, [SJ](Society of Jesus) (; 28 August 1931 – 14 June 2023)[E' morto il gesuita Henri Boulad, criticò il Papa sui migranti](https://www.ansa.it/ansamed/it/notizie/rubriche/cronaca/2023/06/14/e-morto-il-gesuita-henri-boulad-critico-il-papa-sui-migranti_16432e55-56ee-440a-8c62-d07646960af0.html) was an Egyptian-Hungarian priest in the [Jesuit](Jesuit) order, author, and commentator living in [Egypt](Egypt). He was a member of the [Greek Catholic Church](Melkite)(Melkite Greek Catholic Church).
## Biography
Henri Boulad was born in [Alexandria](Alexandria), Egypt in 1931. His father came from a [Greek Catholic](Melkite)(Melkite Greek Catholic Church) family of [Syro-Lebanese](Syro-Lebanese in Egypt) descent, originally from [Damascus](Damascus), which settled in [Egypt](Egypt) in 1860. The Boulad family belongs to the old Damascene [bourgeoisie](bourgeoisie) and has produced many clerics including Father Abdel Massih (Damascus) and Father Antoune Boulad ([of the Holy Savior](Monastery)(Monastery of the Holy Saviour, Kreim), [Lebanon](Lebanon)).
In 1950, Boulad entered the novitiate of the [Jesuits](Jesuits) in [Bikfaya](Bikfaya), Lebanon. From 1952 to 1954, he studied at the (France), then, from 1954 to 1957, he studied philosophy at the Jesuit scholasticate of [Oise](Chantilly,)(Chantilly, Oise), still in France. He taught for two years at the [de la Sainte Famille](Collège)(Collège de la Sainte Famille) in [Cairo](Cairo). After a cycle of theological studies (from 1959 to 1963 in Lebanon), he was ordained a priest according to the Melkite rite. In 1965, he participated in a Jesuit training program in [Connecticut](Pomfret,)(Pomfret, Connecticut) and obtained a PhD in [psychology](School)(School psychology) from the [of Chicago](University)(University of Chicago).
He returned to Egypt in 1967. He later became the religious superior of the Jesuits of Alexandria, then the provincial of the Jesuits of the [East](Near)(Near East), and professor of theology in Cairo. In 2004, he became rector of CSF of Jesuits in Cairo.
He was strongly committed to serving the poor, Christians and Muslims, a commitment that continued with his involvement in [Caritas](Caritas Internationalis). From 1984 to 1995, he was director of Caritas Egypt, and president of Caritas North Africa and Middle East. From 1991 to 1995, he was Vice President of Caritas International for the Middle East and North Africa.
In 2007, he wrote a letter to [Benedict XVI](Pope)(Pope Benedict XVI) entitled *SOS for the Church today*, which was published in 2010. He called for a revamp of the Church and proposed a theological and [catechetical](catechetical) reform, a pastoral reform and a spiritual renewal, which should be discussed at a synod of the world church. In 2010, he urged Europe "not to lose its soul".
As a fine expert of [Islam](Islam), which he has lived with since childhood in [Egypt](Egypt), he was very critical of some of his contemporary orientations, while insisting that the dialogue between [Christians](Christians) and Muslims must continue, but not in its current form, which he argued is only lies and compromise, and therefore is not dialogue and exasperates it. Defender and [rights](human)(human rights) activist, he was a privileged observer of [Arab Spring](the)(the Arab Spring), and particularly the [Revolution of 2011](Egyptian)(Egyptian Revolution of 2011). He called on the West not to give in to cynicism, to support people's aspirations for freedom, and not to ally themselves with religious fundamentalists.
Boulad published nearly 30 books in 15 languages, particularly in French, Arabic, German and Hungarian.
He was promoted to the Commander of the [of Academic Palms](Order)(Ordre des Palmes académiques). In 2017, he received [Hungarian](Hungary) citizenship and praised Hungary's current policy of defending traditional Christian communities in Europe and elsewhere as a sign for the future. In 2019 he received the [Order of Merit](Hungarian)(Hungarian Order of Merit).
## Bibliography (selection)
* *Jésus de Nazareth : Qui es-tu ?* (Éditions Anne Sigier, 2006)
* *Le Mystère de l’Être* (Éditions Anne Sigier, 2006)
* ''L'Islamisme* (Fidelite, 2004, avec Philippe Lenoir, Charles Delhez et Joseph Maïla)
* *Changer le monde : Expérience mystique et engagement* (Saint-Augustin, 2004)
* *Amour et Sexualité* (Éditions Anne Sigier, 2003)
* *L'Amour Fou de Dieu* (Éditions Anne Sigier, 2002)
* *L'Amour et le Sacré* (Éditions Anne Sigier, 2002)
* *Chasteté et consécration* (Éditions Anne Sigier, 2003)
* *Les dimensions de l'amour* (Albin Michel, 1996)
* *La foi et le sens'' (Éditions Médiaspaul, 2014)
## References
* [Présentation et interview du Père Henri Boulad sur le Blog Copte](https://web.archive.org/web/20160303165304/http://blogcopte.fr/2011/06/14/video-change-the-world-de-pere-henri-boulad/)
* [Lettre à Benoit XVI : SOS pour l'Église d'aujourd'hui](https://web.archive.org/web/20120510124120/http://www.culture-et-foi.com/critique/henri_boulad.htm)
* [« La charia est en totale contradiction avec les principes mêmes de la révolution arabe »](http://www.lenouveleconomiste.fr/la-charia-est-en-totale-contradiction-avec-les-principes-memes-de-la-revolution-arabe-13083/)
[births](Category:1931)(Category:1931 births)
[deaths](Category:2023)(Category:2023 deaths)
[Jesuits](Category:Egyptian)(Category:Egyptian Jesuits)
[Greek Catholic Church in Egypt](Category:Melkite)(Category:Melkite Greek Catholic Church in Egypt)
[of the Ordre national du Mérite](Category:Commanders)(Category:Commanders of the Ordre national du Mérite)
[Jesuits](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century Jesuits)
[Jesuits](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century Jesuits)
[from Alexandria](Category:People)(Category:People from Alexandria)
|
Sing 2
|
sing_2
|
# Sing 2
*Revision ID: 1160121031 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T14:48:38Z*
---
| writer = Garth Jennings
| starring =
| music = [Talbot](Joby)(Joby Talbot)
| editing = Gregory Perler
| studio = [Illumination](Illumination (company))
| distributor = [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures)
| released =
| runtime = 110 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $85 million
| gross = $408.4 million
}}
***Sing 2*** is a 2021 American [computer-animated](computer-animated) [musical](jukebox)(jukebox musical) [film](comedy)(comedy film) written and directed by [Jennings](Garth)(Garth Jennings), co-directed by Christophe Lourdelet, and produced by [Meledandri](Chris)(Chris Meledandri) and [Healy](Janet)(Janet Healy). Produced by [Illumination](Illumination (company)) and distributed by [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures), it is the sequel to *[Sing](Sing (2016 American film))* (2016) and the second film in the [of the same name](franchise)(Sing (franchise)).
The film stars an [voice cast](ensemble)(ensemble cast) consisting of [McConaughey](Matthew)(Matthew McConaughey), [Witherspoon](Reese)(Reese Witherspoon), [Johansson](Scarlett)(Scarlett Johansson), [Egerton](Taron)(Taron Egerton), [Kelly](Tori)(Tori Kelly), [Kroll](Nick)(Nick Kroll), Jennings, [Serafinowicz](Peter)(Peter Serafinowicz), [Saunders](Jennifer)(Jennifer Saunders), and [Offerman](Nick)(Nick Offerman), reprising their roles from the first film. It also features new characters voiced by [Cannavale](Bobby)(Bobby Cannavale), [Bono](Bono), [Halsey](Halsey (singer)), [Williams](Pharrell)(Pharrell Williams), [Peretti](Chelsea)(Chelsea Peretti), [Wright](Letitia)(Letitia Wright), and [André](Eric)(Eric André). Like the first film, *Sing 2* features songs from many artists, most of which are performed [diegetically](diegetic music). The story is set after the events of the previous film with Buster Moon and his group putting on a show in Redshore City while working to impress an entertainment mogul and enlist a reclusive rock star to perform with the group.
*Sing 2* made its world premiere at the [Fest](AFI)(AFI Fest) on November 14, 2021, and was theatrically released in the United States on December 22, 2021, by [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures). The film has met with positive reviews and grossed over $408 million worldwide against a production budget of $85 million, becoming the [animated film of 2021](highest-grossing)(List of animated feature films of 2021#Highest-grossing animated films) and the [film of 2021](tenth-highest-grossing)(2021 in film#Highest-grossing films). A sequel is in development.
## Plot
Sometime after the events of [first film](the)(Sing (2016 American film)), Buster Moon is thriving with his newly rebuilt theater; Johnny, Meena, Rosita, Gunter, and Miss Crawly work as his crew while Ash performs as a [soloist](solo (music)). They fail to impress Suki Lane, a talent scout dog working at Crystal Entertainment, who tells Buster he would not make it in nearby Redshore City. Encouraged by Nana Noodleman, Buster reunites his crew, and they head off to the city to make an impression.
They are denied entry into Crystal Entertainment but sneak in for an audition with entertainment mogul wolf Jimmy Crystal. As Jimmy is uninterested in Buster's original show pitch, Gunter suggests a space-themed [sci-fi](Science fiction) musical that features songs from Clay Calloway, a legendary rock star lion who has not been seen in 15 years after his wife Ruby died. Intrigued and assuming Clay will be a part of the show, Jimmy greenlights it and lets Buster and his friends stay at his hotel during production.
Miss Crawly finds where Clay lives and goes to visit him, but he scares her away with a series of booby traps. During a rehearsal, Rosita develops [fear of heights](a)(acrophobia), prompting Buster to give Rosita's role to Jimmy's daughter, Porsha, on his insistence while Rosita is relegated to a minor role. Johnny has been assigned to work with top choreographer monkey Klaus Kickenklober, but his harsh teaching methods leave Johnny unable to learn. Johnny later comes across a [dancer](street)(busking) lynx named Nooshy, who agrees to help him out. Meena has been cast in a romantic scene with Darius, an egocentric actor yak. Having never been in love, Meena is unable to get the feelings across during their scene. She later meets and falls in love with an ice cream vendor elephant named Alfonso. Jimmy eventually finds out that Buster never contacted Clay about the show and threatens to harm Buster if he does not deliver.
Ash and Buster visit Clay to convince him to be in the show. He refuses at first, but Ash changes his mind. Back at the theater, Buster asks Porsha to switch roles with Rosita, as Porsha's acting skills are poor. Porsha misinterprets this as Buster firing her and runs off. An outraged Jimmy nearly drops Buster off his penthouse roof after news of the supposed firing is broadcast on television before locking him in a closet. Suki later frees Buster and warns him to leave Redshore City before Jimmy can kill him. Ash arrives at the hotel room with the crew and Clay, who advises Buster not to run and hide as he did. Buster decides to have the cast and crew put on the show that night behind Jimmy's back after he witnesses Jimmy insulting him and his friends on television. Porsha rejoins the show, Johnny calls his father and his gang to come over and keep Jimmy and his bodyguards at bay, and Rosita calls her husband Norman to let their children distract security.
During the show, a jealous Klaus takes the place of Johnny's performance partner to undermine his number, but Johnny defeats Klaus with encouragement from Nooshy and the other dancers, finally earning Klaus' respect. Porsha performs a high energy song and dance number, standing up to her angry father. Meena visualizes Darius as Alfonso, and successfully performs a romantic duet with him. In a last attempt to stop the show, Jimmy drops Buster off a high catwalk, which forces Rosita to overcome her fear of heights to save Buster. When the time comes for Clay to take the stage, he claims that he is not ready yet. Ash leads the crowd in a rendition of [of Clay's songs](one)(I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For), giving him the courage to perform. After the curtain call, Jimmy tries to take credit for the show only for Suki to have him arrested by the police.
Just as Buster and his friends begin to return home the following morning, Suki stops them and tells them that The Majestic wants to put on their show. As the cast puts on its first official performance, Buster watches from the VIP section, proud to have succeeded in Redshore City.
## Voice cast
* [McConaughey](Matthew)(Matthew McConaughey) as Buster Moon, a koala who owns the New Moon Theater
* [Witherspoon](Reese)(Reese Witherspoon) as Rosita, a pig who gave up her music dreams to become a devoted housewife and mother of 25 piglets, but who now does both
* [Johansson](Scarlett)(Scarlett Johansson) as Ash, a porcupine [rock](punk)(punk rock) guitarist
* [Egerton](Taron)(Taron Egerton) as Johnny, a teenage gorilla who left his father's ex-criminal gang to become a singer and pianist
* [Cannavale](Bobby)(Bobby Cannavale) as Jimmy Crystal, a white wolf and media owner who runs Crystal Entertainment
* [Kelly](Tori)(Tori Kelly) as Meena, a teenage elephant with an exquisite singing voice, who previously overcame severe [fright](stage)(stage fright) from the first film
* [Kroll](Nick)(Nick Kroll) as Gunter, a passionate dancing pig and Rosita's dance partner
* [Williams](Pharrell)(Pharrell Williams) as Alfonso, an elephant and ice cream vendor who becomes Meena's love interest
* [Halsey](Halsey (singer)) as Porsha Crystal, a wolf and the seemingly spoiled daughter of Jimmy
* [Peretti](Chelsea)(Chelsea Peretti) as Suki Lane, Jimmy's haughty dog assistant and talent scout
* [Wright](Letitia)(Letitia Wright) as Nooshy, a [lynx](lynx) street dancer who helps Johnny regain his confidence while he learns his choreography
* [André](Eric)(Eric André) as Darius, an egocentric [yak](yak) who is cast in the stage production opposite Meena in a romantic duet
* [Buxton](Adam)(Adam Buxton) as Klaus Kickenklober, a [monkey](proboscis)(proboscis monkey) and strict dance instructor
* [Jennings](Garth)(Garth Jennings) as Miss Crawly, an elderly iguana with a glass eye who works as Buster's assistant
** Jennings also voices the bus terminal and the airbag from a rental car
* [Serafinowicz](Peter)(Peter Serafinowicz) as Big Daddy, a mobster gorilla and Johnny's father who is now on [release](work)(work release)
* [Saunders](Jennifer)(Jennifer Saunders) as Nana Noodleman, a sheep and a famous singer
* [Offerman](Nick)(Nick Offerman) as Norman, a pig and Rosita's workaholic husband
* [Bono](Bono) as Clay Calloway, a white-maned aged lion who was once a rock star legend until his wife, Ruby, died
In addition, [Davis](Julia)(Julia Davis) voices Linda le Bon, a horse and host of a talk show, while [Jonze](Spike)(Spike Jonze) has an uncredited voice role as Jerry, a cat who is Jimmy's personal assistant.
Amongst the voices of Rosita and Norman's piglets is Matthew McConaughey's daughter, Vida Alves McConaughey, who voices the piglet that goes splashing in chocolate. Director Jennings' wife, Louise Jennings, voices a dog worker making Meena's costume for the show, while the couple's four children, Asa, Caspar, Leo and Oscar Jennings, are among the piglet voices.
As with the first film, Jennings' filmmaker friends [Anderson](Wes)(Wes Anderson), [Renaud](Chris)(Chris Renaud), and [Wright](Edgar)(Edgar Wright) all have cameos in the film, with Anderson as a [tarsier](tarsier) night cleaner, Renaud as Linda Le Bon's show announcer, and Wright voicing a dog cop and a pig chauffeur. [Mosier](Scott)(Scott Mosier), director of *[Grinch](The)(The Grinch (film))* and the short film ''Eddie's Life Coach*, voices Mason, a walrus worker making the sets for the show.
## Production
[[File:2008-0419-GarthJennings.jpg|thumb|Writer and director [Jennings](Garth)(Garth Jennings)]]
On January 25, 2017, [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Pictures) and [Illumination](Illumination (company)) announced a sequel to its 2016 animated film *[Sing](Sing (2016 American film))'' was in development. Writer/director [Jennings](Garth)(Garth Jennings) and producers [Meledandri](Chris)(Chris Meledandri) and [Healy](Janet)(Janet Healy) return along with voiceover stars [McConaughey](Matthew)(Matthew McConaughey), [Witherspoon](Reese)(Reese Witherspoon), [Johansson](Scarlett)(Scarlett Johansson), [Kroll](Nick)(Nick Kroll), [Egerton](Taron)(Taron Egerton) and [Kelly](Tori)(Tori Kelly).
In December 2020, [Cannavale](Bobby)(Bobby Cannavale), [Wright](Letitia)(Letitia Wright), [André](Eric)(Eric André), [Peretti](Chelsea)(Chelsea Peretti), longtime Illumination collaborator [Williams](Pharrell)(Pharrell Williams), [Bono](Bono) and [Halsey](Halsey (singer)) were added to the voice cast. Work on the film shifted due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic), and was done remotely following the temporary closure of [Mac Guff](Illumination)(Illumination Mac Guff) (now renamed as Illumination Studios Paris).
The scope of the theatre in the finale was a major stepping stone to take over 10,000 animals for the crowd department, old and new ones designed by longtime Illumination artist Eric Guillon who not only worked on *Sing* but also designed the new characters in the sequel like choreographer Klaus and the [tarsiers](tarsiers). Fashion brand [Rodarte](Rodarte) designed some of the costumes used in the film.
## Music
In December 2020, [Talbot](Joby)(Joby Talbot) returned to compose the score. [U2](U2) performed the film's original song "Your Song Saved My Life". The song was released on November 3, 2021. Additional music includes songs by [Ledé](Kiana)(Kiana Ledé), Sam i, [Eilish](Billie)(Billie Eilish), [John](Elton)(Elton John) and more. The film's soundtrack was released on December 17, 2021.
## Release
### Theatrical and home media
*Sing 2* had its world premiere, opening the [Fest Celebration](AFI)(AFI Fest) on November 14, 2021, and was theatrically released in the United States on December 22, 2021, in [3D](RealD)(RealD 3D), due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic), after previously being scheduled to be released in the United States on December 25, 2020, and July 2, 2021. Early access screenings occurred in the United States on November 27, 2021. The film was released to [video](Video on demand) on January 7, 2022, on platforms such as Amazon Prime Video, Apple TV, Vudu, Xfinity, and YouTube. On Digital, 4K, Blu-ray |url=https://watchnow.singmovie.com/watch-at-home/ |access-date=March 16, 2022 |website=Own Sing 2 On Digital, 4K, Blu-ray |language=en |archive-date=April 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415171358/https://watchnow.singmovie.com/watch-at-home/ |url-status=live }} It was released on [Blu-ray](Blu-ray), DVD, and [HD Blu-ray](Ultra)(Ultra HD Blu-ray) on March 29, 2022, by [Pictures Home Entertainment](Universal)(Universal Pictures Home Entertainment).
### Marketing
[Tomy](Tomy) made a deal with [Illumination](Illumination (company)) and Universal to develop the *Sing 2* toy line, featuring plush toys, collectible figures, and a role-playing game. [Roblox](Roblox) released an *[Me!](Adopt)(Adopt Me!)* live event in partnership with Illumination to promote this film. The film also has many promotional partners including [Xfinity](Xfinity), [McDonald's](McDonald's), and [Mercari](Mercari). By its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, the film had made 393.1 million impressions across all social media platforms, a statistic 24% above those of a film released before the COVID-19 pandemic. Overall, the film had a better social media reach than 2021's *[Encanto](Encanto (film))*, *[Addams Family 2](The)(The Addams Family 2)*, *[& Jerry](Tom)(Tom & Jerry (2021 film))*, *[Untamed](Spirit)(Spirit Untamed)*, and *[Croods: A New Age](The)(The Croods: A New Age)*.
## Reception
### Box office
*Sing 2* grossed $162.8million in the United States and Canada, and $245.6million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $408.4 million.
In the United States and Canada, the film earned $1.6 million from sneak previews held on November 27, 2021. The film had its wide release the following month on Wednesday, December 22, alongside ''[King's Man](The)(The King's Man)* and *[Matrix Resurrections](The)(The Matrix Resurrections)*, and was projected to gross $40–50 million from 3,892 theaters over its first five days of release. The film ended up grossing $22.3 million in its opening weekend (and a total of $41 million over the five-day frame) from an estimated 4.1 million theater admissions, placing second at the box office behind *[No Way Home](Spider-Man:)(Spider-Man: No Way Home)*. Women made up 58% of the audience during its opening, with those below the age of 25 comprising 56% of ticket sales and those below 17 comprising 44%. The ethnic breakdown of the audience showed that 39% were Hispanic and Latino Americans, 35% European Americans, 15% African American, and 7% Asian or other. In its second weekend, the film remained in second place with $20.2 million. *Sing 2* once again retained second place at the box office in its third weekend with $11.6 million. On January 8, 2022, *Sing 2* became the first animated film of the COVID-19 pandemic to cross $100 million at the U.S. and Canadian box office as well as the first film since *[II](Frozen)(Frozen II)* (2019) to reach this milestone. It remained atop the box office top ten until its fifteenth weekend.
Outside the United States and Canada, *Sing 2* opened in several international markets on December 3, 2021. The film made $1.12 million in its first weekend, $1.5 million in its second, and another $1.5 million from 16 markets in its third. After screening in an additional 22 markets, *Sing 2* earned $19.2 million in its fourth weekend and had the biggest opening for an animated film during the COVID-19 pandemic in both France ($6 million) and Mexico ($3.6 million). The film made $17.2 million in its fifth weekend, which included a $1.2 million opening in Ukraine, $17.1 million in its sixth weekend, and $8.4 million in its seventh weekend. In its eighth weekend, the film had strong openings in Germany ($3 million), Poland ($2.4 million), and Austria ($500,000). In its ninth weekend, the film earned $17.4 million from 62 markets, which included a $9.3 million opening in the U.K. In its tenth weekend, the film earned $14 million from 63 markets, which included a $1.1 million debut in the country of Denmark where pandemic restrictions had recently been lifted. The film crossed the $300 million mark worldwide in its eleventh weekend after adding $11 million to its total, which included a $2.2 million debut in the Netherlands. The film's gross remained consistent in its twelfth weekend with $10.3 million that included a 1% drop in the U.K. *Sing 2* crossed the $200 million mark outside the U.S. and Canada in its thirteenth weekend.s Original Global Run – International Box Office|date=February 27, 2022|first=Nancy|last=Tartaglione|website=[Hollywood](Deadline)(Deadline Hollywood)|access-date=February 28, 2022|archive-date=February 27, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227215152/https://deadline.com/2022/02/uncharted-spider-man-no-way-home-tom-holland-sing-2-global-international-box-office-1234960950/|url-status=live}} By March 6, the film had surpassed the original film's gross in the U.K. with $40.5 million. In its fifteenth weekend, the film added $3 million to its total gross and the *Sing* franchise as a whole passed the $1 billion mark. The film made $6.1 million in its sixteenth weekend, which included a $4.3 million opening in Japan. It added $3.6 million in its seventeenth weekend. The film crossed the $400 million mark worldwide with the addition of $1.9 million in its nineteenth weekend. It is the first film since *Frozen II*, the first animated film during the pandemic, and the ninth Illumination title to reach the milestone. It made $1.2 million the following weekend.
### Critical response
Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film a rare average grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale (the first Illumination film to receive this grade), while [PostTrak](PostTrak) reported 91% of audience members gave it a positive score, with 78% saying they would definitely recommend it.
Justin Lowe, writing for *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)*, praised the musical set of the film, calling the "ragtag cast that Buster had brought for an amateur cast, had blossomed into a full-fledged company of professional performers". AFI 2021 |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-reviews/sing-2-review-1235047718/ |access-date=November 17, 2021 |work=[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter) |date=November 15, 2021 |archive-date=November 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117114002/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-reviews/sing-2-review-1235047718/ |url-status=live }} Peter Debruge, of *[Variety](Variety (magazine))*, also gave a positive review, saying the film is "an elaborate machinery of joy, and it's easier to appreciate how every choice seems designed to put a smile on people's faces".
However, a few reviewers were disappointed by the film. Emily Clark of *[In](Plugged)(Plugged In)* praised the film's inspiring and emotional elements, but took issue with the fact that Meena "clearly tells Buster she’s not OK kissing someone on stage, and he sort of dismisses her...The whole affair made me a bit queasy thinking about how many a young starlet has received her first smooch from a total stranger at the behest of adult directors and producers." [Kermode](Mark)(Mark Kermode), who had given the [film](first)(Sing (2016 American film)) a positive review, stated that *Sing 2* overused its flashier technical effects and lacked the "homemade charm" that characterized the first film.
### Accolades
## Sequel
In April 2023, Meledandri confirmed a third *Sing* film is in development.
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
*
[films](Category:2021)(Category:2021 films)
[comedy films](Category:2021)(Category:2021 comedy films)
[computer-animated films](Category:2021)(Category:2021 computer-animated films)
[American animated films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American animated films)
[English-language films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s English-language films)
[musical comedy films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s musical comedy films)
[computer-animated films](Category:American)(Category:American computer-animated films)
[musical comedy films](Category:American)(Category:American musical comedy films)
[sequel films](Category:American)(Category:American sequel films)
[films about animals](Category:Animated)(Category:Animated films about animals)
[musical films](Category:Animated)(Category:Animated musical films)
[musical films](Category:Jukebox)(Category:Jukebox musical films)
[about performing arts](Category:Films)(Category:Films about performing arts)
[postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic](Category:Films)(Category:Films postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic)
[produced by Chris Meledandri](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Chris Meledandri)
[produced by Janet Healy](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Janet Healy)
[directed by Garth Jennings](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Garth Jennings)
[set in a theatre](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in a theatre)
[(company) animated films](Category:Illumination)(Category:Illumination (company) animated films)
[Pictures animated films](Category:Universal)(Category:Universal Pictures animated films)
[Pictures films](Category:Universal)(Category:Universal Pictures films)
|
Sharon Stone
|
sharon_stone
|
# Sharon Stone
*Revision ID: 1160257776 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T10:34:59Z*
---
| birth_place = [Pennsylvania](Meadville,)(Meadville, Pennsylvania), U.S.
| occupation =
| height = 173 cm
| years_active = 1976–present
| works = [Filmography](Sharon Stone filmography)
| education = [University of Pennsylvania](Edinboro)(Edinboro University of Pennsylvania)
| spouse = |}}
| partner = [MacDonald](William)(William J. MacDonald (filmmaker)) (1992–1994)Bob Wagner (1994–1995)
| children = 3
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Sharon Stone)
}}
**Sharon Vonne Stone** (born March 10, 1958) is an American actress. Known for primarily playing [fatale](femme)(femme fatale)s and women of mystery on film and television, she became one of the most popular [symbol](sex)(sex symbol)s of the 1990s. She is the recipient of [accolades](various)(List of awards and nominations received by Sharon Stone), including a [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award), a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award), and a nomination for an [Award](Academy)(Academy Award). She received a star on the [Walk of Fame](Hollywood)(Hollywood Walk of Fame) in 1995 and was named [of the Order of Arts and Letters](Officer)(Ordre des Arts et des Lettres) in France in 2005 (Commander in 2021).
After modeling in television commercials and print advertisements, Stone made her film debut as an [extra](extra (acting)) in [Allen](Woody)(Woody Allen)'s dramedy *[Memories](Stardust)(Stardust Memories)* (1980) and played her first speaking part in [Craven](Wes)(Wes Craven)'s horror film *[Blessing](Deadly)(Deadly Blessing)* (1981). In the 1980s, she appeared in such pictures as *[Differences](Irreconcilable)(Irreconcilable Differences)* (1984), ''[Solomon's Mines](King)(King Solomon's Mines (1985 film))* (1985), *[Steel](Cold)(Cold Steel (1987 film))* (1987), and *[the Law](Above)(Above the Law (1988 film))'' (1988). She had a breakthrough with her part in [Verhoeven](Paul)(Paul Verhoeven)'s science fiction action film *[Recall](Total)(Total Recall (1990 film))* (1990), before rising to international recognition when she portrayed [Tramell](Catherine)(Catherine Tramell) in another Verhoeven film, the erotic thriller *[Instinct](Basic)(Basic Instinct)* (1992), for which she earned her first Golden Globe Award nomination for [Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama).
Stone's performance as a [wife](trophy)(trophy wife) in [Scorsese](Martin)(Martin Scorsese)'s epic crime drama *[Casino](Casino (1995 film))* (1995) earned her the best reviews of her career, the Golden Globe and an [Award](Academy)(Academy Award) nomination for [Actress](Best)(Academy Award for Best Actress). Her other notable films include *[Sliver](Sliver (film))* (1993), *[Specialist](The)(The Specialist)* (1994), *[Quick and the Dead](The)(The Quick and the Dead (1995 film))* (1995), *[Sphere](Sphere (1998 film))* (1998), *[Mighty](The)(The Mighty)* (1998), *[Muse](The)(The Muse (film))* (1999), *[Catwoman](Catwoman (film))* (2004), *[Flowers](Broken)(Broken Flowers)* (2005), *[Dog](Alpha)(Alpha Dog)* (2006), *[Bobby](Bobby (2006 film))* (2006), *[Lovelace](Lovelace (film))* (2013), *[Gigolo](Fading)(Fading Gigolo)* (2013), *[Disaster Artist](The)(The Disaster Artist (film))* (2017), *[Thunder Revue: A Bob Dylan Story by Martin Scorsese](Rolling)(Rolling Thunder Revue: A Bob Dylan Story by Martin Scorsese)* (2019), and *[Laundromat](The)(The Laundromat (2019 film))* (2019).
On television, Stone has had leading and supporting roles in productions such as the [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) miniseries *[and Remembrance](War)(War and Remembrance (miniseries))* (1987), the [HBO](HBO) television film *[These Walls Could Talk 2](If)(If These Walls Could Talk 2)* (2000), [Soderbergh](Steven)(Steven Soderbergh)'s *[Mosaic](Mosaic (murder mystery))* (2017) and [Murphy](Ryan)(Ryan Murphy (writer))'s *[Ratched](Ratched (TV series))* (2020). She made guest appearances in *[Practice](The)(The Practice)* (2004) and *[& Order: Special Victims Unit](Law)(Law & Order: Special Victims Unit)* (2010), winning the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series) for the former.
## Early life and education
Sharon Vonne Stone was born on March 10, 1958, in [Pennsylvania](Meadville,)(Meadville, Pennsylvania), to Dorothy Marie (née Lawson), an accountant, and Joseph William Stone II, a [and die](tool)(tool and die maker) manufacturer and former factory worker. She has three siblings: Michael, Kelly, and Patrick Joseph (died in 2023).Stated on *[the Actors Studio](Inside)(Inside the Actors Studio)*, 1999 She is of part Irish ancestry. In a 2013 interview with [O'Brien](Conan)(Conan O'Brien), she stated that her Irish ancestors arrived in the United States during the [Famine](Great)(Great Famine (Ireland)). She has a reported [IQ](Intelligence quotient) of 154. Stone was considered academically gifted as a child and entered the second grade when she was five years old. Stone said that she and her sister were both [abused as children](sexually)(child sexual abuse) by their maternal grandfather, in an interview to *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* in March 2021, while promoting her memoir *[Beauty of Living Twice](The)(The Beauty of Living Twice)*. At 14, her neck was badly injured while [a horse](breaking)(breaking a horse) when the animal bucked as it charged toward a washing line.
She graduated from Saegertown High School in [Pennsylvania](Saegertown,)(Saegertown, Pennsylvania), in 1975. Stone was admitted to [University of Pennsylvania](Edinboro)(Edinboro University of Pennsylvania) on a creative writing scholarship at age 15, but quit college and moved to New York City to become a [model](fashion)(fashion model). Inspired by [Clinton](Hillary)(Hillary Clinton), Stone later went back to [University](Edinboro)(Edinboro University of Pennsylvania) to complete her degree in 2016.
## Career
### Modeling and early screen appearances (1976–1989)
While attending [University of Pennsylvania](Edinboro)(Edinboro University of Pennsylvania), Stone won the title of Miss [County, Pennsylvania](Crawford)(Crawford County, Pennsylvania), and in 1976, was a candidate for [Pennsylvania](Miss)(Miss Pennsylvania). One of the pageant judges told her to quit college and move to [York City](New)(New York City) to become a [model](fashion)(fashion model). Stone left Meadville and moved in with an aunt in [Jersey](New)(New Jersey), and by 1977, she had been signed by [Modeling Agency](Ford)(Ford Models) in New York City. She soon moved to Europe, living for a year in Milan and then in Paris. While living there, she decided to quit modeling and pursue acting. "So I packed my bags, moved back to [York](New)(New York (state)), and stood in line to be an [extra](extra (acting)) in a [Allen](Woody)(Woody Allen) movie," she later recalled. At 20, Stone was cast for a brief role in Allen's dramedy *[Memories](Stardust)(Stardust Memories)* (1980) and had a speaking part a year later in the horror film *[Blessing](Deadly)(Deadly Blessing)* (1981).
French director [Lelouch](Claude)(Claude Lelouch) cast Stone in the musical epic *[Uns et les Autres](Les)(Les Uns et les Autres)* (1982), starring [Caan](James)(James Caan), but she was on screen for two minutes and did not appear in the credits. She secured guest-spots on the television series *[Spoons](Silver)(Silver Spoons)* (1982), *[City Blues](Bay)(Bay City Blues)* (1983), *[Steele](Remington)(Remington Steele)* (1983), *[P.I.](Magnum,)(Magnum, P.I.)* (1984), and *[J. Hooker](T.)(T. J. Hooker)* (1985); played a starlet who breaks up the marriage of a successful director and his screenwriter wife in the drama *[Differences](Irreconcilable)(Irreconcilable Differences)* (1984), opposite [O'Neal](Ryan)(Ryan O'Neal), [Long](Shelley)(Shelley Long) and a young [Barrymore](Drew)(Drew Barrymore); and starred as a resourceful woman teaming up with a fortune hunter (played by [Chamberlain](Richard)(Richard Chamberlain)) in the action-centered ''[Solomon's Mines](King)(King Solomon's Mines (1985 film))* (1985) and *[Quatermain and the Lost City of Gold](Allan)(Allan Quatermain and the Lost City of Gold)* (1986), a light, comedic take on the *[Jones](Indiana)(Indiana Jones)'' film series, which were poorly received by critics and audiences. In his review for ''King Solomon's Mines*, Walter Goodman of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)'' considered that Stone was "up to date as a spunky, sexy, smart-talking heroine with an effective right hook" but felt that the story was "lost in the effects". For her performance in *Allan Quatermain and the Lost City of Gold*, she received her first [Raspberry Award](Golden)(Golden Raspberry Award) nomination for Worst Actress.
Stone obtained the role of Janice Henry in the [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) miniseries *[and Remembrance](War)(War and Remembrance (miniseries))* (1987), the sequel to the 1983 miniseries *[Winds of War](The)(The Winds of War (miniseries))*, based on the 1978 [of the same name](novel)(War and Remembrance) written by [Wouk](Herman)(Herman Wouk). Through the remainder of the 1980s, she appeared as a reporter in the comedy *[Academy 4: Citizens on Patrol](Police)(Police Academy 4: Citizens on Patrol)* (1987), an attractive but mysterious woman with a hidden agenda in the thriller *[Steel](Cold)(Cold Steel (1987 film))* (1987), the wife of an ex-CIA agent in the crime film *[the Law](Above)(Above the Law (1988 film))* (1988) and the ill-fated wife of a successful businessman in the action film *[Jackson](Action)(Action Jackson (1988 film))* (1988).
### Breakthrough and *Basic Instinct* (1990–1992)
[[File:SharonStone91.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Stone at the [American Film Festival](Deauville)(Deauville American Film Festival) in 1991]]
In [Verhoeven](Paul)(Paul Verhoeven)'s *[Recall](Total)(Total Recall (1990 film))* (1990), a science fiction action film opposite [Schwarzenegger](Arnold)(Arnold Schwarzenegger), Stone played the seemingly loving wife of a construction worker. The film received favorable reviews and made $261.2 million worldwide, giving Stone's career a major boost. For instance, she was cast in five feature films released throughout 1991. She played what [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) described as the "bad girl" in the romantic comedy *[Said, She Said](He)(He Said, She Said (film))*, a sexually repressed woman in the psychological thriller *[Scissors](Scissors (film))*, a wealthy blonde in the crime drama *[of a Hitman](Diary)(Diary of a Hitman)*, a provocative young photojournalist in the thriller *[of the Gun](Year)(Year of the Gun (film))* and the agent and former lover of a writer in the neo-noir *[Sleeping Dogs Lie](Where)(Where Sleeping Dogs Lie)*.
In another Verhoeven film, the erotic thriller *[Instinct](Basic)(Basic Instinct)* (1992), she took on the role that made her a star, playing [Tramell](Catherine)(Catherine Tramell), a brilliant [bisexual](bisexuality) and alleged [killer](serial)(serial killer). Several actresses at the time turned down the role, mostly because of the [nudity](nudity in film) required.
Critical response towards *Basic Instinct* was mixed, but Stone received critical acclaim for her "star-making performance"; [Travers](Peter)(Peter Travers) of *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* remarked that "Verhoeven's cinematic wet dream delivers the goods, especially when Sharon Stone struts on with enough come-on carnality to singe the screen," and observed of the actress' portrayal: "Stone, a former model, is a knockout; she even got a rise out of Ah-nold in Verhoeven's *Total Recall*. But being the bright spot in too many dull movies (*He Said, She Said*; *Irreconcilable Differences*) stalled her career. Though *Basic Instinct* establishes Stone as a [bombshell](bombshell (slang)) for the 1990s, it also shows she can nail a laugh or shade an emotion with equal aplomb." Australian critic Shannon J. Harvey of *[Sunday Times](The)(The Sunday Times)* called the film "one of the best films of the early [1990s](1990s in film), doing more for female empowerment than any feminist rally. Stone – in her star-making performance – is as hot and sexy as she is ice-pick cold." For the part, Stone earned a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards) nomination for [Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama), four [Movie Awards](MTV)(MTV Movie & TV Awards) nominations, and a [Raspberry Award](Golden)(Golden Raspberry Awards) nomination for [New Star](Worst)(Golden Raspberry Award for Worst New Star) for her "tribute to [Cleaver](Theodore)(Beaver Cleaver)". The film also became one of the most financially successful productions of the 1990s, grossing US$352.9 million worldwide.
### Leading lady status (1993–1999)
In 1993, Stone played a [fatale](femme)(femme fatale) in the erotic thriller *[Sliver](Sliver (film))*, based on [Levin](Ira)(Ira Levin)'s [novel](eponymous)(Sliver (novel)) about the mysterious occurrences in a privately owned New York City high-rise apartment building. The film was heavily panned by critics and earned Stone a [Raspberry Award](Golden)(Golden Raspberry Awards) nomination for [Actress](Worst)(Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress) but became a commercial success, grossing US$116.3 million at the international box office. She also made a cameo appearance in the action film *[Action Hero](Last)(Last Action Hero)* (1993), reuniting with Arnold Schwarzenegger. In 1994, Stone appeared as the wife of an architect opposite [Gere](Richard)(Richard Gere) in the drama *[Intersection](Intersection (1994 film))*, and as a woman who entices a bomb expert she is involved with into destroying the criminal gang that killed her family, alongside [Stallone](Sylvester)(Sylvester Stallone), in the action thriller *[Specialist](The)(The Specialist)*. While *Intersection* found limited success, *The Specialist* made US$170.3 million worldwide. For her work in both films, she won a [Raspberry Award](Golden)(Golden Raspberry Awards) and a [Bad Movie Award](Stinkers)(Stinkers Bad Movie Awards) for Worst Actress, but was nominated for the [Movie Award for Most Desirable Female](MTV)(MTV Movie Award for Most Desirable Female) for *The Specialist*.
In *[Quick and the Dead](The)(The Quick and the Dead (1995 film))* (1995), Stone took on the role of a gunfighter who returns to a frontier town in an effort to avenge her father's death. She served as a producer on the film and had some creative control over the production;Muir, pp. 171-179 she chose director [Raimi](Sam)(Sam Raimi), after being impressed by his work on *[of Darkness](Army)(Army of Darkness)*, and co-star [Crowe](Russell)(Russell Crowe) after watching *[Stomper](Romper)(Romper Stomper)*. She paid [DiCaprio](Leonardo)(Leonardo DiCaprio)'s salary herself after a reluctance from Sony, the film's studio, over his casting. *The Quick and the Dead* was a modest profit and earned Stone a [Award](Saturn)(Saturn Awards) nomination for [Actress](Best)(Saturn Award for Best Actress). Stone starred opposite [De Niro](Robert)(Robert De Niro) in [Scorsese](Martin)(Martin Scorsese)'s epic crime drama *[Casino](Casino (1995 film))* (1995), where she took on the role of Ginger McKenna, the scheming, self-absorbed wife of a top gambling handicapper (De Niro). The film, based on the non-fiction book *[Love and Honor in Las Vegas](Casino:)(Casino: Love and Honor in Las Vegas)* by [Pileggi](Nicholas)(Nicholas Pileggi), received widespread critical acclaim, made US$116.1 million globally, and earned her the [Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama) and a nomination for the [Award for Best Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Actress). During an interview with *[Observer](The)(The Observer)*, published on January 28, 1996, Stone said of the response: "Thank God. I mean just finally, wow [...] I am not getting any younger. It couldn't have happened at a better time". That year, she received a star on the [Walk of Fame](Hollywood)(Hollywood Walk of Fame), located at 6925 Hollywood Blvd, and was awarded the [in Film](Women)(Women in Film Crystal + Lucy Awards) [Award](Crystal)(Crystal Award).
Stone portrayed the mistress of a cruel school master in the psychological thriller *[Diabolique](Diabolique (1996 film))* (1996), a woman waiting on death row for a brutal double murder in the drama *[Dance](Last)(Last Dance (1996 film))* (1996), and a biologist in the suspense film *[Sphere](Sphere (1998 film))* (1998). The three aforementioned films were panned by critics and failed to find an audience in theatres. In 1998, Stone also lent her voice for the successful animated film *[Antz](Antz)*, and played the mother of a 13-year-old boy suffering from [syndrome](Morquio)(Morquio syndrome) in the drama *[Mighty](The)(The Mighty)*, which garnered a positive critical response. Stone was nominated for the [Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture) for her performance in the lattermost.
Her turn as a street-wise, middle-aged moll in *[Gloria](Gloria (1999 American film))* (1999), a remake of the 1980 [of the same name](film)(Gloria (1980 film)), proved to be a critical and commercial misfire. A titular role followed in 1999 with the comedy *[Muse](The)(The Muse (film))*, playing the inspiration of an esteemed screenwriter. Wade Major, a critic for *Boxoffice*, found her portrayal of a "dizzy Muse" to be "the film's most delightful surprise",Major, Wade. Boxoffice, Aug 1, 1999: 52. but most reviews were ultimately lukewarm. Helmut Voss, then president of the [Foreign Press Association](Hollywood)(Hollywood Foreign Press Association), who give the annual [Globe Awards](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards), ordered all 82 of its members to return gift luxury watches sent by either Stone or [Films](October)(October Films) (now merged into [Features](Focus)(Focus Features)) as this was considered promotions for a nomination for Stone's performance in the film. She ultimately received the nomination for [Actress in a Motion Picture – Comedy or Musical](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical).
### Hiatus and downturn (2000–2004)
[[File:Sharon Stone..jpg|thumb|right|upright|Stone at the [Cannes Film Festival](2002)(2002 Cannes Film Festival)]]
In 2000, Stone played a lesbian trying to start a family, opposite [DeGeneres](Ellen)(Ellen DeGeneres), in the [HBO](HBO) television film *[These Walls Could Talk 2](If)(If These Walls Could Talk 2)* and starred as an exotic dancer, alongside [Connolly](Billy)(Billy Connolly), in the comedy *[Joe](Beautiful)(Beautiful Joe (film))*. While she was recognized by [in Film](Women)(Women in Film Crystal + Lucy Awards) with her second [Award](Lucy)(Women in Film Crystal + Lucy Awards#Lucy Award) for her performance in *If These Walls Could Talk 2*, *Beautiful Jo* premiered on [television](cable)(cable TV) instead of receiving a theatrical release in North America. Nathan Rabin of *[A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club)*, who had been critical of Stone's previous films, wrote that "nothing she's done has been quite as shameless or appalling as *Beautiful Joe*, a toxic piece of whimsy that ranks among the worst films of 2000".
Following her September 2001 hospitalization for a [hemorrhage](subarachnoid)(subarachnoid hemorrhage), Stone took a hiatus from screen acting. She faced professional challenges as she was in the process of recovery. She felt that she had "lost [her] place"in Hollywood, and during a 2015 interview with *USA Today*, she remarked: "[When] you find yourself at the back of the line in your business, as I did, [you] have to figure yourself out all over again." She returned to the screen in 2003, when she took on a three-episode arc as Sheila Carlisle, an attorney who believes she can communicate with [God](God), in the eighth season of *[Practice](The)(The Practice)*. For her performance, she received the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series).
Stone attempted a return to the mainstream with roles in the films *[Creek Manor](Cold)(Cold Creek Manor)* (2003), with [Quaid](Dennis)(Dennis Quaid), and *[Catwoman](Catwoman (film))* (2004), with [Berry](Halle)(Halle Berry). In the mystery psychological thriller *Cold Creek Manor*, she and Quaid played a couple terrorized by the former owner of the rural estate they bought in [foreclosure](foreclosure). *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* magazine remarked in its review for the film that both actors "fish in vain to find any angles to play in their dimension-free characters". The superhero film *Catwoman* saw her play the age-obsessed CEO of a cosmetic company and the story's antagonist. While both films flopped at the box office, *Catwoman* is considered by many critics to be [of the worst movies of all time](one)(List of films considered the worst#Catwoman (2004)).
### Independent films and ensemble dramas (2005–2017)
Her next film release was [Jarmusch](Jim)(Jim Jarmusch)'s dramedy *[Flowers](Broken)(Broken Flowers)* (2005), in which Stone took on the role of a grasping and overly eager closet organizer who re-connects with a former womaniser (played by [Murray](Bill)(Bill Murray)). Unlike her previous few film outings, *Broken Flowers* was met with critical acclaim, upon its premiere at Cannes, where it was nominated for the [d'Or](Palme)(Palme d'Or) and won the [Prix](Grand)(Grand Prix (Cannes Film Festival)). *[Out Magazine](Far)(Far Out Magazine)* ranked Stone's role among one of her "10 best performances", while *[York Magazine](New)(New York (magazine))* remarked: "Sharon Stone, playing a widow who's half-hippie, half-working-class-tough, demonstrates that, given the right part, she's still not merely sexy but knockabout funny and sly". In 2005, she was named [of the Order of Arts and Letters](Officer)(Ordre des Arts et des Lettres) in France.
After years of litigation, *[Instinct 2](Basic)(Basic Instinct 2)* was released on March 31, 2006. A reason for a long delay in releasing the film was reportedly Stone's dispute with the filmmakers over the nudity in the film; she wanted more while they wanted less. Stone told an interviewer, "We are in a time of odd repression and if a popcorn movie allows us to create a platform for discussion, wouldn't that be great?". Despite an estimated budget of US$70 million, *Basic Instinct 2* placed only tenth in gross on its opening weekend with a meager US$3.2 million and finished with a total domestic gross of under US$6 million. Stone appeared in [Cassavetes](Nick)(Nick Cassavetes)'s crime drama *[Dog](Alpha)(Alpha Dog)* (2006), opposite [Willis](Bruce)(Bruce Willis), playing Olivia Mazursky, the mother of a real-life murder victim; she wore a [fatsuit](fatsuit) for the role. The film premiered at the [Sundance Film Festival](2006)(2006 Sundance Film Festival) and was an arthouse success. She made part of an ensemble cast in [Estevez](Emilio)(Emilio Estevez)'s drama *[Bobby](Bobby (2006 film))* (2006), about the hours leading up to the [of Robert F. Kennedy](assassination)(assassination of Robert F. Kennedy). Stone received favorable comments for her performance, particularly a scene alongside [Lohan](Lindsay)(Lindsay Lohan). As a member of the cast, she was nominated for the [Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture), but won the [Film Festival Award](Hollywood)(Hollywood Film Festival) for Best Ensemble Cast.
[[File:Sharon Stone Cannes 2013 2.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Stone at the [Cannes Film Festival](2013)(2013 Cannes Film Festival)]]
Stone took on the role of a [depressed](clinically)(major depressive disorder) woman in the independent drama *[a Man Falls in the Forest](When)(When a Man Falls in the Forest)* (2007), which premiered in competition at the [Berlin International Film Festival](57th)(57th Berlin International Film Festival) where it was nominated for the [Bear](Golden)(Golden Bear). All of her late 2000s films —*[I Had Known I Was a Genius](If)(If I Had Known I Was a Genius)* (2007), *[Year of Getting to Know Us](The)(The Year of Getting to Know Us)* (2008), *[Dollars a Day](Five)(Five Dollars a Day)* (2009) and *[of Blood](Streets)(Streets of Blood)* (2009)— were [direct-to-DVD](direct-to-video) releases in North America. In 2010, Stone made guest-appearances in four episodes of *[& Order: Special Victims Unit](Law)(Law & Order: Special Victims Unit)*, portraying [Marlowe](Jo)(Jo Marlowe), a former cop turned prosecutor. *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)* included in a review such descriptions of her performance as a "great presence", and having "had to revive her best [...] tone to sell hokey lines" in a series it described as "mawkish and overwrought". She took on the leading female role in the French action sequel *[Winch II](Largo)(Largo Winch II)* as a United Nations investigator named Diane Francken. Her first [theatrical-released](wide release) production since 2007, the film premiered on February 16, 2011, in France, where it opened in second place at the box office. She next starred as a hard-hitting journalist in the thriller *[Run](Border)(Border Run)* (2012), which received a [direct-to-DVD](direct-to-video) release.
In 2013, Stone played the mother of porn actress [Lovelace](Linda)(Linda Lovelace) ([Seyfried](Amanda)(Amanda Seyfried)) in the [biographical](biographical film) drama *[Lovelace](Lovelace (film))*, and a dermatologist seeking a "[à trois](ménage)(ménage à trois)" in the [Allen](Woody)(Woody Allen)–[Turturro](John)(John Turturro) comedy *[Gigolo](Fading)(Fading Gigolo)*. Both films were released in limited theatres to a decent critical reception; [Kenny](Glenn)(Glenn Kenny), in his review for *Fading Gigolo*, found Stone to be "splendidly understated" in what he described as "a New York story through and through [...] often funny, sometimes moving, occasionally goofy as hell". In 2014, she starred as an actress-turned-publisher, opposite [Scamarcio](Riccardo)(Riccardo Scamarcio), in the Italian dramedy *[Golden Boy](A)(A Golden Boy)* (''Un ragazzo d'oro''), directed by [Avati](Pupi)(Pupi Avati), and portrayed America's first female Vice President in the [TNT](TNT (American TV network)) action drama series *[X](Agent)(Agent X (TV series))*, which only aired for one season. Stone next played an adoptive mother in the drama *[and Daughters](Mothers)(Mothers and Daughters (2016 film))* (2016), a "lineman widow" and the "alcoholic mom" of a high-wire worker in the action film *[on the Line](Life)(Life on the Line (film))* (2016), and a greedy billionaire in the drama *[Wild](Running)(Running Wild (2017 film))* (2017). These three films all received a VOD release, to varying responses. [Franco](James)(James Franco)'s biographical comedy *[Disaster Artist](The)(The Disaster Artist (film))* (2017), which featured Stone as [Burton](Iris)(Iris Burton), the agent of actor [Sestero](Greg)(Greg Sestero), was a critical and commercial success, and was chosen by the [Board of Review](National)(National Board of Review) as one of the top ten films of 2017.
### Film and television balance (2018–present)
Stone returned to television in 2018, when she portrayed a murdered children's book author and illustrator in [Soderbergh](Steven)(Steven Soderbergh)'s [HBO](HBO) mystery production *[Mosaic](Mosaic (murder mystery))*, which was released as an [iOS](iOS)/[Android](Android (operating system)) [app](mobile)(mobile app) serving as an interactive film and as a television drama. She received positive reviews for her performance. [Ryan](Maureen)(Maureen Ryan) of *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* felt that the actress "displays terrific range and depth" and "holds the screen with effortless charisma", and Nick Schager of *[Daily Beast](The)(The Daily Beast)* wrote that "Stone's turn is something close to masterful." She earned the [Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries, or Television Film](Satellite)(Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film).
In *[Thunder Revue: A Bob Dylan Story by Martin Scorsese](Rolling)(Rolling Thunder Revue: A Bob Dylan Story by Martin Scorsese)* (2019), a [film](pseudo-documentary)(Pseudo-documentary) covering [Dylan](Bob)(Bob Dylan)'s 1975 [Thunder Revue](Rolling)(Rolling Thunder Revue) concert tour, Stone played an exaggerated version of herself. The film was released on [Netflix](Netflix), to critical acclaim. [Gleiberman](Owen)(Owen Gleiberman) described her appearance as a "marketing hook" and further stated: "The presence of Sharon Stone embodies the spirit of [Hollywood](the) machine. She has always been a good actress (probably better than many know; just watch her in *Casino*), but her fame will forever rest on a certain crudely riveting but debased high-budget exploitation thriller". She reunited with Soderbergh for *The Laundromat* (2019), in which she played a harried realtor, opposite [Streep](Meryl)(Meryl Streep).
In [Netflix](Netflix)'s psychological thriller series *[Ratched](Ratched (TV series))* (2020), a [prequel](prequel) to [Forman](Miloš)(Miloš Forman)'s 1975 film ''[Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest](One)(One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (film))'' developed by [Murphy](Ryan)(Ryan Murphy (writer)), Stone portrayed a wealthy heiress who hires a hit man to kill a doctor for disfiguring her son. Intrigued by Murphy's pitch for her character, which he wrote for her, Stone described the part as "completely insane. And at the same time she thinks she's really a loving mother who has her shit together". The series garnered a decent critical response and was viewed by 48 million people in its first four weeks of release. In 2020 Stone appeared as herself in an introduction to the fifth episode of [New Pope](The)(The New Pope), where she had an audience with [Malkovich](John)(John Malkovich) as Pope John Paul III.
In 2021, she also appeared as herself in the dramedy *[Today](Here)(Here Today (film))*, directed by [Crystal](Billy)(Billy Crystal), and was cast in the romantic drama *Beauty*, directed by [Dosunmu](Andrew)(Andrew Dosunmu) for [Netflix](Netflix).
## Public image
[[File:Sharon Stone 2005.jpg|right|thumb|upright|Stone at the [Cannes Film Festival](2005)(2005 Cannes Film Festival)]]
### In media and fashion
For her leading roles in erotic and adult-themed feature films such as *Basic Instinct*, *Sliver*, and *The Specialist*, Stone cemented what was described as a "tough-talking, no-underwear, voyeuristic, cool-as-ice, [symbol](sex)(sex symbol)" status during the 1990s. She has appeared on the covers and pictorials of over 300 celebrity and fashion magazines throughout her four-decade acting career. She graced the June–July 1986 cover of French *[Vogue](Vogue (magazine))*, and to coincide with the release of *Total Recall*, she posed nude for the July 1990 issue of *[Playboy](Playboy)*, flaunting the muscles she had developed in preparation for the film. Following *Basic Instinct*, photographer [Hurrell](George)(George Hurrell) took a series of photographs of Stone, [Fenn](Sherilyn)(Sherilyn Fenn), [Sands](Julian)(Julian Sands), [Welch](Raquel)(Raquel Welch), [Roberts](Eric)(Eric Roberts), and [Penn](Sean)(Sean Penn). Stone, who was Hurrell's reportedly last sitting before his death in 1992, is also a collector of the photographer's original prints and wrote the foreword to the book ''Hurrell's Hollywood''. In 1993, she appeared in [Pirelli](Pirelli)'s commercial, *Driving Instinct*, in 2005, became the face of [Dior](Dior)'s Capture skincare line, and in 2016, starred with [Sculfor](Paul)(Paul Sculfor) in Airfield's ([de](:de:Airfield)) *Fashion Is a Lovestory* short film.
Stone's public and professional profiles have been strongly tied to her perceived beauty and sex appeal. She has ranked among the "50 most beautiful people in the world" by *[People](People (magazine))* in 1992, the "100 sexiest stars in film history" by *[Empire](Empire (film magazine))* in 1995 and 1997, and the "25 sexiest stars of the century" by *Playboy* in 1999. She has also been the subject of four television documentary specials, and several biographies have been written about her.
On her sex symbol image, Stone told [Winfrey](Oprah)(Oprah Winfrey) on *[Prime](Oprah)(Oprah Prime)* in 2014: "It's a pleasure for me now. I mean, I'm gonna be 56 years old. If people want to think I'm a sex symbol, it's, like, yeah. Think it up. You know. I mean, like, good for me". She posed nude for the September 2015 issue of ''[Bazaar](Harper's)(Harper's Bazaar)'', in which she stated: "At a certain point you start asking yourself, 'What really is sexy?' It's not just the elevation of your boobs. It's being present and having fun and liking yourself enough to like the person that's with you".
### Criticism
On January 28, 2005, Stone helped solicit pledges for $1 million in five minutes for mosquito nets in [Tanzania](Tanzania),"Sharon Stone raises $1 mil. for Tanzania in 5 minutes", *Yomiuri Shimbun*, January 30, 2005. turning a panel on [poverty](African)(Poverty in Africa) into an impromptu [fundraiser](fundraising) at the [Economic Forum](World)(World Economic Forum) in [Davos](Davos), Switzerland. Many observers, including [UNICEF](UNICEF), criticized her actions by claiming that Stone had reacted instinctively to the words of Tanzanian President [Mkapa](Benjamin)(Benjamin Mkapa), because she had not done her research on the causes, consequences, and methods of preventing [malaria](malaria). Of the $1 million pledged, only $250,000 was actually raised. In order to fulfill the promise to send $1 million worth of bed nets to Tanzania, UNICEF contributed $750,000. A review of This diverted funds from other UNICEF projects. According to prominent economist [Sala-i-Martin](Xavier)(Xavier Sala-i-Martin), officials are largely unaware of what happened with the bed nets. Some were delivered to the local airport. These reportedly were stolen and later resurfaced as wedding dresses on the local [market](black)(black market).
Stone was criticized over her comments in an exchange on the red carpet with Hong Kong's *[Entertainment News](Cable)(Hong Kong Cable Television)* during the [Cannes Film Festival](2008)(2008 Cannes Film Festival) on May 25, 2008. When asked about the [Sichuan earthquake](2008)(2008 Sichuan earthquake) she remarked:
}}
One of China's biggest cinema chains reacted to Stone's comments by declaring it would not show her films in its theaters. The founder of the UME Cineplex chain and the chairman of the Federation of Hong Kong Filmmakers, [See-yuen](Ng)(Ng See-yuen), called Stone's comments "inappropriate", and said the UME Cineplex chain would no longer present her films. [Dior](Dior) advertisements featuring Stone's image were dropped from all ads in China amid the public uproar. Stone was removed from the [Shanghai International Film Festival](2008)(2008 Shanghai International Film Festival) guest list, and the event's organizers considered banning the actress permanently. Dior China had originally posted an apology in Stone's name, but Stone later denied making the apology during an interview with *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, saying "I'm not going to apologize. I'm certainly not going to apologize for something that isn't real and true – not for face creams," although she did admit that she had "sounded like an idiot." However, after the interview, Stone released a statement entitled "In my own words by Sharon Stone" in which she said "I could not be more regretful of that mistake. It was unintentional. I apologize. Those words were never meant to be hurtful to anyone." While Stone cited the Dalai Lama as her "good friend" when she made the remark at the Cannes film festival, the Dalai Lama has reportedly distanced himself by saying of her only, "yes, I've met that lady".
## Personal life
[[File:SharonStoneBerlinale crop.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Stone at the 2007 [International Film Festival](Berlin)(Berlin International Film Festival)]]
Stone is a Tibetan Buddhist, having been converted to [Buddhism](Buddhism) when Richard Gere introduced her to the [Lama](Dalai)(14th Dalai Lama). She has said she believes in God. On September 29, 2001, Stone was hospitalized for a [hemorrhage](subarachnoid)(subarachnoid hemorrhage), which was diagnosed as a [artery dissection](vertebral)(vertebral artery dissection) rather than the more common ruptured [aneurysm](aneurysm), and treated with an [coil embolization](endovascular)(embolization).
### Relationships and family
In 1984, she met television producer Michael Greenburg on the set of *[Vegas Strip War](The)(The Vegas Strip War)*, a television film he produced and she starred in. They married the same year. In 1986, Greenburg was her [producer](line)(line producer) on *[Quatermain and the Lost City of Gold](Allan)(Allan Quatermain and the Lost City of Gold)*. The couple separated three years later, and their divorce was finalized in 1990.
Stone and comedian [Shandling](Garry)(Garry Shandling) were students of acting coach [London](Roy)(Roy London) and dated briefly. She appeared on his show *[Larry Sanders Show](The)(The Larry Sanders Show)* in the episode "The Mr. Sharon Stone Show". They remained close friends until Shandling's death in 2016. In the documentary *Special Thanks to Roy London*, interviews with Stone[Sharon Stone](https://web.archive.org/web/20060102194121/http://www.specialthankstoroylondon.com/clips/SharonStone.mov) *Special Thanks to Roy London* and Shandling[Garry Shandling](https://web.archive.org/web/20060102203324/http://www.specialthankstoroylondon.com/clips/GarryShandling.mov) *Special Thanks to Roy London*[Special Thanks To Roy London](https://web.archive.org/web/20051028090248/http://specialthankstoroylondon.com/) - Documentary discuss their relationship.
In 1993, Stone met [J. MacDonald](William)(William J. MacDonald (filmmaker)) on the set of the film *[Sliver](Sliver (film))*, which he co-produced. MacDonald left his wife Naomi Baka for Stone and became engaged to her. They separated one year later in 1994. After they separated, Stone returned the engagement ring via [FedEx](FedEx). While working on the film *[Quick and the Dead](The)(The Quick and the Dead (1995 film))* in 1994, Stone met Bob Wagner, a first assistant director, and they became engaged.
On February 14, 1998, Stone married [Bronstein](Phil)(Phil Bronstein), executive editor of *[San Francisco Examiner](The)(The San Francisco Examiner)* and later *[Francisco Chronicle](San)(San Francisco Chronicle)*. Stone suffered several miscarriages due to an [disease](autoimmune)(autoimmune disease) and [endometriosis](endometriosis) and was unable to have biological children. They [adopted](adoption) a son, Roan Joseph Bronstein, in 2000. Bronstein filed for divorce in 2003, citing irreconcilable differences. The divorce became final in 2004, with a judge ruling that Roan would remain primarily with Bronstein and Stone would have visitation rights.
Stone adopted her second son, Laird Vonne, in 2005 and her third son, Quinn Kelly Stone, in 2006. As of 2018, Stone resides with her three sons in [Hollywood, California](West)(West Hollywood, California), in a home once owned by the actor [Clift](Montgomery)(Montgomery Clift).
### Activism
In March 2006, Stone traveled to Israel to promote peace in the Middle East through a press conference with [Peace Prize](Nobel)(Nobel Peace Prize) winner [Peres](Shimon)(Shimon Peres). In 2013, she referred to Peres as her "mentor".Dvir, Noam (Davul). ["Sharon Stone call Peres her 'mentor'"](http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4394526,00.html) , *Ynetnews*, June 19, 2013. Retrieved June 19, 2013. On October 23, 2013, Stone received the [Summit Award](Peace)(World Summit of Nobel Peace Laureates#Peace Summit Award) for her work for people with [HIV/AIDS](HIV/AIDS).
In 2015, Stone was guest of honor at the Pilosio Building Peace Award in [Milan](Milan). She began an impromptu auction on stage in front of a crowd of CEOs from the construction industry and other dignitaries. She gained enough pledges to build 28 schools in Africa.
## Selected filmography and accolades
In a career spanning over four decades, Stone has had over one hundred acting credits in film and on television. She has won 10 awards from 41 nominations, including one [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards) (for *[Casino](Casino (1995 film))*), one [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award) (for *[Practice](The)(The Practice)*), and two [Movie Awards](MTV)(MTV Movie & TV Awards) (for *[Instinct](Basic)(Basic Instinct)*). Her top-billing roles and most notable films include:
## Bibliography
*
## References
## External links
*
*
*
}}
[ ](Category:Sharon Stone)
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|
ZZ Top
|
zz_top
|
# ZZ Top
*Revision ID: 1159808794 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T17:30:26Z*
---
| years_active = 1969–present
| label =
| website =
| current_members = *[Gibbons](Billy)(Billy Gibbons)
*[Beard](Frank)(Frank Beard (musician))
*Elwood Francis
| past_members = *[Hill](Dusty)(Dusty Hill)
*Lanier Greig
*Dan Mitchell
*Billy Ethridge
}}
**ZZ Top** is an American rock band formed in 1969 in [Texas](Houston,)(Houston). For 51 consecutive years, it was composed of vocalist-guitarist [Gibbons](Billy)(Billy Gibbons), drummer [Beard](Frank)(Frank Beard (musician)) and bassist-vocalist [Hill](Dusty)(Dusty Hill), until Hill's death in 2021. ZZ Top had developed a signature sound based on Gibbons' [blues](blues) guitar playing style and Hill and Beard's [section](rhythm)(rhythm section). They are popular for their live performances, sly and humorous lyrics, and the matching appearances of Gibbons and Hill, who wore sunglasses, hats and long beards.
ZZ Top formed after the disbanding of [Sidewalks](Moving)(Moving Sidewalks), Gibbons' previous band, in 1969. Within a year, they signed with [Records](London)(London Records) and released ''[Top's First](ZZ)(ZZ Top's First Album)* in 1971. Subsequent releases, such as *[Hombres](Tres)(Tres Hombres)* (1973) and *[Fandango!](Fandango!)* (1975), and the singles "[Grange](La)(La Grange (song))" and "[Tush](Tush (ZZ Top song))", gained extensive radio [airplay](airplay). By the mid-1970s, ZZ Top had become renowned in [America](North)(North America) for their live act, including the [Texas Tour](Worldwide)(Worldwide Texas Tour) (1976–1977), which was a critical and commercial success.
After a hiatus, ZZ Top returned in 1979 with a new musical direction and image, with Gibbons and Hill wearing sunglasses and matching chest-length beards. With the album *[Loco](El)(El Loco)* (1981), they began to experiment with [synthesizer](synthesizer)s and [machine](drum)(drum machine)s. They established a more mainstream sound and rose to international stardom with *[Eliminator](Eliminator (album))* (1983) and *[Afterburner](Afterburner (ZZ Top album))'' (1985), which integrated influences from [wave](new)(New wave music), [punk](Punk rock), and [dance-rock](dance-rock). The popularity of these albums' music videos, including those for "[All Your Lovin'](Gimme)(Gimme All Your Lovin')", "[Dressed Man](Sharp)(Sharp Dressed Man)", and "[Legs](Legs (song))", gave them mass exposure on television channel [MTV](MTV) and made them prominent artists in 1980s [culture](pop)(Popular culture). The *Afterburner* tour set records for the highest-attended and highest-grossing concert tour of 1986.
After gaining additional acclaim with the release of their tenth album *[Recycler](Recycler (album))* (1990), and its [tour](accompanying)(Recycler Tour), the group's experimentation continued with mixed success on the albums *[Antenna](Antenna (ZZ Top album))* (1994), *[Rhythmeen](Rhythmeen)* (1996), *[XXX](XXX (ZZ Top album))* (1999), and *[Mescalero](Mescalero (album))* (2003). They most recently released *[Futura](La)(La Futura)* (2012) and ''Goin' 50'' (2019), a compilation album commemorating the band's 50th anniversary. By the time of Hill's death in 2021, ZZ Top had become the longest-running band with an unchanged lineup in the history of popular music. Per Hill's wishes, he was replaced by their longtime [tech](guitar)(guitar tech) Elwood Francis on bass.
ZZ Top has released 15 studio albums and sold an estimated 50 million records worldwide. They have won three [Video Music Awards](MTV)(MTV Video Music Awards), and in 2004, the members were inducted into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame). In 2015, *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* ranked Gibbons the 32nd greatest guitarist of all time. The band members have supported campaigns and charities including [Childline](Childline), [Jude Children's Research Hospital](St.)(St. Jude Children's Research Hospital), and a fundraiser for the [Blues Museum](Delta)(Delta Blues Museum).
## History
### Early years (1969–1972)
The original line-up was formed in [Houston](Houston) and consisted of Gibbons, bassist/organist Lanier Greig, and drummer Dan Mitchell. The name of the band was Gibbons' idea. The band had a small apartment covered with concert posters and he noticed that many performers' names used initials. Gibbons particularly noticed [King](B.B.)(B.B. King) and [Z. Hill](Z.)(Z. Z. Hill) and thought of combining the two into "ZZ King", but considered it too similar to the original name. He then figured that "king is at the top" which gave him the idea of naming the band "ZZ Top".
ZZ Top was managed by [Ham](Bill)(Bill Ham), a [Texas](Waxahachie,)(Waxahachie, Texas), native who had befriended Gibbons a year earlier. They released their first single, "Salt Lick", in 1969, and the B-side contained the song "Miller's Farm". Both songs credited Gibbons as the composer. Immediately after the recording of "Salt Lick", Greig was replaced by bassist Billy Ethridge, a bandmate of [Ray Vaughan](Stevie)(Stevie Ray Vaughan), and Mitchell was replaced by [Beard](Frank)(Frank Beard (musician)) of [Blues](American)(American Blues). Due to lack of interest from the major American record companies, ZZ Top accepted a record deal from [Records](London)(London Records), the American affiliate of the British [Records](Decca)(Decca Records) label. Unwilling to sign a recording contract, Ethridge quit the band and [Hill](Dusty)(Dusty Hill), Frank Beard's American Blues bandmate, became his replacement in late 1969. At this moment, all three members of the band were 20 years old. After Hill moved from Dallas to Houston, ZZ Top signed with London in 1970. They performed their first concert together at a Knights of Columbus Hall in [Texas](Beaumont,)(Beaumont, Texas), on February 10, 1970. The show was booked by [KLVI](KLVI) radio personality Al Caldwell, who was also instrumental in broadcasting the band's first recordings.
In addition to assuming the role as the band's leader, Gibbons became the main lyricist and musical arranger. With the assistance of Ham and engineer Robin Hood Brians, ''[Top's First Album](ZZ)(ZZ Top's First Album)'' (1971) was released. It featured "barrelhouse" rhythms, distorted guitars, double entendres, and innuendo. The music and songs reflected ZZ Top's blues influences. Following their debut album, the band released *[Grande Mud](Rio)(Rio Grande Mud)* (1972), which produced their first charting single, "[Francine](Francine (song))".
### First decade of success and signature sound (1973–1982)
[[Top (1976).png|230px|thumb|right|ZZ Top performing live in 1976](File:ZZ)]
ZZ Top released *[Hombres](Tres)(Tres Hombres)* in 1973, which reached the No. 8 position on the *[200](Billboard)(Billboard 200)* albums chart by early 1974. The album's sound was the result of the propulsive support provided by Hill and Beard, and Gibbons' "growling" guitar tone. Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that the album "brought ZZ Top their first Top Ten record, making them stars in the process". The album included the boogie-driven "[Grange](La)(La Grange (song))" (written about the [Ranch](Chicken)(Chicken Ranch (Texas)), a notorious [brothel](brothel) in [Grange, Texas](La)(La Grange, Texas), that also inspired the musical *[Best Little Whorehouse in Texas](The)(The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas)*). On the subsequent tour, the band performed sold-out concerts in the US. During this tour, ZZ Top recorded the live tracks that would fill one side of their 1975 album, *[Fandango!](Fandango!)*. *Fandango!*, which also contained one side of new studio songs, was a top-ten album; its single "[Tush](Tush (ZZ Top song))" peaked at number 20 on the [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100).
ZZ Top began the [Texas Tour](Worldwide)(Worldwide Texas Tour) in May 1976 to support *Fandango!*, and the tour continued through 1977 with 98 shows over 18 months. *[Tejas](Tejas (album))*, recorded during a break in the tour and released in November 1976, was the final ZZ Top album under their contract with London Records. It was not as successful or as positively received as their previous two efforts, but reached number 17 on the [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200). The singles from *Tejas*, "[Only Love](It's)(It's Only Love (ZZ Top song))" and "[for Driving While Blind](Arrested)(Arrested for Driving While Blind)", both failed to crack the Top 40 on the *Billboard* Hot 100.
Exhausted following the Worldwide Texas Tour, the band needed a break. Frank Beard started by completing a 30 day detox program to kick his drug addiction, which had included a growing heroin problem. "Somewhere during that time I got a cheque for $72,000, my first big money, and I probably spent it all on drugs." Gibbons traveled to Europe, Beard went to [Jamaica](Jamaica), and Hill went to [Mexico](Mexico). Hill also spent 3 months working at [Airport](DFW)(Dallas Fort Worth International Airport), saying he wanted to "feel normal" and "ground himself" after years spent performing. In order to help him blend in, he wore a nametag that just said "Joe". The band's break would eventually last almost 2 years. In 1979, when the group returned to record a new album, Gibbons and Hill were now sporting chest-length beards. ZZ Top signed with [Bros. Records](Warner)(Warner Bros. Records) and released the album *[Degüello](Degüello)* in late 1979. Their hit singles from this period, "[Sunglasses](Cheap)(Cheap Sunglasses)" and "[Necklace](Pearl)(Pearl Necklace (song))", showed a more modern sound.
While the *Degüello* album went platinum, it only reached number 24 on the *Billboard* chart. The album produced two popular singles: "[Thank You](I)(I Thank You (song))", a cover of the [Porter](David)(David Porter (musician))/[Hayes](Isaac)(Isaac Hayes) composition originally recorded by [& Dave](Sam)(Sam & Dave), and the band original "[Sunglasses](Cheap)(Cheap Sunglasses)". The band remained a popular concert attraction and toured in support of *Degüello*. In April 1980, ZZ Top made their first appearances in Europe, performing for the German music television show *[Rockpalast](Rockpalast)* (later included on the 2009 DVD *[Down Live: 1980 & 2008](Double)(Double Down Live: 1980 & 2008)*) and the [BBC](BBC) show *[Old Grey Whistle Test](The)(The Old Grey Whistle Test)*. The band shared the BBC's studio with English [electronic](electronic music) group [Manoeuvres in the Dark](Orchestral)(Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark) (OMD), whom Gibbons felt "were great". Inspired by OMD, ZZ Top introduced a jerky dancing style to their live show and began to experiment with [synthesizer](synthesizer)s, which featured prominently on the October 1981 album *[Loco](El)(El Loco)*. The album peaked at number 17 on the *Billboard* chart, and featured the singles "[Snake Boogie](Tube)(Tube Snake Boogie)", "[Necklace](Pearl)(Pearl Necklace (song))", and "Leila".
### *Eliminator*, *Afterburner*, and *Recycler* (1983–1991)
[[and Gibbons in 1983](File:ZZTop.jpg|thumb|230px|right|Hill)]
Gibbons pushed the band into a more modern direction for *[Eliminator](Eliminator (album))*, released in March 1983. The album featured two Top-40 singles ("[All Your Lovin'](Gimme)(Gimme All Your Lovin')" and "[Legs](Legs (song))"), and two additional [Rock](Top)(Mainstream Rock (chart)) hits ("[Me Under Pressure](Got)(Got Me Under Pressure)" and "[Dressed Man](Sharp)(Sharp Dressed Man)"), with the extended dance mix of "Legs" peaking at number 13 on the [Play Singles](Club)(Dance Club Songs) chart. The album became a critical and commercial success, selling more than 10 million copies while peaking at No. 9 in the U.S. *Billboard* pop charts. It is the only ZZ Top album to reach Diamond status in the US.
Several music videos from the album were in regular rotation on MTV, attracting many new fans. The band won their first [Video Music Award](MTV)(MTV Video Music Award)s in the categories of [Group Video](Best)(MTV Video Music Award for Best Group Video) for "Legs", and [Direction](Best)(MTV Video Music Award for Best Direction) for "Sharp Dressed Man". The music videos were included in their *[Hits](Greatest)(Greatest Hits (ZZ Top DVD))* video, which was later released on DVD and quickly went multi-platinum.
*Eliminator* retained Gibbons's signature guitar style while adding elements of [wave music](new)(new wave music); electronic band [Mode](Depeche)(Depeche Mode) have been cited as an influence on the album. To compose the songs, Gibbons worked closely with live-in engineer Linden Hudson at the band's rehearsal studio in Texas, setting a faster [tempo](tempo) with [machine](drum)(drum machine)s and [synthesizer](synthesizer)s. The main recording sessions were once again supervised in Memphis by [Manning](Terry)(Terry Manning) who collaborated with Gibbons to replace much of the contributions from Hill and Beard. Singer [Jamison](Jimi)(Jimi Jamison) joined Manning to provide backing vocals for the album.
Stage manager David Blayney described how Hudson co-wrote much of the material on the album without receiving credit. The band recorded Hudson's song "Thug" without permission, finally paying him $600,000 in 1986 after he proved in court he held the copyright.
Despite selling fewer copies than *Eliminator*, *[Afterburner](Afterburner (ZZ Top album))* (1985) became ZZ Top's highest-charting album (No. 4 on the U.S. *Billboard* chart), with sales of five million copies. All of the singles from *Afterburner* were Top-40 hits, with "Sleeping Bag" and "Stages" reaching number one on the Mainstream Rock chart. The music video for "[Fly](Velcro)(Velcro Fly)" was choreographed by pop singer [Abdul](Paula)(Paula Abdul). In 1987, ZZ Top released *[Six Pack](The)(The Six Pack (ZZ Top album))*, a collection of their first five albums plus *El Loco*. The albums were remixed with new drum and guitar effects for a more "contemporary" sound similar to *Eliminator*.
*[Recycler](Recycler (ZZ Top album))*, released in 1990, was ZZ Top's final studio album under contract with Warner Records. *Recycler* was also the last of a distinct sonic trilogy in the ZZ Top catalogue, marking a return towards a simpler guitar-driven blues sound with less synthesizer and pop bounce than the previous two albums. This move did not entirely suit the fan base that *Eliminator* and *Afterburner* had built up, and while *Recycler* did achieve platinum status, it never matched the sales of those albums. However, the single "[Head's in Mississippi](My)(My Head's in Mississippi)" did reach No. 1 on the [Album Rock Tracks](*Billboard*)(Mainstream Rock (chart)) chart that year.
### Return to guitar-driven sound (1992–2003)
In 1992, Warner released ''ZZ Top's Greatest Hits*, along with a new [Stones](Rolling)(The Rolling Stones)-style cut, "Gun Love", and an [Elvis](Elvis Presley)-inflected video, "[Las Vegas](Viva)(Viva Las Vegas (song))". In 1993, ZZ Top inducted a major influence, [Cream](Cream (band)), into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame).
In 1994, the band signed a $35 million deal with [Records](RCA)(RCA Records), releasing the million-selling *[Antenna](Antenna (ZZ Top album))*. Subsequent RCA albums, *[Rhythmeen](Rhythmeen)'' (1996) and 1999's *[XXX](XXX (ZZ Top album))* (the second album to feature live tracks) sold well, but did not reach the levels enjoyed previously. In 2003, ZZ Top released a final RCA album, *[Mescalero](Mescalero (album))*, an album thick with harsh Gibbons guitar and featuring a [track](hidden)(hidden track)—a cover version of "[Time Goes By.](As)(As Time Goes By (song))" RCA impresario Clive Davis wanted to do a collaboration record (in the mode of [Santana](Carlos)(Carlos Santana)'s successful *Supernatural*) for this album. In an interview in *[Goldmine](Goldmine (magazine))* magazine, Davis stated that artists [Pink](Pink (singer)), [Matthews](Dave)(Dave Matthews), and [Wilco](Wilco) were among the artists slated for the project. ZZ Top performed "Tush" and "Legs" as part of the [Bowl XXXI halftime show](Super)(Super Bowl XXXI halftime show) in 1997.
A comprehensive four-CD collection of recordings from the London and Warner Bros. years, *[Smoke & BBQ](Chrome,)(Chrome, Smoke & BBQ)*, was released in 2003. It featured the band's first single (A- and B-side) and several rare B-side tracks, as well as a radio promotion from 1979, a live track, and several extended dance-mix versions of their biggest MTV hits. Three tracks from Billy Gibbons' pre-ZZ band, the [Sidewalks](Moving)(Moving Sidewalks), were also included.
### Critical acclaim and retrospective releases (2004–2011)
[[File:ZZ Top, 26Jun2010.jpg|thumb|left|ZZ Top at the [Guitar Festival](Crossroads)(Crossroads Guitar Festival), on June 26, 2010]]
In 2004, ZZ Top was inducted into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame). [Richards](Keith)(Keith Richards) of [Rolling Stones](the)(the Rolling Stones) gave the induction speech. ZZ Top gave a brief performance, playing "La Grange" and "Tush".
[[File:Dusty hill and billy gibbons finland 2010.jpg|thumb|Hill and Gibbons performing at Puistoblues in [Järvenpää](Järvenpää), [Finland](Finland), on July 4, 2010]]
In 2006 *Tres Hombres* and *Fandango!* received releases of expanded and remastered versions, which used the original mixes free from echo and drum machines and included additional bonus live tracks.
The ''Eliminator Collector's Edition'' CD/DVD, celebrating the 25th anniversary of the band's iconic RIAA Diamond Certified album, was released September 10, 2008. The release includes seven bonus tracks and a bonus DVD, including four television performances from *[Tube](The)(The Tube (TV series))* in November 1983.
The band performed at the 2009 [Livestock Show and Rodeo](Houston)(Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo) on the final night on March 22, 2009. In July, the band appeared on [VH1](VH1)'s *[Storytellers](VH1 Storytellers)*, in celebration of their four decades as recording artists.
### *La Futura* (2012–2020)
[[File:ZZ.TOP 2 rkent at mac dot com.jpg|thumb|ZZ Top at the [Alamodome](Alamodome) in San Antonio, Texas, November 7, 2013]]
[[File:ZZ Top 2015.jpg|thumb|ZZ Top performing at the [Theatre](Majestic)(Majestic Theatre (San Antonio)) in San Antonio in 2015]]
Billy Gibbons stated in an interview in August 2011 that a new album had been recorded, with initial recording taking place in [California](Malibu,)(Malibu, California), before moving to Houston, but was still unnamed and had yet to be mixed and mastered. Gibbons said that the expected release date was sometime in March or April 2012 but, later, a late summer or early fall release date was announced. The album was subsequently released on September 11, 2012.
Entitled *[Futura](La)(La Futura)*, the album was produced by [Rubin](Rick)(Rick Rubin). The first single from the album, "I Gotsta Get Paid", debuted in an advertising campaign for [Weed Whiskey](Jeremiah)(Jeremiah Weed) and appears on the soundtrack of the film *[Battleship](Battleship (film))*. The song itself is an interpretation of "25 Lighters" by Texan hip hop DJ DMD and rappers [Keke](Lil')(Lil' Keke) and [Pat](Fat)(Fat Pat (rapper)). The first four songs from *La Futura* debuted on June 5, 2012, on an EP called *Texicali*. [Screw](DJ)(DJ Screw) was a major influence on the album as well, particularly because Gibbons and Screw both worked with engineer G. L. Moon during the late 1990s.
On March 3, 2015, ZZ Top began a North American tour in [Bank, New Jersey](Red)(Red Bank, New Jersey), at the Count Basie Theatre. After rescheduled dates and additions, the tour ended in [Park, Illinois](Highland)(Highland Park, Illinois), at the Ravinia Pavilion on August 27, with the opening act [Smoke](Blackberry)(Blackberry Smoke). [Beck](Jeff)(Jeff Beck) joined ZZ Top for seven concerts.
On September 9, 2016, ZZ Top released *Tonite at Midnight: Live Greatest Hits from Around the World*. In 2017, they began the [Tonnage Tour](2017)(Tonnage Tour), but canceled the last few dates due to Hill's declining health. In 2018, the band announced their six-day Las Vegas run of shows to be held at [Venetian](the)(The Venetian Las Vegas), starting from April 20, 2019. Gibbons told *[Vegas Review-Journal](Las)(Las Vegas Review-Journal)* in April 2020 that ZZ Top had been preparing another album. On June 21, 2020, Gibbons stated interest in having Beck appear.
### Hill's death and upcoming sixteenth studio album (2021–present)
In July 2021, Hill was forced to leave a tour after a hip injury. ZZ Top performed without him at the Village Commons in [Lenox, Illinois](New)(New Lenox, Illinois), with Hill's [tech](guitar)(guitar tech) Elwood Francis on bass. Five days later, on July 28, ZZ Top announced that Hill had died at his home in Houston at the age of 72. His wife later reported that he had suffered from chronic [bursitis](bursitis). Per Hill's wishes, ZZ Top continued with Francis on bass. Hill had already recorded bass and vocals for ZZ Top's upcoming album.
On July 22, 2022, ZZ Top released *Raw*, the soundtrack for the band's 2019 documentary ''That Little Ol' Band from Texas*, via [Records](Shelter)(Shelter Records)/[BMG](BMG Rights Management). It was one of their final live albums with Hill.
On December 12, ZZ Top announced a co-headlining tour with [Skynyrd](Lynyrd)(Lynyrd Skynyrd) for summer 2023, titled The Sharp Dressed Simple Man Tour. The tour is scheduled to commence July 21, 2023 in [Palm Beach](West)(West Palm Beach) and conclude September 17, 2023 in [Camden](Camden, New Jersey).
## Other appearances
[[File:ZZTopEliminator.jpg|thumb|ZZ Top Eliminator at the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame), 2010]]
ZZ Top appeared in a cameo in *[to the Future Part III](Back)(Back to the Future Part III)'' as an [West](Old)(American frontier) band, playing an acoustic version of their song "[Doubleback](Doubleback (song))" with a large fiddle band.
ZZ Top played [Bowl XXXI](Super)(Super Bowl XXXI) in 1997, along with [Blues Brothers](the)(the Blues Brothers) and [Brown](James)(James Brown). ZZ Top also performed at the 2008 [Bowl](Orange)(Orange Bowl) game in [Miami](Miami), as well as the [Club 500](Auto)(Auto Club 400) [NASCAR](NASCAR) event at the [Club Speedway](Auto)(Auto Club Speedway) in [California](Fontana,)(Fontana, California). On June 23, 2008, ZZ Top celebrated the release of their first live concert DVD titled *[from Texas](Live)(Live from Texas)* with the world premiere, a special appearance, and charity auction at the [Rock Cafe](Hard)(Hard Rock Cafe) in Houston. The DVD was officially released on June 24, 2008. The featured performance was culled from a concert filmed at the Nokia Theater in [Prairie, Texas](Grand)(Grand Prairie, Texas), on November 1, 2007.
On January 22, 2010, Billy Gibbons, [Ferrell](Will)(Will Ferrell), and [Beck](Beck) joined a band playing [Skynyrd](Lynyrd)(Lynyrd Skynyrd)'s "[Bird](Free)(Free Bird)" on [O'Brien](Conan)(Conan O'Brien)'s last *Tonight Show* appearance. O'Brien joined in on guitar.
In June 2011, various media sources reported that the new song "Flyin' High" would debut in space. Astronaut and friend of ZZ Top [Fossum](Michael)(Michael E. Fossum) was given the released single to listen to on his trip to the [Space Station](International)(International Space Station).
On June 4, 2014, ZZ Top opened the [Awards](CMT)(CMT Music Awards) ceremony, performing "La Grange" with [Bryan](Luke)(Luke Bryan) and [Georgia Line](Florida)(Florida Georgia Line).
## Musical style
*The Guardian* described ZZ Top as "part traditional, part contrary, and part of the deep seam of Texas weirdness that stretched from the [Floor Elevators](13th)(The 13th Floor Elevators) through to the [Surfers](Butthole)(Butthole Surfers)". *[Monthly](Texas)(Texas Monthly)* described their music as "loud, macho, greasy, and distorted", with "unrepentant misogynistic references". In the early 1980s, ZZ Top embraced [synthesizer](synthesizer)s and [machine](drum)(drum machine)s, drawing inspiration from British [electronic](Electronic music) acts such as [Manoeuvres in the Dark](Orchestral)(Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark) and [Mode](Depeche)(Depeche Mode) (while deriving their dance moves from the former). Hill and Gibbons worked as a kind of [act](double)(double act), looking similar and employing simple stage choreography that Hill described as "low-energy, high-impact".
ZZ Top's music has been classified as [rock](blues)(blues rock), [rock](hard)(hard rock), [rock](boogie)(boogie rock), [rock](Southern)(Southern rock), [blues](blues) and [blues](Texas)(Texas blues).
## Drug use
Beard struggled with addiction in the 1970s, claiming to have spent "every bit" of his money earned from ZZ Top's tours on drugs. Beard explains that he had different reasons for taking different drugs, saying "the pills thing came about just from the workload. And the heroin thing came about because I just liked it. I mean, you ever done heroin? It's great. It's a fucking vacation for the mind, and I liked it. I liked it a lot." Beard would eventually enter rehab in the 1980s and is sober to this day.
Hill would "[occasionally] partake" in marijuana until one occasion in a hotel in [Amsterdam](Amsterdam) when Hill was smoking marijuana with guitar tech Elwood Francis and Francis noticed that there was a metal bar embedded into the window frame of the hotel room. Francis, seeing an opportunity for a cruel prank, jumped out the window and (unbeknownst to Hill) grabbed onto the metal bar, making it appear that he had committed suicide. Hill apparently never smoked marijuana again after the incident.
## Band members
**Current members**
* [Gibbons](Billy)(Billy Gibbons) – guitars, lead and backing vocals
* [Beard](Frank)(Frank Beard (musician)) – drums, percussion
* Elwood Francis – bass, backing vocals
**Former members**
* Dan Mitchell – drums
* Lanier Greig – [organ](Hammond)(Hammond organ), bass
* Billy Ethridge – bass, keyboards
* [Hill](Dusty)(Dusty Hill) – bass, backing and lead vocals, keyboards
### Timeline
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy
Legend = orientation:vertical position:bottom columns:4
ScaleMajor = increment:2 start:1969
ScaleMinor = increment:1 start:1969
Colors =
id:vocals value:red legend:Vocals
id:guitar value:green legend:Guitars
id:bass value:blue legend:Bass
id:keys value:purple legend:Keyboards
id:drums value:orange legend:Drums
id:perc value:claret legend:Percussion
id:studio value:black legend:Studio_album
id:live value:gray(0.55) legend:Live_recording
BarData =
bar:Billy text:"Billy Gibbons "
bar:Lanier text:"Lanier Greig"
bar:Etheridge text:"Billy Etheridge"
bar:Hill text:"Dusty Hill"
bar:Elwood text:"Elwood Francis "
bar:Dan text:"Dan Mitchell"
bar:Frank text:"Frank Beard "
PlotData=
width:11 textcolor:black align:left anchor:from shift:(11,-4)
bar:Billy from:start till:end color:vocals
bar:Billy from:start till:end color:guitar width:3
bar:Lanier from:start till:01/06/1969 color:bass width:3
bar:Lanier from:start till:01/06/1969 color:keys
bar:Etheridge from:01/06/1969 till:31/12/1969 color:bass
bar:Etheridge from:01/06/1969 till:31/12/1969 color:keys width:3
bar:Hill from:01/01/1970 till:28/07/2021 color:bass
bar:Hill from:01/01/1970 till:28/07/2021 color:keys width:7
bar:Hill from:01/01/1970 till:28/07/2021 color:vocals width:3
bar:Elwood from:28/07/2021 till:end color:bass
bar:Elwood from:28/07/2021 till:end color:vocals width:3
bar:Dan from:start till:01/06/1969 color:drums
bar:Frank from:01/06/1969 till:end color:drums
bar:Frank from:01/06/1969 till:end color:perc width:3
LineData =
layer:back color:studio
at:16/01/1971
at:04/04/1972
at:26/07/1973
at:18/04/1975
at:29/11/1976
at:01/10/1979
at:20/07/1981
at:23/03/1983
at:28/10/1985
at:16/10/1990
at:18/01/1994
at:17/09/1996
at:28/09/1999
at:08/09/2003
at:10/09/2012
color:live
at:01/11/2008
at:20/10/2009
at:10/07/2013
at:09/09/2016
}}
## Discography
**Studio albums**
*''[Top's First Album](ZZ)(ZZ Top's First Album)* (1971)
**[Grande Mud](Rio)(Rio Grande Mud)* (1972)
**[Hombres](Tres)(Tres Hombres)* (1973)
**[Fandango!](Fandango!)* (1975)
**[Tejas](Tejas (album))* (1976)
**[Degüello](Degüello)* (1979)
**[Loco](El)(El Loco)* (1981)
**[Eliminator](Eliminator (album))* (1983)
**[Afterburner](Afterburner (ZZ Top album))* (1985)
**[Recycler](Recycler (album))* (1990)
**[Antenna](Antenna (ZZ Top album))* (1994)
**[Rhythmeen](Rhythmeen)* (1996)
**[XXX](XXX (ZZ Top album))* (1999)
**[Mescalero](Mescalero (album))* (2003)
**[Futura](La)(La Futura)* (2012)
## Filmography
In addition to recording and performing concerts, ZZ Top has also been involved with films and television. In the eighth episode "Sweet Dreams" in the [season](third)(List_of_St._Elsewhere_episodes#Season_3_(1984–85)) of the American television [drama](medical)(medical drama) *[Elsewhere](St.)(St. Elsewhere)'', Dr. Luther Hawkins's ([Washington](Denzel)(Denzel Washington)) dream sequence was a parody of the music video "[Legs](Legs_(song)#Music_video)" with the group while taking a brief nap in a janitor's closet; In 1990, the group appeared as the "Band At the Party" in the film *[to the Future Part III](Back)(Back to the Future Part III)* and played the "Three Men in a Tub" in the movie ''[Goose Rock 'n' Rhyme](Mother)(Mother Goose Rock 'n' Rhyme)''. ZZ Top made further appearances, including the "Gumby with a Pokey" episode of *[and a Half Men](Two)(Two and a Half Men)* in 2010 and the "[Gets Dusted](Hank)(Hank Gets Dusted)" episode of *[of the Hill](King)(King of the Hill)* in 2007. The band also [hosted](guest)(List of WWE Raw guest stars) an episode of *[Raw](WWE)(WWE Raw)*. Billy Gibbons had a recurring role as the father of [Montenegro](Angela)(Angela Montenegro) in the television show *[Bones](Bones (TV series))*; though the character is never named, it is strongly implied that Gibbons is playing himself. Their song "Sharp Dressed Man" was one of the theme songs used for the television show *[Dynasty](Duck)(Duck Dynasty)*, and on the series finale of the show they appeared with [Robertson](Si)(Si Robertson) as a vocalist to perform the song on stage during Robertson's retirement party. Black Dahlia Films, led by Jamie Burton Chamberlin, of [Seattle](Seattle) and [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), has contributed documentaries and [line screen](back)(Live event support) work (the footage on back screens during live shows) and has become an integral part of the band's film-making.
In November 2020, it was announced that the 2019 [Netflix](Netflix) documentary ''That Little Ol' Band from Texas'' was nominated for the [Award for Best Music Film](Grammy)(Grammy Award for Best Music Film) with the award ceremony scheduled for March 2021.
## Awards and achievements
ZZ Top's music videos won multiple [VMA](MTV Video Music Award) awards during the 1980s, topping the categories of [Group Video](Best)(MTV Video Music Award for Best Group Video), [Direction](Best)(MTV Video Music Award for Best Direction), and [Art Direction](Best)(MTV Video Music Award for Best Art Direction) for "Legs", "Sharp Dressed Man" and "[Boy](Rough)(Rough Boy)", respectively. Among high honors for ZZ Top have been induction into [RockWalk](Hollywood's)(Hollywood's RockWalk) in 1994, the [House of Representatives](Texas)(Texas House of Representatives) naming them "Official Heroes for the State of Texas", a declaration of "ZZ Top Day" in Texas by then-governor [Richards](Ann)(Ann Richards) on May 4, 1991, and induction into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame) in 2004. They were also given commemorative rings by actor [Bob Thornton](Billy)(Billy Bob Thornton) from the [Rock Honors](VH1)(VH1 Rock Honors) in 2007.
ZZ Top has also achieved several chart and album sales feats, including six number-one singles on the [Rock chart](Mainstream)(Mainstream Rock (chart)). From the [RIAA](Recording Industry Association of America), ZZ Top has earned four gold, three platinum and two multiple-platinum album certifications, and one diamond album.
## See also
*[of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Mainstream Rock chart](List)(List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Mainstream Rock chart)
*[Blues](American)(American Blues)
## Notes
## References
## Bibliography
*
## External links
*
*
*
[ ](Category:ZZ Top)
[establishments in Texas](Category:1969)(Category:1969 establishments in Texas)
[blues musical groups](Category:American)(Category:American blues musical groups)
[blues rock musical groups](Category:American)(Category:American blues rock musical groups)
[southern rock musical groups](Category:American)(Category:American southern rock musical groups)
[musical trios](Category:American)(Category:American musical trios)
[Records artists](Category:Columbia)(Category:Columbia Records artists)
[rock musical groups from Texas](Category:Hard)(Category:Hard rock musical groups from Texas)
[groups established in 1969](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups established in 1969)
[groups from Houston](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups from Houston)
[Records artists](Category:RCA)(Category:RCA Records artists)
[Records artists](Category:Warner)(Category:Warner Records artists)
|
Sukhoi Su-25
|
sukhoi_su-25
|
# Sukhoi Su-25
*Revision ID: 1159691786 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T23:22:26Z*
---
The '*Sukhoi Su-25 *Grach'''* ( (*[rook](rook (bird))*); [reporting name](NATO)(NATO reporting name): **Frogfoot**) is a [subsonic](subsonic aircraft), single-seat, twin-engine [aircraft](jet)(jet aircraft) developed in the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) by [Sukhoi](Sukhoi). It was designed to provide [air support](close)(close air support) for [Ground Forces](Soviet)(Soviet Ground Forces). The first prototype made its [flight](maiden)(maiden flight) on 22 February 1975. After testing, the aircraft went into [production](series)(series production) in 1978 in [Tbilisi](Tbilisi) in the [Soviet Socialist Republic](Georgian)(Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic).
Early variants included the Su-25UB two-seat [trainer](Trainer aircraft), the Su-25BM for [target-towing](Target tug), and the Su-25K for export customers. Some aircraft were upgraded to the Su-25SM standard in 2012. The Su-25T and the Su-25TM (also known as the Su-39) were further developments, not produced in significant numbers. The Su-25, and the [Su-34](Sukhoi Su-34), were the only armoured, [fixed-wing](Fixed-wing aircraft) aircraft in production in 2007.Gordon and Dawes 2004. Su-25s are in service with Russia, other [CIS](Commonwealth of Independent States) members, and export customers. Production of the Su-25 ended in 2017 in RussiaDominykas. [Russia Has Stopped Production Of Su-25"](https://aviationvoice.com/russia-has-stopped-production-of-su-25-201702201346/), *Aviation Voice* website, 20 February 2017. and 2010 in Georgia.http://www.military-today.com/aircraft/sukhoi_su25_frogfoot.htm *Military Aircraft Today* website, 1 July 2011. Attempts continue to be made to restart production in Georgia using partially completed airframes,["Georgia announced the restart of production of the Su-25"](https://www.scramble.nl/military-news/georgia-announced-the-restart-of-production-of-the-su-25), *scramble.nl* website, 24 February 2021. but as of June 2022 no new deliveries have been reported.
Since entering service more than , the Su-25 has seen combat in several conflicts. The type was heavily involved in the [War](Soviet–Afghan)(Soviet–Afghan War), flying [counter-insurgency](counter-insurgency) missions against the Afghan [Mujahideen](Mujahideen). The [Air Force](Iraqi)(Iraqi Air Force) employed it against Iran during the 1980–88 [War](Iran–Iraq)(Iran–Iraq War). Most Iraqi examples were later destroyed or flown to Iran in the 1991 [Gulf War](Persian)(Gulf War). The [Air Force](Georgian)(Georgian Air Force) used Su-25s during the [war](Abkhazian)(War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)) from 1992 to 1993. The [Air Force](Macedonian)(Military of the Republic of Macedonia) used Su-25s against [Albanian](Albanians) insurgents in the [Macedonian conflict](2001)(2001 insurgency in Macedonia) and, in 2008, [Georgia](Georgia (country)) and Russia both used Su-25s in the [War](Russo-Georgian)(Russo-Georgian War). African states, including the [Coast](Ivory)(Ivory Coast), [Chad](Chad), and [Sudan](Sudan) have used the Su-25 in local insurgencies and civil wars. Recently, the Su-25 has seen service in the [intervention in the Syrian Civil War](Russian)(Russian military intervention in the Syrian civil war), the clashes of the [Nagorno-Karabakh War](2020)(2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War), and on both sides in the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](2022)(2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine).
## Development
In early 1968, the [Ministry of Defence](Soviet)(Ministry of Defense (Soviet Union)) decided to develop a specialised *[shturmovik](shturmovik)* armoured assault aircraft in order to provide close air support for the [Ground Forces](Soviet)(Red Army). The idea of creating a ground-support aircraft came about after analysing the experience of ground-attack (*shturmovaya'') aviation during the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s.Gordon and Dawes 2004, pp. 6–7. The Soviet fighter-bombers in service or under development at the time ([Su-7](Sukhoi Su-7), [Su-17](Sukhoi Su-17), [MiG-21](Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21) and [MiG-23](Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23)) did not meet the requirements for close air support of the army. They lacked essential armour plating to protect the pilot and vital equipment from ground fire and missile hits, and their high flight speeds made it difficult for the pilot to maintain visual contact with a target. Having taken into account these problems, [Sukhoi](Pavel)(Pavel Sukhoi) and a group of leading specialists in the Sukhoi Design Bureau started preliminary design work in a comparatively short period of time, with the assistance of leading institutes of the Ministry of the Aviation Industry and the Ministry of Defence.Gordon and Dawes 2004, p. 8.
[[File:Russian Air Force Su-25.jpg|thumb|This Su-25UB of the [Air Force](Russian)(Russian Air Force) is a two-seater version intended for both combat and training.]]
In March 1969, a competition was announced by the [Air Force](Soviet)(Soviet Air Force) that called for designs for a new battlefield close-support aircraft. Participants in the competition were the Sukhoi [bureau](design)(OKB) and the design bureaus of [Yakovlev](Yakovlev), [Ilyushin](Ilyushin) and [Mikoyan](Mikoyan).Gordon and Dawes 2004, p. 11. Sukhoi finalised its "T-8" design in late 1968, and began in work on the first two prototypes (T8-1 and T8-2) in January 1972. The T8-1, the first airframe to be assembled, was completed on 9 May 1974. Another source says November 1974. However, it did not make its first flight until 22 February 1975, after a long series of test flights by [Ilyushin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Ilyushin). The Su-25 surpassed its main competitor in the Soviet Air Force competition, the [Il-102](Ilyushin)(Ilyushin Il-102), and series production was announced by the Ministry of Defence.Gordon and Dawes 2004, pp. 23–41.
During flight-testing phases of the T8-1 and T8-2 prototypes' development, the Sukhoi Design Bureau's management proposed that the series production of the Su-25 should start at Factory No. 31 in [Tbilisi](Tbilisi), [Republic of Georgia](Soviet)(Georgian SSR), which at that time was the major manufacturing base for the [MiG-21](MiG-21)UM "Mongol-B" trainer. After negotiations and completion of all stages of the state trials, the Soviet Ministry of Aircraft Production authorised manufacture of the Su-25 at Tbilisi, allowing series production to start in 1978.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, several Su-25 variants appeared, including modernised versions, and variants for specialised roles. The most significant designs were the Su-25UB dual-seat trainer, the Su-25BM target-towing variant, and the Su-25T for antitank missions. In addition, an prototype was developed by [Georgia](Georgia (country)) in co-operation with Israeli company [Systems](Elbit)(Elbit Systems) in 2001, but so far this variant has not achieved much commercial success. , the Su-25 was the only armoured aircraft still in production.
The [Aerospace Forces](Russian)(Russian Aerospace Forces), which operates the largest number of Su-25s, planned to upgrade older aircraft to the Su-25SM variant, but funding shortfalls had slowed the progress; by early 2007 only seven aircraft had been modified."Force report: Russian Air Force." *[Forces Monthly](Air)(Air Forces Monthly)*, July 2007, pp. 78–86.
## Design
The Su-25 has a conventional [aerodynamic](aerodynamic) layout with a shoulder-mounted [wing](trapezoidal)(trapezoidal wing) and a traditional [tailplane](tailplane) and [rudder](rudder). Several [metals](metals) are used in the construction of the [airframe](airframe): 60% [aluminium](aluminium), 19% [steel](steel), 13.5% [titanium](titanium), 2% [alloy](magnesium)(magnesium alloy) and 5.5% other materials.Gordon and Dawes 2004, pp. 73–75.
[[File:Su-25.jpg|thumb|left|Su-25 at [air base](Kubinka)(Kubinka (air base)) ]]
All versions of the Su-25 have a metal [wing](cantilever)(cantilever wing), of [sweep](moderate)(Swept wing), [aspect ratio](high)(Aspect ratio (wing)) and equipped with high-lift devices. The wing consists of two cantilever sections attached to a central [box](torsion)(torsion box), forming a single unit with the fuselage. The air brakes are housed in [fairings](Aircraft fairing) at the tip of each wing. Each wing has five hardpoints for weapons carriage, with the attachment points mounted on [load-bearing](Structural engineering) ribs and spars.Gordon and Dawes 2004, p. 77. Each wing also features a five-section [edge slat](leading)(leading edge slat), a two-section [flap](Flap (aircraft)) and an [aileron](aileron).
The flaps are mounted by steel sliders and rollers, attached to brackets on the rear spar. The trapezoidal ailerons are near the [wingtip](wingtip)s.Gordon and Dawes 2004, pp. 79–82. The [fuselage](fuselage) of the Su-25 has an [ellipsoidal](ellipsoidal) section and is of semi-[monocoque](monocoque), [stressed-skin](stressed-skin) construction, arranged as a longitudinal load-bearing framework of [longeron](longeron)s, beams and stringers, with a transverse load-bearing assembly of frames. The one-piece horizontal [tailplane](tailplane) is attached to the load-bearing frame at two mounting points.
Early versions of the Su-25 were equipped with two [R-95Sh](Tumansky R-13) non-afterburning [turbojet](turbojet)s, in compartments on either side of the rear fuselage. The engines, sub-assemblies and surrounding fuselage are cooled by air provided by the [air intake](cold)(cold air intake)s on top of the engine nacelles. A [drainage](drainage) system collects oil, [fluid](hydraulic)(hydraulic fluid) residues and fuel from the engines after flight or after an unsuccessful start. The engine control systems allows independent operation of each engine. The latest versions (Su-25T and TM) are equipped with improved [R-195](Tumansky R-13) engines.Gordon and Dawes 2004, p. 111.
[[Nose view - Le Bourget.JPEG|thumb|Nose view of the Su-25](File:Su-25)]
The [autocannon](autocannon) is in a compartment beneath the cockpit, mounted on a load-bearing beam attached to the cockpit floor and the forward fuselage support structure. The nose is fitted with distinctive twin [probes](pitot)(Pitot tube) and hinges up for service access.
### Cockpit
[[Su-25, Russia - Air Force AN2185249.jpg|thumb|left|Cockpit](File:Sukhoi)]
The [pilot](aircraft pilot) flies the aircraft by means of a [stick](centre)(centre stick) and left hand [throttle](throttle)s. The pilot sits on a [Zvezda](NPP Zvezda) [K-36](NPP Zvezda K-36) ejection seat (similar to the [Su-27](Sukhoi)(Sukhoi Su-27)) and has standard [instruments](flight)(flight instruments). At the rear of the [cockpit](cockpit) is a steel headrest, mounted on the rear bulkhead. The cockpit has a bathtub-shaped armoured enclosure of [welded](welded) [titanium](titanium) sheets, with transit ports in the walls. Guide rails for the [seat](ejection)(ejection seat) are mounted on the rear wall of the cockpit.
The canopy hinges open to the right and the pilot enters using the flip-down ladder. Once inside, the pilot sits low in the cockpit, protected by the bathtub assembly, which makes for a cramped cockpit. Visibility from the cockpit is limited, being a trade-off for improved pilot protection. Rearwards visibility is poor and a [periscope](periscope) is fitted on top of the canopy to compensate.Goebel, Greg. [The Sukhoi Su-25 "Frogfoot"](http://www.airvectors.net/avsu25.html) , *airvectors.net* website, 1 July 2011.
A folding [ladder](ladder) built into the left fuselage provides access to the cockpit as well as to the top of the aircraft.
### Avionics
The base model Su-25 incorporates a number of key [avionics](avionics) systems. It has no TV guidance but includes a distinctive nose-mounted [rangefinder](laser)(laser rangefinder), that is thought to provide for laser-based target finding.Su-25К specification substituted, taken from ["Sukhoi Company (JSC) – Airplanes – Military Aircraft – Su-25К – Aircraft performance."](http://www.sukhoi.org/eng/planes/military/su25k/lth/) Sukhoi.org. Retrieved: 26 January 2012. A DISS-7 [radar](doppler)(doppler radar) is used for navigation; the Su-25 can fly at night, in [visual](Visual meteorological conditions) and [meteorological conditions](instrument)(instrument meteorological conditions).
The Su-25 often has radios installed for air-to-ground and air-to-air communications, including an SO-69 identification-friend-or-foe ([IFF](Identification friend or foe)) transponder. The aircraft's self-defence suite includes various measures, such as [flare](Flare (pyrotechnic)) and [chaff](Chaff (radar countermeasure)) dispensers capable of launching up to 250 flares and [dipole](dipole) chaff. Hostile radar uses are guarded against via an SPO-15 [warning receiver](radar)(radar warning receiver).
An airtight avionics compartment is behind the cockpit and in front of the forward fuel tank.
The newer Su-25TM and Su-25SM models have an upgraded avionics and weapons suite, resulting in improved survivability and combat capability.
## Operational history
### Soviet–Afghan War
The first [Air Forces](Soviet)(Soviet Air Forces) Su-25 unit was the 80th Assault Aviation Regiment, formed in February 1981 based at [Sitalcay](Sitalcay) air base in the [Soviet Socialist Republic](Azerbaijan)(Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic). The first eleven aircraft arrived at Sitalchay in May 1981.["Historical background."](http://sukhoi.org/eng/planes/military/su25k/history/) Sukhoi.org. Retrieved 11 November 2012. The 200th Independent Assault Aviation Squadron was then formed within the regiment to go to Afghanistan.
On 19 July 1981, the 200th Independent Attack Squadron was reassigned to [Airbase](Shindand)(Shindand Airbase) in western [Afghanistan](Afghanistan), becoming the first Su-25 unit deployed to that country. Its main task was to conduct air strikes against mountain military positions and structures controlled by the Afghan rebels.Gordon and Dawes 2004, pp. 133–49. Another Soviet Su-25 unit was the [Assault Aviation Regiment](368th)(368th Assault Aviation Regiment), which was formed on 12 July 1984, at Zhovtneve in Ukraine.Rozendaal, Frank, Rene van Woezik and Tieme Festner. 'Bear tracks in Germany: The Soviet Air Force in the former German Democratic Republic: Part 1." *[International](Air)(Air International)*, October 1992, p. 210. It was soon also moved east to conduct operations over Afghanistan.
Over the course of the [War](Soviet–Afghan)(Soviet–Afghan War), Su-25s launched 139 guided missiles of all types against [Mujahideen](Mujahideen#Afghanistan)
positions. On average, each aircraft performed 360 sorties a year, a total considerably higher than that of any other combat aircraft in Afghanistan. By the end of the war, nearly 50 Su-25s were deployed at Afghan airbases, carrying out a total of 60,000 sorties. Between the first deployment in 1981 and the end of the war in 1989, 21–23 aircraft were lost in combat operations, with up to nine destroyed on the ground while parked.
### Iran–Iraq War
The Su-25 also saw combat during the [War](Iran–Iraq)(Iran–Iraq War) of 1980–88. The first Su-25s were commissioned by the [Air Force](Iraqi)(Iraqi Air Force) in 1987 and performed approximately 900 combat sorties towards the end of the war, carrying out the bulk of Iraqi air attack missions. During the most intense combat of the war, Iraqi Su-25s performed up to 15 sorties per day, each. In one recorded incident, an Iraqi Su-25 was shot down by an Iranian, [Hawk](MIM-23 Hawk) [missile](surface-to-air)(surface-to-air missile), but the pilot managed to eject. This was the only confirmed, successful Iranian shootdown of an Iraqi Su-25. After the war, [Hussein](Saddam)(Saddam Hussein) decorated all of the Iraqi Air Force's Su-25 pilots with the country's highest [decoration](military)(Military awards and decorations).
### Gulf War
[[Su-25 - Gulf War 1991.jpg|thumb|An Iraqi Su-25 destroyed during Operation Desert Storm](File:Iraqi)]
During the [War](Gulf)(Gulf War) of 1991, the air superiority of the coalition forces was so great that the majority of Iraqi Su-25s did not even manage to get airborne. On 25 January 1991, seven Iraqi Air Force Su-25s fled from Iraq and landed in Iran.. ''Jane's Defence Weekly'', 13 September 2006.
On the evening of 6 February 1991, two [Air Force](US)(United States Air Force) [Eagle](F-15C)(McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle) fighters of the 53rd Tactical Fighter Squadron, operating from [Kharj Air Base](Al)(Al Kharj Air Base) in [Arabia](Saudi)(Saudi Arabia), intercepted a pair of Iraqi [MiG-21s](Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21) and a pair of Su-25s. All four Iraqi aircraft were shot down, with both Su-25s coming down in the desert not far from the Iraqi border with Iran. This was the Iraqi Su-25s' only air combat of the war.
### Abkhazian War
The Georgian government used Su-25s in 1992–93 against Abkhaz [separatist](separatist)s during the [Abkhazian War](First)(War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)).["Siege of Sukhumi."](http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,979327,00.html) *[Magazine](Time)(Time Magazine)*, 4 October 1993. A [Air Force](Georgian)(Georgian Air Force) Su-25 was shot down over Nizhnaya [Eshera](Eshera) on 4 July 1993 by an [Strela-3](9K34)(9K34 Strela-3) [MANPADS](Man-portable air-defense system). Another Georgian Su-25 was shot down on 13 July 1993 with a [Strela-2](9K32)(9K32 Strela-2) [MANPADS](Man-portable air-defense system), while another Su-25 was downed by friendly fire by a [ZU-23-2](ZU-23-2) on 4 July. The Russian Air Force also lost an Su-25 during war, the aircraft crashed due to a pilot's mistake while providing CAS for Abkhaz forces.
### First Chechen War
Russian Su-25s were employed during the First Chechen War. Together with other Russian Air Force air assets, they achieved air supremacy for Russian Forces. On 29 November 1994, attacking all four Chechen military bases, Russian Su-25 from the [Assault Aviation Regiment](368th)(368th Assault Aviation Regiment) (OShAP) destroyed up to 266 Chechen aircraft on the ground, mostly not airworthy. The Air Force's deployed assets performed around 9,000 air sorties, with around 5,300 being strike sorties during the Chechen campaign between 1994 and 1996. The Russian [Air Army](4th)(4th Air Army) had 140 [Su-17](Sukhoi)(Sukhoi Su-17)Ms, [Su-24](Su-24)s and Su-25s in the war zone supported by an [A-50](Beriev A-50) AWACS aircraft. The employed munitions were generally unguided S-5, S-8, and S-24 rockets, as well as FAB-250 and FAB-500 bombs, while only 2.3% of the strikes used precision-guided [Kh-25](Kh-25)ML missiles, KAB-500L and KAB-500KR smart bombs when weather conditions were suitable. Russian forces were not able to properly take advantage of the achieved air supremacy due to obsolete air tactics that focused the Air Force on useless tasks in this type of war such as Combat Air Patrols.["Military Learning Between the Chechen Wars."](http://www.sras.org/military_learning_between_the_chechen_wars) Sras.org. Retrieved: 26 January 2012. The Russian air losses were low since no integrated air defense was fielded by the Chechens.["Caucasian diamond traffic – Part 2."](http://www.civilresearch.org/pdf/7.pdf) *civilresearch.org.* Retrieved: 26 January 2012.
On 4 February 1995, a Russian Su-25 was shot down by [ZSU-23-4](ZSU-23-4) Shilka antiaircraft fire over Belgatoi Gekhi, five kilometers southeast of Grozny. The pilot, Maj. Nikolay Bairov, ejected but died impacting the ground as his parachute did not deploy on time. Another Su-25 piloted by Lt. Col. Evgeny Derkulsky was damaged by ground fire on the same day, but managed to land at [Mozdok](Mozdok, Republic of North Ossetia–Alania) air base, where the aircraft was repaired. On 5 May 1995, another Russian Su-25 was downed near Serzhen-Yurt by [mm](12.7)(.50 BMG) fire while on a low-altitude patrol. The pilot, Col. Vladimir Sarabeyev, was killed.
On 4 April 1996, another Su-25 fell either to [ZU-23-2](ZU-23-2) fire while either making a reconnaissance flight or attacking the village of Goiskoye. The pilot, Maj. Alexander Matvienko, ejected and was recovered by a friendly helicopter returning to the airbase in [Khankala](Khankala), Grozny.["Aircraft by type."](http://www.ejection-history.org.uk/Aircraft_by_Type/Su_25.htm) Ejection-history.org.uk. Retrieved: 26 January 2012. On 5 May 1996, a two-seat Su-25UB was downed with an [Strela-3](9K34)(9K34 Strela-3) MANPADS near the village of Mairtup while on reconnaissance. Both pilots, Col. Igor Sviryidov and Maj. Oleg Isayev, were killed in the crash. It was the fourth Su-25 shot down and fifth Russian fixed wing aircraft lost, since the start of the war in December 1994.["Rebels Down Russian Plane In Chechnya."](http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1996-05-06/news/9605060132_1_chechen-rebels-zelimkhan-yandarbiyev-grozny) *Chicago Tribune*, 6 May 1996. Retrieved: 26 January 2012.
### Second Chechen War
Russian Air Force Su-25s were extensively used during the [Chechen War](Second)(Second Chechen War) in particular during the first phase when Russian forces were invading the self-proclaimed [Republic of Ichkeria](Chechen)(Chechen Republic of Ichkeria).Goebel, Greg. ["The Sukhoi Su-25 'Frogfoot'."](http://www.vectorsite.net/avsu25.html) Vectorsite.net. Retrieved: 26 January 2012. Up to seven Russian Su-25s were lost, one to hostile fire: on 4 October 1999, a Su-25 was shot down by a MANPADS during a reconnaissance mission over the village of Tolstoy-Yurt killing its pilot. The wings of the aircraft were put on a pedestal in the central square in Grozny.["Russia/Chechnya – Terrorism Leads To War."](http://www.greatdreams.com/terrruss.htm) Greatdreams.com. Retrieved: 26 January 2012.
### Ethiopian–Eritrean War
Su-25 attack aircraft were used by the [Air Force](Ethiopian)(Ethiopian Air Force) to strike [Eritrea](Eritrea)n targets. On 15 May 2000, An Ethiopian Su-25 was shot down by an Eritrean Air Force [MiG-29](Mikoyan MiG-29), killing the pilot.["Ethiopia."](https://web.archive.org/web/20100201234428/http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_189.shtml) acig.org. Retrieved: 10 August 2010.
### 2001 insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia
Su-25s were used by the [Air Force](Macedonian)(Macedonian Air Force) during the conflict against Albanian separatists. Beginning on 24 June 2001, the aircraft made multiple attack runs against separatist positions. The most successful operation took place on 10 August 2001, in the village of [Raduša](Raduša, Saraj), when Su-25s attacked Albanian militants who had ambushed and killed 16 Macedonian soldiers over the previous two days.Gordon and Dawes 2004, pp. 100–102.
### War in Darfur
[Sudan](Sudan) has used Su-25s in attacks on rebel targets and possibly civilians in [Darfur](Darfur).["Disputed attack jets seen by U.N. envoys in Darfur."](https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE69L4ON20101022) Reuters.
### Ivorian-French clashes
During the [Civil War](Ivorian)(First Ivorian Civil War), Su-25s were used by government forces to attack rebel targets. On 6 November 2004, at least one Ivorian Sukhoi Su-25 attacked a unit of France's Unicorn peacekeeping forces stationed in [Bouaké](Bouaké) at 1300, killing nine soldiers, a U.S. development worker and wounding 37 soldiers.["Nine French soldiers killed in Cote d'Ivoire."](http://english.people.com.cn/200411/08/eng20041108_163089.html) ''People's Daily Online'', 8 November 2004. Shortly afterwards, the French military retaliated by attacking the air base in [Yamoussoukro](Yamoussoukro) and destroyed the Ivorian air force, heavily damaging the two Su-25s responsible for the attack.Cooper, Tom with Alexander Mladenov. ["Cote d'Ivoire, since 2002."](http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_463.shtml) *ACIG Journal*, 5 August 2004.
### 2008 Russia–Georgia war
[[93 red (4524872585).jpg|thumb|A Russian Su-25](File:Su-25)]
In August 2008, Su-25s were used by both Georgia and Russia during the 2008 Russia–Georgia war. Su-25s of the [Air Force](Georgian)(Georgian Air Force) participated in providing air support for troops during [of Tskhinvali](Battle)(Battle of Tskhinvali) and launched bombing raids on targets in [Ossetia](South)(South Ossetia)."N. Ossetia president: Georgian planes bomb out humanitarian aid convoy for S. Ossetia." [Interfax](Interfax), 8 August 2008. Russian military Su-25s struck Georgian forces in South Ossetia, and undertook air raids on targets in Georgia.["Fighting rages in Georgian separatist capital."](https://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSL768040420080808?pageNumber=1&virtualBrandChannel=0) [Reuters](Reuters), 8 August 2008. The Russian military officially confirmed the loss of three Su-25 aircraft to the Georgian air defense, though the *Moscow Defense Brief* suggests four.["General staff recognized the loss of two more aircraft."](http://www.lenta.ru/news/2008/08/11/planes/) [RU](Russia): *Lenta*, 11 August 2008. Retrieved 11 August 2008. [English translation](https://translate.google.com/translate?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lenta.ru%2Fnews%2F2008%2F08%2F11%2Fplanes%2F&sl=ru&tl=en&hl=&ie=UTF-8) .Barabanov, Mikhail. ["The August War between Russia and Georgia."](https://web.archive.org/web/20090416225801/http://www.mdb.cast.ru/mdb/3-2008/item3/article1/) *Moscow Defense Brief*. Retrieved 11 November 2012. The three Russian aircraft were reportedly downed by Georgian [Buk-M1](Buk-M1) air defence units. Georgian Su-25s were able to operate at night.["Russia's rapid reaction."](http://www.iiss.org/EasysiteWeb/getresource.axd?AssetID=20268&type=full&servicetype=Attachment) International Institute for Strategic Studies. Retrieved 11 November 2012. In early August 2008, Russian Su-25s attacked the [Aircraft Manufacturing](Tbilisi)(Tbilisi Aircraft Manufacturing) plant, where the Su-25 is produced, dropping bombs on the factory's airfield.Nowak, David (for Associated Press). "Russian air raid targets Tbilisi factory; fighting continues to rage in South Ossetia".] *Newser*, 10 August 2008.
### Iran
On 1 November 2012, two Iranian Su-25s fired cannon bursts at a [USAF](United States Air Force) [Predator](MQ-1)(MQ-1 Predator) drone off the Iranian coast. The Iranian government has claimed that the drone violated its airspace.Stewart, Phil. ["Iranian warplanes fired on U.S. drone over Gulf: Pentagon."](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-iran-drone-idUSBRE8A71C520121108) Reuters, 5 November 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2012.["Iranian fighters 'fired on US drone in Gulf' – Middle East."](http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/11/20121182048162355.html) Al Jazeera English, 8 November 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2012.Starr, Barbara. ["First on CNN: Iranian jets fire on U.S. drone."](http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2012/11/08/first-on-cnn-iranian-jets-fire-on-u-s-drone/?hpt=hp_t1) CNN, 8 November 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2012.
### 2014–2015 conflict in Ukraine
Ukrainian armed forces deployed aircraft over insurgent Eastern regions starting in spring 2014. On 26 May 2014, Ukrainian Su-25s supported Mi-24 helicopters during a military operation to regain control over the airport in Donetsk, during which the Su-25s fired air to ground rockets. On 2 July 2014, one Ukrainian Su-25 crashed due to a technical fault.
On 16 July 2014, an Su-25 was shot down, with Ukrainian officials stating that a Russian [MiG-29](MiG-29) shot it down using a [R-27T](R-27 (air-to-air missile)) missile. Russia denied these allegations.
On 23 July 2014, two Su-25s were shot down in the [Donetsk](Donetsk) region of Ukraine. A spokesperson for the [Security and Defense Council of Ukraine](National)(National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine) said the aircraft were shot down by missiles fired from Russia.
On 29 August 2014, a Ukrainian Su-25 was shot down by pro-Russian rebels. The Ukrainian authorities said the downing was due to a Russian missile without clarifying if they mean Russian made or fired by Russian forces. The pilot managed to eject safely. On the same day, pro-Russian rebels claimed the downing of up to four Su-25s.
On 9 February 2015, the pro-Russian forces indirectly acknowledged, for the first time, with a reference to a Ukrainian media source, their use of Su-25 against Ukrainian forces during the [near Debaltsevo](fighting)(Battle of Debaltseve).
### 2014 Northern Iraq offensive
On 29 June 2014, it was reported that Iraq claimed to have received the first batch of [hand](second)(second hand) Su-25s ordered from Russia in order to fight the [State](Islamic)(Islamic State) forces. An Iraqi defense ministry source claimed the aircraft would be in service "within three to four days", despite the fact that the Iraqis require technical help and parts to make them operational, and the fact that the Russian made aircraft are incompatible with the Iraqi Air force's inventory of American made [Hellfire](AGM-114 Hellfire) missiles.["Iraq receives Russian fighter jets to fight rebels"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-28077273) . BBC News, 29 June 2014. Retrieved 29 June 2014.["Iraq takes delivery of Russian fighter jets"](http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/06/iraq-takes-delivery-russian-fighter-jets-201462944837214478.html) . Al Jazeera. 29 June 2014. Retrieved 29 June 2014.
The [Revolutionary Guards Corps Air Force](Islamic)(Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps Air Force) delivered seven Su-25s on 1 July 2014, the majority of which were ex-Iraqi aircraft from the Gulf War. They were quickly pushed into combat, performing air raids as early as the beginning of August 2014 and later expanding their area of operation.
Iraqi Su-25s flew the bulk of the sorties against the Islamic State, with 3562 missions between June 2014 and December 2017, by which time ISIS had lost control of all the territory it formerly controlled in Iraq. That compares to 514 sorties flown by the Iraqi fleet of F-16IQ fighters.
### Military intervention in Syria
In September 2015, it was reported that at least a dozen Su-25 were deployed by Russia to an airfield near [Latakia](Latakia), Syria, to support the Russian forces there who were taking part in the Syrian offensive against [ISIL](ISIL). On 2 October 2015, Russian Su-24M and Su-25 attack aircraft destroyed an ISIL command post in the Idlib province, while Su-34 and Su-25 aircraft eliminated an ISIL fortified bunker in the Hama province. By 15 March 2016, with the scaling down of Russian presence in Syria, Russian Su-25s had performed over 1,600 sorties in Syria while dropping 6,000 bombs.
On 3 February 2018 a Russian Su-25 was shot down over Idlib by rebel fighters who used a [MANPADS](MANPADS). A Syrian militant said that the pilot, [Filipov](Roman)(Roman Filipov), ejected safely but killed himself with a grenade to avoid capture.
### 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War
On 29 September 2020, [Armenia](Armenia)n Defense Ministry claimed that an [Air Force](Armenian)(Armenian Air Force) Su-25 was shot down by a [Air Force](Turkish)(Turkish Air Force) [F-16](F-16), killing the pilot. However [Turkey](Turkey) denied the allegation.
On 4 October 2020, an Azerbaijani Air force Su-25 aircraft was shot down, by Armenian forces, probably by a [Osa](9K33)(9K33 Osa) while targeting Armenian positions in Fuzuli. The pilot, [Zaur Nudiraliyev](Col.)(Zaur Nudiraliyev) died in the crash. Azerbaijani officials acknowledged the loss in December 2020, while disclosing a major role of manned aviation being hidden during the active phase of the conflict with more than 600 airstrikes by manned aviation from 27 September 2020 to 9 November 2020, with the Su-25 fleet, tasked with the critical role of suppression and destruction of the enemy air defense among others.
### 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
#### Russian service
On 24 February 2022, Russia reported the loss of an Su-25 due to "pilot error." On 1 March, a Russian Su-25SM piloted by Ruslan Rudnev was lost over Ukraine. The next day, another Russian Su-25SM, registration number *RF-91961* - Red 07, was shot down in Makariv, Ukraine. On 4 March, two Russian Su-25SMs, the first with registration number *RF-93026*, were lost over Volnovakha, Ukraine. The second, with callsign *Red 04*, was lost along with its pilot. Images of the aircraft wrecks were displayed on social media. On 7 March, an Su-25 strike aircraft flown by Russian pilot Oleg Chervov was lost during a combat mission in Ukraine. On 10 March, one Su-25 with registration number *RF-91969* was shot down near Kyiv and the pilot killed. On 14 March, a Russian Su-25 was damaged by enemy fire, likely MANPADs, but managed to return to its base. On 24 May Ukraine claimed to have shot down retired Major General [Botashev](Kanamat)(Kanamat Botashev) flying an Su-25 using a Stinger missile. It was unknown if he was in service, or a private military contractor. On 27 May Ukraine claimed to have shot down a retired Russian pilot, Colonel Nikolai Markov, who was reportedly flying an Su-25 over the Luhansk region.
#### Ukrainian service
The Ukrainian Air force also operates Su-25s. On 26 February 2022 three Su-25s from the [Tactical Aviation Brigade](299th)(299th Tactical Aviation Brigade) were lost. "Blue 19" and "Blue 30" were shot down over the Kherson region. The pilots were presumed dead. Photos of the wrecks of the two Ukrainian aircraft were published. A third aircraft from the 299th was lost, but the pilot, Andrey Maksinov was captured by Russian forces. Ukrainian media acknowledged that the pilot was Ukrainian. The next day another Su-25, "Blue 39", piloted by Gennady Matulyak was shot down near Hlibivka Vyshgorod, Kyiv region. On 2 March, one Su-25 from [Tactical Aviation Brigade](299th)(299th Tactical Aviation Brigade) piloted by [Korpan](Oleksandr)(Oleksandr Korpan) was lost over Starokostiantyniv, Khmelnytskyi Oblast. On 10 March one Su-25, "Blue 31" was shot down near Nova Kakhovka, Kherson. On 14 March another Su-25 was shot down by Russian forces in [Volnovakha](Volnovakha), Donbas region. The pilot, Roman Vasyliuk, was captured by Russian forces and later released on 24 April, in a Russo-Ukrainian prisoner swap. On 22 March, a Ukrainian Su-25, heavily damaged in combat was recorded in video. On 15 April, a Ukrainian Su-25 was reportedly shot down by Russian forces in Izyum. The downing of the aircraft was recorded by a military camera in thermographic mode. The pilot, Captain Yegor Seredyuk, was reported as being killed near Izyum on 15 April. Seredyuk was awarded the [of Ukraine](Hero)(Hero of Ukraine) order. On 14 May a Su-25 from [Tactical Aviation Brigade](299th)(299th Tactical Aviation Brigade) piloted by Captain Serhiy Parkhomenko was shot down in [Huliaipole](Huliaipole), [Oblast](Zaporizhzhia)(Zaporizhzhia Oblast) and the pilot killed.
## Variants
### Su-25
[[early.JPEG|thumb|Soviet Su-25 in flight](File:Su-25)]
The basic version of the aircraft was produced at Factory 31, at Tbilisi, in the [Republic of Georgia](Soviet)(Georgian SSR). Between 1978 and 1989, 582 single-seat Su-25s were produced in Georgia, not including aircraft produced under the Su-25K export program. This variant of the aircraft represents the backbone of the Russian Aerospace Forces' Su-25 fleet, currently the largest in the world.Gordon and Dawes 2004, pp. 42–46. The aircraft experienced a number of accidents in operational service caused by system failures attributed to salvo firing of weapons. In the wake of these incidents, use of its main armament, the 240 mm [rocket](S-24)(S-24 rocket), was prohibited. In its place, the [FAB-500](FAB-500) general-purpose high-explosive bomb became the primary armament.
#### Su-25K
[[Su-25K, 8077 van de Tsjechische luchtmacht 2193-006-082 0011.jpg|thumb|right|Czech Republic Su-25K in 1994.](File:Sukhoi)]
The basic Su-25 model was used as the basis for a commercial export variant, known as the Su-25K (*Komercheskiy*). This model was also built at Factory 31 in [Tbilisi](Tbilisi), Georgia. The aircraft differed from the Soviet Air Force version in certain minor details concerning internal equipment. A total of 180 Su-25K aircraft were built between 1984 and 1989.
### Su-25UB
The Su-25UB [trainer](Trainer (aircraft)) (*Uchebno-Boyevoy*) was drawn up in 1977. The first prototype, called "T-8UB-1", was rolled out in July 1985 and its maiden flight was carried out at the [Ulan-Ude](Ulan-Ude) factory airfield on 12 August of that year. By the end of 1986, 25 Su-25UBs had been produced at Ulan-Ude before the twin-seater completed its State trials and officially cleared for service with the Soviet Air Force.Gordon and Dawes 2004, p. 54.
It was intended for training and evaluation flights of active-duty pilots, and for training pilot cadets at Soviet Air Force [school](flying)(flying school)s. The performance did not differ substantially from that of the single-seater. The navigation, attack, sighting devices and weapons-control systems of the two-seater enabled it to be used for both routine training and weapons-training missions.Gordon and Dawes 2004, pp. 50–51.
#### Su-25UBK
[[Air Force Sukhoi Su-25UBK Lofting.jpg|thumb|Bulgarian Su-25UBK on take-off](File:Bulgarian)]
From 1986 to 1989, in parallel with the construction of the main Su-25UB combat training variant, the Ulan-Ude plant produced the so-called "commercial" Su-25UBK, intended for export to countries that bought the Su-25K, and with similar modifications to that aircraft.Gordon and Dawes 2004, p. 56.
#### Su-25UBM
The Su-25UBM is a twin seat variant that can be used as an operational trainer, but also has attack capabilities, and can be used for reconnaissance, target designation and airborne control. Its first flight was on 6 December 2008 and it was certified in December 2010. It will enter operational use with the Russian Aerospace Forces later. The variant has a Phazotron NIIR Kopyo radar and Bars-2 equipment on board. Su-25UBM's range is believed to be and it may have protection against infra-red guided missiles (IRGM), a minimal requirement on today's battle fields where IRGMs proliferate.Karnozov, Vladimir. ["Sukhoi's Su-25UBM completes state acceptance trials."](http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2010/12/20/351105/sukhois-su-25ubm-completes-state-acceptance-trials.html) *FlightGlobal*, 20 December 2010. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
#### Su-25UTG
[[Su-25UTG in 2010.jpg|thumb|Su-25UTG carrier-based trainer aircraft at Novofedorovka airbase](File:Sukhoi)]
The Su-25UTG (*Uchebno-Trenirovochnyy s Gakom*) is a variant of the Su-25UB designed to train pilots in takeoff and landing on a land-based simulated carrier deck, with a sloping [ski-jump](Ski-jump (aviation)) section and [wire](arrester)(Tailhook)s. The first one flew in September 1988, and approximately 10 were produced.Gordon and Dawes 2004, p. 59. About half remained in Russian service after 1991; they were used on Russia's sole [carrier](aircraft)(aircraft carrier), . This small number of aircraft were insufficient to meet the training needs of Russia's carrier air group, so a number of Su-25UBs were converted into Su-25UTGs. These aircraft being distinguished by the alternative designation *Su-25UBP* (*Uchebno-Boyevoy Palubny*)—the adjective *palubnyy* meaning "deck", indicating that these aircraft have a naval function. As of 2007, approximately 10 of these aircraft were operational in the [Navy](Russian)(Russian Navy) as part of the 279th Naval Aviation Regiment of the [Fleet](Northern)(Northern Fleet).["Russian Military Analysis on Su-25".](http://www.warfare.ru/?linkid=1611&catid=256) warfare.ru. Retrieved: 18 June 2007. In 2021, Su-25 aircraft were also reported deployed with the [Independent Shipborne Fighter Aviation Regiment](100th)(100th Independent Shipborne Fighter Aviation Regiment) of the same fleet.
### Su-25BM
The Su-25BM (*Buksirovshchik Misheney*) is a [target-towing](target-towing) variant of the Su-25 whose development began in 1986. The prototype, designated T-8BM1, successfully flew for the first time on 22 March 1990, at Tbilisi. After completion of the test phase, the aircraft was put into production.Gordon and Dawes 2004, pp. 60–71.
The Su-25BM target-tower was designed to provide towed target facilities for training ground forces and naval personnel in ground-to-air or naval surface-to-air missile systems. It is powered by an [R-195](Tumansky R-13) engine and equipped with an [RSDN-10](RSDN-10) long-range [system](navigation)(navigation system), an analogue of the Western [LORAN](LORAN) system.
### Su-25T
The Su-25T (*Tankovy*) is a dedicated [antitank](antitank) version, which has been combat-tested with notable success in [Chechnya](Chechnya). The design of the aircraft is similar to the Su-25UB. The variant was converted to one-seater, with the rear seat replaced by additional avionics.Bangash 2008, p. 270. It has all-weather and night attack capability. In addition to the full arsenal of weapons of the standard Su-25, the Su-25T can employ the KAB-500Kr [TV-guided](precision-guided munition) bomb and the semi-active [laser-guided](laser-guided) Kh-25ML. Its enlarged nosecone houses the *Shkval* optical TV and aiming system with the *Prichal* laser rangefinder and target designator. It can also carry *[Vikhr](Vikhr)* laser-guided, tube-launched missiles, which is its main antitank armament. For night operations, the low-light TV *Merkuriy* pod system can be carried under the fuselage. Three Su-25Ts prototypes were built in 1983–86 and 8 production aircraft were built in 1990.Donald 2004, pp. 234–237. With the introduction of a definitive Russian Air Force Su-25 upgrade programme, in the form of *Stroyevoy Modernizirovannyi*, the Su-25T programme was officially canceled in 2000.
### Su-25TM (Su-39)
[[File:Su-25TM.jpg|thumb|Russian Su-25TM has been built in small numbers. Carries (from tip to fuselage) [R-73](Vympel R-73), [R-77](R-77), 8×[Vikhr](Vikhr), [Kh-29T](Kh-29T), [Kh-58](Kh-58). White dome of *Kopyo* radar container is seen below, while two *Omul* ECM pods lie beside the aircraft.]]
A second-generation Su-25T, the *Su-25TM* (also designated *Su-39*), has been developed with improved navigation and attack systems, and better survivability. While retaining the built-in *Shkval* of Su-25T, it may carry *Kopyo* (rus. "Spear") radar in an under fuselage container, which is used for engaging air targets (with RVV-AE/R-77 missiles) as well as ships (with Kh-31 and Kh-35 antiship missiles). The Russian Air Force has received 8 aircraft as of 2008. Some of the improved avionics systems designed for T and TM variants have been included in the *Su-25SM*, an interim upgrade of the operational Russian Air Force Su-25, for improved survivability and combat capability.Gordon and Dawes 2004, pp. 111–126. The Su-25TM, as an all-inclusive upgrade programme has been replaced with the "affordable" Su-25SM programme.
### Su-25SM
[[Su-25SM (1).jpg|thumb|A Sukhoi Su-25SM at the Celebration of the 100th anniversary of Russian Air Force](File:Sukhoi)]
The Su-25SM (*Stroyevoy Modernizirovannyi*) is an "affordable" upgrade programme for the Su-25, conceived by the [Air Force](Russian)(Russian Air Force) in 2000. The programme stems from the attempted Su-25T and Su-25TM upgrades, which were evaluated and labeled as over-sophisticated and expensive. The SM upgrade incorporates avionics enhancements and airframe refurbishment to extend the Frogfoot's service life by up to 500 flight hours or 5 years.
The Su-25SM's all-new PRnK-25SM "Bars" navigation/attack suite is built around the BTsVM-90 digital computer system, originally planned for the Su-25TM upgrade programme. Navigation and attack precision provided by the new suite is three times better of the baseline Su-25 and is reported to be within using satellite correction and without it.
A new KA1-1-01 Head-Up Display (HUD) was added providing, among other things, double the field of view of the original ASP-17BTs-8 electro-optical sight. Other systems and components incorporated during the upgrade include a Multi-Function Display (MFD), RSBN-85 Short Range Aid to Navigation (SHORAN), ARK-35-1 Automatic Direction Finder (ADF), A-737-01 GPS/GLONASS Receiver, Karat-B-25 Flight Data Recorder (FDR), Berkut-1 Video Recording System (VRS), Banker-2 UHF/VHF communication radio, SO-96 Transponder and a L150 "Pastel" Radar Warning Receiver (RWR).
The [R-95sh](Tumansky R-13) engines have been overhauled and modified with an anti-surge system installed. The system is designed to improve the resistance of the engine to ingested powders and gases during gun and rocket salvo firing.
The combination of reconditioned and new equipment, with increased automation and self-test capability has allowed for a reduction of pre- and post-flight maintenance by some 25 to 30%. Overall weight savings are around .
Su-25SM weapon suite has been expanded with the addition of the [R-73](Vympel)(Vympel R-73) highly agile air-to-air missile (albeit without helmet mounted cueing and only the traditional longitudinal seeker mode) and the [S-13T](S-13 rocket) 130 mm rockets (carried in five-round B-13 pods) with blast-fragmentation and armour-piercing warheads. Further, the [Kh-25](Kh-25)ML and [Kh-29](Kh-29)L Weapon Employment Profiles have been significantly improved, permitting some complex missile launch scenarios to be executed, such as: firing two consecutive missiles on two different targets in a single attack pass. The [GSh-30-2](GSh-30-2) autocannon (250-round magazine) has received three new reduced rate-of-fire modes: 750, 375 and 188 rounds per minute. The Su-25SM was also given new BD3-25 under-wing pylons.
The eventual procurement programme is expected to include between 100 and 130 kits, covering 60 to 70 percent of the Russian Air Force active single-seat fleet, as operated in the early 2000s. On 21 February 2012, Air Force spokesman Col. Vladimir Drik said that Russia will continue to upgrade its Su-25 attack aircraft to Su-25SM version, which has a significantly better survivability and combat effectiveness. The Russian Aerospace Forces then had over 30 Su-25SMs in service and plans to modernize about 80 Su-25s by 2020, Drik said. By March 2013, over 60 aircraft are to be upgraded.[](http://www.armstass.su/?page=article&aid=106907&cid=25) Retrieved: 11 November 2012. In February 2013, ten new Su-25SMs were delivered to the Air Force southern base, where operational training is being conducted. During the period 2005–2015, more than 80 aircraft were upgraded.
Since early 2014, the [Assault Aviation Regiment](368th)(368th Assault Aviation Regiment) of the [Air and Air Defence Forces Army](4th)(4th Air and Air Defence Forces Army) at [Budyonnovsk](Budyonnovsk (air base)) has received advanced Su-25SMs (probably 16 aircraft). Nine more were delivered in 2018, eight more in early 2019 and four more in early 2020 plus one more in early 2021.
Since 2018, the Aerospace Forces [VKS] have been receiving Su-25SM3s, and a total of 25 aircraft have already been delivered as of June 2019. Unlike the baseline Su-25 and its incrementally upgraded variant, the Su-25SM, both of which have a rather outdated Klen-PS laser target designator in the nose, the Su-25SM3 has been upgraded with the new SOLT-25 electro-optics nose module. The SOLT-25 provides 16× zoom and features a laser range finder and target designator, thermal imager, TV channels, and the ability to track moving targets in all weather up to 8 km away. In addition, the Su-25SM3 comes with the [Vitebsk-25](L370 Vitebsk) protection suite, which integrates a set of Zakhvat forward and rearward facing missile approach warning ultraviolet sensors, the L-150-16M Pastel radar homing and warning system, two UV-26M 50 mm chaff dispensers, and a pair of wing-mounted L-370-3S radar jamming pods. Furthermore, the Su-25SM3 has been upgraded with the new PrNK-25SM-1 Bars targeting-and-navigation system and the KSS-25 communication system with Banker-8-TM-1 antenna.
As a result from combat experience in Syria the Su-25SM3 has been equipped with [SVP-24](SVP-24) navigation and bombing aids that improve the accuracy of unguided bombs.
### Su-25KM
The (*Komercheski, Modernized*), nicknamed "Scorpion", is an Su-25 upgrade programme announced in early 2001 by the original manufacturer, [Aircraft Manufacturing](Tbilisi)(Tbilisi Aircraft Manufacturing) in Georgia, in partnership with [Systems](Elbit)(Elbit Systems) of Israel. The prototype aircraft made its maiden flight on 18 April 2001 at [Tbilisi](Tbilisi) in full [Air Force](Georgian)(Georgian Air Force) markings.Gordon and Dawes 2004, pp. 103–132.
The aircraft uses a standard Su-25 airframe, enhanced with advanced avionics including a [cockpit](glass)(glass cockpit), digital [map](map) generator, [display](helmet-mounted)(head-mounted display), computerised weapons system, complete mission pre-plan capability, and fully redundant backup modes. Performance enhancements include a highly accurate navigation system, pinpoint weapon delivery systems, all-weather and day/night performance, [NATO](NATO) compatibility, state-of-the art safety and survivability features, and advanced onboard debriefing capabilities complying with international requirements. It has the ability to use Israeli Opher infrared-guided bombs and Lizard laser-guided bombs, as well as the [R-73](Vympel)(Vympel R-73) [infrared-guided](infrared homing) missile.
### Su-28
[[Frogfoot 02.jpg|thumb|Sukhoi Su-28 non-combat jet trainer](File:Su-25UT)]
The [Su-28](Sukhoi)(Sukhoi Su-28) (also designated *Su-25UT* – *Uchebno-Trenirovochnyy*) is an advanced basic jet trainer, built on the basis of the Su-25UB as a private initiative by the Sukhoi Design Bureau. The Su-28 is a light aircraft designed to replace the Czechoslovak [L-39 Albatros](Aero)(Aero L-39 Albatros). Unlike the basic Su-25UB, it lacks a weapons-control system, built-in cannon, weapons hardpoints, and engine armour.Gordon and Dawes 2004, pp. 56–57.
### Other
* **Su-25R** (*Razvedchik*) – a tactical [reconnaissance](reconnaissance) variant designed in 1978, but never built.Gordon and Dawes 2004, pp. 70–72.
* **Su-25U3** (*Uchebnyy 3-myestny*) – also known as the "Russian Troika", was a three-seat basic trainer aircraft. The project was suspended in 1991 due to lack of funding.
* **Su-25U** (*Uchebnyy*) – a trainer variant of Su-25s produced in Georgia between 1996 and 1998. Three aircraft were built in total, all for the Georgian Air Force.
* **Su-25M1/Su-25UBM1** – Su-25 and Su-25UB aircraft modernized by the Ukrainian company MiGremont for the [Air Force](Ukrainian)(Ukrainian Air Force). Ten modernized as of 2013 (seven single-seat and three trainers). Upgrades include a new [receiver](GPS)(GPS receiver), a new radio, more accurate weapon delivery thanks to a new sight, and a new digital [data recorder](flight)(flight data recorder). Additionally, upgraded aircraft can use [rocket](S-13)(S-13 rocket)s.
* **Ge-31** is an ongoing Georgian program of [Aircraft Manufacturing](Tbilisi)(Tbilisi Aircraft Manufacturing) aiming at producing a renewed version of Su-25 without Russian components and parts.
* **T-12** ("Shturmovik-90") – a proposed successor to the Su-25. It would have utilized a [fuselage](twin)(Twin-fuselage aircraft) with two cockpits; one would carry the pilot, who would also operate the plane's radar, while the other would operate the plane's weapons and fire control. The T-12's design also included a [wing](forward-swept)(forward-swept wing) and V-tail.
## Operators
## Notable accidents
The Su-25 has been involved in the following notable [accidents](aviation)(aviation accidents and incidents).
*An Su-25K of the [Force of the Democratic Republic of the Congo](Air)(Air Force of the Democratic Republic of the Congo) disappeared in December 2006 during a routine rebasing operation and no wreckage was ever found. Reuters, 30 June 2007. Retrieved: 17 June 2008.
*Another Congolese Su-25K crashed on 30 June 2007 during an Independence Day display, near the city of [Kisangani](Kisangani), killing the pilot. Investigations revealed that the crash was due to an engine failure.
*An Su-25 of the Russian Air Force exploded in mid-air on 20 March 2008 during a live firing exercise over the [Krai](Primorsky)(Primorsky Krai), from [Vladivostok](Vladivostok), killing the pilot. Further investigations revealed that the aircraft was downed by a missile accidentally launched by a wingman. After the accident, all Russian Su-25s were grounded until the investigation was concluded.
## Specifications (Su-25/Su-25K, late production)
|caption=
}}
}}}}
[[Su-25 3-view line drawing.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|Sukhoi Su-25 line drawing](File:Sukhoi)]
deagel.com, airforce-technology.com
|prime units?=met
|crew=1
|length m=15.53
|length note= (including nose probe)
|span m=14.36
|span note=
|height m=4.8
|height note=
|wing area sqm=33.7
|wing area note=
|aspect ratio=
|airfoil=
|empty weight kg=9800
|empty weight note=
|gross weight kg=14440
|gross weight note=
|max takeoff weight kg=19300
|max takeoff weight note=
|fuel capacity=
|more general=
|eng1 number=2
|eng1 name=[R-195](Soyuz/Tumansky)(Tumansky R-13)
|eng1 type=[turbojet](turbojet) engine
|eng1 kn=44.18
|eng1 note=
|max speed kmh=975
|max speed note=
|max speed mach=0.79
|cruise speed kmh=
|cruise speed note=
|stall speed kmh=
|stall speed note=
|never exceed speed kmh=
|never exceed speed note=
|minimum control speed kmh=
|minimum control speed note=
|range km=1000
|range note=
|combat range km=750
|combat range note=at sea level with of ordnance and two external fuel tanks
|ferry range km=
|ferry range note=
|endurance=
|ceiling m=7000
|ceiling note=
|g limits=+6.5
|roll rate=
|climb rate ms=58
|climb rate note=
|time to altitude=
|wing loading kg/m2=
|wing loading note=
|fuel consumption kg/km=
|thrust/weight=
|more performance=
|guns=
**1 × [mm](30)(30 mm caliber) [GSh-30-2](Gryazev-Shipunov)(Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-30-2) [autocannon](autocannon) with 250 rounds
**[SPPU-22](SPPU-22) [pod](gun)(gun pod)s for 2 × [mm](23)(23×115mm) [GSh-23](Gryazev-Shipunov)(Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-23) autocannons with 260 rounds
|hardpoints= 11 hardpoints
|hardpoint capacity=up to of stores
|hardpoint rockets=
***[UB-16](UB-16 (rocket pod)) [pod](rocket)(rocket launcher#Rocket pod)s for [rocket](S-5)(S-5 rocket)s
***[UB-32](UB-32 (rocket pod))A rocket pods for S-5 rockets
***[B-8M](B-8M)1 rocket pods for [rocket](S-8)(S-8 rocket)s
***[S-13](S-13 rocket)
***[S-24](S-24 rocket)
***[S-25](S-25 (rocket))
|hardpoint missiles=
***[missile](Air-to-air)(Air-to-air missile)s:
****[K-13](K-13 (missile))A
****[R-60](R-60 (missile))
****[R-73](R-73 (missile))E
***[missile](Air-to-surface)(Air-to-surface missile)s:
****[Kh-23](Kh-23)
****[Kh-25](Kh-25)ML
****[Kh-29](Kh-29)L
****[Vikhr](9K121)(9K121 Vikhr)
***[missile](Anti-radiation)(Anti-radiation missile)s:
****[Kh-28](Kh-28)
|hardpoint bombs=
***[BETAB-500](BETAB-500) concrete-penetrating bomb
***[FAB-250](FAB-250) [bomb](general-purpose)(general-purpose bomb)
***[FAB-500](FAB-500) GP bomb
***[FAN-500](FAN-500) bomb
***[KAB-500KR](KAB-500KR) TV-guided bomb
***[ZAB-500](ZAB-500) [bomb](incendiary)(incendiary device)
|hardpoint other=
***ASO-2V decoy dispensers (chaff and flare): Su-25s in Syria have been pictured with four rows of ASO-2V decoy dispensers (chaff and flare) along the tailcone's upper surface aft of the vertical stabiliser.[Russia wants to join the ISIS battle in Iraq](https://www.militarytimes.com/flashpoints/2017/12/06/russia-wants-to-join-the-isis-in-iraq/) , Shawn Snow, *[Times](Military)(Military Times)*, 2017-12-06[Su-25 (Su-28) Frogfoot Close-Support Aircraft: Countermeasures](http://www.airforce-technology.com/projects/su25/) , Air Force Technology; accessed 2017-12-07
|avionics=
*[Phazotron](Phazotron) [Kopyo](Kopyo (radar)) [radar](radar)
}}
## See also
## References
### Notes
### Citations
### Bibliography
* Bangash, M.Y.H. [*Shock, Impact and Explosion: Structural Analysis and Design.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=kJSDJkgym-EC&pg=PA270) Berlin: Springer, 2008. .
* }}
* Donald, David. [''The Pocket Guide to Military Aircraft and the World's Airforces.''](https://books.google.com/books?id=2KuPWSj8GEYC) London: Hamlyn, 2004. .
* Donald, David and Daniel J. March. "Sukhoi Su-25 'Frogfoot'." *Modern Battlefield Warplanes*. London: AIRtime Publishing, 2004. .
* }}
* Frawley, Gerald. "Sukhoi_Su-25". *The International Directory of Military Aircraft, 2002/2003*. Fishwick, Act: Aerospace Publications, 2002. .
* }}
* }}
* Gordon, Yefim and Alan Dawes. *Sukhoi Su-25 Frogfoot: Close Air Support Aircraft*. London: Airlife, 2004. .
* Jackson, Paul. ''Jane's All The World's Aircraft 2003–2004''. Coulsdon, UK: Jane's Information Group, 2003. .
*
* Wilson, Stewart. *Combat Aircraft since 1945*. Fyshwick, Australia: Aerospace Publications, 2000. .
## External links
* [Su-25К at Sukhoi.org](https://web.archive.org/web/20060515011155/http://www.sukhoi.org/eng/planes/military/su25k/)
[Su-25](Category:Sukhoi aircraft)
[aircraft](Category:Anti-tank)(Category:Anti-tank aircraft)
[Soviet attack aircraft](Category:1970s)(Category:1970s Soviet attack aircraft)
[aircraft](Category:Carrier-based)(Category:Carrier-based aircraft)
[first flown in 1975](Category:Aircraft)(Category:Aircraft first flown in 1975)
[Category:Twinjets](Category:Twinjets)
[aircraft](Category:High-wing)(Category:High-wing aircraft)
|
Parveen Kaur _Canadian actress
|
parveen_kaur__canadian_actress
|
# Parveen Kaur (Canadian actress)
*Revision ID: 1159439517 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T09:37:18Z*
---
| birth_place =
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 2013–present
| spouse =
}}
** Parveen Kaur **(born 19 October 1988) is a Canadian actress. She is best known for playing Christine in *[Beyond](Beyond (American TV series))* and scientist Saanvi Bahl in *[Manifest](Manifest (TV series))*.
## Early life
Parveen was born on 19-10-1988 and raised in [Valley](Okanagan)(Okanagan Valley), [Columbia](British)(British Columbia), Canada. She is of [Punjabi](Punjabi Canadians) ethnicity and a [Sikh](Sikhism in Canada). At the age of 18, she moved to [Toronto](Toronto). She is a practitioner of [yoga](Yoga as exercise), [yoga](hot)(hot yoga) and [mindfulness](mindfulness).
## Career
Kaur only decided to pursue an acting career in her 20s after leaving high school early.
Kaur’s first recurring role came in [del Toro](Guillermo)(Guillermo del Toro)’s horror drama series *[Strain](The)(The Strain (TV series))* in 2018, Kaur starred in the movie * [Black Spruce](Through)(Through Black Spruce (film)) * which premiered at the [Toronto International Film Festival](2018)(2018 Toronto International Film Festival). Kaur starred as Saanvi for 4 seasons (62 episodes) of *[Manifest](Manifest (TV series))* between 2018 and 2023.
## Awards
Kaur received the 2017 MISAFF Star presented by [ACTRA](ACTRA) at the 6th annual Mosaic International South Asian Film Festival in [Mississauga](Mississauga), [Ontario](Ontario).
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
## References
## External links
*
*
[Canadian actresses](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century Canadian actresses)
[births](Category:1988)(Category:1988 births)
[from Toronto](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from Toronto)
[film actresses](Category:Canadian)(Category:Canadian film actresses)
[actresses of Indian descent](Category:Canadian)(Category:Canadian actresses of Indian descent)
[people of Punjabi descent](Category:Canadian)(Category:Canadian people of Punjabi descent)
[Sikhs](Category:Canadian)(Category:Canadian Sikhs)
[television actresses](Category:Canadian)(Category:Canadian television actresses)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
|
William Howard Taft
|
william_howard_taft
|
# William Howard Taft
*Revision ID: 1159055513 | Timestamp: 2023-06-07T23:16:59Z*
---
1912
| order = 27th
| office = President of the United States
| vicepresident =
}}
| term_start = March 4, 1909
| term_end = March 4, 1913
| predecessor = [Roosevelt](Theodore)(Theodore Roosevelt)
| successor = [Wilson](Woodrow)(Woodrow Wilson)
| office1 = 10th [Justice of the United States](Chief)(Chief Justice of the United States)
| nominator1 = [G. Harding](Warren)(Warren G. Harding)
| term_start1 = July 11, 1921
| term_end1 = February 3, 1930
| predecessor1 = [Douglass White](Edward)(Edward Douglass White)
| successor1 = [Evans Hughes](Charles)(Charles Evans Hughes)
| office2 = 42nd [States Secretary of War](United)(United States Secretary of War)
| president2 = Theodore Roosevelt
| term_start2 = February 1, 1904
| term_end2 = June 30, 1908
| predecessor2 = [Root](Elihu)(Elihu Root)
| successor2 = [Edward Wright](Luke)(Luke Edward Wright)
| office3 = 1st [Governor of Cuba](Provisional)(List of colonial governors of Cuba)
| appointer3 = Theodore Roosevelt
| term_start3 = September 29, 1906
| term_end3 = October 13, 1906
| predecessor3 = [Estrada Palma](Tomás)(Tomás Estrada Palma)(*as [President](President of Cuba)*)
| successor3 = [Edward Magoon](Charles)(Charles Edward Magoon)
| office4 = [of the Philippines](Governor-General)(Governor-General of the Philippines)
| appointer4 = [McKinley](William)(William McKinley)
| term_start4 = July 4, 1901
| term_end4 = December 23, 1903
| predecessor4 = [MacArthur, Jr.](Arthur)(Arthur MacArthur, Jr.)(*as Military Governor*)
| successor4 = [Edward Wright](Luke)(Luke Edward Wright)
| office5 = Judge of the [States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit](United)(United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit)
| appointer5 = [Harrison](Benjamin)(List of federal judges appointed by Benjamin Harrison)
| term_start5 = March 17, 1892
| term_end5 = March 15, 1900
| predecessor5 = Seat established
| successor5 = [Franklin Severens](Henry)(Henry Franklin Severens)
| office6 = 6th [General of the United States](Solicitor)(Solicitor General of the United States)
| president6 = [Harrison](Benjamin)(Benjamin Harrison)
| term_start6 = February 4, 1890
| term_end6 = March 20, 1892
| predecessor6 = [W. Chapman](Orlow)(Orlow W. Chapman)
| successor6 = [H. Aldrich](Charles)(Charles H. Aldrich)
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Cincinnati](Cincinnati), Ohio, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = [District of Columbia](Washington,)(Washington, District of Columbia), U.S.
| resting_place = [National Cemetery](Arlington)(Arlington National Cemetery)
| party = [Republican](Republican Party (United States))
| spouse =
| children =
| parents =
| relatives = [family](Taft)(Taft family)
| occupation =
| education =
}}
| signature = William Howard Taft Signature2.svg
| signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink
| module =
}}
**William Howard Taft** (September 15, 1857March 8, 1930) was the 27th [of the United States](president)(president of the United States) (1909–1913) and the tenth [justice of the United States](chief)(chief justice of the United States) (1921–1930), the only person to have held both offices. Taft was elected president [1908](in)(1908 United States presidential election), the chosen successor of [Roosevelt](Theodore)(Theodore Roosevelt), but was defeated for reelection [1912](in)(1912 United States presidential election) by [Wilson](Woodrow)(Woodrow Wilson) after Roosevelt split the [Republican](Republican Party (United States)) vote by running as a [third-party](Progressive Party (United States, 1912)) candidate. In 1921, President [G. Harding](Warren)(Warren G. Harding) appointed Taft to be chief justice, a position he held until a month before his death.
Taft was born in [Cincinnati](Cincinnati), [Ohio](Ohio), in 1857. His father, [Taft](Alphonso)(Alphonso Taft), was a [attorney general](U.S.)(United States Attorney General) and [of war](secretary)(United States Secretary of War). Taft attended [Yale](Yale University) and joined the [and Bones](Skull)(Skull and Bones), of which his father was a founding member. After becoming a lawyer, Taft was appointed a judge while still in his twenties. He continued a rapid rise, being named [general](solicitor)(Solicitor General of the United States) and a judge of the [Circuit Court of Appeals](Sixth)(Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals). In 1901, President [McKinley](William)(William McKinley) appointed Taft [governor of the Philippines](civilian)(Governor-General of the Philippines). In 1904, Roosevelt made him Secretary of War, and he became Roosevelt's hand-picked successor. Despite his personal ambition to become chief justice, Taft declined repeated offers of appointment to the [Court of the United States](Supreme)(Supreme Court of the United States), believing his political work to be more important.
With Roosevelt's help, Taft had little opposition for the Republican nomination for president in 1908 and easily defeated [Jennings Bryan](William)(William Jennings Bryan) for the presidency in that November's [election](1908 United States presidential election). In the White House, he [focused](History of U.S. foreign policy#1893–1914) on East Asia more than European affairs and repeatedly intervened to prop up or remove Latin American governments. Taft sought reductions to trade [tariff](tariff)s, then a major source of governmental income, but the resulting bill was heavily influenced by special interests. His administration was filled with conflict between the Republican Party's conservative wing, with which Taft often sympathized, and its progressive wing, toward which Roosevelt moved more and more. Controversies [conservation](over)(Pinchot–Ballinger controversy) and [antitrust](United States antitrust law) cases filed by the Taft administration served to further separate the two men. Roosevelt challenged Taft for renomination in 1912. Taft used his control of the party machinery to gain a bare majority of delegates and Roosevelt bolted the party. The split left Taft with little chance of reelection, and he took only Utah and Vermont in Wilson's victory.
After leaving office, Taft returned to Yale as a professor, continuing his political activity and working against war through the [to Enforce Peace](League)(League to Enforce Peace). In 1921, Harding appointed Taft chief justice, an office he had long sought. Chief Justice Taft was a conservative on business issues, and under him there were advances in individual rights. In poor health, he resigned in February 1930, and died the following month. He was buried at [National Cemetery](Arlington)(Arlington National Cemetery), the first president and first Supreme Court justice to be interred there. Taft is generally listed near the middle in [rankings of U.S. presidents](historians')(Historical rankings of presidents of the United States).
## Early life and education
[[File:William Howard Taft Yale College BA 1878.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[College](Yale)(Yale College) photograph of Taft, 1878]]
William Howard Taft was born September 15, 1857, in [Cincinnati](Cincinnati), [Ohio](Ohio), to [Taft](Alphonso)(Alphonso Taft) and [Torrey](Louise)(Louise Taft). The [family](Taft)(Taft family) was not wealthy, living in a modest home in the suburb of [Auburn](Mount)(Mount Auburn Historic District). Alphonso served as a judge and an ambassador, and was [Secretary of War](U.S.)(United States Secretary of War) and [General](Attorney)(United States Attorney General) under President [S. Grant](Ulysses)(Ulysses S. Grant).
William Taft was not seen as brilliant as a child, but was a hard worker; his demanding parents pushed him and his four brothers toward success, tolerating nothing less. He attended [High School](Woodward)(Woodward High School (Cincinnati, Ohio)) in Cincinnati. At [College](Yale)(Yale College), which he entered in 1874, the heavyset, jovial Taft was popular and an intramural heavyweight wrestling champion. One classmate said he succeeded through hard work rather than by being the smartest, and had integrity. He was elected a member of [and Bones](Skull)(Skull and Bones), the Yale secret society co-founded by his father, one of three future presidents (with [H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush) and [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush)) to be a member. In 1878, Taft graduated second in his class of 121. He attended [Law School](Cincinnati)(University of Cincinnati College of Law), and graduated with a [of Laws](Bachelor)(Bachelor of Laws) in 1880. While in law school, he worked on *The Cincinnati Commercial* newspaper, edited by [Halstead](Murat)(Murat Halstead). Taft was assigned to cover the local courts, and also spent time [law](reading)(reading law) in his father's office; both activities gave him practical knowledge of the law that was not taught in class. Shortly before graduating from law school, Taft went to [Columbus](Columbus, Ohio) to take the [examination](bar)(bar examination) and easily passed.
## Rise in government (1880–1908)
### Ohio lawyer and judge
After admission to the Ohio [bar](bar (law)), Taft devoted himself to his job at the *Commercial* full-time. Halstead was willing to take him on permanently at an increased salary if he would give up the law, but Taft declined. In October 1880, Taft was appointed assistant prosecutor for [County](Hamilton)(Hamilton County, Ohio) (where Cincinnati is located), and took office the following January. Taft served for a year as assistant prosecutor, trying his share of routine cases. He resigned in January 1882 after President [A. Arthur](Chester)(Chester A. Arthur) appointed him Collector of Internal Revenue for Ohio's First District, an area centered on Cincinnati. Taft refused to dismiss competent employees who were politically out of favor, and resigned effective in March 1883, writing to Arthur that he wished to begin private practice in Cincinnati. In 1884, Taft campaigned for the Republican candidate for president, Maine Senator [G. Blaine](James)(James G. Blaine), who lost to New York Governor [Cleveland](Grover)(Grover Cleveland).
In 1887, Taft, then aged 29, was appointed to a vacancy on the Superior Court of Cincinnati by Governor [B. Foraker](Joseph)(Joseph B. Foraker). The appointment was good for just over a year, after which he would have to face the voters, and in April 1888, he sought election for the first of three times in his lifetime, the other two being for the presidency. He was elected to a full five-year term. Some two dozen of Taft's opinions as a state judge survive, the most significant being ''Moores & Co. v. Bricklayers' Union No. 1'' (1889) if only because it was used against him when he ran for president in 1908. The case involved bricklayers who refused to work for any firm that dealt with a company called Parker Brothers, with which they were in dispute. Taft ruled that the union's action amounted to a [boycott](secondary)(secondary boycott), which was illegal.
It is not clear when Taft met [Herron](Helen)(Helen Herron Taft) (often called Nellie), but it was no later than 1880, when she mentioned in her diary receiving an invitation to a party from him. By 1884, they were meeting regularly, and in 1885, after an initial rejection, she agreed to marry him. The wedding took place at the Herron home on June 19, 1886. William Taft remained devoted to his wife throughout their almost 44 years of marriage. Nellie Taft pushed her husband much as his parents had, and she could be very frank with her criticisms. The couple had three children, of whom the eldest, [Robert](Robert A. Taft), became a U.S. senator.
### Solicitor General
There was a seat vacant on the [Supreme Court](U.S.)(U.S. Supreme Court) in 1889, and Governor Foraker suggested President Harrison appoint Taft to fill it. Taft was 32 and his professional goal was always a seat on the Supreme Court. He actively sought the appointment, writing to Foraker to urge the governor to press his case, while stating to others it was unlikely he would get it. Instead, in 1890, Harrison appointed him [General of the United States](Solicitor)(Solicitor General of the United States). When Taft arrived in Washington in February 1890, the office had been vacant for two months, with the work piling up. He worked to eliminate the backlog, while simultaneously educating himself on federal law and procedure he had not needed as an Ohio state judge.
New York Senator [M. Evarts](William)(William M. Evarts), a former Secretary of State, had been a classmate of Alphonso Taft at Yale..}} Evarts called to see his friend's son as soon as Taft took office, and William and Nellie Taft were launched into Washington society. Nellie Taft was ambitious for herself and her husband, and was annoyed when the people he socialized with most were mainly Supreme Court justices, rather than the arbiters of Washington society such as [Roosevelt](Theodore)(Theodore Roosevelt), [Hay](John)(John Hay), [Cabot Lodge](Henry)(Henry Cabot Lodge) and their wives.
In 1891, Taft introduced a new policy: [of error](confession)(confession of error), by which the U.S. government would concede a case in the Supreme Court that it had won in the court below but that the solicitor general thought it should have lost. At Taft's request, the Supreme Court reversed a murder conviction that Taft said had been based on inadmissible evidence. The policy continues to this day.
Although Taft was successful as Solicitor General, winning 15 of the 18 cases he argued before the Supreme Court, he was glad when in March 1891, the [States Congress](United)(United States Congress) created a new judgeship for each of the [States Courts of Appeal](United)(United States Court of Appeals) and Harrison appointed him to the [Circuit](Sixth)(United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit), based in Cincinnati. In March 1892, Taft resigned as Solicitor General to resume his judicial career.
### Federal judge
Taft's [judgeship](federal)(United States federal judge) was a lifetime appointment, and one from which promotion to the Supreme Court might come. Taft's older half-brother [Charles](Charles Phelps Taft), successful in business, supplemented Taft's government salary, allowing William and Nellie Taft and their family to live in comfort. Taft's duties involved hearing trials in the circuit, which included Ohio, Michigan, Kentucky, and Tennessee, and participating with Supreme Court Justice [Marshall Harlan](John)(John Marshall Harlan), the [justice](circuit)(circuit justice), and judges of the Sixth Circuit in hearing appeals. Taft spent these years, from 1892 to 1900, in personal and professional contentment.
According to historian Louis L. Gould, "while Taft shared the fears about social unrest that dominated the middle classes during the 1890s, he was not as conservative as his critics believed. He supported the right of labor to organize and strike, and he ruled against employers in several negligence cases." Among these was *Voight v. Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern Railway Co.* Taft's decision for a worker injured in a railway accident violated the contemporary doctrine of [of contract](liberty)(liberty of contract), and he was reversed by the Supreme Court..}} On the other hand, Taft's opinion in *[States v. Addyston Pipe and Steel Co.](United)(Addyston Pipe & Steel Co. v. United States)* was upheld unanimously by the high court. Taft's opinion, in which he held that a pipe manufacturers' association had violated the [Antitrust Act](Sherman)(Sherman Antitrust Act), was described by [Pringle](Henry)(Henry F. Pringle), his biographer, as having "definitely and specifically revived" that legislation.
In 1896, Taft became dean and Professor of [Property](Property law) at his *alma mater*, the Cincinnati Law School, a post that required him to prepare and give two hour-long lectures each week. He was devoted to his law school, and was deeply committed to legal education, introducing the [method](case)(case method) to the curriculum. As a federal judge, Taft could not involve himself with politics, but followed it closely, remaining a Republican supporter. He watched with some disbelief as [campaign](the)(William McKinley presidential campaign, 1896) of Ohio Governor [McKinley](William)(William McKinley) developed in 1894 and 1895, writing "I cannot find anybody in Washington who wants him". By March 1896, Taft realized that McKinley would likely be nominated, and was lukewarm in his support. He landed solidly in McKinley's camp after former Nebraska representative [Jennings Bryan](William)(William Jennings Bryan) in July stampeded the [Democratic National Convention](1896)(1896 Democratic National Convention) with his [of Gold speech](Cross)(Cross of Gold speech). Bryan, both in that address and in [campaign](his)(William Jennings Bryan presidential campaign, 1896), strongly advocated [silver](free)(free silver), a policy that Taft saw as economic radicalism. Taft feared that people would hoard gold in anticipation of a Bryan victory, but he could do nothing but worry. McKinley [elected](was)(1896 United States presidential election); when a place on the Supreme Court opened in 1898, the only one under McKinley, the president named [McKenna](Joseph)(Joseph McKenna).
From the 1890s until his death, Taft played a major role in the international legal community. He was active in many organizations, was a leader in the worldwide [movement](arbitration)(Arbitration#History), and taught international law at the Yale Law School.John E. Noyes, "William Howard Taft and the Taft Arbitration Treaties." *Villanova Law Review* 56 (2011): 535+ [online](https://digitalcommons.law.villanova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1017&context=vlr) covers his career in international law and arbitration. Taft advocated the establishment of a world court of arbitration supported by an international police force and is considered a major proponent of "world peace through law" movement. One of the reasons for his bitter break with Roosevelt in 1910–12 was Roosevelt's insistence that arbitration was naïve and that only war could decide major international disputes.John P. Campbell, "Taft, Roosevelt, and the Arbitration Treaties of 1911." *Journal of American History* 53.2 (1966): 279–298. [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1894200)
### Philippine years
[[File:President Taft and the Sultan of Sulu (1913).png|thumb|[Sultan](Sultan) [Kiram II](Jamalul)(Jamalul Kiram II) with William Howard Taft of the [Commission](Philippine)(Taft Commission) in [Jolo](Jolo, Sulu), [Sulu](Sulu) (March 27, 1901)]]
In January 1900, Taft was called to Washington to meet with McKinley. Taft hoped a Supreme Court appointment was in the works, but instead McKinley wanted to place Taft on [commission](the)(Taft Commission) to organize a civilian government in the [Philippines](Philippines). The appointment would require Taft's resignation from the bench; the president assured him that if he fulfilled this task, McKinley would appoint him to the next vacancy on the high court. Taft accepted on condition he was made head of the commission, with responsibility for success or failure; McKinley agreed, and Taft sailed for the islands in April 1900.
The American takeover meant the [Revolution](Philippine)(Philippine Revolution) bled into the [War](Philippine–American)(Philippine–American War), as Filipinos fought for their independence, but U.S. forces, led by military governor General [MacArthur Jr.](Arthur)(Arthur MacArthur Jr.) had the upper hand by 1900. MacArthur felt the commission was a nuisance, and their mission a quixotic attempt to impose self-government on a people unready for it. The general was forced to co-operate with Taft, as McKinley had given the commission control over the islands' military budget. The commission took executive power in the Philippines on September 1, 1900; on July 4, 1901, Taft became civilian [governor](Governor-General of the Philippines). MacArthur, until then the military governor, was relieved by General [Chaffee](Adna)(Adna Chaffee), who was designated only as commander of American forces. As Governor-General, Taft oversaw the final months of the primary phase of the Philippine-American War. He approved of General [Franklin Bell's](James)(James Franklin Bell) use of [camps](concentration)(Concentration camp) in the provinces of [Batangas](Batangas) and [Laguna](Laguna (province)), and accepted the surrender of Filipino general [Malvar](Miguel)(Miguel Malvar) on April 16, 1902. GOVPH |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2002/04/09/proclamation-no-173-s-2002/ |access-date=2023-04-25 |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines |language=en-US}} In February 1902, Taft testified before the [Committee on the Philippines](Senate)(United States Senate Committee on the Philippines) in regard to alleged offenses by the [Marine Corps](U.S.)(U.S. Marine Corps) against Filipino civilians; he admitted that Marines had committed some offenses including [waterboarding](waterboarding), but denied the existence of Bell's concentration camps.
Taft sought to make the Filipinos partners in a venture that would lead to their self-government; he saw independence as something decades off. Many Americans in the Philippines viewed the locals as racial inferiors, but Taft wrote soon before his arrival, "we propose to banish this idea from their minds". Taft did not impose [segregation](racial)(racial segregation) at official events, and treated the Filipinos as social equals. Nellie Taft recalled that "neither politics nor race should influence our hospitality in any way".
McKinley was [assassinated](Assassination of William McKinley) in September 1901, and was succeeded by Theodore Roosevelt. Taft and Roosevelt had first become friends around 1890 while Taft was Solicitor General and Roosevelt a member of the [States Civil Service Commission](United)(United States Civil Service Commission). Taft had, after McKinley's election, urged the appointment of Roosevelt as [Secretary of the Navy](Assistant)(Assistant Secretary of the Navy), and watched as Roosevelt became a war hero, [of New York](Governor)(Governor of New York), and [President of the United States](Vice)(Vice President of the United States). They met again when Taft went to Washington in January 1902 to recuperate after two operations caused by an infection. There, Taft testified before the Senate Committee on the Philippines. Taft wanted Filipino farmers to have a stake in the new government through land ownership, but much of the arable land was held by [Catholic](Catholic) [order](religious)(religious order)s of mostly Spanish priests, which were often resented by the Filipinos. Roosevelt had Taft go to Rome to negotiate with [Leo XIII](Pope)(Pope Leo XIII), to purchase the lands and to arrange the withdrawal of the Spanish priests, with Americans replacing them and training locals as clergy. Taft did not succeed in resolving these issues on his visit to Rome, but an agreement on both points was made in 1903.
In late 1902, Taft had heard from Roosevelt that a seat on the Supreme Court would soon fall vacant on the resignation of Justice [Shiras](George)(George Shiras, Jr.), and Roosevelt desired that Taft fill it. Although this was Taft's professional goal, he refused as he felt his work as governor was not yet done. The following year, Roosevelt asked Taft to become [of War](Secretary)(Secretary of War). As the War Department administered the Philippines, Taft would remain responsible for the islands, and [Root](Elihu)(Elihu Root), the incumbent, was willing to postpone his departure until 1904, allowing Taft time to wrap up his work in Manila. After consulting with his family, Taft agreed, and sailed for the United States in December 1903.
### Secretary of War
[[File:Taft crown prince.jpeg|thumb|Roosevelt introduces Taft as his crown prince: [*Puck*](Puck (magazine)) magazine cover cartoon, 1906.]]
When Taft took office as [of War](Secretary)(United States Secretary of War) in January 1904, he was not called upon to spend much time administering the army, which the president was content to do himself—Roosevelt wanted Taft as a [troubleshooter](Troubleshooting) in difficult situations, as a legal adviser, and to be able to give campaign speeches as he sought election in his own right. Taft strongly defended Roosevelt's record in his addresses, and wrote of the president's successful but strenuous efforts to gain election, "I would not run for president if you guaranteed the office. It is awful to be afraid of one's shadow."
Between 1905 and 1907, Taft came to terms with the likelihood he would be the next Republican nominee for president, though he did not plan to actively campaign for it. When Justice [Billings Brown](Henry)(Henry Billings Brown) resigned in 1906, Taft would not accept the seat although Roosevelt offered it, a position Taft held to when another seat opened in 1906. [Roosevelt](Edith)(Edith Roosevelt), the [Lady](First)(First Lady of the United States), disliked the growing closeness between the two men, feeling that they were too much alike and that the president did not gain much from the advice of someone who rarely contradicted him.
Alternatively, Taft wanted to be chief justice, and kept a close eye on the health of the aging incumbent, [Fuller](Melville)(Melville Fuller), who turned 75 in 1908. Taft believed Fuller likely to live many years. Roosevelt had indicated he was likely to appoint Taft if the opportunity came to fill the court's center seat, but some considered Attorney General [Knox](Philander)(Philander Knox) a better candidate. In any event, Fuller remained chief justice throughout Roosevelt's presidency..}}
Through the 1903 [of Panama from Colombia](separation)(separation of Panama from Colombia) and the [Treaty](Hay–Bunau-Varilla)(Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty), the United States had secured rights to build [canal](a)(Panama Canal) in the [of Panama](Isthmus)(Isthmus of Panama). Legislation authorizing construction did not specify which government department would be responsible, and Roosevelt designated the Department of War. Taft journeyed to Panama in 1904, viewing the canal site and meeting with Panamanian officials. The [Canal Commission](Isthmian)(Isthmian Canal Commission) had trouble keeping a chief engineer, and when in February 1907 [F. Stevens](John)(John Frank Stevens) submitted his resignation, Taft recommended an army engineer, [W. Goethals](George)(George W. Goethals). Under Goethals, the project moved ahead smoothly.
Another colony lost by Spain in 1898 was Cuba, but as freedom for Cuba had been a major purpose of the war, it was not annexed by the U.S., but was, after a period of occupation, given independence in 1902. Election fraud and corruption followed, as did factional conflict. In September 1906, President [Estrada Palma](Tomás)(Tomás Estrada Palma) asked for U.S. intervention. Taft traveled to Cuba with a small American force, and on September 29, 1906, under the terms of the [Treaty of Relations of 1903](Cuban–American)(Cuban–American Treaty of Relations (1903)), declared himself Provisional Governor of Cuba, a post he held for two weeks before being succeeded by [Edward Magoon](Charles)(Charles Edward Magoon). In his time in Cuba, Taft worked to persuade Cubans that the U.S. intended stability, not occupation.
Taft remained involved in Philippine affairs. During Roosevelt's election campaign in 1904, he urged that Philippine agricultural products be admitted to the U.S. without duty. This caused growers of U.S. sugar and tobacco to complain to Roosevelt, who remonstrated with his Secretary of War. Taft expressed unwillingness to change his position, and threatened to resign; Roosevelt hastily dropped the matter. Taft returned to the islands in 1905, leading a delegation of congressmen, and again in 1907, to open the first [Assembly](Philippine)(Philippine Assembly).
On both of his Philippine trips as [of War](Secretary)(United States Secretary of War), Taft went to Japan, and met with officials there. The meeting in July 1905 came a month before the [Peace Conference](Portsmouth)(Treaty of Portsmouth), which would end the [War](Russo-Japanese)(Russo-Japanese War) with the [of Portsmouth](Treaty)(Treaty of Portsmouth). Taft met with Japanese Prime Minister [Tarō](Katsura)(Katsura Tarō). After that meeting, the two signed [memorandum](a)(Taft–Katsura Agreement). It contained nothing new but instead reaffirmed official positions: Japan had no intention to invade the Philippines, and the U.S. that it did not object to [control of Korea](Japanese)(Korea under Japanese rule). There were U.S. concerns about the number of Japanese laborers coming to the American West Coast, and during Taft's second visit, in September 1907, [Hayashi](Tadasu)(Tadasu Hayashi), the foreign minister, informally [to issue fewer passports to them](agreed)(Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907).
## Presidential election of 1908
### Gaining the nomination
[[H Taft smiling 1908.jpg|thumb|upright|One of a series of candid photographs known as the *Evolution of a Smile,* taken just after a formal portrait session, as Taft learned in a telephone call from Roosevelt of his nomination for president](File:Wm)]
Roosevelt had served almost three and a half years of McKinley's term. On the night of his own election in 1904, Roosevelt publicly declared that he would not run for reelection [1908](in)(1908 United States presidential election), a pledge he quickly regretted. But he felt bound by his word. Roosevelt believed Taft was his logical successor, although the War Secretary had initially been reluctant to run. Roosevelt used his control of the party machinery to aid his heir apparent. On pain of the loss of their jobs, political appointees were required to support Taft or remain silent.
A number of Republican politicians, such as [Secretary](Treasury)(United States Secretary of the Treasury) [Cortelyou](George)(George Cortelyou), tested the waters for a run but chose to stay out. New York Governor [Evans Hughes](Charles)(Charles Evans Hughes) ran, but when he made a major policy speech, Roosevelt the same day sent a special message to Congress warning in strong terms against [corruption](corporate)(corporate corruption). The resulting coverage of the presidential message relegated Hughes to the back pages. Roosevelt reluctantly deterred repeated attempts to draft him for another term.
Assistant [General](Postmaster)(Postmaster General of the United States) [H. Hitchcock](Frank)(Frank H. Hitchcock) resigned from his office in February 1908 to lead the Taft effort. In April, Taft made a speaking tour, traveling as far west as [Omaha](Omaha, Nebraska) before being recalled to straighten out a contested election in [Panama](Panama). He had no serious opposition at the [Republican National Convention](1908)(1908 Republican National Convention) in Chicago in June, and gained a first-ballot victory. Yet Taft did not have things his own way: he had hoped his running mate would be a midwestern progressive like Iowa Senator [Dolliver](Jonathan)(Jonathan Dolliver), but instead the convention named Congressman [S. Sherman](James)(James S. Sherman) of New York, a conservative. Taft resigned as Secretary of War on June 30 to devote himself full-time to the campaign.
### General election campaign
Taft's opponent in the general election was Bryan, the Democratic nominee for the third time in four presidential elections. As many of Roosevelt's reforms stemmed from proposals by Bryan, the Democrat argued that he was the true heir to Roosevelt's mantle. Corporate contributions to federal political campaigns had been outlawed by the 1907 [Act](Tillman)(Tillman Act), and Bryan proposed that contributions by officers and directors of corporations be similarly banned, or at least disclosed when made. Taft was only willing to see the contributions disclosed after the election, and tried to ensure that officers and directors of corporations litigating with the government were not among his contributors.
[[Taft/Sherman poster](File:1908RepublicanPoster.png|thumb|left|1908)]
Taft began the campaign on the wrong foot, fueling the arguments of those who said he was not his own man by traveling to Roosevelt's home at [Hill](Sagamore)(Sagamore Hill) for advice on his acceptance speech, saying that he needed "the President's judgment and criticism". Taft supported most of Roosevelt's policies. He argued that labor had a right to organize, but not boycott, and that corporations and the wealthy must also obey the law. Bryan wanted the railroads to be owned by the government, but Taft preferred that they remain in the private sector, with their maximum rates set by the [Commerce Commission](Interstate)(Interstate Commerce Commission), subject to [review](judicial)(judicial review). Taft attributed blame for the recent recession, the [of 1907](Panic)(Panic of 1907), to stock speculation and other abuses, and felt some reform of the currency (the U.S. was on the [standard](gold)(gold standard)) was needed to allow flexibility in the government's response to poor economic times, that specific legislation on [trusts](trust (business)) was needed to supplement the [Antitrust Act](Sherman)(Sherman Antitrust Act), and that [constitution](the)(Constitution of the United States) should be amended to allow for an income tax, thus overruling decisions of the Supreme Court striking such a tax down. Roosevelt's expansive use of executive power had been controversial; Taft proposed to continue his policies, but place them on more solid legal underpinnings through the passage of legislation.
Taft upset some progressives by choosing Hitchcock as Chairman of the [National Committee](Republican)(Republican National Committee) (RNC), placing him in charge of the presidential campaign. Hitchcock was quick to bring in men closely allied with big business. Taft took an August vacation in [Springs, Virginia](Hot)(Hot Springs, Virginia), where he irritated political advisors by spending more time on golf than strategy. After seeing a newspaper photo of Taft taking a large swing at a golf ball, Roosevelt warned him against candid shots.
[[electoral vote results](File:ElectoralCollege1908.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.25|1908)]
Roosevelt, frustrated by his own relative inaction, showered Taft with advice, fearing that the electorate would not appreciate Taft's qualities, and that Bryan would win. Roosevelt's supporters spread rumors that the president was in effect running Taft's campaign. This annoyed Nellie Taft, who never trusted the Roosevelts. Nevertheless, Roosevelt supported the Republican nominee with such enthusiasm that humorists suggested "TAFT" stood for "Take advice from Theodore".
Bryan urged a system of bank guarantees, so that depositors could be repaid if banks failed, but Taft opposed this, offering a [savings](postal)(postal savings) system instead. The issue of prohibition of alcohol entered the campaign when in mid-September, [Nation](Carrie)(Carrie Nation) called on Taft and demanded to know his views. Taft and Roosevelt had agreed the party platform would take no position on the matter, and Nation left indignant, to allege that Taft was irreligious and against temperance. Taft, at Roosevelt's advice, ignored the issue.
In the end, Taft won by a comfortable margin. Taft defeated Bryan by 321 electoral votes to 162; however, he garnered just 51.6 percent of the popular vote. Nellie Taft said regarding the campaign, "There was nothing to criticize, except his not knowing or caring about the way the game of politics is played." Longtime White House usher [Hoover](Ike)(Ike Hoover) recalled that Taft came often to see Roosevelt during the campaign, but seldom between the election and Inauguration Day, March 4, 1909.
## Presidency (1909–1913)
### Inauguration and appointments
[[inauguration.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|1909 inauguration](File:Taft)]
Taft was [in as president](sworn)(Inauguration of William Howard Taft) on March 4, 1909. Due to a winter storm that coated Washington with ice, Taft was inaugurated within the Senate Chamber rather than outside the Capitol as is customary. The new president stated in his inaugural address that he had been honored to have been "one of the advisers of my distinguished predecessor" and to have had a part "in the reforms he has initiated. I should be untrue to myself, to my promises, and to the declarations of the party platform on which I was elected if I did not make the maintenance and enforcement of those reforms a most important feature of my administration". He pledged to make those reforms long-lasting, ensuring that honest businessmen did not suffer uncertainty through change of policy. He spoke of the need to reduce the 1897 Dingley tariff, of the need for antitrust reform, and for continued advancement of the Philippines toward full self-government. Roosevelt left office with regret that his tenure in the position he enjoyed so much was over and, to keep out of Taft's way, arranged for a year-long hunting trip to Africa.
Soon after the Republican convention, Taft and Roosevelt had discussed which cabinet officers would stay on. Taft kept only [Secretary](Agriculture)(United States Secretary of Agriculture) [Wilson](James)(James Wilson (Iowa)) and Postmaster General [von Lengerke Meyer](George)(George von Lengerke Meyer) (who was transferred to the Navy Department). Others appointed to the Taft cabinet included [Knox](Philander)(Philander Knox), who had served under McKinley and Roosevelt as Attorney General, as the new Secretary of State, and [MacVeagh](Franklin)(Franklin MacVeagh) as [Secretary](Treasury)(United States Secretary of the Treasury).
Taft did not enjoy the easy relationship with the press that Roosevelt had, choosing not to offer himself for interviews or photo opportunities as often as his predecessor had. His administration marked a change in style from the charismatic leadership of Roosevelt to Taft's quieter passion for the rule of law.
### First Lady's illness
Early in Taft's term, in May 1909, his wife Nellie had a severe [stroke](stroke) that left her paralysed in one arm and one leg and deprived her of the power of speech. Taft spent several hours each day looking after her and teaching her to speak again, which took a year.
### Foreign policy
#### Organization and principles
Taft made it a priority to restructure the [Department](State)(United States Department of State), noting, "it is organized on the basis of the needs of the government in 1800 instead of 1900." The Department was for the first time organized into geographical divisions, including desks for the [East](Far)(Far East), [America](Latin)(Latin America) and [Europe](Western)(Western Europe). The department's first in-service training program was established, and appointees spent a month in Washington before going to their posts. Taft and Secretary of State Knox had a strong relationship, and the president listened to his counsel on matters foreign and domestic. According to historian [E. Coletta](Paolo)(Paolo E. Coletta), Knox was not a good diplomat, and had poor relations with the Senate, press, and many foreign leaders, especially those from Latin America.
There was broad agreement between Taft and Knox on major foreign policy goals; the U.S. would not interfere in European affairs, and would use force if necessary to enforce the [Doctrine](Monroe)(Monroe Doctrine) in the Americas. The defense of the Panama Canal, which was under construction throughout Taft's term (it opened in 1914), guided [States foreign policy](United)(United States foreign policy) in the Caribbean and Central America. Previous administrations had made efforts to promote American business interests overseas, but Taft went a step further and used the web of American diplomats and consuls abroad to further trade. Such ties, Taft hoped, would promote world peace. Taft pushed for arbitration treaties with Great Britain and France, but the Senate was not willing to yield to arbitrators its constitutional prerogative to approve treaties.
#### Tariffs and reciprocity
At the time of Taft's presidency, [protectionism](protectionism) through the use of tariffs was a fundamental position of the Republican Party. The [Act](Dingley)(Dingley Act) tariff had been enacted to protect American industry from foreign competition. The 1908 party platform had supported unspecified revisions to the Dingley Act, and Taft interpreted this to mean reduction. Taft called a special session of Congress to convene on March 15, 1909, to deal with the tariff question.
[E. Payne](Sereno)(Sereno E. Payne), chairman of the [Ways and Means Committee](House)(House Ways and Means Committee), had held hearings in late 1908, and sponsored the resulting draft legislation. On balance, the bill reduced tariffs slightly, but when it passed the House in April 1909 and reached the Senate, the chairman of the [Finance Committee](Senate)(Senate Finance Committee), Rhode Island Senator [W. Aldrich](Nelson)(Nelson W. Aldrich), attached many amendments raising rates. This outraged progressives such as Wisconsin's [M. La Follette](Robert)(Robert M. La Follette), who urged Taft to say that the bill was not in accord with the party platform. Taft refused, angering them. Taft insisted that most imports from the Philippines be free of duty, and according to Anderson, showed effective leadership on a subject he was knowledgeable on and cared about.
When opponents sought to modify the tariff bill to allow for an income tax, Taft opposed it on the ground that the Supreme Court would likely strike it down as unconstitutional, as it had before. Instead, they proposed a constitutional amendment, which passed both houses in early July, was sent to the states, and by 1913 was ratified as the [Amendment](Sixteenth)(Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution). In the [committee](conference)(conference committee), Taft won some victories, such as limiting the tax on lumber. The conference report passed both houses, and Taft signed it on August 6, 1909. The [tariff](Payne-Aldrich)(Payne-Aldrich tariff) was immediately controversial. According to Coletta, "Taft had lost the initiative, and the wounds inflicted in the acrid tariff debate never healed".
[[McConnell cartoon showing Canadian suspicions that Taft and others were only interested in Canada when it was prosperous](File:JackCanuckOYes.jpg|thumb|Newton)]
In Taft's [message](annual)(State of the Union) sent to Congress in December 1910, he urged a [trade](free)(free trade) accord with Canada. Britain at that time still handled Canada's foreign relations, and Taft found the British and Canadian governments willing. Many in Canada opposed an accord, fearing the U.S. would dump it when it became inconvenient, as it had the 1854 [Treaty](Elgin-Marcy)(Elgin-Marcy Treaty) in 1866, and farm and fisheries interests in the United States were also opposed. After talks with Canadian officials in January 1911, Taft had the agreement, which was not a treaty, introduced into Congress. It passed in late July. The [of Canada](Parliament)(Parliament of Canada) led by Prime Minister Sir [Laurier](Wilfrid)(Wilfrid Laurier) had deadlocked over the issue. Canadians turned Laurier out of office in the [1911 election](September)(1911 Canadian federal election) and [Borden](Robert)(Robert Borden) became the new prime minister. No cross-border agreement was concluded, and the debate deepened divisions within the Republican Party.
#### Latin America
Taft and his Secretary of State, Philander Knox, instituted a policy of [Diplomacy](Dollar)(Dollar Diplomacy) towards Latin America, believing U.S. investment would benefit all involved, while diminishing European influence in regions where the [Doctrine](Monroe)(Monroe Doctrine) applied. The policy was unpopular among Latin American states that did not wish to become financial protectorates of the United States, as well as in the U.S. Senate, many of whose members believed the U.S. should not interfere abroad. No foreign affairs controversy tested Taft's policy more than the collapse of the Mexican regime and subsequent turmoil of the [Revolution](Mexican)(Mexican Revolution).
[[File:Presidents_Taft_and_Diaz,_Oct._1909.jpg|thumb|left|Taft and [Díaz](Porfirio)(Porfirio Díaz), Ciudad Juárez, Mexico, 1909]]
When Taft entered office, Mexico was increasingly restless under the grip of longtime dictator [Díaz](Porfirio)(Porfirio Díaz). Many Mexicans backed his opponent, [Madero](Francisco)(Francisco Madero). There were a number of incidents in which Mexican rebels crossed the U.S. border to obtain horses and weapons; Taft sought to prevent this by ordering the [Army](US)(US Army) to the border areas for maneuvers. Taft told his military aide, [Butt](Archibald)(Archibald Butt), that "I am going to sit on the lid and it will take a great deal to pry me off". He showed his support for Díaz by meeting with him at [Paso, Texas](El)(El Paso, Texas), and [Juárez, Chihuahua](Ciudad)(Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua), the first meeting between a U.S. and a Mexican president and also the first time an American president visited Mexico. The day of the summit, [Russell Burnham](Frederick)(Frederick Russell Burnham) and a [Ranger](Texas)(Texas Ranger Division) captured and disarmed an assassin holding a [pistol](palm)(Protector Palm Pistol) only a few feet from the two presidents. Before the election in Mexico, Díaz jailed opposition candidate [I. Madero](Francisco)(Francisco I. Madero), whose supporters took up arms. This resulted in both the ousting of Díaz and [revolution](a)(Mexican Revolution) that would continue for another ten years. In the U.S.'s [Territory](Arizona)(Arizona Territory), two citizens were killed and almost a dozen injured, some as a result of gunfire across the border. Taft was against an aggressive response and so instructed the territorial governor.
Nicaragua's president, [Santos Zelaya](José)(José Santos Zelaya), wanted to revoke commercial concessions granted to American companies,.}} and American diplomats quietly favored rebel forces under [Estrada](Juan)(Juan José Estrada). Nicaragua was in debt to foreign powers, and the U.S. was unwilling to let an alternate canal route fall into the hands of Europeans. Zelaya's elected successor, [Madriz](José)(José Madriz), could not put down the rebellion as U.S. forces interfered, and in August 1910, the Estrada forces took [Managua](Managua), the capital. The U.S. compelled Nicaragua to accept a loan, and sent officials to ensure it was repaid from government revenues. The country remained unstable, and after another coup in 1911 and more disturbances in 1912, Taft sent troops to begin the [States occupation of Nicaragua](United)(United States occupation of Nicaragua), which lasted until 1933.
Treaties among Panama, Colombia, and the United States to resolve disputes arising from the Panamanian Revolution of 1903 had been signed by the lame-duck Roosevelt administration in early 1909, and were approved by the Senate and also ratified by Panama. Colombia, however, declined to ratify the treaties, and after the 1912 elections, Knox offered $10 million to the Colombians (later raised to $25 million). The Colombians felt the amount inadequate, and requested arbitration; the matter was not settled under the Taft administration.
#### East Asia
Due to his years in the Philippines, Taft was keenly interested as president in East Asian affairs. Taft considered relations with Europe relatively unimportant, but because of the potential for trade and investment, Taft ranked the post of minister to China as most important in the Foreign Service. Knox did not agree, and declined a suggestion that he go to [Peking](Beijing) to view the facts on the ground. Taft considered Roosevelt's minister there, [W. Rockhill](William)(William W. Rockhill), as uninterested in the China trade, and replaced him with [J. Calhoun](William)(William J. Calhoun), whom McKinley and Roosevelt had sent on several foreign missions. Knox did not listen to Calhoun on policy, and there were often conflicts. Taft and Knox tried unsuccessfully to extend John Hay's [Door Policy](Open)(Open Door Policy) to [Manchuria](Manchuria).
In 1898, an American company had gained a concession for a railroad between [Hakou](Hakou) and [Sichuan](Sichuan), but the Chinese revoked the agreement in 1904 after the company (which was indemnified for the revocation) breached the agreement by selling a majority stake outside the United States. The Chinese imperial government got the money for the indemnity from the British [Kong](Hong)(Hong Kong) government, on condition British subjects would be favored if foreign capital was needed to build the railroad line, and in 1909, a British-led consortium began negotiations. This came to Knox's attention in May of that year, and he demanded that U.S. banks be allowed to participate. Taft appealed personally to the Prince Regent, [Prince Chun](Zaifeng,)(Zaifeng, Prince Chun), and was successful in gaining U.S. participation, though agreements were not signed until May 1911. However, the Chinese decree authorizing the agreement also required the nationalization of local railroad companies in the affected provinces. Inadequate compensation was paid to the shareholders, and these grievances were among those which touched off the [Revolution of 1911](Chinese)(Chinese Revolution of 1911).
After the revolution broke out, the revolt's leaders chose [Yat-sen](Sun)(Sun Yat-sen) as provisional president of what became the [of China](Republic)(Republic of China (1912–1949)), overthrowing the [dynasty](Manchu)(Manchu dynasty), Taft was reluctant to recognize the new government, although American public opinion was in favor of it. The U.S. House of Representatives in February 1912 passed a resolution supporting a Chinese republic, but Taft and Knox felt recognition should come as a concerted action by Western powers. Taft in his final [message to Congress](annual)(State of the Union) in December 1912 indicated that he was moving towards recognition once the republic was fully established, but by then he had been defeated for reelection and he did not follow through.
Taft continued the policy against immigration from China and Japan as under Roosevelt. A revised treaty of friendship and navigation entered into by the U.S. and Japan in 1911 granted broad reciprocal rights to Japanese people in America and Americans in Japan, but were premised on the continuation of the Gentlemen's Agreement. There was objection on the West Coast when the treaty was submitted to the Senate, but Taft informed politicians that there was no change in immigration policy.
#### Europe
Taft was opposed to the traditional practice of rewarding wealthy supporters with key ambassadorial posts, preferring that diplomats not live in a lavish lifestyle and selecting men who, as Taft put it, would recognize an American when they saw one. High on his list for dismissal was the ambassador to France, [White](Henry)(Henry White (diplomat)), whom Taft knew and disliked from his visits to Europe. White's ousting caused other career State Department employees to fear that their jobs might be lost to politics. Taft also wanted to replace the Roosevelt-appointed ambassador in London, [Reid](Whitelaw)(Whitelaw Reid), but Reid, owner of the *[Tribune](New-York)(New-York Tribune)*, had backed Taft during the campaign, and both William and Nellie Taft enjoyed his gossipy reports. Reid remained in place until his 1912 death.
Taft was a supporter of settling international disputes by arbitration, and he negotiated treaties with Great Britain and with France providing that differences be arbitrated. These were signed in August 1911. Neither Taft nor Knox (a former senator) consulted with members of the Senate during the negotiating process. By then many Republicans were opposed to Taft and the president felt that lobbying too hard for the treaties might cause their defeat. He made some speeches supporting the treaties in October, but the Senate added amendments Taft could not accept, killing the agreements.
Although no general arbitration treaty was entered into, Taft's administration settled several disputes with Great Britain by peaceful means, often involving arbitration. These included a settlement of the boundary between Maine and New Brunswick, a long-running dispute over seal hunting in the [Sea](Bering)(Bering Sea) that also involved Japan, and a similar disagreement regarding fishing off Newfoundland. The sealing convention remained in force until abrogated by Japan in 1940.
### Domestic policies and politics
#### Antitrust
[[File:Anders L. Zorn - William Howard Taft - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Official White House portrait of Taft by [Zorn](Anders)(Anders Zorn), ]]
Taft continued and expanded Roosevelt's efforts to break up business combinations through lawsuits brought under the [Antitrust Act](Sherman)(Sherman Antitrust Act), bringing 70 cases in four years (Roosevelt had brought 40 in seven years). Suits brought against the [Oil Company](Standard)(Standard Oil Company) and the [Tobacco Company](American)(American Tobacco Company), initiated under Roosevelt, were decided in favor of the government by the Supreme Court in 1911. In June 1911, the Democrat-controlled House of Representatives began hearings into [States Steel](United)(United States Steel) (U.S. Steel). That company had been expanded under Roosevelt, who had supported its acquisition of the Tennessee Coal, Iron, and Railroad Company as a means of preventing the deepening of the [of 1907](Panic)(Panic of 1907), a decision the former president defended when testifying at the hearings. Taft, as Secretary of War, had praised the acquisitions. Historian Louis L. Gould suggested that Roosevelt was likely deceived into believing that U.S. Steel did not want to purchase the Tennessee company, but it was in fact a bargain. For Roosevelt, questioning the matter went to his personal honesty.
In October 1911, Taft's Justice Department brought suit against U.S. Steel, demanding that over a hundred of its subsidiaries be granted corporate independence, and naming as defendants many prominent business executives and financiers. The pleadings in the case had not been reviewed by Taft, and alleged that Roosevelt "had fostered monopoly, and had been duped by clever industrialists". Roosevelt was offended by the references to him and his administration in the pleadings, and felt that Taft could not evade command responsibility by saying he did not know of them.
Taft sent a special message to Congress on the need for a revamped antitrust statute when it convened its regular session in December 1911, but it took no action. Another antitrust case that had political repercussions for Taft was that brought against the [Harvester Company](International)(International Harvester Company), the large manufacturer of farm equipment, in early 1912. As Roosevelt's administration had investigated International Harvester, but had taken no action (a decision Taft had supported), the suit became caught up in Roosevelt's challenge for the Republican presidential nomination. Supporters of Taft alleged that Roosevelt had acted improperly; the former president blasted Taft for waiting three and a half years, and until he was under challenge, to reverse a decision he had supported.
#### Ballinger–Pinchot affair
Roosevelt was an ardent conservationist, assisted in this by like-minded appointees, including Interior Secretary [R. Garfield](James)(James Rudolph Garfield) and Chief Forester [Pinchot](Gifford)(Gifford Pinchot). Taft agreed with the need for conservation, but felt it should be accomplished by legislation rather than executive order. He did not retain Garfield, an Ohioan, as secretary, choosing instead a westerner, former Seattle mayor [A. Ballinger](Richard)(Richard A. Ballinger). Roosevelt was surprised at the replacement, believing that Taft had promised to keep Garfield, and this change was one of the events that caused Roosevelt to realize that Taft would choose different policies.
Roosevelt had withdrawn much land from the public domain, including some in Alaska thought rich in coal. In 1902, Clarence Cunningham, an Idaho entrepreneur, had found coal deposits in Alaska, and made mining claims, and the government investigated their legality. This dragged on for the remainder of the Roosevelt administration, including during the year (1907–1908) when Ballinger served as head of the [Land Office](General)(General Land Office). A special agent for the Land Office, [Glavis](Louis)(Louis Glavis), investigated the Cunningham claims, and when Secretary Ballinger in 1909 approved them, Glavis broke governmental protocol by going outside the Interior Department to seek help from Pinchot.
In September 1909, Glavis made his allegations public in a magazine article, disclosing that Ballinger had acted as an attorney for Cunningham between his two periods of government service. This violated conflict of interest rules forbidding a former government official from advocacy on a matter he had been responsible for. On September 13, 1909, Taft dismissed Glavis from government service, relying on a report from Attorney General [W. Wickersham](George)(George W. Wickersham) dated two days previously. Pinchot was determined to dramatize the issue by forcing his own dismissal, which Taft tried to avoid, fearing that it might cause a break with Roosevelt (still overseas). Taft asked [Root](Elihu)(Elihu Root) (by then a senator) to look into the matter, and Root urged the firing of Pinchot.
Taft had ordered government officials not to comment on the fracas. In January 1910, Pinchot forced the issue by sending a letter to Iowa Senator Dolliver alleging that but for the actions of the Forestry Service, Taft would have approved a fraudulent claim on public lands. According to Pringle, this "was an utterly improper appeal from an executive subordinate to the legislative branch of the government and an unhappy president prepared to separate Pinchot from public office". Pinchot was dismissed, much to his delight, and he sailed for Europe to lay his case before Roosevelt. A congressional investigation followed, which cleared Ballinger by majority vote, but the administration was embarrassed when Glavis' attorney, [D. Brandeis](Louis)(Louis D. Brandeis), proved that the Wickersham report had been backdated, which Taft belatedly admitted. The Ballinger–Pinchot affair caused progressives and Roosevelt loyalists to feel that Taft had turned his back on Roosevelt's agenda.
#### Civil rights
Taft announced in his inaugural address that he would not appoint African Americans to federal jobs, such as postmaster, where this would cause racial friction. This differed from Roosevelt, who would not remove or replace black officeholders with whom local whites would not deal. Termed Taft's "Southern Policy", this stance effectively invited white protests against black appointees. Taft followed through, removing most black office holders in the South, and made few appointments of African Americans in the North.
At the time Taft was inaugurated, the way forward for African Americans was debated by their leaders. [T. Washington](Booker)(Booker T. Washington) felt that most blacks should be trained for industrial work, with only a few seeking higher education; [E. B. DuBois](W.)(W. E. B. DuBois) took a more militant stand for equality. Taft tended towards Washington's approach. According to Coletta, Taft let the African-American "be 'kept in his place' ... He thus failed to see or follow the humanitarian mission historically associated with the Republican party, with the result that Negroes both North and South began to drift toward the Democratic party."
Taft, a [Unitarian](Unitarianism), was a leader in the early 20th century of the favorable reappraisal of Catholicism's historic role. It tended to neutralize anti-Catholic sentiments, especially in the Far West where Protestantism was a weak force. In 1904 Taft gave a speech at the [of Notre Dame](University)(University of Notre Dame). He praised the "enterprise, courage, and fidelity to duty that distinguished those heroes of Spain who braved the then frightful dangers of the deep to carry Christianity and European civilization into" the Philippines. In 1909 he praised [Serra](Junípero)(Junípero Serra) as an "apostle, legislator, [and] builder" who advanced "the beginning of civilization in California."Katherine D. Moran, "Catholicism and the Making of the US Pacific." *Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era* 12.4 (2013): 434–474.
A supporter of free immigration, Taft vetoed a bill passed by Congress and supported by labor unions that would have restricted unskilled laborers by imposing a literacy test.
### Judicial appointments
[[File:Edward White, head-and-shoulders portrait, facing slightly left, 1905.jpg|thumb|upright|Taft promoted Associate Justice [Douglass White](Edward)(Edward Douglass White) to be [Justice of the United States](Chief)(Chief Justice of the United States).]]
Taft made six appointments to the Supreme Court; only [Washington](George)(George Washington) and [D. Roosevelt](Franklin)(Franklin D. Roosevelt) made more. The death of Justice [Peckham](Rufus)(Rufus Peckham) in October 1909 gave Taft his first opportunity. He chose an old friend and colleague from the Sixth Circuit, [H. Lurton](Horace)(Horace H. Lurton) of Georgia; he had in vain urged Theodore Roosevelt to appoint Lurton to the high court. Attorney General Wickersham objected that Lurton, a former Confederate soldier and a Democrat, was aged 65. Taft named Lurton anyway on December 13, 1909, and the Senate confirmed him by voice vote a week later. Lurton is still the oldest person to be made an associate justice. Lurie suggested that Taft, already beset by the tariff and conservation controversies, desired to perform an official act which gave him pleasure, especially since he thought Lurton deserved it.
Justice [Josiah Brewer](David)(David Josiah Brewer)'s death on March 28, 1910, gave Taft a second opportunity to fill a seat on the high court; he chose New York Governor [Evans Hughes](Charles)(Charles Evans Hughes). Taft told Hughes that should the chief justiceship fall vacant during his term, Hughes would be his likely choice for the center seat. The Senate quickly confirmed Hughes, but then Chief Justice Fuller died on July 4, 1910. Taft took five months to replace Fuller, and when he did, it was with Justice [Douglass White](Edward)(Edward Douglass White), who became the first associate justice to be promoted to chief justice. According to Lurie, Taft, who still had hopes of being chief justice, may have been more willing to appoint an older man than he (White) than a younger one (Hughes), who might outlive him, as indeed Hughes did. To fill White's seat as associate justice, Taft appointed [Van Devanter](Willis)(Willis Van Devanter) of Wyoming, a federal appeals judge. By the time Taft nominated White and Van Devanter in December 1910, he had another seat to fill due to [Henry Moody](William)(William Henry Moody)'s retirement because of illness; he named a Louisiana Democrat, [R. Lamar](Joseph)(Joseph R. Lamar), whom he had met while playing golf, and had subsequently learned had a good reputation as a judge.
With the death of Justice Harlan in October 1911, Taft got to fill a sixth seat on the Supreme Court. After Secretary Knox declined appointment, Taft named [of New Jersey](Chancellor)(New Jersey Supreme Court) [Pitney](Mahlon)(Mahlon Pitney), the last person appointed to the Supreme Court who did not attend law school. Pitney had a stronger anti-labor record than Taft's other appointments, and was the only one to meet opposition, winning confirmation by a Senate vote of 50–26.
Taft appointed 13 judges to the federal courts of appeal and 38 to the [States district courts](United)(United States district courts). Taft also appointed judges to various specialized courts, including the first five appointees each to the [States Commerce Court](United)(United States Commerce Court) and the [States Court of Customs Appeals](United)(United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals). Searches run from page, "select research categories" then check "court type" and "nominating president", then select the court type and also William H. Taft. The Commerce Court, created in 1910, stemmed from a Taft proposal for a specialized court to hear appeals from the Interstate Commerce Commission. There was considerable opposition to its establishment, which only grew when one of its judges, [W. Archbald](Robert)(Robert W. Archbald), was in 1912 [impeached](Federal impeachment in the United States) for corruption and removed by the Senate the following January. Taft vetoed a bill to abolish the court, but the respite was short-lived as [Wilson](Woodrow)(Woodrow Wilson) signed similar legislation in October 1913.
### 1912 presidential campaign and election
#### Moving apart from Roosevelt
[[File:TAFT1909.JPG|thumb|upright|1909 [*Puck*](Puck (magazine)) magazine cover: Roosevelt departs, entrusting his policies to Taft.]]
During Roosevelt's fifteen months beyond the Atlantic, from March 1909 to June 1910, neither man wrote much to the other. Taft biographer Lurie suggested that each expected the other to make the first move to re-establish their relationship on a new footing. Upon Roosevelt's triumphant return, Taft invited him to stay at the White House. The former president declined, and in private letters to friends expressed dissatisfaction at Taft's performance. Nevertheless, he wrote that he expected Taft to be renominated by the Republicans in 1912, and did not speak of himself as a candidate.
Stanley Solvick argues that Taft abided by the goals and procedures of the "[Deal](Square)(Square Deal)" that Roosevelt promoted in his first term. The deepening dispute came as Roosevelt and the more radical progressives moved on to more aggressive goals, such as curbing the judiciary, which Taft rejected. Stanley D. Solvick "The Conservative as Progressive: William Howard Taft and the Politics of the Square Deal" ''Northwest Ohio Quarterly. Jun1967, Vol. 39 Issue 3, pp. 38-48.
Taft and Roosevelt met twice in 1910; the meetings, though outwardly cordial, did not display their former closeness. Roosevelt gave a series of speeches in the West in the late summer and early fall of 1910. Roosevelt not only attacked the Supreme Court's 1905 decision in *[v. New York](Lochner)(Lochner v. New York)*, he accused the federal courts of undermining democracy, and called for them to be deprived of [power to rule legislation unconstitutional](the)(Judicial review in the United States). This attack horrified Taft, who privately agreed that *Lochner* had been wrongly decided. Roosevelt called for "elimination of corporate expenditures for political purposes, physical valuation of railroad properties, regulation of industrial combinations, establishment of an export tariff commission, a graduated income tax" as well as "workmen's compensation laws, state and national legislation to regulate the [labor] of women and children, and complete publicity of campaign expenditure". According to John Murphy in his journal article on the breach between the two presidents, "As Roosevelt began to move to the left, Taft veered to the right."
During the 1910 midterm election campaign, Roosevelt involved himself in New York politics, while Taft with donations and influence tried to secure the election of the Republican gubernatorial candidate in Ohio, former lieutenant governor [G. Harding](Warren)(Warren G. Harding). The Republicans suffered losses in the 1910 elections as the Democrats took control of the House and slashed the Republican majority in the Senate. In New Jersey, Democrat [Wilson](Woodrow)(Woodrow Wilson) was elected governor, and Harding lost his race in Ohio.
After the election, Roosevelt continued to promote progressive ideals, a [Nationalism](New)(New Nationalism (Theodore Roosevelt)), much to Taft's dismay. Roosevelt attacked his successor's administration, arguing that its guiding principles were not that of the party of [Lincoln](Abraham Lincoln), but those of the [Age](Gilded)(Gilded Age). The feud continued on and off through 1911, a year in which there were few elections of significance. Wisconsin Senator La Follette announced a presidential run as a Republican, and was backed by a convention of progressives. Roosevelt began to move into a position for a run in late 1911, writing that the tradition that presidents not run for a third term only applied to consecutive terms.
Roosevelt was receiving many letters from supporters urging him to run, and Republican office-holders were organizing on his behalf. Balked on many policies by an unwilling Congress and courts in his full term in the White House, he saw manifestations of public support he believed would sweep him to the White House with a mandate for progressive policies that would brook no opposition. In February, Roosevelt announced he would accept the Republican nomination if it was offered to him. Taft felt that if he lost in November, it would be a repudiation of the party, but if he lost renomination, it would be a rejection of himself. He was reluctant to oppose Roosevelt, who helped make him president, but having become president, he was determined to be president, and that meant not standing aside to allow Roosevelt to gain another term.
#### Primaries and convention
[[H Taft - A W Butt - Geoge v. L. Meyer.jpg|upright|thumb|Taft with Archibald Butt (second from right)](File:William)]
As Roosevelt became more radical in his progressivism, Taft was hardened in his resolve to achieve re-nomination, as he was convinced that the progressives threatened the very foundation of the government. One blow to Taft was the loss of [Butt](Archibald)(Archibald Butt), one of the last links between the previous and present presidents, as Butt had formerly served Roosevelt. Ambivalent between his loyalties, Butt went to Europe on vacation; he died in the [of the RMS *Titanic*](sinking)(Sinking of the Titanic).
[[Auld Lang Syne - Leonard Raven-Hill.jpg|upright|thumb|left|Taft and Roosevelt – political enemies in 1912](File:For)]
Roosevelt dominated the primaries, winning 278 of the 362 delegates to [Republican National Convention](the)(1912 Republican National Convention) in Chicago decided in that manner. Taft had control of the party machinery, and it came as no surprise that he gained the bulk of the delegates decided at district or state conventions. Taft did not have a majority, but was likely to have one once southern delegations committed to him. Roosevelt challenged the election of these delegates, but the RNC overruled most objections. Roosevelt's sole remaining chance was with a friendly convention chairman, who might make rulings on the seating of delegates that favored his side. Taft followed custom and remained in Washington, but Roosevelt went to Chicago to run his campaign and told his supporters in a speech, "we stand at Armageddon, and we battle for the Lord".Lewis L. Gould, ["1912 Republican Convention: Return of the Rough Rider" *Smithsonian Magazine* (Aug 2009)](https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/1912-republican-convention-855607/)
Taft had won over Root, who agreed to run for temporary chairman of the convention, and the delegates elected Root over Roosevelt's candidate. The Roosevelt forces moved to substitute the delegates they supported for the ones they argued should not be seated. Root made a crucial ruling, that although the contested delegates could not vote on their own seating, they could vote on the other contested delegates, a ruling that assured Taft's nomination, as the motion offered by the Roosevelt forces failed, 567–507. As it became clear Roosevelt would bolt the party if not nominated, some Republicans sought a compromise candidate to avert electoral disaster; they failed. Taft's name was placed in nomination by Warren Harding, whose attempts to praise Taft and unify the party were met with angry interruptions from progressives. Taft was nominated on the first ballot, though most Roosevelt delegates refused to vote.
#### Campaign and defeat
[[advertisement arguing Taft deserved a second term](File:TaftASecondTerm1912.jpg|thumb|Campaign)]
Alleging Taft had stolen the nomination, Roosevelt and his followers formed the [Party](Progressive)(Progressive Party (United States, 1912)). Taft knew he would lose, but concluded that through Roosevelt's loss at Chicago the party had been preserved as "the defender of conservative government and conservative institutions." He made his doomed run to preserve conservative control of the Republican Party. Governor Woodrow Wilson was the Democratic nominee. Seeing Roosevelt as the greater electoral threat, Wilson spent little time attacking Taft, arguing that Roosevelt had been lukewarm in opposing the trusts during his presidency, and that Wilson was the true reformer. Taft contrasted what he called his "progressive conservatism" with Roosevelt's Progressive democracy, which to Taft represented "the establishment of a benevolent despotism."
[[Electoral Map.png|thumb|left|Electoral vote by state, 1912. States won by Taft are in red.](File:1912)]
Reverting to the pre-1888 custom that presidents seeking reelection did not campaign, Taft spoke publicly only once, making his nomination acceptance speech on August 1. He had difficulty in financing the campaign, as many industrialists had concluded he could not win, and would support Wilson to block Roosevelt. The president issued a confident statement in September after the Republicans narrowly won Vermont's state elections in a three-way fight, but had no illusions he would win his race. He had hoped to send his cabinet officers out on the campaign trail, but found them reluctant to go. Senator Root agreed to give a single speech for him.
Vice President Sherman had been renominated at Chicago; seriously ill during the campaign, he died six days before the election, and was replaced on the ticket by the president of Columbia University, [Murray Butler](Nicholas)(Nicholas Murray Butler). But few electors chose Taft and Butler, who won only Utah and Vermont, for a total of eight electoral votes. Roosevelt won 88, and Wilson 435. Wilson won with a plurality—not a majority—of the popular vote. Taft finished with just under 3.5 million, over 600,000 less than the former president. Taft was not on the ballot in California, due to the actions of local Progressives, nor in South Dakota.
## Return to Yale (1913–1921)
With no pension or other compensation to expect from the government after leaving the White House, Taft contemplated a return to the practice of law, from which he had long been absent. Given that Taft had appointed many federal judges, including a majority of the Supreme Court, this would raise questions of conflict of interest at every federal court appearance and he was saved from this by an offer for him to become Kent Professor of Law and Legal History at [Law School](Yale)(Yale Law School). He accepted, and after a month's vacation in Georgia, arrived in New Haven on April 1, 1913, to a rapturous reception. As it was too late in the semester for him to give an academic course, he instead prepared eight lectures on "Questions of Modern Government", which he delivered in May. He earned money with paid speeches and with articles for magazines, and would end his eight years out of office having increased his savings. While at Yale, he wrote the treatise, *Our Chief Magistrate and His Powers* (1916).
[[File:Taft Harding Robert Lincoln 1922.jpg|thumb|Taft (left) with President [G. Harding](Warren)(Warren G. Harding) and [Lincoln](Robert)(Robert Lincoln) at the dedication of the [Memorial](Lincoln)(Lincoln Memorial), May 30, 1922]]
Taft had been made president of the [Memorial](Lincoln)(Lincoln Memorial) Commission while still in office; when Democrats proposed removing him for one of their party, he quipped that unlike losing the presidency, such a removal would hurt. The architect, [Bacon](Henry)(Henry Bacon), wanted to use Colorado-Yule marble, while southern Democrats urged using Georgia marble. Taft lobbied for the western stone, and the matter was submitted to the [of Fine Arts](Commission)(Commission of Fine Arts), which supported Taft and Bacon. The project went forward; Taft would dedicate the Lincoln Memorial as chief justice in 1922. In 1913, Taft was elected to a one-year term as president of the [Bar Association](American)(American Bar Association) (ABA), a trade group of lawyers. He removed opponents, such as Louis Brandeis and [of Pennsylvania Law School](University)(University of Pennsylvania Law School) dean [Draper Lewis](William)(William Draper Lewis) (a supporter of the Progressive Party) from committees.
Taft maintained a cordial relationship with Wilson. The former president privately criticized his successor on a number of issues, but made his views known publicly only on Philippine policy. Taft was appalled when, after Justice Lamar's death in January 1916, Wilson nominated Brandeis, whom the former president had never forgiven for his role in the Ballinger–Pinchot affair. When hearings led to nothing discreditable about Brandeis, Taft intervened with a letter signed by himself and other former ABA presidents, stating that Brandeis was not fit to serve on the Supreme Court. Nevertheless, the Democratic-controlled Senate confirmed Brandeis. Taft and Roosevelt remained embittered; they met only once in the first three years of the Wilson presidency, at a funeral at Yale. They spoke only for a moment, politely but formally.
As president of the [to Enforce Peace](League)(League to Enforce Peace), Taft hoped to prevent war through an international association of nations. With [War I](World)(World War I) raging in Europe, Taft sent Wilson a note of support for his foreign policy in 1915. President Wilson accepted Taft's invitation to address the league, and spoke in May 1916 of a postwar international organization that could prevent a repetition. Taft supported the effort to get Justice Hughes to resign from the bench and accept the Republican presidential nomination. Once this was done, Hughes tried to get Roosevelt and Taft to reconcile, as a united effort was needed to defeat Wilson. This occurred on October 3 in New York, but Roosevelt allowed only a handshake, and no words were exchanged. This was one of many difficulties for the Republicans in the campaign, and Wilson narrowly won reelection.
In March 1917, Taft demonstrated public support for the war effort by joining the Connecticut State Guard, a [defense force](state)(state defense force) organized to carry out the state duties of the [National Guard](Connecticut)(Connecticut Army National Guard) while the National Guard served on active duty. When Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany in April 1917, Taft was an enthusiastic supporter; he was chairman of the [Red Cross](American)(American Red Cross)' executive committee, which occupied much of the former president's time. In August 1917, Wilson conferred military titles on executives of the Red Cross as a way to provide them with additional authority to use in carrying out their wartime responsibilities, and Taft was appointed a [general](major)(Major general (United States)).
During the war, Taft took leave from Yale in order to serve as co-chairman of the [War Labor Board](National)(National War Labor Board (1918–1919)), tasked with assuring good relations between industry owners and their workers. In February 1918, the new RNC chairman, [H. Hays](Will)(Will H. Hays), approached Taft seeking his reconciliation with Roosevelt. While at the [House](Palmer)(Palmer House) in Chicago, Taft heard that Roosevelt was there having dinner, and after he walked in, the two men embraced to the applause of the room, but the relationship did not progress; Roosevelt died in January 1919. Taft later wrote, "Had he died in a hostile state of mind toward me, I would have mourned the fact all my life. I loved him always and cherish his memory."
When Wilson proposed establishment of a [of Nations](League)(League of Nations), Taft expressed public support. He was the leader of his party's activist wing, and was opposed by a small group of senators who vigorously opposed the League. Taft's flip-flop on whether [reservations](reservation (law)) to the Versailles Treaty were necessary angered both sides, causing some Republicans to call him a Wilson supporter and a traitor to his party. The Senate refused to ratify the Versailles pact.
## Chief Justice (1921–1930)
### Appointment
[[Howard Taft as Chief Justice SCOTUS.jpg|thumb|upright|Chief Justice Taft, c. 1921](File:William)]
During the 1920 election campaign, Taft supported the Republican ticket—Harding (by then a senator) and Massachusetts Governor [Coolidge](Calvin)(Calvin Coolidge); they were elected. Taft was among those asked to come to the [president-elect's](President-elect of the United States) [home](Warren G. Harding House) in [Ohio](Marion,)(Marion, Ohio), to advise him on appointments, and the two men conferred there on December 24, 1920. By Taft's later account, after some conversation, Harding casually asked if Taft would accept appointment to the Supreme Court; if Taft would, Harding would appoint him. Taft had a condition for Harding—having served as president, and having appointed two of the present associate justices and opposed Brandeis, he could accept only the chief justice position. Harding made no response, and Taft in a thank-you note reiterated the condition and stated that Chief Justice White had often told him he was keeping the position for Taft until a Republican held the White House. In January 1921, Taft heard through intermediaries that Harding planned to appoint him, if given the chance.
White by then was in failing health, but made no move to resign when Harding was sworn in on March 4, 1921. Taft called on the chief justice on March 26, and found White ill, but still carrying on his work and not talking of retiring. White did not retire, dying in office on May 19, 1921. Taft issued a tribute to the man he had appointed to the center seat, and waited and worried if he would be White's successor. Despite widespread speculation Taft would be the pick, Harding made no quick announcement. Taft was lobbying for himself behind the scenes, especially with [Ohio politicians](the)(Ohio Gang) who formed Harding's inner circle.
It later emerged that Harding had also promised former Utah senator [Sutherland](George)(George Sutherland) a seat on the Supreme Court, and was waiting in the expectation that another place would become vacant. Harding was also considering a proposal by Justice [R. Day](William)(William R. Day) to crown his career by being chief justice for six months before retiring. Taft felt, when he learned of this plan, that a short-term appointment would not serve the office well, and that once confirmed by the Senate, the memory of Day would grow dim. After Harding rejected Day's plan, Attorney General [Daugherty](Harry)(Harry Daugherty), who supported Taft's candidacy, urged him to fill the vacancy, and he named Taft on June 30, 1921. The Senate confirmed Taft the same day, 61–4, without any committee hearings and after a brief debate in [session](executive)(executive session). Taft drew the objections of three progressive Republicans and one southern Democrat. When he was sworn in on July 11, he became the first and to date only person to serve both as president and chief justice.
### Jurisprudence
#### Commerce Clause
The Supreme Court under Taft compiled a conservative record in [Clause](Commerce)(Commerce Clause) jurisprudence. This had the practical effect of making it difficult for the federal government to regulate industry, and the [Court](Taft)(Taft Court) also scuttled many state laws. The few liberals on the court—Brandeis, [Holmes](Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.), and (from 1925) [Fiske Stone](Harlan)(Harlan Fiske Stone)—sometimes protested, believing orderly progress essential, but often joined in the majority opinion.
The White Court had, in 1918, struck down an attempt by Congress to regulate child labor in *[v. Dagenhart](Hammer)(Hammer v. Dagenhart)*. Congress thereafter attempted to end child labor by imposing a tax on certain corporations making use of it. That law was overturned by the Supreme Court in 1922 in *[v. Drexel Furniture Co.](Bailey)(Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co.)*, with Taft writing the court's opinion for an 8–1 majority. He held that the tax was not intended to raise revenue, but rather was an attempt to regulate matters reserved to the states under the [Amendment](Tenth)(Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution), and that allowing such taxation would eliminate the power of the states. One case in which Taft and his court upheld federal regulation was *[v. Wallace](Stafford)(Stafford v. Wallace)*. Taft ruled for a 7–1 majority that the processing of animals in [stockyards](Feedlot) was so closely tied to interstate commerce as to bring it within the ambit of Congress's power to regulate.
A case in which the Taft Court struck down regulation that generated a dissent from the chief justice was ''[v. Children's Hospital](Adkins)(Adkins v. Children's Hospital)''. Congress had decreed a minimum wage for women in the District of Columbia. A 5–3 majority of the Supreme Court struck it down. Justice Sutherland wrote for the majority that the recently ratified [Amendment](Nineteenth)(Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution), guaranteeing women the vote, meant that the sexes were equal when it came to bargaining power over working conditions; Taft, in dissent, deemed this unrealistic. Taft's dissent in *Adkins* was rare both because he authored few dissents, and because it was one of the few times he took an expansive view of the [power](police)(Police power (United States constitutional law)) of the government.
#### Powers of government
In 1922, Taft ruled for a unanimous court in *[v. Porto Rico](Balzac)(Balzac v. Porto Rico)*. One of the [Cases](Insular)(Insular Cases), *Balzac* involved a Puerto Rico newspaper publisher who was prosecuted for libel but denied a jury trial, a [Amendment](Sixth)(Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution) protection under the constitution. Taft held that as Puerto Rico was not a territory designated for statehood, only such constitutional protections as Congress decreed would apply to its residents.
[[U.S. Supreme Court Justices.jpg|thumb|The U.S. Supreme Court in 1925. Taft is seated in the bottom row, middle.](File:1925)]
In 1926, Taft wrote for a 6–3 majority in *[v. United States](Myers)(Myers v. United States)* that Congress could not require the president to get Senate approval before removing an appointee. Taft noted that there is no restriction of the president's power to remove officials in the Constitution. Although *Myers* involved the removal of a postmaster, Taft in his opinion found invalid the repealed [of Office Act](Tenure)(Tenure of Office Act (1867)), for violation of which his presidential predecessor, [Johnson](Andrew)(Andrew Johnson), [been impeached](had)(Impeachment of Andrew Johnson), though acquitted by the Senate.*Myers*, 272 U.S. at 166, 176 Taft valued *Myers* as his most important opinion.
The following year, the court decided *[v. Daugherty](McGrain)(McGrain v. Daugherty)*. A congressional committee investigating possible complicity of former Attorney General Daugherty in the [Dome](Teapot)(Teapot Dome) scandal subpoenaed records from his brother, Mally, who refused to provide them, alleging Congress had no power to obtain documents from him. Van Devanter ruled for a unanimous court against him, finding that Congress had the authority to conduct investigations as an auxiliary to its legislative function.
#### Individual and civil rights
In 1925, the Taft Court laid the groundwork for the [incorporation](Incorporation of the Bill of Rights) of many of the guarantees of the [of Rights](Bill)(United States Bill of Rights) to be applied against the states through the [Amendment](Fourteenth)(Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution). In *[v. New York](Gitlow)(Gitlow v. New York)*, the Court, by a 6–2 vote with Taft in the majority, upheld Gitlow's conviction on criminal anarchy charges for advocating the overthrow of the government; his defense was freedom of speech. Justice [T. Sanford](Edward)(Edward T. Sanford) wrote the Court's opinion, and both majority and minority (Holmes, joined by Brandeis) assumed that the [Amendment's](First)(First Amendment to the United States Constitution) [Speech](Free)(First Amendment to the United States Constitution#Freedom of speech) and [Press](Free)(First Amendment to the United States Constitution#Free Press Clause) clauses were protected against infringement by the states.
*[v. Society of Sisters](Pierce)(Pierce v. Society of Sisters)* was a 1925 decision by the Taft Court striking down an Oregon law banning private schools. In a decision written by Justice [C. McReynolds](James)(James C. McReynolds), a unanimous court held that Oregon could regulate private schools, but could not eliminate them. The outcome supported the right of parents to control the education of their children, but also, since the [plaintiff](lead)(lead plaintiff) (the society) ran [school](Catholic)(Catholic school)s, struck a blow for religious freedom.
*[States v. Lanza](United)(United States v. Lanza)* was one of a series of cases involving [Prohibition](Prohibition in the United States). Lanza committed acts allegedly in violation of both state and federal law, and was first convicted in Washington state court, then prosecuted in [district court](federal)(federal district court). He alleged the second prosecution violated the [Jeopardy Clause](Double)(Double Jeopardy Clause) of the [Amendment](Fifth)(Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution). Taft, for a unanimous court, allowed the second prosecution, holding that the state and federal governments were [sovereigns](dual)(dual sovereignty doctrine), each empowered to prosecute the conduct in question.
In the 1927 case *[v. Rice](Lum)(Lum v. Rice)*, Taft wrote for a unanimous Court that included liberals Holmes, Brandeis and Stone. The ruling held the [on account of race](exclusion)(Racial segregation in the United States) of a child of [ancestry](Chinese)(Chinese ancestry) from a whites-only public school did not violate the [Amendment to the United States Constitution](Fourteenth)(Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution). This allowed states to extend segregation in public schools to Chinese students.
### Administration and political influence
[[File:William Howard Taft Time cover 1924.jpg|thumb|*[Time](Time (magazine))* cover, June 30, 1924]]
Taft exercised the power of his position to influence the decisions of his colleagues, urging unanimity and discouraging dissents. Alpheus Mason, in his article on Chief Justice Taft for the *[Bar Association Journal](American)(American Bar Association Journal)*, contrasted Taft's expansive view of the role of the chief justice with the narrow view of presidential power he took while in that office. Taft saw nothing wrong with making his views on possible appointments to the Court known to the White House, and was annoyed to be criticized in the press. He was initially a firm supporter of President Coolidge after Harding's death in 1923, but became disillusioned with Coolidge's appointments to office and to the bench; he had similar misgivings about Coolidge's successor, [Hoover](Herbert)(Herbert Hoover). Taft advised the Republican presidents in office while he was chief justice to avoid "offside" appointments like Brandeis and Holmes. Nevertheless, by 1923, Taft was writing of his liking for Brandeis, whom he deemed a hard worker, and Holmes walked to work with him until age and infirmity required an automobile.
Believing that the Chief Justice should be responsible for the federal courts, Taft felt that he should have an administrative staff to assist him, and the chief justice should be empowered to temporarily reassign judges. He also believed the federal courts had been ill-run. Many of the lower courts had lengthy backlogs, as did the Supreme Court. Immediately on taking office, Taft made it a priority to confer with Attorney General Daugherty as to new legislation, and made his case before congressional hearings, in legal periodicals and in speeches across the country. When Congress convened in December 1921, a bill was introduced for 24 new judges, to empower the Chief Justice to move judges temporarily to eliminate the delays, and to have him chair a body consisting of the senior appellate judge of each circuit. Congress objected to some aspects, requiring Taft to get the agreement of the senior judge of each involved circuit before assigning a judge, but it passed the bill in September 1922, and the [Conference of Senior Circuit Judges](Judicial)(Judicial Conference of the United States) held its first meeting that December.
The Supreme Court's docket was congested, swelled by war litigation and laws that allowed a party defeated in the circuit court of appeals to have the case decided by the Supreme Court if a constitutional question was involved. Taft believed an appeal should usually be settled by the circuit court, with only cases of major import decided by the justices. He and other Supreme Court members proposed legislation to make most of the Court's docket discretionary, with a case getting full consideration by the justices only if they granted a writ of *[certiorari](certiorari)*. To Taft's frustration, Congress took three years to consider the matter. Taft and other members of the Court lobbied for the bill in Congress, and the [Bill](Judges')(Judiciary Act of 1925) became law in February 1925. By late the following year, Taft was able to show that the backlog was shrinking.
When Taft became Chief Justice, the Court did not have its own building and met in the Capitol. Its offices were cluttered and overcrowded, but Fuller and White had been opposed to proposals to move the Court to its own building. In 1925, Taft began a fight to get the Court a building, and two years later Congress appropriated money to purchase the land, on the south side of the Capitol. [Gilbert](Cass)(Cass Gilbert) had prepared plans for the building, and was hired by the government as architect. Taft had hoped to live to see the Court move into [new building](the)(United States Supreme Court Building), but it did not do so until 1935, after Taft's death.
## Declining health and death
Taft is remembered as the heaviest president; he was tall and his weight peaked at toward the end of his presidency, although this later decreased, and by 1929 he weighed . By the time Taft became chief justice in 1921, his health was starting to decline, and he carefully planned a fitness regimen, walking from his home to the Capitol each day. When he walked home after work, he would usually go by way of [Avenue](Connecticut)(Connecticut Avenue) and use a particular crossing over [Creek](Rock)(Rock Creek (Potomac River)). After his death, the crossing was named the [Bridge](Taft)(Taft Bridge).
Taft followed a weight loss program and hired the British doctor [E. Yorke-Davies](N.)(Nathaniel Edward Yorke-Davies) as a dietary advisor. The two men corresponded regularly for over twenty years, and Taft kept a daily record of his weight, food intake, and physical activity.
[[File:Charles Evans Hughes-01.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Taft insisted that [Evans Hughes](Charles)(Charles Evans Hughes) succeed him as chief justice.]]
At [inauguration](Hoover's)(Inauguration of Herbert Hoover) on March 4, 1929, Taft recited part of the oath incorrectly, later writing, "my memory is not always accurate and one sometimes becomes a little uncertain", misquoting again in that letter, differently. His health gradually declined over the near-decade of his chief justiceship. Worried that if he retired his replacement would be chosen by President Herbert Hoover, whom he considered too progressive, he wrote his brother [Horace](Horace Dutton Taft) in 1929, "I am older and slower and less acute and more confused. However, as long as things continue as they are, and I am able to answer to my place, I must stay on the court in order to prevent the Bolsheviki from getting control".
Taft insisted on going to Cincinnati to attend the funeral of his brother Charles, who died on December 31, 1929; the strain did not improve his own health. When the court reconvened on January 6, 1930, Taft had not returned to Washington, and two opinions were delivered by Van Devanter that Taft had drafted but had been unable to complete because of his illness. Taft went to [North Carolina](Asheville,)(Asheville, North Carolina), for a rest, but by the end of January, he could barely speak and was suffering from hallucinations. Taft was afraid that Stone would be made chief justice; he did not resign until he had secured assurances from Hoover that [Hughes](Charles Evans Hughes) would be the choice. Taft resigned as chief justice on February 3, 1930. Returning to Washington after his resignation, Taft had barely enough physical or emotional strength to sign a reply to a letter of tribute from the eight associate justices. He died at his home in Washington, D.C., on March 8, 1930, at age 72, likely of heart disease, inflammation of the liver, and high blood pressure. Miller Center|url=https://millercenter.org/president/taft/life-after-the-presidency|access-date=September 20, 2021|website=millercenter.org|language=en|archive-date=September 20, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920212801/https://millercenter.org/president/taft/life-after-the-presidency|url-status=live}}
Taft [in state](lay)(lying in state#United States) at the [States Capitol rotunda](United)(United States Capitol rotunda). Three days following his death, on March 11, he became the first president and first member of the Supreme Court to be buried at [National Cemetery](Arlington)(Arlington National Cemetery). [Earle Fraser](James)(James Earle Fraser (sculptor)) sculpted his grave marker out of [Creek](Stony)(Stony Creek (Branford)) granite.
## Legacy and historical view
[[File:President William Howard Taft Monument (16712956154).jpg|thumb|upright|Taft's headstone at [National Cemetery](Arlington)(Arlington National Cemetery)]]
Lurie argued that Taft did not receive the public credit for his policies that he should have. Few trusts had been broken up under Roosevelt (although the lawsuits received much publicity). Taft, more quietly than his predecessor, filed many more cases than did Roosevelt, and rejected his predecessor's contention that there was such a thing as a "good" trust. This lack of flair marred Taft's presidency; according to Lurie, Taft "was boring—honest, likable, but boring". Scott Bomboy for the [Constitution Center](National)(National Constitution Center) wrote that despite being "one of the most interesting, intellectual, and versatile presidents ... a chief justice of the United States, a wrestler at Yale, a reformer, a peace activist, and a baseball fan ... today, Taft is best remembered as the president who was so large that he got stuck in the White House bathtub," a story that is not true. Taft similarly remains known for another physical characteristic—as the last [with facial hair](president)(List of presidents of the United States with facial hair) to date.
Mason called Taft's years in the White House "undistinguished". Coletta deemed Taft to have had a solid record of bills passed by Congress, but felt he could have accomplished more with political skill. Anderson noted that Taft's prepresidential federal service was entirely in appointed posts, and that he had never run for an important executive or legislative position, which would have allowed him to develop the skills to manipulate public opinion, as "the presidency is no place for on-the-job training". According to Coletta, "in troubled times in which the people demanded progressive change, he saw the existing order as good."
Inevitably linked with Roosevelt, Taft generally falls in the shadow of the flamboyant Rough Rider, who chose him to be president, and who took it away. Yet, a portrait of Taft as a victim of betrayal by his best friend is incomplete: as Coletta put it, "Was he a poor politician because he was victimized or because he lacked the foresight and imagination to notice the storm brewing in the political sky until it broke and swamped him?" Adept at using the levers of power in a way his successor could not, Roosevelt generally got what was politically possible out of a situation. Taft was generally slow to act, and when he did, his actions often generated enemies, as in the Ballinger–Pinchot affair. Roosevelt was able to secure positive coverage in the newspapers; Taft had a judge's reticence in talking to reporters, and, with no comment from the White House, hostile journalists filled the gaps with quotes from Taft opponents. And it was Roosevelt who engraved in public memory the image of Taft as a [Buchanan](James)(James Buchanan)-like figure, with a narrow view of the presidency that made him unwilling to act for the public good. Anderson noted that Roosevelt's *Autobiography* (which placed this view in enduring form) was published after both men had left the presidency (in 1913), was intended in part to justify Roosevelt's splitting of the Republican Party, and contains not a single positive reference to the man Roosevelt had admired and hand-picked as his successor. While Roosevelt was biased, he was not alone: every major newspaper reporter of that time who left reminiscences of Taft's presidency was critical of him. Taft replied to his predecessor's criticism with his constitutional treatise on the powers of the presidency.
[[H Taft 1938 Issue-50c.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Fifty-cent stamp issued for Taft (1938)](File:William)]
Taft was convinced history would vindicate him. After he left office, he was estimated to be about in the middle of U.S. presidents by greatness, and subsequent [by historians](rankings)(Historical rankings of presidents of the United States) have by and large sustained that verdict. Coletta noted that this places Taft in good company, with [Madison](James)(James Madison), [Quincy Adams](John)(John Quincy Adams) and McKinley. Lurie catalogued progressive innovations that took place under Taft, and argued that historians have overlooked them because Taft was not an effective political writer or speaker. According to Gould, "the clichés about Taft's weight, his maladroitness in the White House, and his conservatism of thought and doctrine have an element of truth, but they fail to do justice to a shrewd commentator on the political scene, a man of consummate ambition, and a resourceful practitioner of the internal politics of his party." Anderson deemed Taft's success in becoming both president and chief justice "an astounding feat of inside judicial and Republican party politics, played out over years, the likes of which we are not likely to see again in American history".
Taft has been rated among the greatest of the chief justices; later Supreme Court Justice [Scalia](Antonin)(Antonin Scalia) noted that this was "not so much on the basis of his opinions, perhaps because many of them ran counter to the ultimate sweep of history". A successor as chief justice, [Warren](Earl)(Earl Warren), concurred: "In Taft's case, the symbol, the tag, the label usually attached to him is 'conservative.' It is certainly not of itself a term of opprobrium even when bandied by the critics, but its use is too often confused with 'reactionary.'" Most commentators agree that Taft's most significant contribution as chief justice was his advocacy for reform of the high court, urging and ultimately gaining improvement in the Court's procedures and facilities. Mason cited enactment of the Judges' Bill of 1925 as Taft's major achievement on the Court. According to Anderson, as chief justice, Taft "was as aggressive in the pursuit of his agenda in the judicial realm as Theodore Roosevelt was in the presidential".
[[Howard Taft National Historic Site.JPG|thumb|Taft's boyhood home in Cincinnati](File:William)]
The house in Cincinnati in which Taft was born and lived as a boy is now the [Howard Taft National Historic Site](William)(William Howard Taft National Historic Site). Taft was named one of the first Gold Medal Honorees of the [Institute of Social Sciences](National)(National Institute of Social Sciences). His son [Robert](Robert A. Taft) was a significant political figure, becoming [Majority Leader](Senate)(Senate Majority Leader) and three times a major contender for the Republican nomination for president. A conservative, each time he was defeated by a candidate backed by the more liberal [Establishment](Eastern)(Eastern Establishment) wing of the party.
Lurie concluded his account of William Taft's career:
}}
## Media
[[Taft video montage.ogg|thumb|upright=1.3|Collection of film clips of the president](File:William)]
[[- The Farmer and the Republican Party.ogg|thumb|left|Speech: "The Farmer and the Republican Party", Kansas City, Missouri, 1908](File:Taft)]
## See also
* [of William Howard Taft](Bibliography)(Bibliography of William Howard Taft)
* [on U.S. postage stamps](Taft)(Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps#William Howard Taft)
## Notes
## References
## Sources and further reading
* |last=Anderson|first=Donald F.|title=William Howard Taft: A Conservative's Conception of the Presidency|url=https://archive.org/details/williamhowardtaf00ande|url-access=registration|location=Ithaca, NY|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=1973|isbn=978-0-8014-0786-4}}
* }}
* Anderson, Judith Icke. *William Howard Taft, an Intimate History* (1981)
* Ballard, Rene N. "The Administrative Theory of William Howard Taft." *Western Political Quarterly* 7.1 (1954): 65–74 [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/443062).
* Burns, Adam David. "Imperial vision: William Howard Taft and the Philippines, 1900–1921.". (PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 2010) [online](https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1842/4506/Burns2010.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y)
* |last=Burton|first=David H.|author-link=David H. Burton|title=William Howard Taft, Confident Peacemaker|year=2004|publisher=Saint Joseph's University Press|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-916101-51-0}}
* Burton, David H. *Taft, Roosevelt, and the limits of friendship* (2005) [https://archive.org/details/taftrooseveltlim0000burt|online].
* Butt, Archibald W. *Taft and Roosevelt: The Intimate Letters of Archie Butt, Military Aide* (2 vols. 1930), valuable primary source. [vol 1 online](https://archive.org/details/taftrooseveltint0000butt/page/n7/mode/2up) also [vol 2 online](https://archive.org/details/taftrooseveltint0002butt/page/n5/mode/2up)
* Coletta, Paolo E. "William Howard Taft." in *The Presidents: A Reference History* (1997)
* Coletta, Paolo E. "The Election of 1908" in Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. and Fred L Israel, eds., *History of American Presidential Elections: 1789–1968* (1971) 3: 2049–2131. [online](https://archive.org/details/historyofamerica0003unse_m6b2)
* Coletta, Paolo E. "The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft," in Gerald K. Haines and J. Samuel Walker, eds., *American Foreign Relations: A Historiographical Review* (Greenwood, 1981)
* |last=Coletta|first=Paolo Enrico|title=William Howard Taft: A Bibliography|year=1989|publisher=Meckler Corporation|location=Westport, CT}}
* |last=Coletta|first=Paolo Enrico|title=The Presidency of William Howard Taft|url=https://archive.org/details/presidencyofwill0000cole|url-access=registration|year=1973|publisher=University Press of Kansas|location=Lawrence, KS|isbn=9780700600960}}
* Collin, Richard H. "Symbiosis versus Hegemony: New Directions in the Foreign Relations Historiography of Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft." *Diplomatic History* 19#3 (1995): 473–497 [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24912399).
* }}
* Delahaye, Claire. "The New Nationalism and Progressive Issues: The Break with Taft and the 1912 Campaign," in Serge Ricard, ed., *A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt* (2011) pp 452–67. [online](https://www.questia.com/library/120083904/a-companion-to-theodore-roosevelt)
* Ellis, L. Ethan. *Reciprocity, 1911: A Study in Canadian-American Relations* (Yale UP, 1939)
* Goodwin, Doris Kearns. *The bully pulpit: Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and the Golden Age of journalism* (2013) [online](https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781416547860)
* Gould, Lewis L. *The William Howard Taft Presidency* (University Press of Kansas, 2009).
* |last=Gould|first=Lewis L.|title=Chief Executive to Chief Justice:Taft Betwixt the White House and Supreme Court|year=2014|isbn=978-0-7006-2001-2|publisher=University Press of Kansas|location=Lawrence, KS}}
* |last=Gould|first=Lewis L.|title=Four Hats in the Ring: The 1912 Election and the Birth of Modern American Politics|year=2008|isbn=978-0-7006-1564-3|publisher=University Press of Kansas|location=Lawrence, KS}}
* [Lewis L.](Gould,)(Lewis L. Gould) "Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and the Disputed Delegates in 1912: Texas as a Test Case." *Southwestern Historical Quarterly* 80.1 (1976): 33–56 [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/30238426).
* Hahn, Harlan. "The Republican Party Convention of 1912 and the Role of Herbert S. Hadley in National Politics." *Missouri Historical Review* 59.4 (1965): 407–423. Taft was willing to compromise with Missouri Governor [S. Hadley](Herbert)(Herbert S. Hadley) as presidential nominee; TR said no.
* |last1=Harris |first1=Charles H. III |last2=Sadler |first2=Louis R. |title=The Secret War in El Paso: Mexican Revolutionary Intrigue, 1906–1920 |date=2009 |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |location=Albuquerque, New Mexico |isbn=978-0-8263-4652-0}}
* }}
* Hechler, Kenneth W. *Insurgency: Personalities and Politics of the Taft Era* (1940), on Taft's Republican enemies in 1910.
* Hindman, E. James. "The General Arbitration Treaties of William Howard Taft." *The Historian* 36.1 (1973): 52–65 [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24443896).
* Korzi, Michael J., "William Howard Taft, the 1908 Election, and the Future of the American Presidency," *Congress and the Presidency*, 43 (May–August 2016), 227–54.
* }}
* Manners, William. *TR and Will: A Friendship That Split the Republican Party* (1969) covers 1910 to 1912.
* Mason, Alpheus T. *Bureaucracy Convicts Itself: The Ballinger-Pinchot Controversy of 1910* (1941)
* |doi=10.2307/3636924}}
* |url=https://archive.org/details/theodorerex00edmu}}
* }}
* Noyes, John E. "William Howard Taft and the Taft Arbitration Treaties." *Villanova Law Review* 56 (2011): 535+ [online](https://digitalcommons.law.villanova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1017&context=vlr) covers his career in international law and arbitration.
* }}
* Ponder, Stephen. "'Nonpublicity' and the Unmaking of a President: William Howard Taft and the Ballinger-Pinchot Controversy of 1909–1910." *Journalism History* 19.4 (1994): 111–120.
* }}, detailed coverage, to 1910
* }} vol 2 covers the presidency after 1910 & Supreme Court
* *Republican campaign text-book 1912* (1912) [online](https://archive.org/details/republicancampa00repu)
* |last=Rosen|first=Jeffrey|title=William Howard Taft: The American Presidents Series|year=2018 |location=New York|publisher=Time Books, Henry Holt & Co.}}
* Schambra, William. "The Election of 1912 and the Origins of Constitutional Conservatism." in *Toward an American Conservatism* (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013). 95–119.
* |isbn=978-0-8262-0094-5|publisher=University of Missouri Press|location=Columbia, MO }}
* Schultz, L. Peter. "William Howard Taft: A constitutionalist's view of the presidency." *Presidential Studies Quarterly* 9#4 (1979): 402–414 [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/27547512).
* Solvick, Stanley D. "William Howard Taft and the Payne-Aldrich Tariff." *Mississippi Valley Historical Review* 50#3 (1963): 424–442 [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1902605).
* Taft, William Howard. *The Collected Works of William Howard Taft* (8 vol. Ohio University Press, 20012004) [excerpts](https://www.amazon.com/s?i=stripbooks&rh=p_28%3A%27The+Collected+Works+of+William+Howard+Taft%22&s=relevanceexprank&Adv-Srch-Books-Submit.x=0&Adv-Srch-Books-Submit.y=0&unfiltered=1&ref=sr_adv_b).
* Taft, William H. *Four Aspects of Civic Duty; and, Present Day Problems* ed. by David H. Burton and A. E. Campbell (Ohio UP, 2000).
* Taft, William Howard. *Present Day Problems: A Collection of Addresses Delivered on Various Occasions* (Best Books, 1908) [online](https://books.google.com/books?id=eG6ahBv9-iEC&dq=William+Howard+Taft&pg=PA1).
* |url=https://archive.org/details/presidencyofwarr00tran}}
### Supreme Court
* }}
* Crowe, Justin. "The forging of judicial autonomy: Political entrepreneurship and the reforms of William Howard Taft." *Journal of Politics* 69.1 (2007): 73–87 [online](https://political-science.williams.edu/files/Crowe-The-Forging-of-Judicial-Autonomy-JOP-69.1.pdf)
* Fish, Peter G. "William Howard Taft and Charles Evans Hughes: Conservative Politicians as Chief Judicial Reformers." *The Supreme Court Review 1975* (1975): 123–145 [online](http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1041&context=faculty_scholarship).
* Lurie, Jonathan. *The Chief Justiceship of William Howard Taft, 1921–1930* (U of South Carolina Press, 2019).
* Mason, Alpheus T. *The Supreme Court From Taft to Burger* (2nd ed. 1980)
* }}
* Post, Robert. "Judicial Management and Judicial Disinterest: The Achievements and Perils of Chief Justice William Howard Taft." *Journal of Supreme Court History* (1998) 1: 50–78. [online](https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5654&context=fss_papers).
* Post, Robert C. "Chief Justice William Howard Taft and the concept of federalism." *Constitutional Commentary* 9 (1992): 199+ [online](https://scholarship.law.umn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1937&context=concomm).
* }}
* Rooney, William H., and Timothy G. Fleming. "William Howard Taft, the Origin of the Rule of Reason, and the Actavis Challenge." *Columbia Business Law Review* (2018) 1#1: 1–24. [online](https://journals.library.columbia.edu/index.php/CBLR/article/download/1212/284).
* }}
* Starr, Kenneth W. "The Supreme Court and Its Shrinking Docket: The Ghost of William Howard Taft." *Minnesota Law Review* 90 (2005): 1363–1385 [online](https://scholarship.law.umn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1031&context=mlr).
* Starr, Kenneth W. "William Howard Taft: The Chief Justice as Judicial Architect." *U. of Cincinnati Law Review* 60 (1991): 963+.
* Taft, William Howard. "The Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court Under the Act of February 13, 1925." *The Yale Law Journal * 35.1 (1925): 1–12.
* |url=https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=8607&context=ylj}}
*
## External links
### Official
* [William Taft National Historic Site](http://www.nps.gov/wiho)
### Speeches
* [Text of a number of Taft speeches](http://millercenter.org/president/speeches#taft) , [Center of Public Affairs](Miller)(Miller Center of Public Affairs)
* [Audio clips of Taft's speeches](https://web.archive.org/web/20150123170621/http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/list.php?view_keywords=keyword_Taft,%20William), [State University Libraries](Michigan)(Michigan State University Libraries)
* [William Taft Edison Recordings Campaign - 1912](https://archive.org/details/willtaft1912), audio recording
### Media coverage
*
### Other
* [William Howard Taft: A Resource Guide](https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/taft/index.html) from the [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress)
* [Extensive essay on William Howard Taft and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and the First Lady](https://web.archive.org/web/20070811134330/http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/index.php/academic/americanpresident/taft) – Miller Center of Public Affairs
* ["Life Portrait of William Howard Taft"](http://www.c-span.org/video/?151620-1/life-portrait-william-howard-taft) , from [C-SPAN](C-SPAN)'s *[Presidents: Life Portraits](American)(American Presidents: Life Portraits)*, September 6, 1999
* [''"Growing into Public Service: William Howard Taft's Boyhood Home",* a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan](http://www.nps.gov/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/15taft/15taft.htm)
*
*
*
*
|years=1892–1900}}
}}
}}
[ ](Category:William Howard Taft)
[births](Category:1857)(Category:1857 births)
[deaths](Category:1930)(Category:1930 deaths)
[in the United States](Category:1900s)(Category:1900s in the United States)
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[Unitarians](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century Unitarians)
[presidents of the United States](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century presidents of the United States)
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[people of Scotch-Irish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Scotch-Irish descent)
[prosecutors](Category:American)(Category:American prosecutors)
[Unitarians](Category:American)(Category:American Unitarians)
[containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips)
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[at Arlington National Cemetery](Category:Burials)(Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery)
[justices of the United States](Category:Chief)(Category:Chief justices of the United States)
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[of the Philippine Islands](Category:Governors-General)(Category:Governors-General of the Philippine Islands)
[of the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit](Category:Judges)(Category:Judges of the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit)
[of the Superior Court of Cincinnati](Category:Judges)(Category:Judges of the Superior Court of Cincinnati)
[from Cincinnati](Category:Lawyers)(Category:Lawyers from Cincinnati)
[of the American Philosophical Society](Category:Members)(Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society)
[of the American Antiquarian Society](Category:Members)(Category:Members of the American Antiquarian Society)
[Republicans](Category:Ohio)(Category:Ohio Republicans)
[from Cincinnati](Category:Politicians)(Category:Politicians from Cincinnati)
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[of the United States](Category:Presidents)(Category:Presidents of the United States)
[Era in the United States](Category:Progressive)(Category:Progressive Era in the United States)
[Party (United States) presidential nominees](Category:Republican)(Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees)
[Party presidents of the United States](Category:Republican)(Category:Republican Party presidents of the United States)
[of the Sons of the American Revolution](Category:Members)(Category:Members of the Sons of the American Revolution)
[family](Category:Taft)(Category:Taft family)
[Roosevelt administration cabinet members](Category:Theodore)(Category:Theodore Roosevelt administration cabinet members)
[States federal judges appointed by Benjamin Harrison](Category:United)(Category:United States federal judges appointed by Benjamin Harrison)
[States federal judges appointed by Warren G. Harding](Category:United)(Category:United States federal judges appointed by Warren G. Harding)
[in the 1908 United States presidential election](Category:Candidates)(Category:Candidates in the 1908 United States presidential election)
[in the 1912 United States presidential election](Category:Candidates)(Category:Candidates in the 1912 United States presidential election)
[States Secretaries of War](Category:United)(Category:United States Secretaries of War)
[States Solicitors General](Category:United)(Category:United States Solicitors General)
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[College alumni](Category:Yale)(Category:Yale College alumni)
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[Right (United States)](Category:Old)(Category:Old Right (United States))
[Upsilon](Category:Psi)(Category:Psi Upsilon)
|
Microsoft Excel
|
microsoft_excel
|
# Microsoft Excel
*Revision ID: 1159558851 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T03:22:15Z*
---
| latest release version = 2103 (16.0.13901.20400)
| latest release date =
| latest preview version =
| latest preview date =
| operating system = [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows)
| programming language = [C++](C++) (back-end)
| genre = [Spreadsheet](Spreadsheet)
| license = [Trialware](Trialware)
| website =
}}
| latest release version = 16.70 (Build 23021201)
| latest release date =
| latest preview version =
| latest preview date =
| operating system = [macOS](macOS)
| genre = [Spreadsheet](Spreadsheet)
| license = [Proprietary](Proprietary software) [software](commercial)(commercial software)
| programming language = [C++](C++) (back-end), [Objective-C](Objective-C) (API/UI)
| website =
}}
| operating_system = [Pie](Android)(Android Pie) or later
| genre = [Spreadsheet](Spreadsheet)
| license = [Proprietary](Proprietary software) [software](commercial)(commercial software)
| website =
}}
| operating_system = [15](iOS)(iOS 15) or later [15](iPadOS)(iPadOS 15) or later
| genre = [Spreadsheet](Spreadsheet)
| license = [Proprietary](Proprietary software) [software](commercial)(commercial software)
| website =
}}
**Microsoft Excel** is a [spreadsheet](spreadsheet) developed by [Microsoft](Microsoft) for [Windows](Microsoft Windows), [macOS](macOS), [Android](Android (operating system)), [iOS](iOS) and [iPadOS](iPadOS). It features [calculation](calculation) or [computation](computation) capabilities, graphing tools, [table](pivot)(pivot table)s, and a [macro](macro (computer science)) programming language called [Basic for Applications](Visual)(Visual Basic for Applications) (VBA). Excel forms part of the [365](Microsoft)(Microsoft 365) suite of software.
## Features
### Basic operation
Microsoft Excel has the basic features of all spreadsheets,
using a grid of *cells* arranged in numbered *rows* and letter-named *columns* to organize data manipulations like arithmetic operations. It has a battery of supplied functions to answer statistical, engineering, and financial needs. In addition, it can display data as line graphs, histograms and charts, and with a very limited three-dimensional graphical display. It allows sectioning of data to view its dependencies on various factors for different perspectives (using *[table](pivot)(pivot table)s* and the *scenario manager*).
A [PivotTable](PivotTable) is a tool for [analysis](data)(data analysis). It does this by simplifying large data sets via PivotTable fields. It has a programming aspect, *Visual Basic for Applications*, allowing the user to employ a wide variety of numerical methods, for example, for solving differential equations of mathematical physics,
and then reporting the results back to the spreadsheet. It also has a variety of interactive features allowing user interfaces that can completely hide the spreadsheet from the user, so the spreadsheet presents itself as a so-called *application*, or *decision support system* (DSS), via a custom-designed user interface, for example, a stock analyzer,
or in general, as a design tool that asks the user questions and provides answers and reports.
Excellent examples are developed that show just how applications can be designed.
In a more elaborate realization, an Excel application can automatically poll external databases and measuring instruments using an update schedule,
Some form of [acquisition](data)(data acquisition) hardware is required. See, for example,
analyze the results, make a [Word](Microsoft Word) report or [PowerPoint](Microsoft PowerPoint) slide show, and e-mail these presentations on a regular basis to a list of participants. Excel was not designed to be used as a database.
Microsoft allows for a number of optional command-line switches to control the manner in which Excel starts.
### Functions
Excel 2016 has 484 functions. Of these, 360 existed prior to Excel 2010. Microsoft classifies these functions in 14 categories. Of the 484 current functions, 386 may be called from [VBA](Visual Basic for Applications) as methods of the object "WorksheetFunction" and 44 have the same names as VBA functions.
With the introduction of LAMBDA, Excel will become [complete](Turing)(Turing complete).
### Macro programming
#### VBA programming
[[in Excel.PNG|thumb|300px|Use of a user-defined function *sq(x)* in Microsoft Excel. The named variables *x* & *y* are identified in the *Name Manager*. The function *sq* is introduced using the *Visual Basic* editor supplied with Excel.](File:Functions)]
[[in Excel.PNG|thumb|300px|Subroutine in Excel calculates the square of named column variable *x* read from the spreadsheet, and writes it into the named column variable *y*.](File:Subroutine)]
The Windows version of Excel supports programming through Microsoft's [Basic for Applications](Visual)(Visual Basic for Applications) (VBA), which is a dialect of [Basic](Visual)(Visual Basic). Programming with VBA allows spreadsheet manipulation that is awkward or impossible with standard spreadsheet techniques. Programmers may write code directly using the Visual Basic Editor (VBE), which includes a window for writing code, debugging code, and code module organization environment. The user can implement numerical methods as well as automating tasks such as formatting or data organization in VBA
For example, by converting to Visual Basic the recipes in Code conversion to Basic from Fortran probably is easier than from C++, so the 2nd edition () may be easier to use, or the Basic code implementation of the first edition:
and guide the calculation using any desired intermediate results reported back to the spreadsheet.
VBA was removed from Mac Excel 2008, as the developers did not believe that a timely release would allow porting the VBA engine natively to [OS X](Mac)(MacOS#Mac OS X). VBA was restored in the next version, Mac Excel 2011, although the build lacks support for [ActiveX](ActiveX) objects, impacting some high level developer tools. Excel Lemon|url = https://www.excellemon.com/view/100-using-excel-pc-or-mac|archive-url = http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20160921074527/https://www.excellemon.com/view/100-using-excel-pc-or-mac|url-status=dead|archive-date = September 21, 2016|website = www.excellemon.com|access-date = July 29, 2015}}
A common and easy way to generate VBA code is by using the [Macro](Macro (computer science)) Recorder.However an increasing proportion of Excel functionality is not captured by the Macro Recorder leading to largely useless macros. Compatibility among multiple versions of Excel is also a downfall of this method. A macro recorder in Excel 2010 may not work in Excel 2003 or older. This is most common when changing colors and formatting of cells.
The Macro Recorder records actions of the user and generates VBA code in the form of a macro. These actions can then be repeated automatically by running the macro. The macros can also be linked to different trigger types like keyboard shortcuts, a command button or a graphic. The actions in the macro can be executed from these trigger types or from the generic toolbar options. The VBA code of the macro can also be edited in the VBE. Certain features such as loop functions and screen prompt by their own properties, and some graphical display items, cannot be recorded but must be entered into the VBA module directly by the programmer. Advanced users can employ user prompts to create an interactive program, or react to events such as sheets being loaded or changed.
Macro Recorded code may not be compatible with Excel versions. Some code that is used in Excel 2010 cannot be used in Excel 2003. Making a Macro that changes the cell colors and making changes to other aspects of cells may not be backward compatible.
VBA code interacts with the spreadsheet through the Excel *Object Model*, a vocabulary identifying spreadsheet objects, and a set of supplied functions or *methods* that enable reading and writing to the spreadsheet and interaction with its users (for example, through custom toolbars or *command bars* and *message boxes*). User-created VBA [subroutine](subroutine)s execute these actions and operate like macros generated using the macro recorder, but are more flexible and efficient.
#### History
From its first version Excel supported end-user programming of macros (automation of repetitive tasks) and user-defined functions (extension of Excel's built-in function library). In early versions of Excel, these programs were written in a macro language whose statements had formula syntax and resided in the cells of special-purpose macro sheets (stored with file extension .XLM in Windows.) XLM was the default macro language for Excel through Excel 4.0. Beginning with version 5.0 Excel recorded macros in VBA by default but with version 5.0 XLM recording was still allowed as an option. After version 5.0 that option was discontinued. All versions of Excel, including Excel 2021 are capable of running an XLM macro, though Microsoft discourages their use.
### Charts
[[File:Excel chart.PNG|thumb|right|300px|[Graph](Graph of a function) made using Microsoft Excel]]
Excel supports [chart](chart)s, [graphs](Graph of a function), or [histogram](histogram)s generated from specified groups of cells. It also supports Pivot Charts that allow for a chart to be linked directly to a [table](Pivot)(Pivot table). This allows the chart to be refreshed with the Pivot Table. The generated graphic component can either be embedded within the current sheet or added as a separate object.
These displays are dynamically updated if the content of cells changes. For example, suppose that the important design requirements are displayed visually; then, in response to a user's change in trial values for parameters, the curves describing the design change shape, and their points of intersection shift, assisting the selection of the best design.
### Add-ins
Additional features are available using [add-in](add-in)s. Several are provided with Excel, including:
* Analysis ToolPak: Provides data analysis tools for statistical and engineering analysis (includes [of variance](analysis)(analysis of variance) and [analysis](regression)(regression analysis))
* Analysis ToolPak VBA: [VBA](Visual Basic for Applications) functions for Analysis ToolPak
* Euro Currency Tools: Conversion and formatting for euro currency
* Solver Add-In: Tools for optimization and equation solving
## Data storage and communication
### Number of rows and columns
Versions of Excel up to 7.0 had a limitation in the size of their data sets of 16K (214 = ) rows. Versions 8.0 through 11.0 could handle 64K (216 = ) rows and 256 columns (28 as label 'IV'). Version 12.0 onwards, including the current Version 16.x, can handle over 1M (220 = ) rows, and (214, labeled as column 'XFD') columns.
### File formats
Microsoft Excel up until 2007 version used a proprietary binary file format called Excel Binary File Format (.XLS) as its primary format. Excel 2007 uses [Open XML](Office)(Office Open XML) as its primary file format, an XML-based format that followed after a previous [XML](XML)-based format called "XML Spreadsheet" ("XMLSS"), first introduced in Excel 2002.
Although supporting and encouraging the use of new XML-based formats as replacements, Excel 2007 remained backwards-compatible with the traditional, binary formats. In addition, most versions of Microsoft Excel can read [CSV](comma-separated values), [DBF](DBase), [SYLK](SYmbolic LinK (SYLK)), [DIF](Data Interchange Format), and other legacy formats. Support for some older file formats was removed in Excel 2007. The file formats were mainly from DOS-based programs.
#### Binary
[OpenOffice.org](OpenOffice.org) has created documentation of the Excel format. Two epochs of the format exist: the 97-2003 [OLE](Object Linking and Embedding) format, and the older stream format. Microsoft has made the Excel binary format specification available to freely download.
#### XML Spreadsheet
The *XML Spreadsheet* format introduced in Excel 2002 is a simple, [XML](XML) based format missing some more advanced features like storage of VBA macros. Though the intended file extension for this format is *.xml*, the program also correctly handles XML files with *.xls* extension. This feature is widely used by third-party applications (e.g. *[MySQL](MySQL) Query Browser*) to offer "export to Excel" capabilities without implementing binary file format. The following example will be correctly opened by Excel if saved either as *Book1.xml* or *Book1.xls*:
Name
Example
Value
123
#### Current file extensions
Microsoft Excel 2007, along with the other products in the [Office 2007](Microsoft)(Microsoft Office 2007) suite, introduced new file formats. The first of these (.xlsx) is defined in the [Open XML](Office)(Office Open XML) (OOXML) specification.
#### Old file extensions
### Using other Windows applications
Windows applications such as [Access](Microsoft)(Microsoft Access) and [Word](Microsoft)(Microsoft Word), as well as Excel can communicate with each other and use each other's capabilities. The most common are [Data Exchange](Dynamic)(Dynamic Data Exchange): although strongly deprecated by Microsoft, this is a common method to send data between applications running on Windows, with official MS publications referring to it as "the protocol from hell". As the name suggests, it allows applications to supply data to others for calculation and display. It is very common in financial markets, being used to connect to important financial data services such as [Bloomberg](Bloomberg L.P.) and [Reuters](Reuters).
[OLE](Object Linking and Embedding) Object Linking and Embedding allows a Windows application to control another to enable it to format or calculate data. This may take on the form of "embedding" where an application uses another to handle a task that it is more suited to, for example a [PowerPoint](PowerPoint) presentation may be embedded in an Excel spreadsheet or vice versa.
### Using external data
Excel users can access external [sources](data)(Computer file) via Microsoft Office features such as (for example) connections built with the Office Data Connection file format. Excel files themselves may be updated using a Microsoft supplied [ODBC](ODBC) driver.
Excel can accept data in real-time through several programming interfaces, which allow it to communicate with many data sources such as Bloomberg and Reuters (through addins such as [Plus Pro](Power)(Power Plus Pro)).
* DDE: "Dynamic Data Exchange" uses the message passing mechanism in Windows to allow data to flow between Excel and other applications. Although it is easy for users to create such links, programming such links reliably is so difficult that Microsoft, the creators of the system, officially refer to it as "the protocol from hell". In spite of its many issues DDE remains the most common way for data to reach traders in financial markets.
* Network DDE Extended the protocol to allow spreadsheets on different computers to exchange data. Starting with Windows Vista, Microsoft no longer supports the facility.
* Real Time Data: RTD although in many ways technically superior to DDE, has been slow to gain acceptance, since it requires non-trivial programming skills, and when first released was neither adequately documented nor supported by the major data vendors.
Alternatively, [Query](Microsoft)(Microsoft Query by Example) provides [ODBC-based](Open Database Connectivity) browsing within Microsoft Excel.
[Use Microsoft Query to retrieve external data](http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/excel/HA100996641033.aspx)
### Export and migration of spreadsheets
Programmers have produced [APIs](Application programming interface) to open Excel spreadsheets in a variety of applications and environments other than Microsoft Excel. These include opening Excel documents on the web using either [ActiveX](ActiveX) controls, or plugins like the [Flash Player](Adobe)(Adobe Flash). The [POI](Apache)(Apache POI) [opensource](opensource) project provides [Java](Java platform) libraries for reading and writing Excel spreadsheet files.
### Password protection
Microsoft Excel protection offers several types of passwords:
* Password to open a document
* Password to modify a document
* Password to unprotect the worksheet
* Password to protect workbook
* Password to protect the sharing workbook
All passwords except *password to open a document* can be removed instantly regardless of the Microsoft Excel version used to create the document. These types of passwords are used primarily for shared work on a document. Such password-protected documents are not [encrypted](encrypted), and a [sources](data)(Computer file) from a set password is saved in a document's [header](Header (computing)). *Password to protect workbook* is an exception – when it is set, a document is encrypted with the standard password "VelvetSweatshop", but since it is known to the public, it actually does not add any extra protection to the document. The only type of password that can prevent a trespasser from gaining access to a document is *password to open a document*. The cryptographic strength of this kind of protection depends strongly on the Microsoft Excel version that was used to create the document.
In *Microsoft Excel 95* and earlier versions, the password to open is converted to a 16-bit [key](Key (cryptography)) that can be instantly cracked. In *Excel 97/2000* the password is converted to a 40-bit key, which can also be cracked very quickly using modern equipment. As regards services that use [tables](rainbow)(rainbow tables) (e.g. Password-Find), it takes up to several seconds to remove protection. In addition, password-cracking programs can [attack](brute-force)(brute-force attack) passwords at a rate of hundreds of thousands of passwords a second, which not only lets them decrypt a document but also find the original password.
In *Excel 2003/XP* the encryption is slightly better – a user can choose any encryption algorithm that is available in the system (see [Service Provider](Cryptographic)(Cryptographic Service Provider)). Due to the CSP, an *Excel* file cannot be decrypted, and thus the *password to open* cannot be removed, though the brute-force attack speed remains quite high. Nevertheless, the older *Excel 97/2000* algorithm is set by the default. Therefore, users who do not change the default settings lack reliable protection of their documents.
The situation changed fundamentally in *Excel 2007*, where the modern [AES](Advanced Encryption Standard) algorithm with a key of 128 bits started being used for decryption, and a 50,000-fold use of the hash function [SHA1](SHA1) reduced the speed of brute-force attacks down to hundreds of passwords per second. In *Excel 2010*, the strength of the protection by the default was increased two times due to the use of a 100,000-fold SHA1 to convert a password to a key.
## Other platforms
### Excel for mobile
Excel Mobile is a [spreadsheet](spreadsheet) program that can edit XLSX files. It can edit and format text in cells, calculate formulas, search within the spreadsheet, sort rows and columns, freeze panes, filter the columns, add comments, and create charts. It cannot add columns or rows except at the edge of the document, rearrange columns or rows, delete rows or columns, or add spreadsheet tabs.[Use Excel Mobile](http://www.microsoft.com/windowsmobile/help/pocketpc/excelmobile.mspx) . Microsoft. Retrieved September 21, 2007. The 2007 version has the ability to use a full-screen mode to deal with limited screen resolution, as well as split panes to view different parts of a worksheet at one time. Protection settings, zoom settings, autofilter settings, certain chart formatting, hidden sheets, and other features are not supported on Excel Mobile, and will be modified upon opening and saving a workbook. In 2015, Excel Mobile became available for Windows 10 and Windows 10 Mobile on [Store](Windows)(Windows Store).
### Excel for the web
Excel for the web is a free lightweight version of Microsoft Excel available as part of Office on the web, which also includes web versions of Microsoft Word and Microsoft PowerPoint.
Excel for the web can display most of the features available in the desktop versions of Excel, although it may not be able to insert or edit them. Certain data connections are not accessible on Excel for the web, including with charts that may use these external connections. Excel for the web also cannot display legacy features, such as Excel 4.0 macros or Excel 5.0 dialog sheets. There are also small differences between how some of the Excel functions work.
== Microsoft Excel Viewer ==
Microsoft Excel Viewer was a freeware program for [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows) for viewing and printing spreadsheet documents created by Excel. Microsoft retired the viewer in April 2018 with the last security update released in February 2019 for Excel Viewer 2007 (SP3).
The first version released by Microsoft was Excel 97 Viewer. Excel 97 Viewer was supported in [CE](Windows)(Windows Embedded Compact) for [PC](Handheld)(Handheld PC)s. In October 2004, Microsoft released Excel Viewer 2003. In September 2007, Microsoft released Excel Viewer 2003 Service Pack 3 (SP3). In January 2008, Microsoft released Excel Viewer 2007 (featuring a non-collapsible [Ribbon](Ribbon (computing)) interface). In April 2009, Microsoft released Excel Viewer 2007 Service Pack 2 (SP2). In October 2011, Microsoft released Excel Viewer 2007 Service Pack 3 (SP3).
Microsoft advises to view and print Excel files for free to use the [Mobile](Excel)(Microsoft Office#Office for Android, iOS and Windows 10 Mobile) application for [10](Windows)(Windows 10) and for [7](Windows)(Windows 7) and [8](Windows)(Windows 8) to upload the file to [OneDrive](Microsoft OneDrive) and use [for the web](Excel)(#Excel for the web) with a [account](Microsoft)(Microsoft account) to open them in a [browser](Web browser).
## Quirks
In addition to [with spreadsheets](issues)(Spreadsheet#Shortcomings) in general, other problems specific to Excel include numeric precision, misleading statistics functions, mod function errors, date limitations and more.
### Numeric precision
[[fifteen figure.PNG|thumb|390px|Excel maintains 15 figures in its numbers, but they are not always accurate: the bottom line should be the same as the top line.](File:Excel)]
Despite the use of 15-figure precision, Excel can display many more figures (up to thirty) upon user request. But the displayed figures are *not* those actually used in its computations, and so, for example, the difference of two numbers may differ from the difference of their displayed values. Although such departures are usually beyond the 15th decimal, exceptions do occur, especially for very large or very small numbers. Serious errors can occur if decisions are made based upon automated comparisons of numbers (for example, using the Excel *If* function), as equality of two numbers can be unpredictable.
In the figure, the fraction 1/9000 is displayed in Excel. Although this number has a decimal representation that is an infinite string of ones, Excel displays only the leading 15 figures. In the second line, the number one is added to the fraction, and again Excel displays only 15 figures. In the third line, one is subtracted from the sum using Excel. Because the sum in the second line has only eleven 1's after the decimal, the difference when 1 is subtracted from this displayed value is three 0's followed by a string of eleven 1's. However, the difference reported by Excel in the third line is three 0's followed by a string of *thirteen* 1's and two extra erroneous digits. This is because Excel calculates with about half a digit more than it displays.
Excel works with a modified 1985 version of the [754 specification](IEEE)(IEEE 754-2008).
Microsoft's overview is found at:
Excel's implementation involves conversions between binary and decimal representations, leading to accuracy that is on average better than one would expect from simple fifteen digit precision, but that can be worse. See the main article for details.
Besides accuracy in user computations, the question of accuracy in Excel-provided functions may be raised. Particularly in the arena of statistical functions, Excel has been criticized for sacrificing accuracy for speed of calculation.
As many calculations in Excel are executed using [VBA](Visual Basic for Applications), an additional issue is the accuracy of VBA, which varies with variable type and user-requested precision.
### Statistical functions
The accuracy and convenience of statistical tools in Excel has been criticized,
as mishandling missing data, as returning incorrect values due to inept handling of round-off and large numbers, as only selectively updating calculations on a spreadsheet when some cell values are changed, and as having a limited set of statistical tools. Microsoft has announced some of these issues are addressed in Excel 2010.
[Function improvements in Excel 2010](http://blogs.msdn.com/excel/archive/2009/09/10/function-improvements-in-excel-2010.aspx) Comments are provided from readers that may illuminate some remaining problems.
### Excel MOD function error
Excel has issues with [operation](modulo)(modulo operation)s. In the case of excessively large results, Excel will return the error warning instead of an answer.
### Fictional leap day in the year 1900
Excel includes February 29, 1900, incorrectly treating 1900 as a [year](leap)(leap year), even though e.g. 2100 is correctly treated as a non-leap year. The bug originated from [1-2-3](Lotus)(Lotus 1-2-3) (deliberately implemented to save computer memory), and was also purposely implemented in Excel, for the purpose of [compatibility](bug)(bug compatibility). This legacy has later been carried over into [Open XML](Office)(Office Open XML) file format.
Thus a (not necessarily whole) number greater than or equal to 61 interpreted as a date and time are the (real) number of days after December 30, 1899, 0:00, a non-negative number less than 60 is the number of days after December 31, 1899, 0:00, and numbers with whole part 60 represent the fictional day.
### Date range
Excel supports dates with years in the range 1900–9999, except that December 31, 1899, can be entered as 0 and is displayed as 0-jan-1900.
Converting a fraction of a day into hours, minutes and days by treating it as a moment on the day January 1, 1900, does not work for a negative fraction.
### Conversion problems
Entering text that happens to be in a form that is interpreted as a date, the text can be unintentionally changed to a standard date format. A similar problem occurs when a text happens to be in the form of a floating-point notation of a number. In these cases the original exact text cannot be recovered from the result. Formatting the cell as TEXT before entering ambiguous text prevents Excel from converting to a date.
This issue has caused a well known problem in the analysis of [DNA](DNA), for example in [bioinformatics](bioinformatics). As first reported in 2004, genetic scientists found that Excel automatically and incorrectly converts certain [names](gene)(gene nomenclature) into dates. A follow-up study in 2016 found many [review](peer)(peer review)ed [journal](scientific)(scientific journal) papers had been affected and that "Of the selected journals, the proportion of published articles with Excel files containing gene lists that are affected by gene name errors is 19.6 %." Excel parses the copied and pasted data and sometimes changes them depending on what it thinks they are. For example, [(Membrane Associated Ring-CH-type finger 1)](MARCH1)(MARCH2) gets converted to the date March 1 (1-Mar) and [(Septin 2)](SEPT2)(SEPT2) is converted into September 2 (2-Sep) etc. While some secondary news sources reported this as a fault with Excel, the original authors of the 2016 paper placed the blame with the researchers misusing Excel.
In August 2020 the [Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC)](HUGO)(HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee) published new guidelines in the journal [Nature](Nature (journal)) regarding gene naming in order to avoid issues with "symbols that affect data handling and retrieval." So far 27 genes have been renamed, including changing MARCH1 to MARCHF1 and SEPT1 to SEPTIN1 in order to avoid accidental conversion of the gene names into dates.
### Errors with large strings
The following functions return incorrect results when passed a string longer than 255 characters:
* incorrectly returns 16, meaning "Error value"
* , when called as a method of the VBA object (i.e., in VBA), incorrectly returns "false".
### Filenames
Microsoft Excel will not open two documents with the same name and instead will display the following error:
: A document with the name '%s' is already open. You cannot open two documents with the same name, even if the documents are in different folders. To open the second document, either close the document that is currently open, or rename one of the documents.
The reason is for calculation ambiguity with linked cells. If there is a cell , and there are two books named "Book1" open, there is no way to tell which one the user means.
## Versions
### Early history
Microsoft originally marketed a spreadsheet program called [Multiplan](Multiplan) in 1982. Multiplan became very popular on [CP/M](CP/M) systems, but on [MS-DOS](MS-DOS) systems it lost popularity to [1-2-3](Lotus)(Lotus 1-2-3). Microsoft released the first version of Excel for the Macintosh on September 30, 1985, and the first Windows version was 2.05 (to synchronize with the Macintosh version 2.2) on November 19, 1987. [Lotus](Lotus Software) was slow to bring 1-2-3 to Windows and by the early 1990s, Excel had started to outsell 1-2-3 and helped [Microsoft](Microsoft) achieve its position as a leading PC software developer. This accomplishment solidified Microsoft as a valid competitor and showed its future of developing [GUI](Graphical user interface) software. Microsoft maintained its advantage with regular new releases, every two years or so.
### Microsoft Windows
Excel 2.0 is the first version of Excel for the [Intel](Intel) platform. Versions prior to 2.0 were only available on the Apple Macintosh.
#### Excel 2.0 (1987)
The first Windows version was labeled "2" to correspond to the Mac version. It was announced on October 6, 1987, and released on November 19. This included a run-time version of Windows.
*[BYTE](BYTE)* in 1989 listed Excel for Windows as among the "Distinction" winners of the BYTE Awards. The magazine stated that the port of the "extraordinary" Macintosh version "shines", with a user interface as good as or better than the original.
#### Excel 3.0 (1990)
Included toolbars, drawing capabilities, outlining, add-in support, 3D charts, and many more new features.
#### Excel 4.0 (1992)
Introduced [auto-fill](#Impact).
Also, an [egg](easter)(Easter egg (media)) in Excel 4.0 reveals a hidden animation of a dancing set of numbers 1 through 3, representing Lotus 1-2-3, which is then crushed by an Excel logo.
#### Excel 5.0 (1993)
With version 5.0, Excel has included [Basic for Applications](Visual)(Visual Basic for Applications) (VBA), a programming language based on [Basic](Visual)(Visual Basic) which adds the ability to automate tasks in Excel and to provide [function](user-defined)(user-defined function)s (UDF) for use in worksheets. VBA includes a fully featured [development environment](integrated)(integrated development environment) (IDE). [Macro](Macro (computer science)) recording can produce VBA code replicating user actions, thus allowing simple automation of regular tasks. VBA allows the creation of forms and in‑worksheet controls to communicate with the user. The language supports use (but not creation) of [ActiveX](Component object model) ([COM](Component object model)) [DLL](Dynamic-Link Library)'s; later versions add support for class modules allowing the use of basic [programming](object-oriented)(object-oriented programming) techniques.
The automation functionality provided by VBA made Excel a target for [viruses](macro)(Macro virus). This caused serious problems until antivirus products began to detect these viruses. [Microsoft](Microsoft) belatedly took steps to prevent the misuse by adding the ability to disable macros completely, to enable macros when opening a workbook or to trust all macros signed using a trusted certificate.
Versions 5.0 to 9.0 of Excel contain various [eggs](Easter)(Easter egg (virtual)), including a "Hall of Tortured Souls", a [Doom](Doom (1993 video game))-like minigame, although since version 10 [Microsoft](Microsoft) has taken measures to eliminate such undocumented features from their products.
5.0 was released in a 16-bit x86 version for Windows 3.1 and later in a 32-bit version for NT 3.51 (x86/Alpha/PowerPC)
#### Excel 95 (v7.0)
[[of Microsoft Office Excel 95, an application part of Microsoft Office system.png|thumb|Microsoft Excel 95](File:Screenshot)]
Released in 1995 with [Office for Windows 95](Microsoft)(Microsoft Office for Windows 95), this is the first major version after Excel 5.0, as there is no Excel 6.0 with all of the Office applications standardizing on the same major version number.
Internal rewrite to 32-bits. Almost no external changes, but faster and more stable.
Excel 95 contained a hidden *[Doom](Doom (1993 video game))*-like mini-game called "The Hall of Tortured Souls", a series of rooms featuring the names and faces of the developers as an [egg](easter)(easter egg).
#### Excel 97 (v8.0)
Included in [97](Office)(Office 97) (for x86 and Alpha). This was a major upgrade that introduced the paper clip office assistant and featured standard VBA used instead of internal Excel Basic. It introduced the now-removed Natural Language labels.
This version of Excel includes a flight simulator as an [Egg](Easter)(Easter egg (media)).
#### Excel 2000 (v9.0)
[[of Microsoft Office Excel 2000.png|thumb|Microsoft Excel 2000](File:FileScreenshot)]
Included in [2000](Office)(Office 2000). This was a minor upgrade but introduced an upgrade to the clipboard where it can hold multiple objects at once. The Office Assistant, whose frequent unsolicited appearance in Excel 97 had annoyed many users, became less intrusive.
A small 3-D game called "Dev Hunter" (inspired by [Hunter](Spy)(Spy Hunter)) was included as an easter egg.
#### Excel 2002 (v10.0)
Included in [XP](Office)(Office XP). Very minor enhancements.
#### Excel 2003 (v11.0)
Included in [2003](Office)(Office 2003). Minor enhancements.
#### Excel 2007 (v12.0)
[[Office Excel 2007.png|thumb|Microsoft Excel 2007](File:Microsoft)]
Included in [2007](Office)(Office 2007). This release was a major upgrade from the previous version. Similar to other updated Office products, Excel in 2007 used the new [Ribbon](Ribbon (computing)) menu system. This was different from what users were used to, and was met with mixed reactions. One study reported fairly good acceptance by users except highly experienced users and users of word processing applications with a classical [interface](WIMP)(WIMP interface), but was less convinced in terms of efficiency and organization. However, an online survey reported that a majority of respondents had a negative opinion of the change, with advanced users being "somewhat more negative" than intermediate users, and users reporting a [self-estimated](self-estimated) reduction in productivity.
Added functionality included Tables,[Excel Tables to
Manipulate Billing Data https://mooresolutionsinc.com/downloads/Billing_MJ12.pdf](Using) and the [SmartArt](Microsoft Office 2007#SmartArt) set of editable business diagrams. Also added was an improved management of named variables through the *Name Manager*, and much-improved flexibility in formatting graphs, which allow (*x, y*) coordinate labeling and lines of arbitrary weight. Several improvements to pivot tables were introduced.
Also like other office products, the [Open XML](Office)(Office Open XML) file formats were introduced, including *.xlsm* for a workbook with macros and *.xlsx* for a workbook without macros.
Specifically, many of the size limitations of previous versions were greatly increased. To illustrate, the number of rows was now 1,048,576 (220) and columns was 16,384 (214; the far-right column is XFD). This changes what is a valid *A1* reference versus a named range. This version made more extensive use of multiple cores for the calculation of spreadsheets; however, VBA macros are not handled in parallel and XLL add‑ins were only executed in parallel if they were [thread-safe](Thread safety) and this was indicated at registration.
#### Excel 2010 (v14.0)
[[2010.png|thumb|Microsoft Excel 2010 running on Windows 7](File:Excel)]
Included in [2010](Office)(Office 2010), this is the next major version after v12.0, as version [13 was skipped](number)(Triskaidekaphobia).
Minor enhancements and 64-bit support, including the following:
* Multi-threading recalculation (MTR) for commonly used functions
* Improved pivot tables
* More conditional formatting options
* Additional image editing capabilities
* In-cell charts called *sparklines*
* Ability to preview before pasting
* Office 2010 *backstage* feature for document-related tasks
* Ability to customize the Ribbon
* Many new formulas, most highly specialized to improve accuracy
#### Excel 2013 (v15.0)
Included in [2013](Office)(Office 2013), along with a lot of new tools included in this release:
* Improved Multi-threading and Memory Contention
* FlashFill
* Power View
* [Pivot](Power)(Power Pivot)
* Timeline Slicer
* Windows App
* Inquire
* 50 new functions
#### Excel 2016 (v16.0)
Included in [2016](Office)(Office 2016), along with a lot of new tools included in this release:
* [Query](Power)(Power Query) integration
* Read-only mode for Excel
* Keyboard access for Pivot Tables and Slicers in Excel
* New Chart Types
* Quick data linking in Visio
*Excel forecasting functions
*Support for multiselection of Slicer items using touch
*Time grouping and Pivot Chart Drill Down
*Excel data cards
#### Excel 2019, Excel 2021, Office 365 and subsequent (v16.0)
Microsoft no longer releases Office or Excel in discrete versions. Instead, features are introduced automatically over time using Windows Update. The version number remains 16.0. Thereafter only the approximate dates when features appear can now be given.
* Dynamic Arrays. These are essentially Array Formulas but they "Spill" automatically into neighboring cells and does not need the ctrl-shift-enter to create them. Further, dynamic arrays are the default format, with new "@" and "#" operators to provide compatibility with previous versions. This is perhaps the biggest structural change since 2007, and is in response to a similar feature in [Sheets](Google)(Google Sheets). Dynamic arrays started appearing in pre-releases about 2018, and as of March 2020 are available in published versions of Office 365 provided a user selected "Office Insiders".
### Apple Macintosh
[[Excel for Mac 2011.png|thumb|Microsoft Excel for Mac 2011](File:Microsoft)]
* 1985 Excel 1.0
* 1988 Excel 1.5
* 1989 Excel 2.2
* 1990 Excel 3.0
* 1992 Excel 4.0
* 1993 Excel 5.0 (part of Office 4.x—Final Motorola 680x0 version and first PowerPC version)
* 1998 Excel 8.0 (part of [98](Office)(Microsoft Office 98 Macintosh Edition))
* 2000 Excel 9.0 (part of [2001](Office)(Microsoft Office 2001))
* 2001 Excel 10.0 (part of [v. X](Office)(Microsoft Office v. X))
* 2004 Excel 11.0 (part of [2004](Office)(Office 2004 for Mac))
* 2008 Excel 12.0 (part of [2008](Office)(Microsoft Office 2008 for Mac))
* 2010 Excel 14.0 (part of [2011](Office)(Microsoft Office for Mac 2011))
* 2015 Excel 15.0 (part of [2016](Office)(Office 2016 for Mac)—Office 2016 for Mac brings the Mac version much closer to parity with its Windows cousin, harmonizing many of the reporting and high-level developer functions, while bringing the ribbon and styling into line with its PC counterpart.)
### OS/2
* 1989 Excel 2.2
* 1990 Excel 2.3
* 1991 Excel 3.0
### Summary
## Impact
Excel offers many [interface](user)(user interface) tweaks over the earliest electronic spreadsheets; however, the essence remains the same as in the original spreadsheet software, [VisiCalc](VisiCalc): the program displays cells organized in rows and columns, and each cell may contain data or a formula, with relative or absolute references to other cells.
Excel 2.0 for Windows, which was modeled after its Mac GUI-based counterpart, indirectly expanded the installed base of the then-nascent Windows environment. Excel 2.0 was released a month before Windows 2.0, and the installed base of Windows was so low at that point in 1987 that Microsoft had to bundle a runtime version of Windows 1.0 with Excel 2.0. Unlike Microsoft Word, there never was a DOS version of Excel.
Excel became the first spreadsheet to allow the user to define the appearance of spreadsheets (fonts, character attributes, and cell appearance). It also introduced intelligent cell re-computation, where only cells dependent on the cell being modified are updated (previous spreadsheet programs recomputed everything all the time or waited for a specific user command). Excel introduced auto-fill, the ability to drag and expand the selection box to automatically copy a cell or row contents to adjacent cells or rows, adjusting the copies intelligently by automatically incrementing cell references or contents. Excel also introduced extensive graphing capabilities.
## Security
Because Excel is widely used, it has been attacked by hackers. While Excel is not directly exposed to the Internet, if an attacker can get a victim to open a file in Excel, and there is an appropriate security bug in Excel, then the attacker can gain control of the victim's computer. UK's [GCHQ](GCHQ) has a tool named TORNADO ALLEY with this purpose.
## Games
Besides the easter eggs, numerous games have been created or recreated in Excel, such as [Tetris](Tetris), [2048](2048 (video game)), [Scrabble](Scrabble), [Yahtzee](Yahtzee), [Birds](Angry)(Angry Birds), [Pac-Man](Pac-Man), [Civilization](Civilization (video game)), [Monopoly](Monopoly (game)), [Battleship](Battleship (game)), [Blackjack](Blackjack), [Invaders](Space)(Space Invaders), and others.
In 2020, Excel became an [esport](esport) with the advent of the [Modeling World Cup](Financial)(Financial Modeling World Cup).
## See also
* [of spreadsheet software](Comparison)(Comparison of spreadsheet software)
* [Spreadmart](Spreadmart)
* [Modeling World Cup](Financial)(Financial Modeling World Cup), online [esport](esport) [modelling](financial)(financial modelling) competition using Excel
## References
## References
*
*
*
*
## External links
* – official site
[software](Category:1985)(Category:1985 software)
[with example code](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles with example code)
[Mac OS software](Category:Classic)(Category:Classic Mac OS software)
[introductions in 1985](Category:Computer-related)(Category:Computer-related introductions in 1985)
[Excel](Category:Microsoft Office)
[software for macOS](Category:Spreadsheet)(Category:Spreadsheet software for macOS)
[software for Windows](Category:Spreadsheet)(Category:Spreadsheet software for Windows)
[cross-platform software](Category:Proprietary)(Category:Proprietary cross-platform software)
|
Fred Ward
|
fred_ward
|
# Fred Ward
*Revision ID: 1158862058 | Timestamp: 2023-06-06T18:17:44Z*
---
| birth_place = [Diego, California](San)(San Diego, California), U.S.
| death_date =
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 1973–2015
| spouse = Silvia Ward(divorced)
| children = 1
}}
**Freddie Joe Ward** (December 30, 1942 – May 8, 2022) was an American actor. Starting with a role in an Italian television movie in 1973, he appeared in such diverse films as *[from Alcatraz](Escape)(Escape from Alcatraz (film))*, *[Comfort](Southern)(Southern Comfort (1981 film))*, *[Right Stuff](The)(The Right Stuff (film))*, *[The Adventure of Lyle Swann](Timerider:)(Timerider: The Adventure of Lyle Swann)*, *[Williams: The Adventure Begins](Remo)(Remo Williams: The Adventure Begins)*, *[Tremors](Tremors (1990 film))* and *[2: Aftershocks](Tremors)(Tremors 2: Aftershocks)*, *[& June](Henry)(Henry & June)*, *[Player](The)(The Player (1992 film))*, *[Shift](Swing)(Swing Shift (film))*, *[Cuts](Short)(Short Cuts)*, and *[Minutes or Less](30)(30 Minutes or Less)*.
## Early life
Freddie Joe Ward was born in [Diego](San)(San Diego) on December 30, 1942. He was part [Cherokee](Cherokee). DEAD LINK His father was an alcoholic criminal who was repeatedly imprisoned and his mother left him when Fred was three. He was then raised by his grandmother until his mother had rebuilt her life and remarried a [worker](carnival)(carnie). Before acting, Ward spent three years in the [States Air Force](United)(United States Air Force). He was also a [boxer](boxing) (breaking his nose three times) and worked as a [lumberjack](lumberjack) in [Alaska](Alaska), a janitor, and a short-order cook. He studied acting at New York's [Berghof Studio](Herbert)(Herbert Berghof Studio) after serving in the U.S. Air Force. While living in Rome, he [dubbed](dubbing (filmmaking)) Italian movies into English and appeared in films by [neorealist](Italian neorealism) director [Rossellini](Roberto)(Roberto Rossellini).
## Career
### 1970s
Ward became an actor after studying at [Berghof Studio](Herbert)(Herbert Berghof Studio) and in [Rome](Rome). While in Italy, he worked as a mime. Upon returning stateside in the early 1970s, Ward spent time working in [theatre](experimental)(experimental theatre) and doing some television work. He made his first American film appearance playing a cowboy in *[of the West](Hearts)(Hearts of the West (1975 film))* (1975). His first major role came in the [Eastwood](Clint)(Clint Eastwood) vehicle *[from Alcatraz](Escape)(Escape from Alcatraz (film))* (1979) as fellow escapee [Anglin](John)(John Anglin (criminal)).
### 1980s
Ward played a violent [Guardsman](National)(United States National Guard) in [Hill](Walter)(Walter Hill (filmmaker))'s *[Comfort](Southern)(Southern Comfort (1981 film))* (1981). His first starring role in a motion picture was *[The Adventure of Lyle Swann](Timerider:)(Timerider: The Adventure of Lyle Swann)* (1982). He then starred as [astronaut](astronaut) [Grissom](Gus)(Gus Grissom) in *[Right Stuff](The)(The Right Stuff (film))*, in the [movie](action)(action movie) *[Valor](Uncommon)(Uncommon Valor)* with [Hackman](Gene)(Gene Hackman), and in the drama *[Silkwood](Silkwood)* (all 1983).
After co-starring roles in *[Shift](Swing)(Swing Shift (film))* (1984) and *[Admirer](Secret)(Secret Admirer)* (1985), Ward played the title hero in the [movie](action)(action movie) *[Williams: The Adventure Begins](Remo)(Remo Williams: The Adventure Begins)*, which was directed by [Hamilton](Guy)(Guy Hamilton). The film was supposed to be the first of a series based on *[Destroyer](The)(The Destroyer (novel series))* series of novels. Though the movie was well promoted and he appeared on several movie magazine covers, it only grossed $15 million.
Ward played in a few low-budget productions until he returned to major cinema in 1988 as a cop in *[Limits](Off)(Off Limits (1988 film))*, as Roone Dimmick in *[Business](Big)(Big Business (1988 film))*, and the father of [Reeves](Keanu)(Keanu Reeves)' character in *[Prince of Pennsylvania](The)(The Prince of Pennsylvania)*.
### 1990s
In 1990, Ward starred as [Bassett](Earl)(Earl Bassett) in the [monster](monster) movie *[Tremors](Tremors (1990 film))*, as the American erotic writer [Miller](Henry)(Henry Miller) in *[& June](Henry)(Henry & June)* (with [Thurman](Uma)(Uma Thurman)), and as cop Hoke Moseley in his self-produced *[Blues](Miami)(Miami Blues)* (with [Baldwin](Alec)(Alec Baldwin) and [Jason Leigh](Jennifer)(Jennifer Jason Leigh)). That year he also played an FBI agent in Dennis Hopper's film *[Catchfire](Catchfire)*.
After playing private detective [Lovecraft](H.P.)(H.P. Lovecraft) in the 1991 [HBO](HBO) film *[a Deadly Spell](Cast)(Cast a Deadly Spell)* alongside [Moore](Julianne)(Julianne Moore), Ward co-starred in the [thriller](thriller (genre)) *[Thunderheart](Thunderheart)*, the Hollywood satire *[Player](The)(The Player (1992 film))*, the mystery-drama *[Equinox](Equinox (1992 film))* and the TV [western](western (genre))-comedy *[Eyes and Six Guns](Four)(Four Eyes and Six Guns)*, for which he won a [ACE Award](Cable)(Cable ACE Award). He also did a [cameo](cameo appearance) in *[Roberts](Bob)(Bob Roberts)*, starring [Robbins](Tim)(Tim Robbins).
Ward's leading roles include Lt. Brann in the two-character-thriller *[Small Bodies](Two)(Two Small Bodies)*, fisherman Stuart Kane in the [Altman](Robert)(Robert Altman) film *[Cuts](Short)(Short Cuts)* (for which the whole ensemble won a [Globe](Golden)(Golden Globe); both 1993), a dangerous criminal in the comedy *[[Gun 33 1/3: The Final Insult|Naked Gun : The Final Insult](Naked)]* (1994), the sailor in the French-[avant-garde](avant-garde)-drama *[Blue Villa](The)(The Blue Villa)* (1995), his reprised role in *[II: Aftershocks](Tremors)(Tremors II: Aftershocks)* and the special agent in *[Reaction](Chain)(Chain Reaction (1996 film))* (both 1996). He also appeared as Sheriff Bud Phillips in *[Men](Best)(Best Men)*, as Dave Reimüller in *[Do No Harm](...First)(...First Do No Harm)* with [Streep](Meryl)(Meryl Streep) (both 1997) and as Domenico Venier in *[Beauty](Dangerous)(Dangerous Beauty)* (1998).
### 2000s
Ward was seen in many motion pictures, TV shows and videos in 2000. He starred in the action-thriller *[Chaos Factor](The)(The Chaos Factor)* and appeared in the gangster movie *[Circus](Circus (2000 film))*, the teen movie *[Trip](Road)(Road Trip (film))* and the horror sequel *[Crow: Salvation](The)(The Crow: Salvation)*.
In 2001, Ward was nominated for a Video Premiere Award as the best male actor for the [direct-to-video](direct-to-video)-production *[Disclosure](Full)(Full Disclosure (2001 film))*. He also co-starred in *[Dirt](Joe)(Joe Dirt)*, *[Catch](Summer)(Summer Catch)*, *[Iris](Wild)(Wild Iris (film))*, the mini-TV-series *[Dice](Dice (miniseries))* and the comedic *[Romano](Corky)(Corky Romano)*.
In 2002, Ward appeared in *[Home Alabama](Sweet)(Sweet Home Alabama (film))*, *[Enough](Enough (film))* and *[Abandon](Abandon (film))*. He had the starring role in *Birdseye* and signed in for the TV pilot for the drama *Georgetown* with [Mirren](Helen)(Helen Mirren), but the series was never made. After roles in *[Last Ride](The)(The Last Ride (2004 film))*, *[10.5](10.5 (miniseries))* and *[to Coast](Coast)(Coast to Coast (TV film))* (all 2004) he took a short break from acting and returned as a guest in the TV series ''[Anatomy](Grey's)(Grey's Anatomy)* and *[ER](ER (TV series))* (2006 and 2007). He was next in the ensemble drama *[of Love](Feast)(Feast of Love)*, the thriller *[Speed](Exit)(Exit Speed)*, *[Management](Management (film))* with [Aniston](Jennifer)(Jennifer Aniston), *[Wild Stallion](The)(The Wild Stallion)* DVD and as the boss Ashcroft in *[Armored](Armored (film))*.
Ward guest starred as [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan) in the French political thriller *[Farewell](L'affaire)(L'affaire Farewell)* (2009). He appeared in *[Minutes or Less](30)(30 Minutes or Less)*, guest starred in the TV series *[States of Tara](United)(United States of Tara)*, *[Plain Sight](In)(In Plain Sight)* and *[Leverage](Leverage (American TV series))* in 2012. In 2013, he had a guest role in *[Guns](2)(2 Guns)'' starring [Washington](Denzel)(Denzel Washington) and [Wahlberg](Mark)(Mark Wahlberg).
## Personal life
Ward married Marie-France Boisselle in 1995 and she filed for divorce in August 2013, but they reconciled later that year.
Ward died on May 8, 2022, at the age of 79. His family declined to cite a cause.
## Awards
* 1993: [Volpi Cup](Special)(Venice Film Festival) – *[Cuts](Short)(Short Cuts)*
* 1993: [Globe Special Ensemble Cast Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards) – *[Cuts](Short)(Short Cuts)*
* 1994: [Award](CableACE)(CableACE Award) – *[Eyes and Six Guns](Four)(Four Eyes and Six Guns)*
* 2001: Video Premiere Award – *Full Disclosure*
## Filmography
## References
## External links
*
* [Fred Ward](http://www.aveleyman.com/ActorCredit.aspx?ActorID=17902) (Aveleyman)
[births](Category:1942)(Category:1942 births)
[deaths](Category:2022)(Category:2022 deaths)
[American male actors](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American male actors)
[American male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male actors)
[male film actors](Category:American)(Category:American male film actors)
[male stage actors](Category:American)(Category:American male stage actors)
[male television actors](Category:American)(Category:American male television actors)
[people of Cherokee descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Cherokee descent)
[actors from San Diego](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from San Diego)
[personnel from California](Category:Military)(Category:Military personnel from California)
[of death missing](Category:Place)(Category:Place of death missing)
[States Air Force airmen](Category:United)(Category:United States Air Force airmen)
[Cup winners](Category:Volpi)(Category:Volpi Cup winners)
|
Broadway theatre
|
broadway_theatre
|
# Broadway theatre
*Revision ID: 1160305790 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T16:44:09Z*
---
[[File:Broadway Theaters 45th Street Night.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|The [Golden Theatre](John)(John Golden Theatre), [B. Jacobs Theatre](Bernard)(Bernard B. Jacobs Theatre), [Schoenfeld Theatre](Gerald)(Gerald Schoenfeld Theatre), and [Theatre](Booth)(Booth Theatre) on [45th Street](West)(45th Street (Manhattan)) in [Manhattan](Manhattan)'s [District](Theater)(Theater District, Manhattan)]]
**Broadway theatre**,Although *theat**er*** is generally the spelling for this common noun in the United States (see [and British English spelling differences](American)(American and British English spelling differences#-re, -er)), 130 of the [extant and extinct](144)(List of Broadway theaters) Broadway venues use (used) the spelling *Theat**re*** as the [noun](proper)(proper noun) in their names (12 others used neither), with many performers and trade groups for live dramatic presentations also using the spelling *theat**re***. or **Broadway**, are the [performances](theatrical)(Theatre) presented in the 41 professional [theatres](Theater (structure)), each with 500 or more seats, located in the [District](Theater)(Theater District, Manhattan) and the [Center](Lincoln)(Lincoln Center) along [Broadway](Broadway (Manhattan)), in [Midtown](Midtown Manhattan) [Manhattan](Manhattan), [York City](New)(New York City). Broadway and [London](London)'s [End](West)(West End theatre) together represent the highest commercial level of live theater in the [world](English-speaking)(English-speaking world).
While the [thoroughfare](Broadway (Manhattan)) is eponymous with the district and its collection of 41 theaters, and it is closely identified with [Square](Times)(Times Square), only three of the theaters are located on Broadway itself, namely the [Theatre](Broadway)(Broadway Theatre (53rd Street)), the [Theatre](Palace)(Palace Theatre (New York City)), and the [Garden Theatre](Winter)(Winter Garden Theatre). The rest are located on the numbered cross streets, extending from the [Theatre](Nederlander)(Nederlander Theatre) one block south of Times Square on West 41st Street, north along either side of Broadway to [Street](53rd)(53rd Street (Manhattan)), as well as the [Beaumont Theater](Vivian)(Vivian Beaumont Theater), at Lincoln Center on West 65th Street. While exceptions exist, the term "Broadway theatre" is generally reserved for venues with a seating capacity of at least 500 people. Smaller theaters in New York are referred to as [off-Broadway](off-Broadway), regardless of location, while very small venues with fewer than 100 seats are called [off-off-Broadway](off-off-Broadway), a term that can also apply to non-commercial or *[avant-garde](avant-garde)* theater, or productions held outside of traditional theater venues.
The Theater District is an internationally prominent [attraction in New York City](tourist)(Tourism in New York City). According to [Broadway League](The)(The Broadway League), for the 2018–19 season total attendance was 14,768,254. Broadway shows had $1,829,312,140 in grosses, with attendance up 9.5%, grosses up 10.3%, and playing weeks up 9.3%.["2018 – 2019 Broadway End-of-Season Statistics"](https://www.broadwayleague.com/press/press-releases/2018-2019-broadway-end-of-season-statistics/) . Broadway League, May 28, 2019. The [of Broadway](Museum)(Museum of Broadway) on [45th Street](West)(45th Street (Manhattan)), opened to the public in November 2022, became the first museum to document the history and experience of Broadway theatre and its profound influence upon shaping Midtown Manhattan and Times Square.
Most Broadway shows are [musicals](Musical theatre). Historian [Shefter](Martin)(Martin Shefter) argues that "'Broadway musicals', culminating in the productions of [and Hammerstein](Rodgers)(Rodgers and Hammerstein), became enormously influential forms of [popular culture](American)(American popular culture)" and contributed to making New York City the [capital of the world](cultural)(Culture of New York City)."
## History
### Early theatre in New York
[[File:Park Theatre interior.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The interior of the [Theatre](Park)(Park Theatre (Manhattan)), built in 1798]]
New York's first significant theatre presence arose about 1750, when actor-managers Walter Murray and Thomas Kean established a resident theatre company at the [on Nassau Street](Theatre)(Theatre on Nassau Street) in [Manhattan](Lower)(Lower Manhattan), which held about 280 people. They presented Shakespeare plays and [operas](ballad)(ballad operas) such as ''[Beggar's Opera](The)(The Beggar's Opera)*. In 1752, [Hallam](William)(William Hallam (theatre manager)) sent a company of twelve actors from Britain to the colonies with his brother [Lewis](Lewis Hallam) as their manager. They established a theatre in [Virginia](Williamsburg,)(Williamsburg, Virginia), and opened with *[Merchant of Venice](The)(The Merchant of Venice)* and *The Anatomist*. The company moved to New York in 1753, performing [operas](ballad)(ballad operas) and ballad-farces like *Damon and Phillida''. The [War](Revolutionary)(American Revolutionary War) suspended theatre in New York, but thereafter theatre resumed in 1798, the year the 2,000-seat [Theatre](Park)(Park Theatre (Manhattan)) was built on Chatham Street (now called [Row](Park)(Park Row (Manhattan))). The [Theatre](Bowery)(Bowery Theatre) opened in 1826,["Bowery Theatre history, Internet Broadway Database listing"](http://www.ibdb.com/venue.php?id=1073) Internet Broadway Database, accessed August 26, 2011 followed by others.
By the 1840s, [Barnum](P.T.)(P.T. Barnum) was operating an entertainment complex in Lower Manhattan. In 1829, at Broadway and Prince Street, [Garden](Niblo's)(Niblo's Garden) opened and soon became one of New York's premier nightspots. The 3,000-seat theatre presented all sorts of [musical](musical theatre) and non-musical entertainments. In 1844, [Opera House](Palmo's)(Palmo's Opera House) opened and presented opera for only four seasons before bankruptcy led to its rebranding as a venue for plays under the name Burton's Theatre. The [Opera House](Astor)(Astor Opera House) opened in 1847. A riot broke out in 1849 when the lower-class patrons of the Bowery Theatre objected to what they perceived as snobbery by the upper-class audiences at Astor Place: "After the [Place Riot](Astor)(Astor Place Riot) of 1849, [in New York City](entertainment)(entertainment industry) was divided along class lines: opera was chiefly for the upper-middle and upper classes, minstrel shows and melodramas for the middle-class, variety shows in concert saloons for men of the working class and the slumming middle-class."
The plays of [Shakespeare](William)(William Shakespeare) were frequently performed on the Broadway stage during the period, most notably by American actor [Booth](Edwin)(Edwin Booth) who was internationally known for his performance as [Hamlet](Prince Hamlet). Booth played the role for a famous 100 consecutive performances at the [Garden Theatre](Winter)(Winter Garden Theatre (1850)) in 1865 (with the run ending just a few months before Booth's brother [Wilkes Booth](John)(John Wilkes Booth) assassinated [Lincoln](Abraham)(Abraham Lincoln)), and would later revive the role at his own [Theatre](Booth's)(Booth's Theatre) (which was managed for a time by his brother [Brutus Booth, Jr.](Junius)(Junius Brutus Booth, Jr.)). Other renowned Shakespeareans who appeared in New York in this era were [Irving](Henry)(Henry Irving), [Salvini](Tommaso)(Tommaso Salvini), [Davenport](Fanny)(Fanny Davenport), and [Fechter](Charles)(Charles Fechter).
### Birth of the musical and post-Civil War
Theatre in New York moved from [Downtown](Lower Manhattan) gradually to [Manhattan](Midtown)(Midtown Manhattan), beginning around 1850, seeking less expensive real estate. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the area that now comprises the [District](Theater)(Theater District, Manhattan) was owned by a handful of families and comprised a few farms. In 1836, Mayor [Lawrence](Cornelius)(Cornelius Lawrence) opened [Street](42nd)(42nd Street (Manhattan)) and invited Manhattanites to "enjoy the pure clean air." Close to 60 years later, theatrical entrepreneur [Hammerstein I](Oscar)(Oscar Hammerstein I) built the iconic [Theater](Victoria)(Victoria Theatre (Hammerstein's)) on West 42nd Street.
Broadway's first "long-run" musical was a 50-performance hit called *The Elves* in 1857. In 1870, the heart of Broadway was in [Square](Union)(Union Square (New York City)), and by the end of the century, many theatres were near [Square](Madison)(Madison Square). Theatres arrived in the [Square](Times)(Times Square) area in the early 1900s, and the Broadway theatres consolidated there after a large number were built around the square in the 1920s and 1930s. New York runs continued to lag far behind those in London,["Longest Running Plays in London and New York"](http://www.dgillan.screaming.net/stage/th-frames.html?http&&&www.dgillan.screaming.net/stage/th-longr.html) dgillan.screaming.net (stagebeauty.net), copyright 2007, accessed August 26, 2011 but [Keene](Laura)(Laura Keene)'s "musical burletta" *[Seven Sisters](The)(The Seven Sisters (play))* (1860) shattered previous New York records with a run of 253 performances. It was at a performance by Keene's troupe of *[American Cousin](Our)(Our American Cousin)* in Washington, D.C. that Abraham Lincoln was shot.
[[File:Crookfinale.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|*[Black Crook](The)(The Black Crook)* (1866), considered by some historians to be the first musical.Sheridan, Morley. *Spread A Little Happiness:the First Hundred Years of the British Musical*, New York: Thames and Hudson, 1987, , p.15 Poster for the 1873 revival by [Kiralfy Brothers](The)(The Kiralfy Brothers).]]
The first theatre piece that conforms to the modern conception of a musical, adding dance and original music that helped to tell the story, is considered to be *[Black Crook](The)(The Black Crook)*, which premiered in New York on September 12, 1866. The production was five-and-a-half hours long, but despite its length, it ran for a record-breaking 474 performances. The same year, *The Black Domino/Between You, Me and the Post* was the first show to call itself a "musical comedy".
[Pastor](Tony)(Tony Pastor) opened the first [vaudeville](vaudeville) theatre one block east of Union Square in 1881, where [Russell](Lillian)(Lillian Russell) performed. Comedians [Harrigan](Edward)(Edward Harrigan) and [Hart](Tony)(Tony Hart (theater)) produced and starred in musicals on Broadway between 1878 (*The Mulligan Guard Picnic*) and 1890, with book and lyrics by Harrigan and music by his father-in-law [Braham](David)(David Braham). These musical comedies featured characters and situations taken from the everyday life of New York's lower classes and represented a significant step forward from vaudeville and burlesque, towards a more literate form. They starred high-quality professional singers ([Russell](Lillian)(Lillian Russell), [Segal](Vivienne)(Vivienne Segal), and [Templeton](Fay)(Fay Templeton)), instead of the amateurs, often sex workers, who had starred in earlier musical forms.
As transportation improved, poverty in New York diminished, and street lighting made for safer travel at night, the number of potential patrons for the growing number of theatres increased enormously. Plays could run longer and still draw in the audiences, leading to better profits and improved production values. As in England, during the latter half of the century, the theatre began to be cleaned up, with less [prostitution](prostitution) hindering the attendance of the theatre by women. [and Sullivan](Gilbert)(Gilbert and Sullivan)'s family-friendly [opera](comic)(comic opera) hits, beginning with *[Pinafore](H.M.S.)(H.M.S. Pinafore)* in 1878, were imported to New York (by the authors and also in numerous unlicensed productions). They were imitated in New York by American productions such as [Dekoven](Reginald)(Reginald De Koven)'s *Robin Hood* (1891) and [Philip Sousa](John)(John Philip Sousa)'s *[Capitan](El)(El Capitan (operetta))* (1896), along with operas, ballets, and other British and European hits.
[[My Regards to Broadway.jpg|thumb|Sheet music to "Give My Regards to Broadway"](File:Give)]
[H. Hoyt](Charles)(Charles H. Hoyt)'s *A Trip to [Chinatown](Chinatown, Manhattan)* (1891) became Broadway's long-run champion when it surpassed *[Adonis](Adonis (musical))* and its 603 total performances in 1893, holding the stage for 657 performances. *[Chinatown](A Trip to Chinatown)* itself was surpassed by the musical *[Irene](Irene (musical))* (1919) in 1921 as the longest-running Broadway musical, and even earlier, in March 1920, by ''[Lightnin'](Lightnin' (play))'' (1918) as the longest-running Broadway show. In 1896, theatre owners [Klaw](Marc)(Marc Klaw) and [L. Erlanger](A.)(A. L. Erlanger) formed the [Syndicate](Theatrical)(Theatrical Syndicate), which controlled almost every legitimate theatre in the U.S. for the next sixteen years.Kenrick, John. ["Kenrick's summary of New York theatre from 1865–1900"](http://www.musicals101.com/bwaythhist3.htm) Musicals101.com, accessed August 26, 2011 However, smaller vaudeville and variety houses proliferated, and [Off-Broadway](Off-Broadway) was well established by the end of the nineteenth century.
*A Trip to Coontown* (1898) was the first musical comedy entirely produced and performed by [Americans](African)(African Americans) in a Broadway theatre (inspired largely. by the routines of the [show](minstrel)(minstrel show)s), followed by the [ragtime](ragtime)-tinged *[The Origin of the Cakewalk](Clorindy:)(Clorindy: The Origin of the Cakewalk)* (1898), and the highly successful *[Dahomey](In)(In Dahomey)* (1902). Hundreds of musical comedies were staged on Broadway in the 1890s and early 1900s made up of songs written in New York's [Pan Alley](Tin)(Tin Pan Alley) involving composers such as [Edwards](Gus)(Gus Edwards (vaudeville)), [Walter Bratton](John)(John Walter Bratton), and [M. Cohan](George)(George M. Cohan) (*[Johnny Jones](Little)(Little Johnny Jones)* (1904), *45 Minutes From Broadway* (1906), and *George Washington Jr.* (1906)). Still, New York runs continued to be relatively short, with a few exceptions, compared with London runs, until [War I](World)(World War I).
A few very successful British musicals continued to achieve great success in New York, including *[Florodora](Florodora)* in 1900–01.
### Early 20th century
[[Herbert.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Victor Herbert](File:Victor)]
In the early years of the twentieth century, translations of popular late-nineteenth century continental operettas were joined by the "Princess Theatre" shows of the 1910s, by writers such as [G. Wodehouse](P.)(P. G. Wodehouse), [Bolton](Guy)(Guy Bolton), and [B. Smith](Harry)(Harry B. Smith). [Herbert](Victor)(Victor Herbert), whose work included some intimate musical plays with modern settings as well as his string of famous operettas (*[Fortune Teller](The)(The Fortune Teller (operetta))* (1898), *[in Toyland](Babes)(Babes in Toyland (operetta))* (1903), *[Modiste](Mlle.)(Mlle. Modiste)* (1905), *[Red Mill](The)(The Red Mill)* (1906), and *[Marietta](Naughty)(Naughty Marietta (operetta))* (1910)).
Beginning with *The Red Mill*, Broadway shows installed electric signs outside the theatres. Since colored bulbs burned out too quickly, white lights were used, and Broadway was nicknamed "The Great White Way". In August 1919, the [Equity Association](Actors')(Actors' Equity Association) demanded a standard contract for all professional productions. After a strike shut down all the theatres, the producers were forced to agree. By the 1920s, the [Brothers](Shubert)(Shubert Brothers) had risen to take over the majority of the theatres from the Erlanger syndicate.
During this time, the play ''[Lightnin'](Lightnin' (play))* by [Smith](Winchell)(Winchell Smith) and [Bacon](Frank)(Frank Bacon (actor)) became the first Broadway show to reach 700 performances. From then, it would go on to become the first show to reach 1,000 performances. *Lightnin'* was the longest-running Broadway show until being overtaken in performance totals by *[Irish Rose](Abie's)(Abie's Irish Rose)'' in 1925.
### Competing with motion pictures
[[File:Broadway theatres 1920.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Broadway north from 38th St., New York City, showing the [Casino](Casino Theatre (New York, New York)) and [Knickerbocker](Knickerbocker Theatre (Broadway)) Theatres ("Listen, Lester", visible at lower right, played the Knickerbocker from December 23, 1918, to August 16, 1919), a sign pointing to [Elliott's Theatre](Maxine)(Maxine Elliott Theatre), which is out of view on 39th Street, and a sign advertising the [Garden Theatre](Winter)(Winter Garden Theatre), which is out of view at 50th Street. All but the Winter Garden are demolished. The old [Opera House](Metropolitan)(Metropolitan Opera House (39th St)) and the old [Tower](Times)(One Times Square) are visible on the left.]]
The motion picture mounted a challenge to the stage. At first, films were [silent](silent film) and presented only limited competition. By the end of the 1920s, films like *[Jazz Singer](The)(The Jazz Singer (1927 film))* were presented with synchronized sound, and critics wondered if cinema would replace live theatre altogether. While live vaudeville could not compete with these inexpensive films that featured vaudeville stars and major comedians of the day, other theatres survived. The musicals of the [Twenties](Roaring)(Roaring Twenties), borrowing from vaudeville, [hall](music)(music hall), and other light entertainment, tended to ignore plot in favor of emphasizing star actors and actresses, big dance routines, and popular songs.
[Ziegfeld](Florenz)(Florenz Ziegfeld) produced annual spectacular song-and-dance revues on Broadway featuring extravagant sets and elaborate costumes, but there was little to tie the various numbers together. Typical of the 1920s were lighthearted productions such as *[Sally](Sally (musical))*; *[Be Good](Lady)(Lady Be Good (musical))*; *[Sunny](Sunny (musical))*; *[No, Nanette](No,)(No, No, Nanette)*; *Harlem*; *[Kay!](Oh,)(Oh, Kay!)*; and *[Face](Funny)(Funny Face (musical))*. Their books may have been forgettable, but they produced enduring standards from [Gershwin](George)(George Gershwin), [Porter](Cole)(Cole Porter), [Kern](Jerome)(Jerome Kern), [Youmans](Vincent)(Vincent Youmans), and [and Hart](Rodgers)(Rodgers and Hart), among others, and [Coward](Noël)(Noël Coward), [Romberg](Sigmund)(Sigmund Romberg), and [Friml](Rudolf)(Rudolf Friml) continued in the vein of Victor Herbert. Live theatre has survived the invention of cinema.
### Between the wars
Leaving these comparatively frivolous entertainments behind and taking the drama a step forward, *[Boat](Show)(Show Boat)* premiered on December 27, 1927, at the [Theatre](Ziegfeld)(Ziegfeld Theatre (1927)). It represented a complete integration of book and score, with dramatic themes, as told through the music, dialogue, setting, and movement, woven together more seamlessly than in previous musicals. It ran for 572 performances.The 1920s also spawned a new age of American playwright with the emergence of [O'Neill](Eugene)(Eugene O'Neill), whose plays *[the Horizon](Beyond)(Beyond the Horizon (play))*, *[Christie](Anna)(Anna Christie)*, *[Hairy Ape](The)(The Hairy Ape)*, *[Interlude](Strange)(Strange Interlude)*, and *[Becomes Electra](Mourning)(Mourning Becomes Electra)* proved that there was an audience for serious drama on Broadway, and O'Neill's success paved the way for major dramatists like [Rice](Elmer)(Elmer Rice), [Anderson](Maxwell)(Maxwell Anderson), [E. Sherwood](Robert)(Robert E. Sherwood), [Odets](Clifford)(Clifford Odets), [Williams](Tennessee)(Tennessee Williams), and [Miller](Arthur)(Arthur Miller), as well as writers of comedy like [S. Kaufman](George)(George S. Kaufman) and [Hart](Moss)(Moss Hart). Classical revivals also proved popular with Broadway theatre-goers, notably [Barrymore](John)(John Barrymore) in *[Hamlet](Hamlet)* and *[III](Richard)(Richard III (play)), *[Gielgud](John)(John Gielgud) in *[Hamlet](Hamlet)*, *[Importance of Being Earnest](The)(The Importance of Being Earnest)* and *[Ado About Nothing](Much)(Much Ado About Nothing)*, [Hampden](Walter)(Walter Hampden) and [Ferrer](José)(José Ferrer) in *[de Bergerac](Cyrano)(Cyrano de Bergerac (play))*, [Robeson](Paul)(Paul Robeson) and Ferrer in *[Othello](Othello)*, [Evans](Maurice)(Maurice Evans (actor)) in *[II](Richard)(Richard II (play))* and the plays of [Bernard Shaw](George)(George Bernard Shaw), and [Cornell](Katharine)(Katharine Cornell) in such plays as *[and Juliet](Romeo)(Romeo and Juliet)*, *[and Cleopatra](Antony)(Antony and Cleopatra)*, and *[Candida](Candida (play))*.
As [War II](World)(World War II) approached, a dozen Broadway dramas addressed the rise of Nazism in Europe and the issue of American non-intervention. The most successful was [Hellman](Lillian)(Lillian Hellman)'s *[on the Rhine](Watch)(Watch on the Rhine (play))*, which opened in April 1941.
### Post-War era
After the lean years of the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression), Broadway theatre had entered a golden age with the blockbuster hit *[Oklahoma!](Oklahoma!)*, in 1943, which ran for 2,212 performances. According to [Kenrick](John)(John Kenrick (theatre writer))'s writings on Broadway musicals, "Every season saw new stage musicals send songs to the top of the charts. Public demand, a booming economy and abundant creative talent kept Broadway hopping. To this day, the shows of the 1950s form the core of the musical theatre repertory."Kenrick, John. ["History of The Musical Stage. 1950s I: When Broadway Ruled"](http://www.musicals101.com/1950bway.htm) musicals101.com, accessed December 2, 2012
### Decline in late 1960s
Kenrick notes that "the late 1960s marked a time of cultural upheaval. All those changes would prove painful for many, including those behind the scenes, as well as those in the audience."Kenrick, John. ["History of The Musical Stage.1960s II: Long Running Hits"](http://www.musicals101.com/1960bway2.htm)
musicals101.com, accessed December 2, 2012 Of the 1970s, Kenrick writes: "Just when it seemed that traditional book musicals were back in style, the decade ended with critics and audiences giving mixed signals."Kenrick, John. ["History of The Musical Stage. 1970s Part V: Change"](http://www.musicals101.com/1970bway5.htm) musicals101.com, accessed December 2, 2012
[Bloom](Ken)(Ken Bloom) observed that "The 1960s and 1970s saw a worsening of the area [Square](Times) and a drop in the number of legitimate shows produced on Broadway."Bloom, Ken. ["Introduction"](https://books.google.com/books?id=GBiEO8q59f0C&q=Broadway) *Broadway: Its History, People, and Places* (2004) (books.google.com) Taylor & Francis, , p.xvi By way of comparison, in the 1950 to 1951 season (May to May) 94 productions opened on Broadway; in the 1969 to 1970 season (June to May) there were 59 productions (fifteen were revivals). In the twenties, there were 70–80 theaters, but by 1969, there were 36 left.["Broadway 1950–1970"](http://www.mapsites.net/gotham01/webpages/alisonhannah/broad1950to1970.html) mapsites.net, December 2, 2012
### Resurgence in early 1980s
In early 1982, [Papp](Joe)(Joe Papp), the theatrical producer and director who established [Public Theater](The)(The Public Theater), led the "Save the Theatres" campaign.The name of the organization was "Save the Theatres, Inc., as noted in court papers. See [Shubert Organization, Inc. v. Landmarks Preservation Commission of the City of New York and Save the Theatres, Inc.](http://www.arch.ksu.edu/jwkplan/cases/shubert.pdf) , Supreme Court of New York, Appellate Division, First Department, May 16, 1991, accessed March 10, 2013 It was a not-for-profit group supported by the [Equity](Actors)(Actors Equity) union to save the theater buildings in the neighborhood from demolition by monied Manhattan development interests.Corwin, Betty ["Theatre on film and tape archive"](http://www.sibmas.org/congresses/sibmas94/antw_20.html) , International Association of Libraries and Museums of the Performing Arts, accessed May 10, 2013 Papp provided resources, recruited a publicist and celebrated actors, and provided audio, lighting, and technical crews for the effort.
At Papp's behest, in July 1982, a bill was introduced in the [Congress](97th)(97th Congress), entitled "H.R.6885, A bill to designate the Broadway/Times Square Theatre District in the City of New York as a national historic site". The legislation would have provided certain U.S. government resources and assistance to help the city preserve the district. Faced with strong opposition and lobbying by [Ed Koch's Administration](Mayor)(Ed Koch) and corporate Manhattan development interests, the bill was not passed. The Save the Theatres campaign then turned their efforts to supporting the establishment of the Theater District as a registered [district](historic)(historic district). In December 1983, Save the Theatres prepared "The Broadway Theater District, a Preservation Development and Management Plan", and demanded that each theater in the district receive landmark designation. Mayor [Koch](Ed)(Ed Koch) ultimately reacted by creating a Theater Advisory Council, which included Papp.
### COVID-19 impact
Due to the [pandemic in New York City](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in New York City), Broadway theaters closed on March 12, 2020, shuttering 16 shows that were playing or were in the process of opening. The Broadway League shutdown was extended first to April, then to May, then June, then September 2020 and January 2021, and later to June 1, 2021. Then-governor [Cuomo](Andrew)(Andrew Cuomo) announced that most sectors of [York](New)(New York (state)) would have their restrictions lifted on May 19, 2021, but he stated that Broadway theatres would not be able to immediately resume performances on this date due to logistical reasons. In May 2021, Cuomo announced that Broadway theaters would be allowed to reopen on September 14, and the League confirmed that performances would begin to resume in the fall season.
*[on Broadway](Springsteen)(Springsteen on Broadway)* became the first full-length show to resume performances, opening on June 26, 2021, to 1,721 vaccinated patrons at the [James Theatre](St.)(St. James Theatre). *Pass Over* then had its first preview on August 4, and opened on August 22, 2021, becoming the first new play to open. *[Hadestown](Hadestown)* and *[Waitress](Waitress (musical))* were the first musicals to resume performances on September 2, 2021. The [Tony Awards](74th)(74th Tony Awards) were also postponed; the Tony nominations were announced on October 15, 2020, and took place on September 26, 2021. On July 30, 2021, it was announced that all Broadway theaters required attendees to provide proof of full [vaccination](COVID-19)(COVID-19 vaccine). The rule applied to guests ages 12+. Those under age 12 were required to provide a negative COVID-19 test (PCR within 72 hours or antigen within six hours of the performance start time). Beginning November 8, those ages 5-11 also had the option to provide proof of at least one vaccination shot. Effective December 14, in accordance with NYC's vaccination mandate, guests ages 5-11 were required to have at least one vaccination shot until January 29, 2022, where they had to be fully vaccinated. The vaccine mandate lasted until April 30, and attendees were also required to wear [masks](face)(Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic) until July 1.
During the COVID-19 shutdown, the Shubert Organization, the Nederlander Organization, and Jujamcyn had pledged to increase racial and cultural diversity in their theaters, including naming at least one theater for a Black theatrical personality. The [Wilson Theatre](August)(August Wilson Theatre), owned by Jujamcyn, had been renamed after Black playwright [Wilson](August)(August Wilson) in 2005. The Shuberts announced in March 2022 that the [Theatre](Cort)(Cort Theatre), which was under renovation at the time, would be renamed after actor [Earl Jones](James)(James Earl Jones). In June 2022, the Nederlanders announced that the [Atkinson Theatre](Brooks)(Brooks Atkinson Theatre) would be renamed after [Horne](Lena)(Lena Horne), The James Earl Jones Theatre was rededicated in September 2022, while the Lena Horne Theatre was rededicated that November.
## Description
### Schedule
Although there are some exceptions, shows with open-ended runs generally have evening performances Tuesday through Saturday, with a 7:00 p.m. or 8:00 p.m. "curtain". The afternoon "[matinée](wikt:matinée)" performances are at 2:00 p.m. on Wednesdays and Saturdays and at 3:00 p.m. on Sundays. This makes for an eight-performance week. On this schedule, most shows do not play on Monday and the shows and theatres are said to be "dark" on that day. The actors and the crew in these shows tend to regard Sunday evening through Monday evening as their weekend. The Tony award presentation ceremony is usually held on a Sunday evening in June to fit this schedule.
In recent years, some shows have moved their Tuesday show time an hour earlier to 7:00 pm. The rationale for this move was that since fewer tourists take in shows midweek, Tuesday attendance depends more on local patrons. The earlier curtain makes it possible for suburban patrons to get home by a reasonable hour after the show. Some shows, especially those produced by [Disney](Disney Theatrical Productions), change their performance schedules fairly frequently depending on the season. This is done in order to maximize access to their target audience.
### Producers and theatre owners
Most Broadway producers and theatre owners are members of [Broadway League](The)(The Broadway League) (formerly "The League of American Theatres and Producers"), a trade organization that promotes Broadway theatre as a whole, negotiates contracts with the various theatrical unions and agreements with the guilds, and co-administers the [Awards](Tony)(Tony Awards) with the [Theatre Wing](American)(American Theatre Wing), a service organization. While the League and the theatrical unions are sometimes at loggerheads during those periods when new contracts are being negotiated, they also cooperate on many projects and events designed to promote professional theatre in New York.
Of the four non-profit theatre companies with Broadway theatres, all four ([Center Theater](Lincoln)(Vivian Beaumont Theater), [Theatre Club](Manhattan)(Manhattan Theatre Club), [Theatre Company](Roundabout)(Roundabout Theatre Company), and [Stage Theatre](Second)(Second Stage Theatre)) belong to the [of Resident Theatres](League)(League of Resident Theatres) and have contracts with the theatrical unions which are negotiated separately from the other Broadway theatre and producers. ([Disney](Disney Theatrical Productions) also negotiates apart from the League, as did [Livent](Livent) before it closed down its operations.)
The majority of Broadway theatres are owned or managed by three organizations: the [Organization](Shubert)(Shubert Organization), a for-profit arm of the non-profit Shubert Foundation, which owns seventeen theatres; the [Organization](Nederlander)(Nederlander Organization), which controls nine theatres; and [Jujamcyn](Jujamcyn), which owns five Broadway houses.
### Personnel
Both musicals and straight plays on Broadway often rely on casting well-known performers in leading roles to draw larger audiences or bring in new audience members to the theatre. Actors from film and television are frequently cast for the revivals of Broadway shows or are used to replace actors leaving a cast. There are still, however, performers who are primarily stage actors, spending most of their time "on the boards", and appearing in screen roles only secondarily. As Patrick Healy of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* noted:
Broadway once had many homegrown stars who committed to working on a show for a year, as [Lane](Nathan)(Nathan Lane) has for *[Addams Family](The)(The Addams Family (musical))*. In 2010, some theater heavyweights like Mr. Lane were not even nominated; instead, several Tony Awards were given for productions that were always intended to be short-timers on Broadway, given that many of their film-star performers had to move on to other commitments.Healy, Patrick. ["Time Is Short to See Tony Winners"](https://www.nytimes.com/2010//06/15/theater/theaterspecial/15tony.html) . *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, June 14, 2010
According to Mark Shenton, "One of the biggest changes to the commercial theatrical landscape—on both sides of the Atlantic—over the past decade or so is that sightings of big star names turning out to do plays has [sic] gone up; but the runs they are prepared to commit to has gone down. Time was that a producer would require a minimum commitment from his star of six months, and perhaps a year; now, the 13-week run is the norm."Shenton, Mark. ["Rewarded today, gone tomorrow..."](http://blogs.thestage.co.uk/shenton/2010/06/rewarded-today-gone-tomorrow/) . *The Stage*, June 17, 2010
The minimum size of the Broadway orchestra is governed by an agreement with the musicians' union (Local 802, American Federation of Musicians) and The Broadway League. For example, the agreement specifies the minimum size of the orchestra at the Minskoff Theatre to be eighteen, while at the Music Box Theatre it is nine.["Local 802 Agreement"](http://www.local802afm.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Broadway_Agreement%2007_10.pdf) . local802afm.org. p. 10. Retrieved August 10, 2013.
### Runs
Most Broadway shows are commercial productions intended to make a profit for the producers and investors ("backers" or "angels"), and therefore have open-ended runs (duration that the production plays), meaning that the length of their presentation is not set beforehand, but depends on critical response, word of mouth, and the effectiveness of the show's advertising, all of which determine ticket sales. Investing in a commercial production carries a varied degree of financial risk. Shows need not make a profit immediately; should they make their "nut" (weekly operating expenses), or lose money at a rate acceptable to the producers, they may continue to run in the expectation that, eventually, they will pay back their initial costs and become profitable. In some borderline situations, producers may ask that royalties be temporarily reduced or waived, or even that performers—with the permission of their unions—take reduced salaries, to prevent a show from closing. Theatre owners, who are not generally profit participants in most productions, may waive or reduce rents, or even lend money to a show to keep it running.
Some Broadway shows are produced by non-commercial organizations as part of a regular subscription season—[Center Theatre](Lincoln)(Lincoln Center), [Theatre Company](Roundabout)(Roundabout Theatre Company), [Theatre Club](Manhattan)(Manhattan Theatre Club), and [Stage Theater](Second)(Second Stage Theater) are the four non-profit theatre companies that currently have permanent Broadway venues. Some other productions are produced on Broadway with "limited engagement runs" for several reasons, including financial issues, prior engagements of the performers, or temporary availability of a theatre between the end of one production and the beginning of another. However, some shows with planned limited engagement runs may, after critical acclaim or box office success, extend their engagements or convert to open-ended runs. This was the case with 2007's *[Osage County](August:)(August: Osage County)*, 2009's *[of Carnage](God)(God of Carnage)*, 2012's *[Newsies](Newsies (musical))*, and 2022's *[Me Out](Take)(Take Me Out (play))*.
Historically, musicals on Broadway tend to have longer runs than "straight" (i.e., non-musical) plays. On January 9, 2006, *[Phantom of the Opera](The)(The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical))* at the [Theatre](Majestic)(Majestic Theatre (Broadway)) became the longest-running Broadway musical, with 7,486 performances, overtaking *[Cats](Cats (musical))*.Playbill Staff. ["Long Runs on Broadway"](http://boeingonbroadway.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/long-runs-on-broadway.pdf) Playbill.com, November 20, 2011 *The Phantom of the Opera* closed on Broadway on April 16, 2023, soon after celebrating its 35th anniversary, after a total of 13,981 performances.
### Audience
Attending a Broadway show is a common [tourist](tourism) activity in New York. The [TKTS](TKTS) booths sell same-day tickets (and in certain cases, next-day matinee tickets) for many Broadway and [Off-Broadway](Off-Broadway) shows at a discount of 20 to 50%. The TKTS booths are located in [Square](Times)(Times Square), in [Manhattan](Lower)(Lower Manhattan), and at [Center](Lincoln)(Lincoln Center). This service is run by [Development Fund](Theatre)(Theatre Development Fund). Many Broadway theatres also offer special student rates, same-day "rush" or "lottery" tickets, or standing-room tickets to help ensure that their theatres are as full—and their grosses as high—as possible.Blank, Matthew. ["Broadway Rush and Standing Room Only Policies"](http://www.playbill.com/celebritybuzz/article/82428.html) . Playbill.com, March 1, 2011
According to [Broadway League](The)(The Broadway League), total Broadway attendance was 14.77 million in 2018–2019, compared to 13.79 million in 2017–2018. The Broadway League reports that approximately 66% of all Broadway tickets were purchased by tourists in the 2012–2013 season, an increase of three percent from the 2011–2012 season. By way of comparison, [London](London)'s [End theatre](West)(West End theatre) reported a total attendance of 15.5 million for major commercial and grant-aided theatres in [London](central)(central London) for 2018.["Society of London Theatre Box Office Figures, 2018"](https://solt.co.uk/about-london-theatre/press-office/2018-box-office-figures-released-by-society-of-london-theatre-and-uk-theatre/) solt.co.uk, Date Published: March 1, 2019 The average age of the Broadway audience in the 2017–18 theater season was 40, the lowest it had been in nearly two decades.
### Off-Broadway and Off-Off-Broadway
The classification of theatres is governed by language in [Equity Association](Actors')(Actors' Equity Association) contracts. To be eligible for a Tony, a production must be in a house with 500 seats or more and in the Theater District, which are the criteria that define Broadway theatre. [Off-Broadway](Off-Broadway) and [Off-Off-Broadway](Off-Off-Broadway) shows often provide a more experimental, challenging, and intimate performance than is possible in the larger Broadway theatres. Some Broadway shows, however, such as the musicals *[Hair](Hair (musical))*, *[Shop of Horrors](Little)(Little Shop of Horrors (musical))*, *[Awakening](Spring)(Spring Awakening (musical))*, *[to Normal](Next)(Next to Normal)*, *[Rent](Rent (musical))*, *[Q](Avenue)(Avenue Q)*, *[the Heights](In)(In the Heights)*, *[Home](Fun)(Fun Home (musical))*, *[Evan Hansen](Dear)(Dear Evan Hansen)*, and *[Hamilton](Hamilton (musical))*, began their runs Off-Broadway and later transferred to Broadway, seeking to replicate their intimate experience in a larger theatre. Other productions are first developed through [workshops](Workshop production) and then out-of-town [tryouts](Tryout (theatre)) before transferring to Broadway. *[We Roll Along](Merrily)(Merrily We Roll Along (musical))* famously skipped an out-of-town tryout and attempted to do an in-town tryout—actually [performances](preview)(Preview (theatre))—on Broadway before its official opening, with disastrous results.
### Broadway national tours
After, or even during, successful runs in Broadway theatres, producers often remount their productions with new casts and crew for the Broadway national tour, which travels to theatres in major cities across the country. Sometimes when a show closes on Broadway, the entire production, with most if not all of the original cast intact, is relaunched as a touring company, hence the name "Broadway national tour". Some shows may even have several touring companies out at a time, whether the show is still running in New York or not, with many companies "sitting down" in other major cities for their own extended runs. For Broadway national tours of top-tier cities, the entire Broadway production is transplanted almost entirely intact and may run for many months (or years) at each stop. For example, the first U.S. tour of *The Phantom of the Opera* required 26 53-foot-long (16.1 m) [semi-trailer](semi-trailer)s to transport all its sets, equipment, and costumes, and it took almost 10 days to properly unload all those trucks and install everything into a theater.
Second-tier and smaller cities can also attract national tours, but these are more likely to be "bus and truck" tours. These are scaled-down versions of the larger, national touring productions, historically acquiring their name because the casts generally traveled by bus instead of by air, while the sets and equipment traveled by truck. Tours of this type often run for weeks rather than months, and frequently feature a reduced physical production to accommodate smaller venues and tighter schedules, and to fit into less trucks. A typical second-tier city can usually sell only up to about eight weeks of tickets. For cities smaller than that, a touring production might move twice a week ("split weeks") or every day ("one-nighters"). For "bus and truck" tours, the production values are usually less lavish than the typical Broadway national tour or national touring production, and the actors, while still members of the actors' union, are compensated under a different, less lucrative union contract. The [Broadway Awards](Touring)(Touring Broadway Awards), presented by [Broadway League](The)(The Broadway League), honored excellence in touring Broadway.
### Awards
Broadway productions and artists are honored by the annual Antoinette Perry Awards (commonly called the "[Award](Tony)(Tony Award)s", or "Tonys"), given by the [Theatre Wing](American)(American Theatre Wing) and [Broadway League](The)(The Broadway League), and that were first presented in 1947.["Tony Awards History"](http://www.tonyawards.com/en_US/archive/history.html) tonyawards.com, accessed February 25, 2011 The Tony is Broadway's most prestigious award, comparable to the [Awards](Academy)(Academy Awards) for [Hollywood](Hollywood (film industry)) film productions. Their importance has increased since 1967 when the awards presentation show began to be broadcast on national television. In a strategy to improve the television ratings, celebrities are often chosen to host the show, some with scant connection to the theatre.McKinley, Jesse. ["Tony Awards Finish Up With a Fuzzy Surprise; Puppet Musical Wins Big, as Does 'My Own Wife'"](https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C04E4DC1E31F934A35755C0A9629C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1) *The New York Times*, June 7, 2004 The most recent Tony Awards ceremony was held on [11, 2023](June)(76th Tony Awards). Other awards given to Broadway productions include the [Desk Award](Drama)(Drama Desk Award), presented since 1955, the [York Drama Critics' Circle Awards](New)(New York Drama Critics' Circle), first given in 1936, and the [Critics Circle Award](Outer)(Outer Critics Circle Award), initially presented in 1950.
## Broadway theatres and current productions
* An * after the opening date indicates that the listed show has not yet opened, but is scheduled to open on the given date at that theatre.
* An * after the closing date indicates that there is another production scheduled for that theatre.
* If the next show planned is not announced, the applicable columns are left blank.
* Capacity is based on the capacity given for the respective theatre at the [Broadway Database](Internet)(Internet Broadway Database).["Venues at the Internet Broadway Database](http://www.ibdb.com/advSearchVenue.php) InternetBroadwayDatabase.com, accessed August 26, 2011
### Upcoming productions
The following have been announced as future Broadway productions. The theatre in which they will run may not yet be known, or, if known, may be currently occupied by another show.
## Notes
## See also
* [Off-Broadway](Off-Broadway)
* [Off-Off-Broadway](Off-Off-Broadway)
## References
## Further reading
* Ackerman, Alan. "Liberalism, Democracy, and the Twentieth-Century American Theater," *American Literary History* (2005) 17#4 pp. 765–780.
* [Gerald](Bordman,)(Gerald Bordman). *American Musical Comedy* (Oxford University Press, 1982)
* Bordman, Gerald. *American Operetta* (Oxford University Press, 1981)
* Knapp, Raymond. *The American Musical and the Formation of National Identity* (Princeton University Press, 2005)
* Middeke, Martin, et al. *The Methuen Drama Guide to Contemporary American Playwrights* (2013)
* Mordden, Ethan. *Anything Goes: A History of American Musical Theatre* (2013)
* Roudane, Matthew Charles. *American Drama Since 1960: A Critical History* (1996)
* Shiach, Don. *American Drama 1900–1990* (2000)
* Stempel, Larry. *Showtime: A History of the Broadway Musical Theater* (WW Norton, 2010) 826 pp.
* Weales, Gerald Clifford. *American drama since World War II* (1962)
* White, Timothy R. *Blue-Collar Broadway: The Craft and Industry of American Theater* (2014)
* Wolf, Stacy. *Changed for Good: A Feminist History of the Broadway Musical* (2010)
## External links
* [The Internet Broadway Database](http://www.ibdb.com/)
* [The Houses of Broadway](https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2010/04/30/theater/stages.html?ref=multimedia), *The New York Times*, April 30, 2010
[ ](Category:Broadway theatre)
[theatre](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical theatre)
[District, Manhattan](Category:Theater)(Category:Theater District, Manhattan)
[in the United States](Category:Theatre)(Category:Theatre in the United States)
[(Manhattan)](Category:Broadway)(Category:Broadway (Manhattan))
[of New York City](Category:Culture)(Category:Culture of New York City)
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Pride flag
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pride_flag
|
# Pride flag
*Revision ID: 1159587117 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T08:08:26Z*
---
[[File:Pride flags (51302958040).jpg|thumb|A collection of pride flags hanging in London's [Market](Leadenhall)(Leadenhall Market)]]
A **pride flag** is any [flag](flag) that represents a segment or part of the [community](LGBT)(LGBT community). *Pride* in this case refers to the notion of [pride](LGBT)(LGBT pride). The terms *[LGBT](LGBT) flag* and *[queer](queer) flag* are often used interchangeably.
Pride flags can represent various [orientation](sexual)(sexual orientation)s, [orientation](romantic)(romantic orientation)s, [identities](gender)(Gender identity), [subcultures](Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures), and regional purposes, as well as the LGBT community as a whole. There are also some pride flags that are not exclusively related to LGBT matters, such as the [for leather subculture](flag)(Leather pride flag). The [flag](rainbow)(Rainbow flag (LGBT)), which represents the entire LGBT community, is the most widely used pride flag.
## Notable examples
### Rainbow
[Baker](Gilbert)(Gilbert Baker (artist)) designed the rainbow pride flag for the 1978 [Francisco Gay Freedom Day](San)(San Francisco Pride) celebration. The flag was designed as a "symbol of hope" and liberation, and an alternative to the symbolism of the [triangle](pink)(pink triangle). The flag does not depict an actual rainbow. Rather, the colors of the rainbow are displayed as horizontal stripes, with red at the top and violet at the bottom. It represents the diversity of gays and lesbians around the world. In the original eight-color version, pink stood for sexuality, red for life, orange for healing, yellow for the sun, green for nature, turquoise for art, indigo for harmony, and violet for spirit. A copy of the original 20-by-30 foot, eight-color flag was made by Baker in 2000 and was installed in the [district](Castro)(Castro District, San Francisco) in San Francisco. Many variations on the rainbow flag exist, including ones incorporating other LGBT symbols like the triangle or lambda.
### Aromanticism
[[flag](File:Aromantic_Pride_Flag.svg|thumb|upright|Aromantic)]
The [aromantic](aromantic) pride flag consists of five horizontal stripes, which are (from top to bottom) green, light green, white, gray, and black. The flag was created by Cameron Whimsy ([Tumblr](Tumblr) user cameronwhimsy) in 2014. The green and light green stripes represent aromanticism and the aro-spectrum. The white stripe represents the importance and validity of non-romantic forms of love, which include [friendship](friendship), [platonic](Platonic love) and aesthetic attraction, [relationships](queerplatonic)(Queerplatonic relationship), and family. The black and gray stripes represent the sexuality spectrum, which ranges from [aro-aces](Aro-ace) (aromantic asexuals) to aromantic [allosexuals](wiktionary:allosexual).
### Asexuality
[[gray, white, purple stripes|thumb|upright|Asexual flag](File:Asexual_Pride_Flag.svg|alt=Black,)]
The [asexual](Asexuality) pride flag consists of four horizontal stripes: black, gray, white, and purple from top to bottom. The flag was created by an [Visibility and Education Network](Asexual)(Asexual Visibility and Education Network) user standup in August 2010, as part of a community effort to create and choose a flag. The black stripe represents asexuality; the gray stripe represents [gray-asexuals](Gray asexuality) and [demisexual](demisexual)s; the white stripe represents [allies](Ally (LGBTQ)); and the purple stripe represents community.
### Bear culture
[[File:Bear_Brotherhood_flag.svg|alt=Bear Brotherhood flag|thumb|upright|[flag](Bear)(Bear flag (gay culture))]]
*[Bear](Bear (gay culture))* is an affectionate [slang](gay)(gay slang) term for those in the bear communities, a subculture in the [community](gay)(gay community) and an emerging subset of the LGBT community with its own events, codes, and a culture-specific identity. Bears tend to have hairy bodies and [hair](facial)(facial hair); some are [heavy-set](Overweight); some project an image of working-class [masculinity](masculinity) in their [grooming](Personal grooming) and appearance, though none of these are requirements or unique indicators. The bear concept can function as an identity, an affiliation, and an ideal to live up to. There is ongoing debate in bear communities about what constitutes a bear. Some state that self-identifying as a bear is the only requirement, while others argue that bears must have certain physical characteristics, such as a hairy chest and face, a large body, or a certain mode of dress and behavior.
Bears are almost always [gay](gay) or [bisexual](Bisexuality) men; [transgender](transgender) men attracted to other men are increasingly included within bear communities. The bear community has spread all over the world, with bear clubs in many countries. Bear clubs often serve as social and sexual networks for older, hairier, sometimes heavier gay and bisexual men, and members often contribute to their local gay communities through fundraising and other functions. Bear events are common in heavily gay communities.
The [Bear Brotherhood Flag](International)(Bear flag (gay culture)) was designed in 1995 by Craig Byrnes.
### Bisexuality
[[File:Bisexual_Pride_Flag.svg|alt=Magenta, lavender, and blue stripes|thumb|upright|[flag](Bisexual)(Bisexual flag)]]
Introduced on December 5, 1998, the [bisexual](Bisexuality) pride flag was designed by [activist](activist) Michael Page to represent and increase the visibility of bisexual people in the LGBT community and society as a whole. Page chose a combination of [Matching System (PMS)](Pantone)(Pantone#Pantone Color Matching System) colors magenta (pink), lavender (purple), and royal (blue). The finished rectangular flag consists of a broad pink stripe at the top, a broad stripe in blue at the bottom, and a narrow purple stripe in the center.
Page described the meaning of the colors as, "The pink color represents sexual attraction to the same sex only (gay and lesbian), the blue represents sexual attraction to the opposite sex only (straight) and the resultant overlap color purple represents sexual attraction to both sexes (bi)." He also described the flag's meaning in deeper terms, stating "The key to understanding the symbolism in the Bi Pride Flag is to know that the purple pixels of color blend unnoticeably into both the pink and blue, just as in the 'real world' where bi people blend unnoticeably into both the gay/lesbian and straight communities."
The blue and pink overlapping triangle symbol represents bisexuality and bisexual pride. The origin of the symbol, sometimes facetiously referred to as the "biangles", is largely unknown; however, some postulations describe the colors as "pink represents attraction to women and the blue attraction to men, or the pink represents homosexuality, the blue heterosexuality and the purple bisexuality."
### Intersex
[[File:Intersex_flag.svg|alt=A yellow background with a purple circle in the middle, representing intersex people.|thumb|upright|[flag](Intersex)(Intersex flag)]]
The [intersex](intersex) flag was created by [Carpenter](Morgan)(Morgan Carpenter) of [Human Rights Australia](Intersex)(Intersex Human Rights Australia) in July 2013 to create a flag "that is not derivative, but is yet firmly grounded in meaning". The organization describes the circle as "unbroken and unornamented, symbolising wholeness and completeness, and our potentialities. We are still fighting for bodily autonomy and genital integrity, and this symbolises the right to be who and how we want to be".
### Lesbian
No single flag design for a [lesbian](lesbian) pride flag has been widely adopted. However, many popular ones exist.
The [labrys](labrys) lesbian flag was created in 1999 by graphic designer Sean Campbell, and published in June 2000 in the Palm Springs edition of the *[and Lesbian Times](Gay)(Gay and Lesbian Times)* Pride issue. The design involves a labrys, a type of double-headed axe, superimposed on the inverted [triangle](black)(Black triangle (badge)), set against a [violet](Violet (color)#Social movement) background. Among its functions, the labrys was associated as a weapon used by the [Amazons](Amazons) of [mythology](Greek mythology). In the 1970s it was adopted as a symbol of empowerment by the [feminist](lesbian)(Lesbian feminism) community. Women considered asocial by [Germany](Nazi)(Nazi Germany) for not conforming to the [Nazi](Nazism) ideal of a woman, which included [females](homosexual)(homosexuality), were condemned to [camps](concentration)(Nazi concentration camps) and wore an inverted [triangle](black)(Black triangle (badge)) badge to identify them. (Originally published in the *[of Homosexuality](Journal)(Journal of Homosexuality)*, 1996, 30 (3): pp.1–11, , ) Some lesbians reclaimed this symbol as [men](gay)(gay men) reclaimed the [triangle](pink)(pink triangle) (many lesbians also reclaimed the pink triangle although lesbians were not included in [175](Paragraph)(Paragraph 175) of the [criminal code](German)(Strafgesetzbuch)). The color violet became associated with lesbians via the poetry of [Sappho](Sappho).
The [lesbian](lipstick)(lipstick lesbian) flag was introduced by Natalie McCray in 2010 in the [weblog](Blog) *This Lesbian Life*. (The Mathers article shows the derivative design, but not the original flag.) The design contains a red kiss in the left corner, superimposed on seven stripes consisting of six shades of red and pink colors and a white bar in the center. The lipstick lesbian flag represents "homosexual women who have a more feminine gender expression", but has not been widely adopted. Some lesbians are against it because it does not include [lesbians](butch)(butch (lesbian slang)), while others have accused McCray of writing [biphobic](biphobia), racist, and [transphobic](transphobia) comments on her blog.
The "pink" lesbian flag was derived from the lipstick lesbian flag but with the kiss mark removed. The pink flag attracted more use as a general lesbian pride flag.
The "orange-pink" lesbian flag, modeled after the seven-band pink flag, was introduced on [Tumblr](Tumblr) by [blogger](blogger) Emily Gwen in 2018. The colors include dark orange for "gender non-conformity", orange for "independence", light orange for "community", white for "unique relationships to womanhood", pink for "serenity and peace", dusty pink for "love and sex", and dark rose for "femininity". A five-stripes version was soon derived from the 2018 colors. (video)
#### Gallery of lesbian pride flags
}}
### Non-binary
[[white, light purple, and black stripes.|thumb|upright|Non-binary flag](File:Nonbinary_flag.svg|alt=Yellow,)]
The [non-binary](non-binary) pride flag was created in 2014 by activist Kye Rowan. Each stripe color represents different types of non-binary identities: Yellow for people who identify outside of the gender binary, white for nonbinary people with multiple genders, purple for those with a mixture of both male and female genders, and black for [agender](agender) individuals.
Under the non-binary umbrella are all those people who identify off the [binary](gender)(gender binary). There are many different identities within this category including [androgyny](androgyny), [genderqueer](genderqueer)ness (which includes agender, ceterosexual, [genderfluid](genderfluid), [intergender](intergender), among others), [gender](third)(third gender), and [transgender](transgender).
### Pansexuality
[[File:Pansexuality_flag.svg|alt=Pink, yellow, and light blue stripes.|thumb|upright|[flag](Pansexual)(Pansexual flag)]]
The [pansexual](pansexual) pride flag was introduced in October 2010 in a Tumblr blog ("Pansexual Pride Flag"). It has three horizontal bars that are pink, yellow and blue. "The pink represents being attracted to women, the blue being attracted to men, and the yellow for being attracted to everyone else"; such as [gender identities](non-binary)(non-binary gender identities).
### Transgender
[[File:Transgender_Pride_flag.svg|thumb|upright|[flag](Transgender)(Transgender flag)]]
The [transgender](transgender) pride flag was designed by transgender woman [Helms](Monica)(Monica Helms) in 1999. It was first publicly displayed at a pride parade in Phoenix, Arizona, US, in 2000. It was flown from a large public flagpole in San Francisco's [District](Castro)(Castro District) beginning November 19, 2012, in commemoration of the [Day of Remembrance](Transgender)(Transgender Day of Remembrance). The flag represents the transgender community and consists of five horizontal stripes: two light blue, two pink, with a white stripe in the center. Helms described the meaning of the flag as follows:
The pattern is such that no matter which way you fly it, it is always correct, signifying us finding correctness in our lives.}}
[Philadelphia](Philadelphia) became the first county government in the United States to raise the transgender pride flag in 2015. It was raised at [Hall](City)(Philadelphia City Hall) in honor of Philadelphia's 14th Annual [Health Conference](Trans)(Mazzoni Center), and remained next to the US and City of Philadelphia flags for the entirety of the conference. Then-[Michael Nutter](Mayor)(Michael Nutter) gave a speech in honor of the trans community's acceptance in Philadelphia.
## Gallery
### Sexual orientation–based flags
|Asexual Pride Flag.svg|[Asexual](Asexuality#Community)
|Bisexual Pride Flag.svg|[Bisexual](Bisexual flag)
|Demisexual Pride Flag.svg|[Demisexual](Demisexuality)
|Gay Men Pride Flag.svg|[men](Gay)(Gay men)
|Grey asexuality flag.svg|[asexual/graysexual](Gray)(Gray asexuality)
|Labrys_Lesbian_Flag.svg|[Labrys](Labrys) lesbian/[feminist](lesbian)(lesbian feminist)
|Lipstick lesbian flag.svg|[lesbian](Lipstick)(Lipstick lesbian)
|Lesbian Pride pink flag.svg|[Lesbian](Lesbian)
|Lesbian pride flag 2018.svg|Lesbian(2018; seven stripes)
|Lesbian Pride Flag 2019.svg|Lesbian(2018; five stripes)
|Omnisexuality flag.svg|[Omnisexual](Omnisexual) Understand This Sexual Orientation |author= |work=Dictionary.com |date=7 August 2018 |access-date=23 April 2023 |url=https://www.dictionary.com/e/gender-sexuality/omnisexual/ |archive-date=13 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513053422/https://www.dictionary.com/e/gender-sexuality/omnisexual/ |url-status=live }}
|Pansexuality flag.svg|[Pansexual](Pansexual flag)
|Polysexuality Pride Flag.svg|[Polysexual](Polysexuality)
}}
### Romantic attraction–based flags
|Bandeira Demirromantica.jpg|[Demiromantic](Demiromanticism)
|Polyamory Pride Flag.svg|[Polyamory](Polyamory) (design created in 1995 by Jim Evans)
|Tricolor Polyamory Pride Flag.svg|[Polyamory](Polyamory) (design created in 2022 by Red Howell)
}}
### Gender identity–based flags
|Bigender Flag.svg|[Bigender](Bigender)*
* Gender & Sexuality |url=https://www.dictionary.com/e/gender-sexuality/bigender/ |access-date=2022-11-25 |website=Dictionary.com |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-11-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221125204914/https://www.dictionary.com/e/gender-sexuality/bigender/ |url-status=live }}
*
|Demiboy Flag.svg|[Demiboy](Demiboy)
|Demigirl Flag.svg|[Demigirl](Demigirl)
|Genderfluidity Pride-Flag.svg|[Genderfluid](Genderfluid)
|Genderqueer flag-pride.svg|[Genderqueer](Genderqueer#Symbols and observances)
|Nonbinary flag.svg|[Non-binary](Non-binary)
|Pangender flag.svg|[Pangender](Pangender) Gender & Sexuality |author= |work=Dictionary.com |date=1 July 2019 |access-date=23 April 2023 |url=https://www.dictionary.com/e/gender-sexuality/pangender/ |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419150024/https://www.dictionary.com/e/gender-sexuality/pangender/ |url-status=live }}
|Transgender Pride flag.svg|[Transgender](Transgender flag)
}}
### Other flags
}}
### Location-based flags
|Philadelphia Pride Flag.svg|Philadelphia, United States [of color](People)(Person of color) pride flag
|Gay Flag of South Africa.svg|South Africa [pride flag of South Africa](Gay)(Gay pride flag of South Africa)
|Gay Pride flag of the United Kingdom.svg|United Kingdom Pink [Jack](Union)(Union Jack)|Canada Pride flag.svg|Canada Canadian Pride Flag}}
*
## References
[ ](Category:LGBT flags)
|
Donner Party
|
donner_party
|
# Donner Party
*Revision ID: 1158283014 | Timestamp: 2023-06-03T02:53:31Z*
---
[[to caption|The 28th page of Patrick Breen's diary, recording his observations in late February 1847, including "Mrs Murphy said here yesterday that thought she would Commence on Milt & eat him. I dont that she has done so yet, it is distressing."](File:PatrickBreenDiaryPage28.jpg|thumb|alt=Refer)]
The **Donner Party**, sometimes called the **Donner–Reed Party**, was a group of [pioneer](American)(American pioneer)s who migrated to [California](California) in a [train](wagon)(wagon train) from the [Midwest](Midwest). Delayed by a multitude of mishaps, they spent the winter of 1846–1847 snowbound in the [Nevada](Sierra)(Sierra Nevada) mountain range. Some of the migrants resorted to [cannibalism](Human cannibalism) to survive, primarily eating the bodies of those who had succumbed to starvation, sickness, or extreme cold, but in one case two Native American guides were deliberately killed for this purpose.Johnson, pp. 62, 130.
The Donner Party originated from [Illinois](Springfield,)(Springfield, Illinois), and departed [Missouri](Independence,)(Independence, Missouri), on the [Trail](Oregon)(Oregon Trail) in the spring of 1846, behind many other pioneer families who were attempting to make the same overland trip. The journey west usually took between four and six months, but the Donner Party was slowed after electing to follow a new route called the [Cutoff](Hastings)(Hastings Cutoff), which bypassed established trails and instead crossed the [Mountains](Rocky)(Rocky Mountains)' [Range](Wasatch)(Wasatch Range) and the [Salt Lake Desert](Great)(Great Salt Lake Desert) in present-day [Utah](Utah). The desolate and rugged terrain, and the difficulties they later encountered while traveling along the [River](Humboldt)(Humboldt River) in present-day [Nevada](Nevada), resulted in the loss of many cattle and wagons, and divisions soon formed within the group.
By early November, the migrants had reached the Sierra Nevada but became trapped by an early, heavy snowfall near Truckee Lake (now [Lake](Donner)(Donner Lake)) high in the mountains. Their food supplies ran dangerously low, and in mid-December some of the group set out on foot to obtain help. Rescuers from California attempted to reach the migrants, but the first relief party did not arrive until the middle of February 1847, almost four months after the wagon train became trapped. Of the 87 members of the party, 48 survived the ordeal. Historians have described the episode as one of the most fascinating tragedies in [history](California)(California history) and in the entire record of American westward migration.McGlashan, p. 16; Stewart, p. 271.
## Background
[[File:Humboldt River Papa 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|An encampment of tents and covered wagons on the [River](Humboldt)(Humboldt River) in Nevada, 1859]]
During the 1840s, the United States saw a dramatic increase in settlers who left their homes in the east to resettle in the [Territory](Oregon)(Oregon Territory) or California, which at the time were accessible only by a very long sea voyage or a daunting overland journey across the American frontier. Some, such as Patrick Breen, saw California as a place where they would be free to live in a fully Catholic culture;Enright, John Shea (December 1954). "The Breens of San Juan Bautista: With a Calendar of Family Papers", *[Historical Society Quarterly](California)(California Historical Society Quarterly)* **33** (4) pp. 349–359. others were attracted to the West's burgeoning economic opportunities or inspired by the idea of [destiny](manifest)(manifest destiny), the belief that the land between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans belonged to European Americans and that they should settle it.Rarick, p. 11. Most wagon trains followed the [Trail](Oregon)(Oregon Trail) route from a starting point in [Missouri](Independence,)(Independence, Missouri), to the [Divide of the Americas](Continental)(Continental Divide of the Americas), traveling about a dayRarick, pp. 18, 24, 45. on a journey that usually took between four and six months.Bagley, p. 130. The trail generally followed rivers to [Pass](South)(South Pass (Wyoming)), a [pass](mountain)(mountain pass) in present-day [Wyoming](Wyoming) which was relatively easy for wagons to negotiate.Rarick, p. 48. From there, pioneers had a choice of routes to their destinations.Rarick, p. 45.
[Hastings](Lansford)(Lansford Hastings), an early migrant from Ohio to the West, went to California in 1842 and saw the promise of the undeveloped country. To encourage settlers, he published ''The Emigrants' Guide to Oregon and California''. As an alternative to the Oregon Trail's standard route through [Idaho](Idaho)'s [River Plain](Snake)(Snake River Plain), he proposed a more direct route (which actually increased the trip's mileage by 20 miles) to California across the [Basin](Great)(Great Basin), which would take travelers through the [Range](Wasatch)(Wasatch Range) and across the [Salt Lake Desert](Great)(Great Salt Lake Desert). Hastings had not traveled any part of his proposed shortcut until early 1846 on a trip from California to [Bridger](Fort)(Fort Bridger). The fort was a scant supply station run by [Bridger](Jim)(Jim Bridger) and his partner [Vasquez](Louis)(Louis Vasquez) in [Fork](Blacks)(Blacks Fork), Wyoming. Hastings stayed at the fort to persuade travelers to turn south on his route.Rarick, p. 47. As of 1846, Hastings was the second of two men documented to have crossed the southern part of the Great Salt Lake Desert, but neither had been accompanied by wagons.There are no written records of native tribes having crossed the desert, nor did the migrants mention any existing trails in this region. (Rarick, p. 69)
Arguably the most difficult part of the journey to California was the last across the [Nevada](Sierra)(Sierra Nevada). This mountain range has 500 distinct peaks over highRarick, p. 105. which, because of their height and proximity to the Pacific Ocean, receive more snow than most other ranges in North America. The eastern side of the range is also notoriously steep.Rarick, p. 106. After a wagon train left Missouri to cross the vast wilderness to Oregon or California, timing was crucial to ensure that it would not be bogged down by mud created by spring rains or by massive [snowdrift](snowdrift)s in the mountains from September onward. Traveling during the right time of year was also critical to ensuring that horses and oxen had enough spring grass to eat.Rarick, p. 17.
## Families
In the spring of 1846, almost 500 wagons headed west from Independence.Rarick, p. 33. At the rear of the train,Rarick, p. 18. a group of nine wagons containing 32 members of the Reed and Donner families and their employees left on May 12.Rarick, p. 8 George Donner, born in North Carolina, had gradually moved west to Kentucky, Indiana, and Illinois, with a one-year sojourn in Texas.Dixon, p. 32 In early 1846, he was about 60 years old and living near [Illinois](Springfield,)(Springfield, Illinois). With him was his 44 year-old wife [Tamsen](Tamsen Eustis Donner), their three daughters Frances (6), Georgia (4), and Eliza (3), and George's daughters from a previous marriage: Elitha (14) and Leanna (12). George's younger brother Jacob (56) also joined the party with his wife Elizabeth (45), stepsons Solomon Hook (14) and William Hook (12), and five children: George (9), Mary (7), Isaac (6), Lewis (4), and Samuel (1).Dixon, p. 20. Also traveling with the Donner brothers were [teamster](teamster)s Hiram O. Miller (29), Samuel Shoemaker (25), Noah James (16), Charles Burger (30), John Denton (28), and Augustus Spitzer (30).Dixon, p. 22.
[[and Margret Reed|alt=He has dark bushy hair and a beard and is wearing a three-piece suit with wide lapels and a bow tie. She has dark hair and wears a 19th-century dress with lace collar and bell sleeves.](File:JamesMargaretReed.jpg|thumb|James)]
[F. Reed](James)(James F. Reed) (45) immigrated from Ireland with his widowed mother during childhood and moved to Illinois in the 1820s. He was accompanied on the journey by his wife Margret (32), step-daughter Virginia (13), daughter Martha Jane ("Patty", 8), sons James and Thomas (5 and 3), and Sarah Keyes, Margret Reed's mother. Keyes was in the advanced stages of [consumption](tuberculosis) (tuberculosis)Johnson, p. 181. and died at a campsite they named [Springs](Alcove)(Alcove Springs). She was buried nearby, off to the side of the trail, with a gray rock inscribed "Mrs. Sarah Keyes, Died May 29, 1846; Aged 70".Johnson, pp. 18–19.Rarick, p. 22. In addition to leaving financial worries behind, Reed hoped that California's climate would help Margret, who had long suffered from ill health. The Reeds hired three men to drive the ox teams: Milford ("Milt") Elliott (28), James Smith (25), and Walter Herron (25). Baylis Williams (24) went along as handyman and his sister, Eliza (25), as the family's cook.Dixon, p. 21.
Within a week of leaving Independence, the Reeds and Donners joined a group of 50 wagons nominally led by William H. Russell.Rarick, p. 18. By June 16, the company had traveled , with to go before [Laramie](Fort)(Fort Laramie National Historic Site). They had been delayed by rain and a rising river, but Tamsen Donner wrote to a friend in Springfield, "indeed, if I do not experience something far worse than I have yet done, I shall say the trouble is all in getting started".Rarick, p. 30.Tamsen Donner's letters were printed in the *Springfield Journal* in 1846. (McGlashan, p. 24) Young Virginia Reed recalled years later that, during the first part of the trip, she was "perfectly happy".Stewart, p. 26.
Several other families joined the wagon train along the way. Levinah Murphy (37), a widow from Tennessee, headed a family of thirteen. Her five youngest children were: John Landrum (16), Meriam ("Mary", 14), Lemuel (12), William (10), and Simon (8). Levinah's two married daughters and their families also came along: Sarah Murphy Foster (19), her husband William M. (30) and son Jeremiah George (1); Harriet Murphy Pike (18), her husband William M. (32) and their daughters Naomi (3) and Catherine (1). William H. Eddy (28), a carriage maker from Illinois, brought his wife Eleanor (25) and their two children, James (3) and Margaret (1). The Breen family consisted of Patrick Breen (51), a farmer from Iowa, his wife Margaret ("Peggy", 40), and seven children: John (14), Edward (13), Patrick, Jr. (9), Simon (8), James (5), Peter (3), and 11-month-old Isabella. Their neighbor, 40-year-old bachelor Patrick Dolan, traveled with them.Dixon, p. 19. German immigrant [Keseberg](Lewis)(Lewis Keseberg) (32) joined, along with his wife Elisabeth Philippine (22) and daughter Ada (2); son Lewis Jr. was born on the trail.Dixon, p. 35. Two young single men named Spitzer and Reinhardt traveled with another German couple, the Wolfingers, who were rumored to be wealthy; they also had a hired driver, "Dutch Charley" Burger. An older man named Hardkoop rode with them. Luke Halloran, a young man sick with consumption, could no longer ride horseback; the families he had been traveling with no longer had resources to care for him. He was taken in by George Donner at Little Sandy River and rode in their wagon.Stewart, pp. 21–22.
## Hastings Cutoff
To promote his new route (the "[Cutoff](Hastings)(Hastings Cutoff)"), Lansford Hastings sent riders to deliver letters to traveling migrants. On July 12, the Reeds and Donners were given one of them.Johnson, pp. 6–7. Hastings warned the migrants they could expect opposition from the Mexican authorities in California and advised them to band together in large groups. He also claimed to have "worked out a new and better road to California", and said he would be waiting at Fort Bridger to guide the migrants along the new cutoff.Andrews, Thomas F. (April 1973). "Lansford W. Hastings and the Promotion of the Great Salt Lake Cutoff: A Reappraisal", *[Western Historical Quarterly](The)(The Western Historical Quarterly)* **4** (2) pp. 133–150.
[[File:Donner route map.png|thumb|500px|right|Map of the route taken by the Donner Party, showing the [Cutoff](Hastings)(Hastings Cutoff)—which added to their travels—in orange]]
On July 20, at the Little Sandy River, most of the wagon train opted to follow the established trail via [Hall](Fort)(Fort Hall). A smaller group opted to head for Fort Bridger and needed a leader. Most of the younger men in the group were European immigrants and not considered to be ideal leaders. James Reed had lived in the U.S. for a considerable time, was older, and had military experience, but his autocratic attitude had rubbed many in the party the wrong way, and they saw him as aristocratic, imperious, and ostentatious.Stewart, pp. 16–18.
By comparison, the mature, experienced, American-born Donner's peaceful and charitable nature made him the group's first choice.Stewart, p. 14. While the members of the party were comfortably well-off by contemporary standards, most of them were inexperienced in long, difficult, overland travel. Additionally, the party had little knowledge about how to interact with [Americans](Native)(Native Americans in the United States).Stewart, pp. 23–24.
Journalist [Bryant](Edwin)(Edwin Bryant (alcalde)) reached Blacks Fork a week ahead of the Donner Party. He saw the first part of the trail and was concerned that it would be difficult for the wagons in the Donner group, especially with so many women and children. He returned to Blacks Fork to leave letters warning several members of the group not to take Hastings's shortcut.Rarick, p. 56. By the time the Donner Party reached Blacks Fork on July 27, Hastings had already left, leading the forty wagons of the Harlan-Young group. Because Jim Bridger's trading post would fare substantially better if people used the Hastings Cutoff, Bridger told the party that the shortcut was a smooth trip, devoid of rugged country and hostile Native Americans, and would therefore shorten their journey by . Water would be easy to find along the way, although a couple of days crossing a dry lake bed would be necessary.
Reed was very impressed with this information and advocated for the Hastings Cutoff. None of the party received Bryant's letters warning them to avoid Hastings's route at all costs; in his diary account, Bryant states his conviction that Bridger deliberately concealed the letters, a view shared by Reed in his later testimony.Stewart, pp. 25–27; Rarick, p. 58. At Fort Laramie, Reed met an old friend named James Clyman who was coming from California. Clyman warned Reed not to take the Hastings Cutoff, telling him that wagons would not be able to make it and that Hastings's information was inaccurate. Fellow pioneer [Quinn Thornton](Jesse)(Jesse Quinn Thornton) traveled part of the way with Donner and Reed, and in his book *From Oregon and California in 1848* declared Hastings the "[Munchausen](Baron)(Baron Munchausen) of travelers in these countries".Johnson, p. 20 Tamsen Donner, according to Thornton, was "gloomy, sad, and dispirited" at the thought of turning off the main trail on the advice of Hastings, whom she considered "a selfish adventurer".Johnson, p. 22.
On July 31, 1846, the party left Blacks Fork after four days of rest and wagon repairs, eleven days behind the leading Harlan-Young group. Donner hired a replacement driver, and the company was joined by the McCutchen family, consisting of 30-year-old William, his 24-year-old wife Amanda, their two-year-old daughter Harriet, and a 16-year-old named Jean Baptiste Trudeau from New Mexico, who claimed to have knowledge of the Native Americans and terrain on the way to California.Stewart, p. 28.
### Wasatch Range
The party turned south to follow the Hastings Cutoff. Within days, they found the terrain to be much more difficult than described. Drivers were forced to lock the wheels of their wagons to prevent them from rolling down steep inclines. Several years of traffic on the main Oregon Trail had left an easy and obvious path, whereas the Cutoff was more difficult to find. Hastings wrote directions and left letters stuck to trees. On August 6, the party found a letter from him advising them to stop until he could show them an alternate route to that taken by the Harlan-Young Party.While Hastings was otherwise occupied, his guides had led the Harlan-Young Party through [Canyon](Weber)(Weber Canyon), which was not the route that Hastings had intended to take. (Rarick, p. 61) Reed, Charles T. Stanton, and William Pike rode ahead to get Hastings. They encountered exceedingly difficult canyons where boulders had to be moved and walls cut off precariously to a river below, a route likely to break wagons. In his letter Hastings had offered to guide the Donner Party around the more difficult areas, but he rode back only part way, indicating the general direction to follow.Stewart, pp. 31–35.Rarick, pp. 61–62.
[[Stanton.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Charles Tyler Stanton|alt=Profile of a man with a long nose and straight hair reaching his collar.](File:Charles)]
Stanton and Pike stopped to rest, and Reed returned alone to the group, arriving four days after the party's departure. Without the guide they had been promised, the group had to decide whether to turn back and rejoin the traditional trail, follow the tracks left by the Harlan-Young Party through the difficult terrain of [Canyon](Weber)(Weber Canyon), or forge their own trail in the direction that Hastings had recommended. At Reed's urging, the group chose the new Hastings route.Rarick, pp. 64–65. Their progress slowed to about a day. All able-bodied men were required to clear brush, fell trees, and heave rocks to make room for the wagons.The route that the party followed is now known as [Canyon](Emigration)(Emigration Canyon, Utah). (Johnson, p. 28)
As the Donner Party made its way across the [Range](Wasatch)(Wasatch Range) of the [Mountains](Rocky)(Rocky Mountains), the Graves family, who had set off to find them, reached them. They consisted of 57-year-old Franklin Ward Graves, his 45-year-old wife Elizabeth, their children Mary (20), William (18), Eleanor (15), Lovina (13), Nancy (9), Jonathan (7), Franklin, Jr. (5), Elizabeth (1), and married daughter Sarah (22), plus son-in-law Jay Fosdick (23), and a 25-year-old teamster named John Snyder, traveling together in three wagons. Their arrival brought the Donner Party to 87 members in 60–80 wagons.Rarick, pp. 67–68, Johnson, pp. 25, 295. The Graves family had been part of the last group to leave Missouri, confirming the Donner Party was at the back of the year's western exodus.Rarick, p. 68.
It was August 20 by the time that they reached a point in the mountains where they could look down and see the [Salt Lake](Great)(Great Salt Lake). It took almost another two weeks to travel out of the Wasatch Range. The men began arguing, and doubts were expressed about the wisdom of those who had chosen this route, in particular James Reed. Food and supplies began to run out for some of the less affluent families. Stanton and Pike had ridden out with Reed but had become lost on their way back; by the time that the party found them, they were a day away from eating their horses.Stewart, pp. 36–39.
### Great Salt Lake Desert
[[File:Butte in Great Salt Lake Desert-750px.JPG|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Flat expanse with a mountain range in the distance|[Salt Lake Desert](Great)(Great Salt Lake Desert)]]
Luke Halloran died of [tuberculosis](tuberculosis) on August 25. A few days later, the party came across a torn and tattered letter from Hastings. The pieces indicated there were two days and nights of difficult travel ahead without grass or water. The party rested their oxen and prepared for the trip.Rarick, pp. 70–71. After 36 hours they set off to traverse a mountain that lay in their path. From its peak, they saw ahead of them a dry, barren plain, perfectly flat and covered with white salt, larger than the one they had just crossed, and "one of the most inhospitable places on earth" according to Rarick.Rarick, p. 69. Their oxen were already fatigued, and their water was nearly gone.Stewart, pp. 40–44.
The party pressed onward on August 30, having no alternative. In the heat of the day, the moisture underneath the salt crust rose to the surface and turned it into a gummy mass. The wagon wheels sank into it, in some cases up to the hubs. The days were blisteringly hot and the nights frigid. Several of the group saw visions of lakes and wagon trains and believed they had finally overtaken Hastings. After three days, the water was gone, and some of the party removed their oxen from the wagons to press ahead to find more. Some of the animals were so weakened they were left yoked to the wagons and abandoned. Nine of Reed's ten oxen broke free, crazed with thirst, and bolted off into the desert. Many other families' cattle and horses had also gone missing. The rigors of the journey resulted in irreparable damage to some of the wagons, but no human lives had been lost. Instead of the promised two-day journey over , the journey across the of [Salt Lake Desert](Great)(Great Salt Lake Desert) had taken six.Stewart, pp. 44–50.Rarick, pp. 72–74.In 1986, a team of archaeologists attempted to cross the same stretch of desert at the same time of year in four-wheel drive trucks and were unable to do so. (Rarick, p. 71)
None of the party had any remaining faith in the Hastings Cutoff as they recovered at the springs on the other side of the desert.The location has since been named Donner Spring where the Donner Party recuperated, at the base of [Peak](Pilot)(Pilot Peak (Nevada)). (Johnson, p. 31) They spent several days trying to recover cattle, retrieve the wagons left in the desert, and transfer their food and supplies to other wagons.Reed's account states that many of the travelers lost cattle and were trying to locate them, although some of the other members thought that they were looking for his cattle. (Rarick, p. 74, Reed's own account "The Snow-Bound, Starved Emigrants of 1846 Statement by Mr. Reed, One of the Donner Company" in Johnson, p. 190) Reed's family incurred the heaviest losses, and Reed became more assertive, asking all the families to submit an inventory of their goods and food to him. He suggested that two men should go to [Fort](Sutter's)(Sutter's Fort) in California; he had heard that [Sutter](John)(John Sutter) was exceedingly generous to wayward pioneers and could assist them with extra provisions. Charles Stanton and William McCutchen volunteered to undertake the dangerous trip.Rarick, pp. 75–76. The remaining serviceable wagons were pulled by mongrel teams of cows, oxen, and mules. It was the middle of September, and two young men who went in search of missing oxen reported that another of [desert](Lahontan Valley) lay ahead.Stewart, pp. 50–53.
Their cattle and oxen were now exhausted and lean, but the Donner Party crossed the next stretch of desert relatively unscathed. The journey seemed to get easier, particularly through the valley next to the [Mountains](Ruby)(Ruby Mountains). Despite their near hatred of Hastings, they had no choice but to follow his tracks, which were weeks old. On September 26, two months after embarking on the cutoff, the Donner Party rejoined the traditional trail along a stream that became known as the [River](Humboldt)(Humboldt River). The shortcut had probably delayed them by a month.Stewart, pp. 54–58.Rarick, pp. 78–81.
## Rejoining the trail
### Reed banished
Along the Humboldt, the group met [Paiute](Northern Paiute people) Native Americans, who joined them for a couple of days but stole or shot several oxen and horses. By now, it was well into October, and the Donner families split off to make better time. Two wagons in the remaining group became tangled, and John Snyder angrily beat the ox of Reed's hired teamster Milt Elliott. When Reed intervened, Snyder proceeded to rain blows down onto his head with a whip handle—when Reed's wife attempted to intervene she too was struck. Reed retaliated by fatally plunging a knife under Snyder's collarbone.
That evening, the witnesses gathered to discuss what was to be done. United States laws were not applicable west of the [Divide](Continental)(Continental Divide of the Americas) (in what was then Mexican territory) and wagon trains often dispensed their own justice.Rarick, p. 82. But George Donner, the party's leader, was a full day ahead of the main wagon train with his family.McNeese, p. 72. Snyder had been seen to hit James Reed, and some claimed he had also hit Margret Reed,Rarick, p. 83. but Snyder had been popular and Reed was not. Keseberg suggested that Reed should be hanged, but an eventual compromise allowed him to leave the camp without his family, who were to be taken care of by the others. Reed departed alone the next morning, unarmed,Stewart, pp. 59–65.Johnson, pp. 36–37.Rarick, pp. 83–86.In 1871, Reed wrote an account of the events of the Donner Party in which he omitted any reference to his killing Snyder, although his step-daughter Virginia described it in a letter home written in May 1847, which was heavily edited by Reed. In Reed's 1871 account, he left the group to check on Stanton and McCutchen. (Johnson p. 191.) but his step-daughter Virginia rode ahead and secretly provided him with a rifle and food.Downey, Fairfax (Autumn 1939). "Epic of Endurance", *[North American Review](The)(The North American Review)* **248** (1) pp. 140–150.
### Disintegration
[[File:Truckee river.JPG|thumb|alt=Narrow river partially covered in ice.|The [River](Truckee)(Truckee River) in winter]]
The trials that the Donner Party had so far endured resulted in splintered groups, each looking out for themselves and distrustful of the others.Stewart, p. 66.Rarick, p. 74. Grass was becoming scarce, and the animals were steadily weakening. To relieve the animals' load, everyone was expected to walk.Rarick, p. 87. Keseberg ejected Hardkoop from his wagon, telling the elderly man that he had to walk or die. A few days later, Hardkoop sat next to a stream, his feet so swollen they had split open; he was not seen again. William Eddy pleaded with the others to find him, but they all refused, swearing they would waste no more resources on a man who was almost 70 years old.Johnson, pp. 38–39.Rarick, pp. 87–89.
Meanwhile, Reed caught up with the Donners and proceeded with one of his teamsters, Walter Herron. The two shared a horse and were able to cover per day.Rarick, p. 89. The rest of the party rejoined the Donners, but their hardship continued. Native Americans chased away all of Graves' horses, and another wagon was left behind. With grass in short supply, the cattle spread out more, which allowed the Paiutes to steal 18 more during one evening; several mornings later, they shot another 21.Rarick, p. 95. So far, the company had lost nearly 100 oxen and cattle, and their rations were almost completely depleted. With nearly all his cattle gone, Wolfinger stopped at the [Sink](Humboldt)(Humboldt Sink) to cache (bury) his wagon; Reinhardt and Spitzer stayed behind to help. They returned without him, reporting they had been attacked by Paiutes and he had been killed.Rarick, p. 98; Stewart, pp. 75–79. One more stretch of desert lay ahead. The Eddys' oxen had been killed by Native Americans and they were forced to abandon their wagon. The family had eaten all their stores, but the other families refused to assist their children. The Eddys were forced to walk, carrying their children and miserable with thirst. Margret Reed and her children were also now without a wagon.Rarick, p. 98. But the desert soon came to an end, and the party found the [River](Truckee)(Truckee River) in beautiful lush country.Stewart, pp. 67–74.
They had little time to rest. The company pressed on to cross the Sierra Nevada before the snows came. Stanton, one of the two men who had left a month earlier to seek assistance in California, found the company; he brought mules and food from [Fort](Sutter's)(Sutter's Fort), and two Native American guides employed by [Sutter](John)(John Sutter). These [Miwok](Miwok) men from the [River](Cosumnes)(Cosumnes River) area were known by their Catholic conversion names: Luis and Salvador.The branch of [Miwoks](Miwoks) from the California plains region were the Cosumne, between where Stockton and Sacramento are located. Luis and Salvador, both Cosumne, were Catholic converts employed by John Sutter. Historian Joseph King deduced that Luis's given Miwok name was Eema. He was probably 19 years old in 1846. Salvador's given name was probably QuéYuen, and he would have been 28 years old the same year. (King, Joseph A. [1994]. "Lewis and Salvador: Unsung Heroes of the Donner Party", *The Californians*, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 20–21.) Stanton also brought news that Reed and Herron, although haggard and starving, had succeeded in reaching Sutter's Fort in California.Stewart, pp. 75–79.Rarick, p. 91. By this point, according to Rarick, "To the bedraggled, half-starved members of the Donner Party, it must have seemed that the worst of their problems had passed. They had already endured more than many emigrants ever did."Rarick, p. 101.
## Snowbound
### Donner Pass
[[Pass kingp053.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Winding road leading up a mountain|The high pass above Truckee Lake became blocked by early snow in November 1846 (here photographed in the 1870s). Both the pass and the lake are now called Donner.](File:Donner)]
Faced with one last push over mountains that were described as much worse than the Wasatch, the ragtag company had to decide whether to forge ahead or rest their cattle. It was October 20 and they had been told the pass would not be snowed in until the middle of November. William Pike was killed when a gun being loaded by William Foster was discharged negligently,Johnson, p. 43. an event that seemed to make the decision for them; family by family, they resumed their journey, first the Breens, then the Kesebergs, Stanton with the Reeds, Graves, and the Murphys. The Donners waited and traveled last. After a few miles of rough terrain, an axle broke on one of their wagons. Jacob and George went into the woods to fashion a replacement. George Donner sliced his hand open while chiseling the wood but it seemed a superficial wound.Stewart, pp. 81–83.
Snow began to fall. The Breens made it up the "massive, nearly vertical slope" to Truckee Lake (now known as [Lake](Donner)(Donner Lake)), from the summit, and camped near a cabin that had been built two years earlier by three members of the [Party](Stephens–Townsend–Murphy)(Stephens–Townsend–Murphy Party).Rarick, p. 108.The cabins were built by three members of another group of migrants known as the Stevens Party, specifically by Joseph Foster, Allen Stevens, and [Schallenberger](Moses)(Moses Schallenberger) in November 1844. (Hardesty, pp. 49–50) Virginia Reed later married a member of this party named John Murphy, unrelated to the Murphy family associated with the Donner Party. (Johnson, p. 262) The Eddys and Kesebergs joined the Breens, attempting to make it over the pass, but they found snowdrifts, and were unable to find the trail. They turned back for Truckee Lake and within a day all the families were camped there except for the Donners, who were —half a [journey](day's)(day's journey)—below them. On the evening of November 4, it began to snow again.Stewart, pp. 84–87.
### Winter camp
[[of Truckee Lake and Alder Creek.svg|thumb|right|350 px|Map showing the Truckee Lake and Alder Creek sites](File:Map)]
Sixty members and associates of the Breen, Graves, Reed, Murphy, Keseberg, and Eddy families set up for the winter at [Lake](Truckee)(Donner Lake). Three widely separated cabins of pine logs served as their homes, with dirt floors and poorly constructed flat roofs that leaked when it rained. The Breens occupied one cabin, the Eddys and the Murphys another, and the Reeds and the Graves the third. Keseberg built a [lean-to](lean-to) for his family against the side of the Breen cabin. The families used canvas or oxhide to patch the faulty roofs. The cabins had no windows or doors, only large holes to allow entry. Of the 60 at Truckee Lake, 19 were men over 18, 12 were women, and 29 were children, six of whom were toddlers or younger. Farther down the trail, close to Alder Creek, the Donner families hastily constructed tents to house 21 people, including Mrs. Wolfinger, her child, and the Donners' drivers: six men, three women, and twelve children in all.Stewart, pp. 105–107.Hardesty, p. 60. It began to snow again on the evening of November 4—the beginning of a storm that lasted eight days.Stewart, pp. 84–87.
By the time the party made camp, very little food remained from the supplies that Stanton had brought back from Sutter's Fort. The oxen began to die, and their carcasses were frozen and stacked. Truckee Lake was not yet frozen, but the pioneers were unfamiliar with catching lake trout. Eddy, the most experienced hunter, killed a bear, but had little luck after that. The Reed and Eddy families had lost almost everything. Margret Reed promised to pay double when they got to California for the use of three oxen from the Graves and Breen families. Graves charged Eddy $25—normally the cost of two healthy oxen—for the carcass of an ox that had starved to death.Stewart, pp. 108–109.Johnson, p. 44.
Desperation grew in camp and some reasoned that individuals might succeed in navigating the pass where the wagons could not. In small groups they made several attempts, but each time returned defeated. Another severe storm, lasting more than a week, covered the area so deeply that the cattle and horses—their only remaining food—died and were lost in the snow.Stewart, pp. 110–115.
[[Lake camp.jpg|thumb|left|Artist's rendering of the Truckee Lake camp based on descriptions by William GravesThis drawing is inaccurate in several respects: the cabins were spread so far apart that Patrick Breen in his diary came to call inhabitants of other cabins "strangers" whose visits were rare. Furthermore, this scene shows a great deal of activity and livestock, when the migrants were weakened already by low rations and livestock began to die almost immediately. It also neglects to include the snow that met the migrants from the day they arrived.|alt=Three log cabins with flat roofs set in the midst of tall trees, with mountains in the background. People, livestock, and covered wagons are engaged in various activities in a clearing in the middle of the cabins.](File:Truckee)]
Patrick Breen began keeping a diary on November 20. He concerned himself primarily with the weather, marking the storms and how much snow had fallen, but gradually began to include references to God and religion in his entries.Rarick, p. 145. Life at Truckee Lake was miserable. The cabins were cramped and filthy, and it snowed so much that people were unable to go outdoors for days. Diets soon consisted of oxhide, strips of which were boiled to make a "disagreeable" glue-like jelly. Ox and horse bones were boiled repeatedly to make soup, and they became so brittle that they would crumble upon chewing. Sometimes they were softened by being charred and eaten. Bit by bit, the Murphy children picked apart the oxhide rug that lay in front of their fireplace, roasted it in the fire, and ate it.McGlashan, p. 90. After the departure of the snowshoe party, two-thirds of the migrants at Truckee Lake were children. Mrs. Graves was in charge of eight, and Levinah Murphy and Eleanor Eddy together took care of nine.Rarick, p. 146. Migrants caught and ate mice that strayed into their cabins. Many of the people at Truckee Lake were soon weakened and spent most of their time in bed. Occasionally one would be able to make the full-day trek to see the Donners. News came that Jacob Donner and three hired men had died. One of them, Joseph Reinhardt, confessed on his deathbed that he had murdered Wolfinger.Johnson, p. 40. See also McGlashan letter from Leanna Donner, 1879. George Donner's hand had become infected, which left four men to work at the Donner camp.Stewart, pp. 160–167.
Margret Reed had managed to save enough food for a Christmas pot of soup, to the delight of her children, but by January they were facing starvation and considered eating the oxhides that served as their roof. Margret Reed, Virginia, Milt Elliott, and the servant girl Eliza Williams attempted to walk out, reasoning that it would be better to try to bring food back than sit and watch the children starve. They were gone for four days in the snow before they had to turn back. Their cabin was now uninhabitable; the oxhide roof served as their food supply, and the family moved in with the Breens. The servants went to live with other families. One day, the Graveses came by to collect on the debt owed by the Reeds and took the oxhides, all that the family had to eat.Stewart, pp. 168–175.Rarick, pp. 148–150.
### "The Forlorn Hope"
The mountain party at Truckee Lake began to fail. Spitzer died, then Baylis Williams (a driver for the Reeds) also died, more from malnutrition than starvation. Franklin Graves fashioned 14 pairs of [snowshoe](snowshoe)s out of [oxbow](oxbow)s and hide. On December 16, a party of 17 men, women, and children set out on foot in an attempt to cross the mountain pass.McGlashan pp. 66–67, 83. As evidence of how grim their choices were, four of the men were fathers. Three of the women, who were mothers, gave their young children to other women. They packed lightly, taking what had become six days' rations, a rifle, a blanket each, a hatchet, and some pistols, hoping to make their way to Bear Valley.Stewart, pp. 116–121. Historian [McGlashan](Charles)(Charles Fayette McGlashan) later called this snowshoe party the "[Hope](Forlorn)(Forlorn Hope)".Johnson, p. 49, McGlashan, p. 66. Two of those without snowshoes, Charles Burger and 10-year-old William Murphy, turned back early on.McGlashan, p. 67. Other members of the party fashioned a pair of snowshoes for 12-year old Lemuel Murphy on the first evening from one of the packsaddles that they were carrying.
The snowshoes proved to be awkward but effective on the arduous climb. The members of the party were neither well-nourished nor accustomed to camping in snow deep, and by the third day, most were [snowblind](Snow blindness). On the sixth day, Eddy discovered his wife had hidden a half-pound of bear meat in his pack. The group set out again the morning of December 21; Stanton had been straggling for several days, and he remained behind, saying he would follow shortly. His remains were found in that location the following year.Stewart, pp. 122–125.Rarick, p. 136.
The group became lost and confused. After two more days without food, Patrick Dolan proposed one of them should volunteer to die in order to feed the others. Some suggested a duel, while another account describes an attempt to create a lottery to choose a member to sacrifice.Thornton, J. Quinn, excerpt from *Oregon and California in 1848* (1849), published in Johnson, p. 52. Eddy suggested that they keep moving until someone simply fell, but a blizzard forced the group to halt. Antonio, the animal handler, was the first to die; Franklin Graves was the next casualty.Stewart, pp. 126–130.Rarick, p. 137.
[[H. Eddy|alt=Head and bust of a man with a high forehead, hair reaching his shoulders, wearing a 19th-century three-piece suit and a cravat](File:WilliamEddy.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|William)]
As the blizzard progressed, Patrick Dolan [to rant deliriously](began)(hypothermia#Severe), stripped off his clothes, and ran into the woods. He returned shortly afterwards and died a few hours later. Not long after, possibly because Murphy was near death, some of the group began to eat flesh from Dolan's body. Lemuel's sister tried to feed some to her brother, but he died shortly afterwards. Eddy, Salvador, and Luis refused to eat. The next morning, the group stripped the muscle and organs from the bodies of Antonio, Dolan, Graves, and Murphy. They dried them to store for the days ahead, taking care to ensure nobody would have to eat his or her relatives.Stewart, pp. 131–133.Thornton, J. Quinn, excerpt from *Oregon and California in 1848* (1849), published in Johnson, p. 53.
After three days' rest, they set off again, searching for the trail. Eddy eventually succumbed to his hunger and ate human flesh, but that was soon gone. They began taking apart their snowshoes to eat the oxhide webbing and discussed killing Luis and Salvador for food. Eddy warned the two men and they quietly left.Thornton, J. Quinn, excerpt from *Oregon and California in 1848* (1849), published in Johnson, p. 55. Jay Fosdick died during the night, leaving only seven members of the party. Eddy and Mary Graves left to hunt, but when they returned with deer meat, Fosdick's body had already been cut apart for food.Rarick, p. 142.Thornton, J. Quinn, excerpt from *Oregon and California in 1848* (1849), published in Johnson, p. 60. After several more days—25 since they had left Truckee Lake—they came across Salvador and Luis, who had not eaten for about nine days and were probably close to death. William Foster shot both men, thus realizing his plans from before they had left; their bodies were then butchered and their flesh dried for consumption.Johnson, pp. 62–63. Though the murder of the two young men was not kept secret, Kristin Johnson notes that "Foster was not greatly blamed" for it and spent the rest of his life without being troubled by the authoritiesJohnson, pp. 61–62.—this can be attributed to the general attitude, as expressed by Lewis Petrinovich, that the lives of Native Americans "seemed to matter little".Petrinovich, p. 26.
Not more than a few days later,Sources give dates ranging from January 9 to January 12. (McGlashan, 1947 Stanford edition, Editor's foreword, pp. xii–xiii, xxxvi) (Johnson, pp. 62, 121) the group stumbled into a Native American settlement looking so deteriorated that the camp's inhabitants initially fled. The Native Americans gave them what they had to eat: acorns, grass, and [nut](pine)(pine nut)s.Johnson, p. 62. After a few days, Eddy continued on with the help of tribe members to a ranch in a small farming community at the edge of the Sacramento Valley.Stewart, pp. 142–148.Johnson, pp. 63–64. A hurriedly assembled rescue party found the other six survivors on January 17. Their journey from Truckee Lake had taken 33 days.Stewart, p. 149.
## Rescue
### Reed attempts a rescue
James F. Reed made it out of the Sierra Nevada to [Johnson](Rancho)(Rancho Johnson) in late October. He was safe and recovering at Sutter's Fort, but each day he became more concerned for the fate of his family and friends. He pleaded with Colonel [C. Frémont](John)(John C. Frémont) to gather a team of men to cross the pass and help the company. In return, Reed promised to join Frémont's forces and fight in the [War](Mexican–American)(Mexican–American War).Johnson, p. 193. He was joined by McCutchen, who had been unable to return with Stanton, as well as some members of the Harlan-Young party. The Harlan-Young wagon train had arrived at Sutter's Fort on October 8, the last to make it over the Sierra Nevada that season.Rehart, p. 133. The party of roughly 30 horses and a dozen men carried food supplies, and expected to find the Donner Party on the western side of the mountain, along the [River](Bear)(Bear River (Feather River tributary)) below the steep approach to [Gap](Emigrant)(Emigrant Gap), perhaps starving but alive. When they arrived in the river valley, they found only a pioneer couple, migrants who had been separated from their company who were near starvation.Stewart, pp. 95–100.McGlashan, pp. 122–123.
Two guides deserted Reed and McCutchen with some of their horses, but they pressed on farther up the valley to Yuba Bottoms, walking the last mile on foot. Reed and McCutchen stood looking up at Emigrant Gap, only from the top, blocked by snow, possibly on the same day the Breens attempted to lead one last effort to crest the pass from the east. Despondent, they turned back to Sutter's Fort.Stewart, pp. 101–104.
### First relief
Much of the military in California were engaged in the [War](Mexican–American)(Mexican–American War), and with them the able-bodied men. For example, Colonel Frémont's personnel were occupied at that precise time in capturing Santa Barbara. Throughout the region, roads were blocked, communications compromised, and supplies unavailable. Only three men responded to a call for volunteers to rescue the Donner Party. Reed was laid over in [Jose](San)(San Jose, California) until February because of regional uprisings and general confusion. He spent that time speaking with other pioneers and acquaintances. The people of San Jose responded by creating a petition to appeal to the U.S. Navy to assist the people at Truckee Lake. Two local newspapers reported that members of the snowshoe party had resorted to cannibalism, which helped to foster sympathy for those who were still trapped. Residents of [Buena](Yerba)(Yerba Buena, California), many of them recent migrants, raised $1,300 ($}} in ) and organized relief efforts to build two camps to supply a rescue party for the refugees.Stewart, pp. 150–159.Rarick, pp. 180–181.
A rescue party including William Eddy started on February 4 from the Sacramento Valley. Rain and a swollen river forced several delays. Eddy stationed himself at Bear Valley, while the others made steady progress through the snow and storms to cross the pass to Truckee Lake, caching their food at stations along the way so they did not have to carry it all. Three of the rescue party turned back, but seven forged on.Stewart, pp. 176–189.Rarick, pp. 166–167.
On February 18, the seven-man rescue party scaled Frémont Pass (now Donner Pass); as they neared where Eddy told them the cabins would be, they began to shout. Mrs. Murphy appeared from a hole in the snow, stared at them and asked, "Are you men from California, or do you come from heaven?"Stewart, p. 191. The relief party doled out food in small portions, concerned that it might kill them if the emaciated migrants overate. All the cabins were buried in snow. Sodden oxhide roofs had begun to rot and the smell was overpowering. Thirteen people at the camps were dead, and their bodies had been loosely buried in snow near the cabin roofs. Some of the migrants seemed emotionally unstable. Three of the rescue party trekked to the Donners and brought back four gaunt children and three adults. Leanna Donner had particular difficulty walking up the steep incline from Alder Creek to Truckee Lake, later writing "such pain and misery as I endured that day is beyond description".Rarick, p. 173. George Donner's arm was so [gangrenous](gangrene) he could not move. Twenty-three people were chosen to go with the rescue party, leaving twenty-one in the cabins at Truckee Lake and twelve at Alder Creek.Stewart, pp. 190–196.Rarick, p. 170.
[[tree stumps2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Tree stumps taller than a man, in a forest clearing|Stumps of trees cut at the Alder Creek site by members of the Donner Party, photograph taken in 1866. The height of the stumps indicates the depth of snow.Weddell, P. M. (March 1945). "Location of the Donner Family Camp", *California Historical Society Quarterly* **24** (1) pp. 73–76.](File:Donner)]
The rescuers concealed the fate of the snowshoe party, informing the rescued migrants only that they did not return because they were frostbitten.Rarick, p. 171. Patty and Tommy Reed were soon too weak to cross the snowdrifts, and no one was strong enough to carry them. Margret Reed faced the agonizing predicament of accompanying her two older children to Bear Valley and watching her two frailest be taken back to Truckee Lake without a parent. She made rescuer Aquilla Glover swear on his honor as a [Mason](freemasonry) that he would return for her children. Patty Reed told her, "Well, mother, if you never see me again, do the best you can."Stewart, p. 198.Rarick, p. 174. Upon their return to the lake, the Breens flatly refused them entry to their cabin, but after Glover left more food, the children were grudgingly admitted. The rescue party was dismayed to find that the first cache station had been broken into by animals, leaving them without food for four days. After struggling on the walk over the pass, John Denton slipped into a coma and died. Ada Keseberg died soon afterwards; her mother was inconsolable, refusing to let the child's body go. After several days' more travel through difficult country, the rescuers grew very concerned that the children would not survive. Some of them ate the buckskin fringe from one of the rescuer's pants, and the shoelaces of another, to the relief party's surprise. On their way down from the mountains, they met the next rescue party, which included James Reed. Upon hearing his voice, Margret sank into the snow, overwhelmed.Stewart, pp. 197–203.Rarick, p. 178.
After those rescued migrants made it safely into Bear Valley, William Hook, Jacob Donner's stepson, broke into food stores and [gorged himself](fatally)(Refeeding syndrome). The others continued to Sutter's Fort, where Virginia Reed wrote, "I really thought I had stepped over into paradise". She was amused to note one of the young men asked her to marry him, although she was only 13 years old and recovering from starvation,Stewart, pp. 204–206.Rarick, p. 187. but she turned him down.McGlashen, p. 239.
### Second relief
Around the time the first relief party was being organized, nearby California settler and patriarch [C. Yount](George)(George C. Yount) had likely previously heard of the plight of the Donner Party, and had distressing dreams of a struggling group of starving pioneers in deep snow. Yount, [Guadalupe Vallejo](Mariano)(Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo) and others then raised five hundred dollars to send out another rescue party.Camp, Charles L. and Yount, George C. (April 1923). ["The Chronicles of George C. Yount: California Pioneer of 1826"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/25177691.pdf) *[Historical Society Quarterly](California)(California Historical Society Quarterly)* **2** (1) pp. 63–64.
On March 1, the second relief party arrived at Truckee Lake. Those rescuers included veteran [men](mountain)(Mountain man), most notably [Turner](John)(John Turner (fur trapper)),Stewart, p. 209.McGlashan, p. 161. who accompanied the return of Reed and McCutchen. Reed was reunited with his daughter Patty and his weakened son Tommy. An inspection of the Breen cabin found its occupants relatively well, but the Murphy cabin, according to author [R. Stewart](George)(George R. Stewart), "passed the limits of description and almost of imagination". Levinah Murphy was caring for her eight-year-old son Simon and the two young children of William Eddy and Foster. She had deteriorated mentally and was nearly blind. The children were listless and had not been cleaned in days. Lewis Keseberg had moved into the cabin and could barely move due to an injured leg.Stewart, pp. 211–212.
No one at Truckee Lake had died during the interim between the departure of the first and the arrival of the second relief party. Patrick Breen documented a disturbing visit in the last week of February from Mrs. Murphy, who said her family was considering eating Milt Elliott. Reed and McCutchen found Elliott's mutilated body.Stewart, pp. 213–214. The Alder Creek camp fared no better. The first two members of the relief party to reach it saw Trudeau carrying a human leg. When they made their presence known, he threw it into a hole in the snow that contained the mostly dismembered body of Jacob Donner. Inside the tent, Elizabeth Donner refused to eat, although her children were being nourished by their father's organs.Rarick, p. 191. The rescuers discovered three other bodies had already been consumed. In the other tent, Tamsen Donner was well, but George was very ill because the infection had reached his shoulder.Stewart, pp. 215–219.
The second relief evacuated 17 migrants from Truckee Lake, only three of whom were adults. Both the Breen and Graves families prepared to go. Only five people remained at Truckee Lake: Keseberg, Mrs. Murphy and her son Simon, and the young Eddy and Foster children. Tamsen Donner elected to stay with her ailing husband after Reed informed her that a third relief party would arrive soon. Mrs. Donner kept her daughters Eliza, Georgia, and Frances with her.Rarick, p. 195.
The walk back to Bear Valley was very slow. At one point, Reed sent two men ahead to retrieve the first cache of food, expecting the third relief, a small party led by [E. Woodworth](Selim)(Selim E. Woodworth), to come at any moment. A violent blizzard arose after they scaled the pass. Five-year-old Isaac Donner froze to death, and Reed nearly died. Mary Donner's feet were badly burned because they were so frostbitten that she did not realize she was sleeping with them in the fire. When the storm passed, the Breen and Graves families were too apathetic and exhausted to get up and move, not having eaten for days. The relief party had no choice but to leave without them.Stewart, pp. 220–230.Reed, James "The Snow Bound Starved Emigrants of 1846 Statement by Mr. Reed, One of the Donner Company" (1871), in Johnson, p. 199.Rarick, pp. 199–203. The site where the Breens and Graves had been left became known as 'Starved Camp'.Rarick, p. 200. Margaret Breen reportedly took the initiative to try to keep the members of the camp alive after the others departed down the mountain. Soon however, Elizabeth Graves and her son Franklin perished before the next rescue party could reach them, and the party resorted to eating flesh off the dead bodies in order to survive.Rarick, pp. 200–213.
[[File:Donner Lake and snow sheds2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Lake beside snowy mountains with railroad construction sheds in foreground|View of Truckee Lake from Donner Pass, taken in 1868 as the [Pacific Railroad](Central)(Central Pacific Railroad) reached completion]]
Three members of the relief party stayed to help those remaining at the camps; Charles Stone at Truckee Lake, Charles Cady and Nicholas Clark at Alder Creek. While Clark was out hunting, Stone traveled to Alder Creek and made plans with Cady to return to California. According to Stewart, Tamsen Donner arranged for them to take her daughters Eliza, Georgia, and Frances with them, perhaps for $500 cash. Stone and Cady took the three girls to Truckee Lake, but left them at a cabin with Keseberg and Levinah Murphy when they started for Bear Valley. Cady recalled later, that after two days on the trail they noted and passed Starved Camp, but they did not stop to help in any way. They overtook Reed and the others within days.Stewart, pp. 231–236.Rarick, pp. 207–208. Several days later, at the Alder Creek camp, Clark and Trudeau agreed to leave for California together. When they reached Truckee Lake and discovered the Donner girls still there they returned to Alder Creek to inform Tamsen Donner.Rarick, pp. 216–217.
William Foster and William Eddy, survivors of the snowshoe party, started from Bear Valley to intercept Reed, taking with them a man named John Stark. After a day, they met Reed helping his children struggle on toward Bear Valley, all frostbitten and bleeding but alive. Desperate to rescue their own children, Foster and Eddy persuaded four men, with pleading and money, to go to Truckee Lake with them. During their journey they found the eleven survivors at Starved Camp, huddled around a fire that had sunk into a pit. The relief party split, with Foster, Eddy, and two others headed toward Truckee Lake. Two of the rescuers, hoping to save some of the survivors, each took a child and headed back to Bear Valley. John Stark refused to leave the others. He picked up two children and all the provisions and assisted the remaining Breens and Graves to safety, sometimes advancing the children down the trail piece-meal, putting them down and then going back to carry the other debilitated children.Stewart, pp. 237–246.King, pp. 92–93.Rarick, pp. 214–215.
### Third relief
Foster and Eddy finally arrived at Truckee Lake on March 14, where they found their children dead. Keseberg told Eddy that he had eaten the remains of Eddy's son; Eddy swore to murder Keseberg if they ever met in California.Rarick, pp. 217–218. George Donner and one of Jacob Donner's children were still alive at Alder Creek. Tamsen Donner had just arrived at the Murphy cabin to see to her daughters. She could have walked out alone but chose to return to her husband, even though she was informed that no other relief party was likely to be coming soon. Foster and Eddy and the rest of the third relief left with the Donner girls, young Simon Murphy, Trudeau, and Clark. Levinah Murphy was too weak to leave and Keseberg refused.Stewart, pp. 247–252.Rarick, p. 219.
Two more relief parties were mustered to evacuate any adults who might still be alive. Both turned back before getting to Bear Valley, and no further attempts were made. On April 10, almost a month since the third relief had left Truckee Lake, the *[alcalde](alcalde)* near Sutter's Fort organized a salvage party to recover what they could of the Donners' belongings. Those would be sold, with part of the proceeds used to support the orphaned Donner children. The salvage party found the Alder Creek tents empty except for the body of George Donner, who had died only days earlier. On their way back to Truckee Lake, they found Lewis Keseberg alive. According to him, Mrs. Murphy had died a week after the departure of the third relief. Some weeks later, Tamsen Donner had arrived at his cabin on her way over the pass, soaked and visibly upset. Keseberg said he put a blanket around her and told her to start out in the morning, but she died during the night. The salvage party were suspicious of Keseberg's story, and found a pot full of human flesh in the cabin along with George Donner's pistols, jewelry, and $250 in gold. They threatened to lynch Keseberg, who confessed that he had cached $273 of the Donners' money, at Tamsen's suggestion, so that it could one day benefit her children.Stewart, pp. 258–265.Rarick, pp. 222–226.
### Response
News of the Donner Party's fate was spread eastward by [Brannan](Samuel)(Samuel Brannan), an elder of [Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints](the)(the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) and a journalist, who ran into the salvage party as they came down from the pass with Keseberg.Stewart, p. 276. Accounts of the ordeal first reached New York City in July 1847. Reporting on the event across the U.S. was heavily influenced by the national enthusiasm for westward migration. In some papers, news of the tragedy was buried in small paragraphs, despite the contemporary tendency to sensationalize stories. Several newspapers, including those in California, wrote about the cannibalism in graphic, exaggerated detail.Rarick, pp. 241–242. In some print accounts, the members of the Donner Party were depicted as heroes and California a paradise worthy of significant sacrifices.Unruh, pp. 49–50.
Emigration to the West decreased over the following years, but it is likely that the drop in numbers was caused more by fears over the outcome of the ongoing Mexican–American War than by the cautionary tale of the Donner Party. In 1846, an estimated 1,500 people migrated to California. In 1847, the number dropped to 450 and then to 400 in 1848. The [Gold Rush](California)(California Gold Rush) spurred a sharp increase, however, and 25,000 people went west in 1849.Unruh, pp. 119–120. Most of the overland migration followed the [River](Carson)(Carson River), but a few [forty-niners](California Gold Rush#Forty-niners) used the same route as the Donner Party and recorded descriptions about the site.Hardesty, p. 2.
In late June 1847, members of the [Battalion](Mormon)(Mormon Battalion) under General [Kearny](Stephen)(Stephen W. Kearny) buried the human remains, and partially burned two of the cabins.Dorius, Guy L. (1997). "[Crossroads in the West: The Intersections of the Donner Party and the Mormons](http://mormonhistoricsites.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/NJ9.1_Dorius.pdf) ", *[Journal](Nauvoo)(Nauvoo Journal)* **9** pp. 17–27. The few who ventured over the pass in the next few years found bones, other artifacts, and the cabin used by the Reed and Graves families. In 1891, a cache of money was found buried by the lake. It had probably been stored by Mrs. Graves, who hastily hid it when she left with the second relief so she could return for it later.Stewart, pp. 276–279.Rarick, p. 235.
Lansford Hastings received death threats. A migrant who crossed before the Donner Party confronted him about the difficulties they had encountered, reporting: "Of course he could say nothing but that he was very sorry, and that he meant well".Johnson, p. 233.
### Survivors
Of the 87 people who entered the Wasatch Mountains, 48 survived. Only the Reed and Breen families remained intact. The children of Jacob Donner, George Donner, and Franklin Graves were orphaned. William Eddy was alone; most of the Murphy family had died. Only three mules reached California; the remaining animals perished. Most of the Donner Party members' possessions were discarded.Stewart, p. 271.
A few of the widowed women remarried within months; brides were scarce in California. The Reeds settled in [Jose](San)(San Jose, California) and two of the Donner children lived with them. Reed fared well in the California Gold Rush and became prosperous. Virginia wrote an extensive letter to her cousin in Illinois about "our troubles getting to California", with editorial oversight from her father. Journalist Edwin Bryant carried it back in June 1847, and it was printed in its entirety in the *Illinois Journal* on December 16, 1847, with some editorial alterations.Reed, Virginia (May 16, 1847), "Letter to Mary Keyes", published in Stewart, pp. 348–362.
Virginia converted to Catholicism, fulfilling a promise she had made to herself while observing Patrick Breen pray in his cabin. The Murphy survivors lived in [California](Marysville,)(Marysville, California). The Breens made their way to [Juan Bautista, California](San)(San Juan Bautista, California),King, pp. 169–170. where they operated an inn. They became the anonymous subjects of [Ross Browne](J.)(J. Ross Browne)'s story about his severe discomfort upon learning that he was staying with alleged cannibals, printed in ''[Magazine](Harper's)(Harper's Magazine)'' in 1862. Many of the survivors encountered similar reactions.Browne, J. Ross, excerpt from "A Dangerous Journey" (1862), published in Johnson, pp. 170–172.
George and Tamsen Donner's children were taken in by an older couple near Sutter's Fort. Eliza was three years old during the winter of 1846–1847, the youngest of the Donner children. She published an account of the Donner Party in 1911, based on printed accounts and those of her sisters.Johnson, p. 2. The Breens' youngest daughter, Isabella, was one-year-old during the winter of 1846–1847 and the last survivor of the Donner Party. She died in [Francisco](San)(San Francisco) on March 25, 1935.King, pp. 177–178.
The Graves children lived varied lives. Mary Graves married early, but her first husband was murdered. She cooked his killer's food while he was in prison to ensure the condemned man did not starve before his hanging. One of Mary's grandchildren noted she was very serious; she once said, "I wish I could cry but I cannot. If I could forget the tragedy, perhaps I would know how to cry again."Johnson, pp. 126–127. Mary's brother William had several different occupations, a diverse lifestyle, and his nieces thought he was "eccentric and irascible". He died in 1907 and was buried in Calistoga.
Nancy Graves was nine years old during the winter of 1846–1847. She refused to acknowledge her involvement even when contacted by historians interested in recording the most accurate versions of the episode. Nancy reportedly was unable to recover from her role in the cannibalism of her brother and mother.Rarick, p. 230.
Eddy remarried and started a family in California. He attempted to follow through on his promise to murder Lewis Keseberg but was dissuaded by James Reed and Edwin Bryant. A year later, Eddy recalled his experiences to J. Quinn Thornton, who wrote the earliest account of the episode, also using Reed's memories of his involvement.Hardesty, p. 3; Johnson, pp. 8–9. Eddy died in [California](Petaluma,)(Petaluma, California) on December 24, 1859.McGlashan, p. 243.
Keseberg brought a defamation suit against several members of the relief party who accused him of murdering Tamsen Donner. The court awarded him $1 in damages, but also made him pay court costs. An 1847 story printed in the *California Star* described Keseberg's actions in ghoulish terms and his near-lynching by the salvage party. It reported that he preferred eating human flesh over the cattle and horses that had become exposed in the spring thaw. Historian Charles McGlashan amassed enough material to indict Keseberg for the murder of Tamsen Donner, but after interviewing him he concluded no murder occurred. Eliza Donner Houghton also believed Keseberg to be innocent.King, p. 106.
As Keseberg grew older, he did not venture outside, for he had become a pariah and was often threatened. He told McGlashan, "I often think that the Almighty has singled me out, among all the men on the face of the earth, in order to see how much hardship, suffering, and misery a human being can bear!"McGlashan, pp. 221–222.
## Legacy
[[File:Donner Party Memorial.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Three figures on a tall stone plinth|Statue at [Memorial State Park](Donner)(Donner Memorial State Park), the top of the pedestal indicating how deep the snow was during the winter of 1846–1847]]
The attention directed at the Donner Party is made possible by reliable accounts of what occurred, according to Stewart, and the fact that "the cannibalism, although it might almost be called a minor episode, has become in the popular mind the chief fact to be remembered about the Donner Party. For a taboo always allures with as great strength as it repels".Stewart, p. 295. The appeal is the events focused on families and ordinary people, according to Johnson, writing in 1996, instead of on rare individuals, and that the events are "a dreadful irony that hopes of prosperity, health, and a new life in California's fertile valleys led many only to misery, hunger, and death on her stony threshold".Johnson, p. 1.
The site of the cabins became a tourist attraction as early as 1854.State of California, p. 43. In the 1880s, Charles McGlashan began promoting the idea of a monument to mark the site of the Donner Party episode. He helped to acquire the land for a monument, and in June 1918, the statue of a pioneer family, dedicated to the Donner Party, was placed on the spot where the Breen-Keseberg cabin was thought to have stood.Rarick, pp. 243–244. It was made a California Historical Landmark in 1934.State of California, p. 44.
The State of California created the [Memorial State Park](Donner)(Donner Memorial State Park) in 1927. It originally consisted of surrounding the monument. Twenty years later, the site of the Murphy cabin was purchased and added to the park.State of California, p. 45. In 1962, the Emigrant Trail Museum was added to tell the history of westward migration into California. The Murphy cabin and Donner monument were established as a [Historic Landmark](National)(National Historic Landmark) in 1963. A large rock served as the back-end of the fireplace of the Murphy cabin, and a bronze plaque has been affixed to the rock listing the members of the Donner Party, indicating who survived and who did not. The State of California justifies memorializing the site because the episode was "an isolated and tragic incident of American history that has been transformed into a major folk epic".State of California, p. 39. As of 2003, the park is estimated to receive 200,000 visitors a year.State of California, p. 59.
### Mortality
Most historians count 87 members of the party, although Stephen McCurdy in the *[Journal of Medicine](Western)(Western Journal of Medicine)* includes Sarah Keyes—Margret Reed's mother—and Luis and Salvador, bringing the number to 90. Five people had already died before the party reached Truckee Lake: one from [tuberculosis](tuberculosis) (Halloran), three from trauma (Snyder, Wolfinger, and Pike), and one from exposure (Hardkoop). A further 34 died between December 1846 and April 1847: twenty-five males and nine females.Grayson, Donald K. (Autumn 1990). "Donner Party Deaths: A Demographic Assessment", *[of Anthropological Research](Journal)(Journal of Anthropological Research)* **46** (3) pp. 223–242.Grayson stated in his 1990 mortality study that one-year-old Elizabeth Graves was one of the casualties, but she was rescued by the second relief. Several historians and other authorities have studied the mortalities to determine what factors may affect survival in nutritionally deprived individuals. Of the fifteen members of the snowshoe party, eight of the ten men who set out died, but all five women survived.Johnson, p. 54. A professor at the [of Washington](University)(University of Washington) stated that the Donner Party episode is a "case study of demographically-mediated natural selection in action".Hardesty, p. 113.
The deaths at Truckee Lake, at Alder Creek, and in the snowshoe party were probably caused by a combination of extended malnutrition, overwork, and exposure to cold. Several members became more susceptible to infection due to starvation,Hardesty, p. 114. such as George Donner, but the three most significant factors in survival were age, sex, and the size of family group that each member traveled with. The survivors were on average 7.5 years younger than those who died; children aged between six and 14 had a much higher survival rate than infants and children under the age of six, of whom 62.5 percent died, including the son born to the Kesebergs on the trail, or adults over the age of 35. No adults over the age of 49 survived. Deaths were "extremely high" among males aged between 20 and 39, at more than 66 percent. Men have been found to metabolize protein faster, and women do not require as high a caloric intake. Women also store more body fat, which delays the effects of physical degradation caused by starvation and overwork. Men also tend to take on more dangerous tasks, and in that particular instance, the men were required to clear brush and engage in heavy labor before reaching Truckee Lake, adding to their physical debilitation. Those traveling with family members had a higher survival rate than bachelor males, possibly because family members more readily shared food with each other.McCurdy, Stephen (1994). [Epidemiology of Disaster: The Donner Party (1846–1847)](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1022425/pdf/westjmed00068-0044.pdf) , *Western Journal of Medicine*, **160**, pp. 338–342.Hardesty, pp. 131–132.
### Memories and rumors of cannibalism
[[Baptiste Trudeau, pictured here as an adult, gave conflicting accounts of cannibalism at Alder Creek.|alt=Refer to caption](File:JeanBaptisteTrudeau.JPG|thumb|upright|Jean)]
Although some survivors disputed the accounts of cannibalism, Charles McGlashan, who corresponded with many of the survivors over a 40-year period, documented many recollections that it occurred. Some correspondents were not forthcoming, approaching their participation with shame, but others eventually spoke about it freely. McGlashan in his 1879 book *History of the Donner Party* declined to include some of the more morbid details—such as the suffering of the children and infants before death—or how Mrs. Murphy, according to Georgia Donner, gave up, lay down on her bed and faced the wall when the last of the children left in the third relief. He also neglected to mention any cannibalism at Alder Creek.Stewart, pp. 307–313.McGlashan, p. 161. The same year McGlashan's book was published, Georgia Donner wrote to him to clarify some points, saying that human flesh was prepared for people in both tents at Alder Creek, but to her recollection (she was four years old during the winter of 1846–1847) it was given only to the youngest children: "Father was crying and did not look at us the entire time, and we little ones felt we could not help it. There was nothing else." She also remembered that Elizabeth Donner, Jacob's wife, announced one morning that she had cooked the arm of Samuel Shoemaker, a 25-year-old teamster.Stewart, p. 312. Eliza Donner Houghton, in her 1911 account of the ordeal, did not mention any cannibalism at Alder Creek.
Archaeological findings at the Alder Creek camp proved inconclusive for evidence of cannibalism. None of the bones tested at the Alder Creek cooking hearth could be identified with certainty as human.Dixon et al., 2010; Robbins Schug and Gray, 2011 According to Rarick, only cooked bones would be preserved, and it is unlikely that the Donner Party members would have needed to cook human bones.Rarick, p. 193.
Eliza Farnham's 1856 account of the Donner Party was based largely on an interview with Margaret Breen. Her version details the ordeals of the Graves and Breen families after James Reed and the second relief left them in the snow pit. According to Farnham, seven-year-old Mary Donner suggested to the others that they should eat Isaac Donner, Franklin Graves Jr., and Elizabeth Graves, because the Donners had already begun eating the others at Alder Creek, including Mary's father Jacob. Margaret Breen insisted that she and her family did not cannibalize the dead, but Kristin Johnson, Ethan Rarick, and Joseph King—whose account is sympathetic to the Breen family—do not consider it credible that the Breens, who had been without food for nine days, would have been able to survive without eating human flesh. King suggests Farnham included this in her account independently of Margaret Breen.Farnham, Eliza, excerpt from *California, In-doors and Out* (1856), published in Johnson, pp. 139–168.Johnson, p. 164., Rarick, p. 213, King, pp. 86–87.
According to an account published by H. A. Wise in 1847, Jean Baptiste Trudeau boasted of his own heroism, but also spoke in lurid detail of eating Jacob Donner, and said he had eaten a baby raw.Wise, H. A., excerpt from *Los Gringos* (1849), published in Johnson, pp. 134–135. Many years later, Trudeau met Eliza Donner Houghton and denied cannibalizing anyone. He reiterated that in an interview with a St. Louis newspaper in 1891, when he was 60 years old. Houghton and the other Donner children were fond of Trudeau, and he of them, despite their circumstances and the fact that he eventually left Tamsen Donner alone. Author George Stewart considers Trudeau's accounting to Wise more accurate than what he told Houghton in 1884, and asserted that he deserted the Donners.Stewart, p. 297. Kristin Johnson, on the other hand, attributes Trudeau's interview with Wise to be a result of "common adolescent desires to be the center of attention and to shock one's elders"; when older, he reconsidered his story, so as not to upset Houghton.Johnson, p. 133. Historians Joseph King and Jack Steed call Stewart's characterization of Trudeau's actions as desertion "extravagant moralism", particularly because all members of the party were forced to make difficult choices.King, Joseph; Steed, Jack (Summer 1995). "John Baptiste Trudeau of the Donner Party: Rascal or Hero?", *California History* **74** (2) pp. 162–173. Ethan Rarick echoed this by writing, "more than the gleaming heroism or sullied villainy, the Donner Party is a story of hard decisions that were neither heroic nor villainous".Rarick, p. 245.
## See also
* [Party timeline](Donner)(Donner Party timeline)
* [of incidents of cannibalism](List)(List of incidents of cannibalism)
* [Andes flight disaster](1972)(Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571)
* [Packer](Alferd)(Alferd Packer)
## References
**Footnotes**
**Citations**
## Bibliography
* Bagley, Will (2010), *So Rugged and So Mountainous: Blazing the Trails to Oregon and California, 1812–1848*, [of Oklahoma Press](University)(University of Oklahoma Press),
* Dixon, Kelly, Shannon Novak, Gwen Robbins, Julie Schablitsky, Richard Scott, and Guy Tasa (2010), "[Men, Women, and Children are Starving: Archaeology of the Donner Family Camp](https://web.archive.org/web/20170811103950/https://www.unr.edu/Documents/liberal-arts/anthropology/Scott/Dixon%20et%20al.pdf)". American Antiquity 75(3):627–656
* Dixon, Kelly (ed.) (2011). ''An Archaeology of Desperation: Exploring the Donner Party's Alder Creek Camp*, University of Oklahoma Press.
* Hardesty, Donald (1997). *The Archaeology of the Donner Party*, [of Nevada Press](University)(University of Nevada Press).
* Johnson, Kristin (ed.) (1996). *[Unfortunate Emigrants: Narratives of the Donner Party](https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1099&context=usupress_pubs). *, [State University Press](Utah)(Utah State University Press).
* King, Joseph (1992). *Winter of Entrapment: A New Look at the Donner Party*, P. D. Meany Company.
* [Charles](McGlashan,)(Charles Fayette McGlashan) (1879). *[History of the Donner Party: A Tragedy of the Sierra Nevada](https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=iQgVAAAAYAAJ). *: 11th edition (1918), A Carlisle & Company, San Francisco
* McNeese, Tim (2009). *The Donner Party: A Doomed Journey*, [House Publications](Chelsea)(Chelsea House Publications).
* Petrinovich, Lewis F. (2000). *[The Cannibal Within](https://books.google.com/books?id=QauRWfX4NTcC)*, Aldine Transaction, .
* Rarick, Ethan (2008). *Desperate Passage: The Donner Party's Perilous Journey West*, [University Press](Oxford)(Oxford University Press),
* Rehart, Catherine Morison (2000), *The Valley's Legends & Legacies III'', Word Dancer Press,
* Robbins Schug, Gwen and Kelsey Gray (2011), "Bone Histology and Identification of a Starvation Diet". In: An Archaeology of Desperation: Exploring the Donner Party's Alder Creek Camp. Dixon, K., J. Schablitsky, and S. Novak, eds. Arthur H. Clark Co., University of Oklahoma Press.
* State of California Park and Recreation Commission (2003), [Donner Memorial State Park General Plan and Environmental Report](https://web.archive.org/web/20100202175621/http://www.parks.ca.gov/pages/21299/files/donner%20gp%20vol%201%20final.pdf), Volume I. Retrieved March 24, 2010.
* Stewart, George R. (1936). *Ordeal by Hunger: The Story of the Donner Party*: supplemented edition (1988), [Mifflin](Houghton)(Houghton Mifflin Harcourt).
* Unruh, John (1993). *[Plains Across: The Overland Emigrants and the Trans-Mississippi West, 1840–60](The)(The Plains Across (book))*, [of Illinois Press](University)(University of Illinois Press).
## Further reading
* Brown, Daniel James (2009). *The Indifferent Stars Above: The Harrowing Saga of a Donner Party Bride*, [Morrow](William)(William Morrow and Company), New York.
* Burton, Gabrielle (2011). *Searching for Tamsen Donner*, Bison Books – [of Nebraska Press](University)(University of Nebraska Press), Lincoln.
* Calabro, Marian (1999). *The Perilous Journey of the Donner Party*, [Mifflin Harcourt](Houghton)(Houghton Mifflin Harcourt), Boston.
* DeVoto, Bernard (2000). *The Year of Decision: 1846*, [Martin's Griffin](St.)(St. Martin's Griffin), New York.
* Hawkins, Bruce R. and Madsen, David B. (1999). *Excavation of the Donner–Reed Wagons: Historic Archaeology Along the Hastings Cutoff*, [of Utah Press](University)(University of Utah Press), Salt Lake City.
* Houghton, Eliza P. Donner (2014). *The Expedition of the Donner Party and Its Tragic Fate*, [Independent Publishing Platform](CreateSpace)(CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform).
* Mullen, Frank Jr. (1997). *The Donner Party Chronicles: A Day-by-Day Account of a Doomed Wagon Train, 1846–1847*, Nevada Humanities Committee, Reno
## External links
*
* [List of Donner Party Resources compiled by Kristin Johnson](https://user.xmission.com/~octa/DonnerParty/index.html)
* [DonnerPartyDiary.com, Donner Party and Relief Party diary entries](http://www.donnerpartydiary.com)
* [of Daniel Rhoads regarding the relief of the Donner Party, 1846](Statement)(s:Statement of Daniel Rhoads, Bancroft Library 1873), by [Rhoads](Daniel)(Daniel Rhoads), a member of the first rescue party
*
* [*The Donner Party*](https://www.pbs.org/video/american-experience-the-donner-party/) – An *[Experience](American)(American Experience)* Documentary
*
*
* [Lewis Keseberg's statement given to Charles McGlashan about 1877](https://www.sierracollege.edu/ejournals/jsnhb/v1n1/LKeseberg2.html)
* [Forlorn Hope Expedition](https://www.forlornhope.org/) (2020–21)
[ ](Category:Donner Party)
[in Alta California](Category:1846)(Category:1846 in Alta California)
[in the United States](Category:1846)(Category:1846 in the United States)
[cannibals](Category:American)(Category:American cannibals)
[Trail](Category:California)(Category:California Trail)
[by starvation](Category:Deaths)(Category:Deaths by starvation)
[of the American West](Category:History)(Category:History of the American West)
[of the Sierra Nevada (United States)](Category:History)(Category:History of the Sierra Nevada (United States))
[of cannibalism](Category:Incidents)(Category:Incidents of cannibalism)
[history of California](Category:Pre-statehood)(Category:Pre-statehood history of California)
[California](Category:Truckee,)(Category:Truckee, California)
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List of KonoSuba episodes
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list_of_konosuba_episodes
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# List of KonoSuba episodes
*Revision ID: 1160309591 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T17:19:14Z*
---
[[Kono Subarashii Sekai ni Shukufuku o! Logo Anime.png|thumb|300px|Official logo](File:)]
''[God's Blessing on This Wonderful World!](KonoSuba:)(KonoSuba)* is an [anime](anime) television series adapted from the [novel](light)(light novel) series of the same title by Natsume Akatsuki. The series follows the adventures of Kazuma Satō who, after he dies of a heart attack after pushing a girl out of the way of a truck, which turned out to be a tractor, is sent to an [RPG](role-playing game)-like world, going on various adventures alongside a goddess named Aqua, a magician named Megumin, and a knight named Darkness.
Produced by [Deen](Studio)(Studio Deen), the series was directed by Takaomi Kanasaki and written by [Uezu](Makoto)(Makoto Uezu) with character designs by Koichi Kikuta. Spanning two seasons, the series adapts the first four volumes of the light novels, and was followed by a [film](2019)(KonoSuba: God's Blessing on This Wonderful World! Legend of Crimson) which adapted the fifth.
The first season (adapting volumes one and two of the novels) was broadcast on [MX](Tokyo)(Tokyo MX) in Japan from January 14 through March 16, 2016 and was simulcast by [Crunchyroll](Crunchyroll) and [AnimeLab](AnimeLab).
The opening theme is "Fantastic Dreamer" by [Machico](Machico (singer)) while the ending theme is performed by [Amamiya](Sora)(Sora Amamiya), [Takahashi](Rie)(Rie Takahashi), and [Kayano](Ai)(Ai Kayano).
A second season based on the third and fourth volumes of the series ran from January 11 to March 16, 2017. The second's season's opening theme is "Tomorrow" by Machico, and the ending theme is "Ouchi ni Kaeritai" by Amamiya, Takahashi, and Kayano.
An [video animation](original)(original video animation) was bundled with the ninth light novel of *KonoSuba* in June 2016, and a second was released with the twelfth light novel in July 2017.
On May 28, 2022, the third season and adapted spin-off was announced to be released in 2023, which premiered on April 6, 2023. Drive, a 2015-established animation studio, would be producing the series onwards and replaced Studio Deen who produced the first two seasons of the series.
## Series overview
| end1 =
| color2 = #EB962C
| link2 = #Season 2 (2017)
| episodes2 = 10
| start2 =
| end2 =
| color3 = #B00C0C
| link3 = #An Explosion on This Wonderful World! (2023)
| linkT3 = EX
| episodes3 = 12
| start3 =
| end3 =
| color4 = #76B126
| link4 = #Season 3 (TBA)
| linkT4 = 3
| episodes4 =
| start4 =
| end4 =
}}
## Episode list
### Season 1 (2016)
#### Original video animation
### Season 2 (2017)
#### Original video animation
### *An Explosion on This Wonderful World!* (2023)
### Season 3 (TBA)
## Notes
## References
[Category:KonoSuba](Category:KonoSuba)
[KonoSuba](Category:Lists of anime episodes)
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Harry Belafonte
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harry_belafonte
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# Harry Belafonte
*Revision ID: 1160284078 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T13:57:30Z*
---
*Belafonte* (album)|other uses}}
| birth_place = New York City, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = New York City, U.S.
| other_names =
| years_active = 1948–2023
| occupation =
| works = [Discography](Harry Belafonte discography)
| party = [Democratic](Democratic Party (United States))
| spouse =
*
*
}}
| children = 4, including [Shari](Shari Belafonte)
| module =
| instrument = Vocals
}}
}}
**Harry Belafonte** (born **Harold George Bellanfanti Jr.**; March 1, 1927 – April 25, 2023) was an American singer, actor, and activist, who popularized [music](calypso)(calypso music) with international audiences in the 1950s and 60s. Belafonte earned his career breakthrough with the album *[Calypso](Calypso (album))* (1956), which was the first million-selling [LP](LP album) by a single artist.
Belafonte was best known for his recordings of "[(The Banana Boat Song)](Day-O)(Day-O (The Banana Boat Song))", "[in the Line (Shake, Senora)](Jump)(Jump in the Line (Shake, Senora))", "[Farewell](Jamaica)(Jamaica Farewell)", and "[Boy Child](Mary's)(Mary's Boy Child)". He recorded and performed in many genres, including [blues](blues), [folk](folk music), [gospel](gospel music), [tune](show)(show tune)s, and [standards](American)(Great American Songbook). He also starred in films such as *[Jones](Carmen)(Carmen Jones (film))* (1954), *[in the Sun](Island)(Island in the Sun (film))* (1957), *[Against Tomorrow](Odds)(Odds Against Tomorrow)* (1959), *[and the Preacher](Buck)(Buck and the Preacher)* (1972), and *[Saturday Night](Uptown)(Uptown Saturday Night)* (1974). He made his final screen appearance in [Lee](Spike)(Spike Lee)'s *[BlacKkKlansman](BlacKkKlansman)* (2018).
Belafonte considered the actor, singer, and activist [Robeson](Paul)(Paul Robeson) to be a mentor. Belafonte was also a close confidant of [Luther King Jr.](Martin)(Martin Luther King Jr.) during the [Rights Movement](Civil)(Civil Rights Movement) of the 1950s and 1960s. He was a vocal critic of the policies of the [W. Bush](George)(Presidency of George W. Bush) and [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) administrations. Belafonte acted as the [Civil Liberties Union](American)(American Civil Liberties Union) celebrity ambassador for juvenile justice issues.
Belafonte won three [Awards](Grammy)(Grammy Awards) (including a [Lifetime Achievement Award](Grammy)(Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award)), an [Award](Emmy)(Emmy Award), and a [Award](Tony)(Tony Award). In 1989, he received the [Center Honors](Kennedy)(Kennedy Center Honors). He was awarded the [Medal of Arts](National)(National Medal of Arts) in 1994. In 2014, he received the [Hersholt Humanitarian Award](Jean)(Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award) at the Academy's [Annual Governors Awards](6th)(Governors Awards#6th Annual Governors Awards) and in 2022 was inducted into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame) in the Early Influence category. He is one of the few performers to have received an [Grammy, Oscar, and Tony (EGOT)](Emmy,)(List of EGOT winners), although he won the [Oscar](Academy Award) in a non-competitive category.
## Early life
Belafonte was born Harold George Bellanfanti Jr. on March 1, 1927, at Lying-in Hospital in [Harlem](Harlem), New York City, the son of Jamaican-born parents Harold George Bellanfanti Sr., who worked as a chef, and Melvine (née Love), a housekeeper.The African American Registry [Harry Belafonte, an entertainer of truth](http://www.aaregistry.org/historic_events/view/harry-belafonte-entertainer-truth) There are disputed claims of his father's place of birth, which is also stated as [Martinique](Martinique), a French territory in the West Indies.
His mother was the child of a [Jamaican](Scottish)(Scottish Jamaican) mother and an [Afro-Jamaican](Afro-Jamaican) father, and his father was the child of an Afro-Jamaican mother and a [Dutch-Jewish](Dutch-Jewish) father of [Jewish](Sephardic)(Sephardic Jewish) descent. Harry, Jr. was raised [Catholic](Catholic) and attended parochial school at [Charles Borromeo](St.)(St. Charles Borromeo Church (New York City)).
From 1932 to 1940, Belafonte lived with one of his grandmothers in her native country of Jamaica, where he attended [Schools](Wolmer's)(Wolmer's Boys' School). Upon returning to New York City, he dropped out of [Washington High School](George)(George Washington High School (Manhattan)), Arenson, Karen W. ["Commencements; Belafonte Lauds Diversity Of Baruch College Class"](https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E07EFDA103CF931A35755C0A9669C8B63), *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, June 2, 2000. Retrieved April 16, 2008. "(He said that he had not gotten past the first year at George Washington High School, and that the only college degrees he had were honorary ones.)" after which he joined the [Navy](U.S.)(U.S. Navy) and served during [War II](World)(World War II). In the 1940s, he was working as a janitor's assistant when a tenant gave him, as a gratuity, two tickets to see the [Negro Theater](American)(American Negro Theater). He fell in love with the art form and also befriended [Poitier](Sidney)(Sidney Poitier). The financially struggling pair regularly purchased a single seat to local plays, trading places in between acts, after informing the other about the progression of the play.
At the end of the 1940s, Belafonte took classes in acting at the [Workshop](Dramatic)(Dramatic Workshop) of [New School](The)(The New School) in New York City with the influential German director [Piscator](Erwin)(Erwin Piscator) alongside [Brando](Marlon)(Marlon Brando), [Curtis](Tony)(Tony Curtis), [Matthau](Walter)(Walter Matthau), [Arthur](Bea)(Bea Arthur), and Poitier, while performing with the American Negro Theater. He subsequently received a [Award](Tony)(Tony Award) for his participation in the Broadway revue ''[Murray Anderson's Almanac](John)(John Murray Anderson's Almanac)* (1954). He also starred in the 1955 Broadway revue *[for Tonight](3)(3 for Tonight)'' with [Champion](Gower)(Gower Champion).
## Musical career
[[File:Harry Belafonte and Nat King Cole 1957.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Belafonte with [King Cole](Nat)(Nat King Cole) in 1957]]
### Early years (1949–1955)
Belafonte started his career in music as a club singer in New York to pay for his acting classes. The first time he appeared in front of an audience, he was backed by the Charlie Parker band, which included [Parker](Charlie)(Charlie Parker) himself, [Roach](Max)(Max Roach), and [Davis](Miles)(Miles Davis), among others. He launched his recording career as a pop singer on the Roost label in 1949, but quickly developed a keen interest in [music](folk)(folk music), learning material through the [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress)' American folk songs archives. With guitarist and friend Millard Thomas, Belafonte soon made his debut at the legendary jazz club [Village Vanguard](The)(The Village Vanguard). He signed a contract with [Victor](RCA)(RCA Victor) in 1953, recording regularly for the label until 1974. Belafonte also performed during the [Pack](Rat)(Rat Pack) era in [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas). Belafonte's first widely [released](art release) single, which went on to become his "signature" audience participation song in virtually all his live performances, was "[Matilda](Matilda (calypso song))", recorded April 27, 1953.
### Rise to fame (1956–1958)
Belafonte's breakthrough album *[Calypso](Calypso (album))* (1956) became the first [LP](LP album) in the world to sell more than one million copies in a year. He stated that it was the first million-selling album ever in England. The album is number four on *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))*s "Top 100 Album" list for having spent thirty-one weeks at number 1, fifty-eight weeks in the top ten, and ninety-nine weeks on the U.S. chart. The album introduced American audiences to [music](calypso)(calypso music) (which had originated in [and Tobago](Trinidad)(Trinidad and Tobago) in the early 19th century), and Belafonte was dubbed the "King of Calypso", a title he wore with reservations since he had no claims to any [Monarch](Calypso)(Calypso Monarch) titles.
One of the songs included in the album is the now famous "[Boat Song](Banana)(Day-O (The Banana Boat Song))" (listed as "Day-O" on the *Calypso* LP), which reached number five on the pop chart, and featured its signature lyric "Day-O".
Many of the compositions recorded for *Calypso*, including "Banana Boat Song" and "[Farewell](Jamaica)(Jamaica Farewell)", gave songwriting credit to [Burgie](Irving)(Irving Burgie).
### Middle career (1959–1970)
[[File:Julie Andrews Harry Belafonte 1969.jpg|thumb|With [Andrews](Julie)(Julie Andrews) on the NBC special *An Evening with Julie Andrews and Harry Belafonte* (1969)]]
While primarily known for calypso, Belafonte recorded in many different genres, including [blues](blues), [folk](folk music), [gospel](gospel music), [tune](show)(show tune)s, and [standards](American)(Great American Songbook). His second-most popular hit, which came immediately after "The Banana Boat Song", was the comedic tune "[Look at Bubu](Mama)(Mama Look at Bubu)", also known as "Mama Look a Boo-Boo" (originally recorded by [Melody](Lord)(Lord Melody) in 1955 AllMusic |url=https://www.allmusic.com/song/boo-boo-man-mama-look-a-boo-boo-mt0047616089 |access-date=April 25, 2023 |language=en}}), in which he sings humorously about misbehaving and disrespectful children. It reached number eleven on the pop chart.
In 1959, Belafonte starred in *Tonight With Belafonte*, a nationally televised special that featured [Odetta](Odetta), who sang "[Boy](Water)(Waterboy (song))" and who performed a duet with Belafonte of "[a Hole in My Bucket](There's)(There's a Hole in My Bucket)" that hit the national charts in 1961. Belafonte was the first Jamaican American to win an [Emmy](Emmy), for *Revlon Revue: Tonight with Belafonte* (1959). Two live albums, both recorded at [Hall](Carnegie)(Carnegie Hall) in 1959 and 1960, enjoyed critical and commercial success. From his 1959 album, "[Nagila](Hava)(Hava Nagila)" became part of his regular routine and one of his signature songs. He was one of many entertainers recruited by [Sinatra](Frank)(Frank Sinatra) to perform at the [gala](inaugural)(United States presidential inaugural balls) of President [F. Kennedy](John)(John F. Kennedy) in 1961, which included [Fitzgerald](Ella)(Ella Fitzgerald), [Jackson](Mahalia)(Mahalia Jackson), and others. Later that year, RCA Victor released another calypso album, *[Up Calypso](Jump)(Jump Up Calypso)*, which went on to become another million seller. During the 1960s he introduced several artists to U.S. audiences, most notably South African singer [Makeba](Miriam)(Miriam Makeba) and Greek singer [Mouskouri](Nana)(Nana Mouskouri). His album *[Special](Midnight)(Midnight Special (Harry Belafonte album))* (1962) included a young harmonica player named [Dylan](Bob)(Bob Dylan).
As [Beatles](the)(the Beatles) and other stars from Britain began to dominate the U.S. pop charts, Belafonte's commercial success diminished; 1964's *[at The Greek Theatre](Belafonte)(Belafonte at The Greek Theatre)* was his last album to appear in *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))*s Top 40. His last hit single, "A Strange Song", was released in 1967 and peaked at number 5 on the [contemporary music](adult)(adult contemporary music) charts. Belafonte received [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award)s for the albums *[Dat Hammer](Swing)(Swing Dat Hammer)* (1960) and *[Evening with Belafonte/Makeba](An)(An Evening with Belafonte/Makeba)* (1965). The latter album dealt with the political plight of black [Africans](South)(South Africans) under [apartheid](apartheid). He earned six [Record](Gold)(Gold Record)s.
During the 1960s, Belafonte appeared on TV specials alongside such artists as [Andrews](Julie)(Julie Andrews), [Clark](Petula)(Petula Clark), [Horne](Lena)(Lena Horne), and [Mouskouri](Nana)(Nana Mouskouri). In 1967, Belafonte was the first non-classical artist to perform at the prestigious [Performing Arts Center](Saratoga)(Saratoga Performing Arts Center) (SPAC) in Upstate New York, soon to be followed by concerts there by [Doors](the)(the Doors), [5th Dimension](the)(the 5th Dimension), [Who](the)(the Who), and [Joplin](Janis)(Janis Joplin).
From February 5 to 9, 1968, Belafonte guest hosted *[Tonight Show](The)(The Tonight Show)* substituting for [Carson](Johnny)(Johnny Carson). Among his interview guests were [Luther King Jr.](Martin)(Martin Luther King Jr.) and [Robert F. Kennedy](Senator)(Robert F. Kennedy).
### Later recordings and subsequent activities (1971–2023)
Belafonte's fifth and final calypso album, *[Carnival](Calypso)(Calypso Carnival)*, was issued by RCA in 1971. AllMusic |url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/calypso-carnival-mw0000946159 |access-date=April 25, 2023 |language=en}} Belafonte's recording activity slowed considerably after releasing his final album for RCA in 1974. From the mid-1970s to early 1980s, Belafonte spent the greater part of his time on tour, which included concerts in Japan, Europe, and [Cuba](Cuba). In 1977, [Records](Columbia)(Columbia Records) released the album *[the World Around](Turn)(Turn the World Around)*, with a strong focus on [music](world)(world music). AllMusic |url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/turn-the-world-around-mw0000992547 |access-date=April 25, 2023 |language=en}}
In 1978 he was a guest star on an episode of *[Muppet Show](The)(The Muppet Show)*, on which he performed his signature song "Day-O". However, the episode is best known for Belafonte's rendition of the spiritual song "Turn the World Around", from the album of the same name, which he performed with specially made Muppets that resembled African tribal masks. It became one of the series' most famous performances and was reportedly [Henson](Jim)(Jim Henson)'s favorite episode. After Henson's death in May 1990, Belafonte was asked to perform the song at Henson's memorial service. "Turn the World Around" was also included in the 2005 official hymnal supplement of the [Universalist Association](Unitarian)(Unitarian Universalist Association), *Singing the Journey*.
From 1979 to 1989, Belafonte served on the [Winnipeg Ballet](Royal)(Royal Winnipeg Ballet)'s board of directors. [[Belafonte 1983.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Belafonte performing in 1983](File:Harry)]
Belafonte released his first album of original material in over a decade, *[in Gazankulu](Paradise)(Paradise in Gazankulu)*, in 1988, and contained ten protest songs against the South African former [Apartheid](Apartheid) policy, and was his last studio album. AllMusic |url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/paradise-in-gazankulu-mw0000200433 |access-date=April 25, 2023 |language=en}} In the same year Belafonte, as [UNICEF](UNICEF) Goodwill Ambassador, attended a symposium in [Zimbabwe](Harare,)(Harare, Zimbabwe), to focus attention on child survival and development in Southern African countries. As part of the symposium, he performed a concert for UNICEF. A [Kodak](Kodak) video crew filmed the concert, which was released as a 60-minute concert video titled "Global Carnival".
Following a lengthy recording hiatus, *[Evening with Harry Belafonte and Friends](An)(An Evening with Harry Belafonte and Friends)*, a soundtrack and video of a televised concert, were released in 1997 by [Records](Island)(Island Records). *The Long Road to Freedom: An Anthology of Black Music*, a huge multi-artist project recorded by RCA during the 1960s and 1970s, was finally released by the label in 2001. Belafonte went on the *[Show](Today)(Today (American TV program))* to promote the album on September 11, 2001, and was interviewed by [Couric](Katie)(Katie Couric) just minutes before the first plane hit the [Trade Center](World)(World Trade Center (1973–2001)). The album was nominated for the 2002 Grammy Awards for Best Boxed Recording Package, for Best Album Notes, and for Best Historical Album.
[[Belafonte 1996.jpg|thumb|upright|Belafonte in 1996](File:Harry)]
Belafonte received the [Center Honors](Kennedy)(Kennedy Center Honors) in 1989. He was awarded the [Medal of Arts](National)(National Medal of Arts) in 1994 and he won a [Lifetime Achievement Award](Grammy)(Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award) in 2000. He performed sold-out concerts globally through the 1950s to the 2000s. His last concert was a benefit concert for the [Opera](Atlanta)(Atlanta Opera) on October 25, 2003. In a 2007 interview, he stated that he had since retired from performing.
On January 29, 2013, Belafonte was the Keynote Speaker and 2013 Honoree for the MLK Celebration Series at the [Island School of Design](Rhode)(Rhode Island School of Design). Belafonte used his career and experiences with Dr. King to speak on the role of artists as activists.
Belafonte was inducted as an honorary member of [Beta Sigma](Phi)(Phi Beta Sigma) fraternity on January 11, 2014.
In March 2014, Belafonte was awarded an honorary doctorate from [College of Music](Berklee)(Berklee College of Music) in [Boston](Boston).
In 2017, Belafonte released *When Colors Come Together*, an anthology of some of Belafonte's earlier recordings produced by his son David who wrote lyrics for an updated version of "Island In The Sun", arranged by longtime Belafonte musical director Richard Cummings, and featuring Harry Belafonte's grandchildren Sarafina and Amadeus and a children's choir.
## Film career
### Early film career (1953–1956)
[[Belafonte (Berlin Film Festival 2011) cropped.jpg|thumb|Belafonte at the 2011 Berlin Film Festival|224x224px](File:Harry)]
Belafonte starred in numerous films. His first film role was in *[Road](Bright)(Bright Road)* (1953), in which he supported female lead [Dandridge](Dorothy)(Dorothy Dandridge). The two subsequently starred in [Preminger](Otto)(Otto Preminger)'s hit musical *[Jones](Carmen)(Carmen Jones (film))* (1954). Ironically, Belafonte's singing in the film was dubbed by an opera singer, as was Dandridge's, both voices being deemed unsuitable for their roles.
### Rise as an actor (1957–1959)
Realizing his own star-power, Belafonte was subsequently able to land several (then) controversial film roles. In *[in the Sun](Island)(Island in the Sun (film))* (1957), there are hints of an affair between Belafonte's character and the character played by [Fontaine](Joan)(Joan Fontaine); The film also starred [Mason](James)(James Mason), Dandridge, [Collins](Joan)(Joan Collins), [Rennie](Michael)(Michael Rennie), and [Justin](John)(John Justin). In 1959, he starred in and produced (through his company HarBel Productions) [Wise](Robert)(Robert Wise)'s *[Against Tomorrow](Odds)(Odds Against Tomorrow)*, in which he plays a bank robber uncomfortably teamed with a racist partner ([Ryan](Robert)(Robert Ryan)). He also co-starred with [Stevens](Inger)(Inger Stevens) in *[World, the Flesh and the Devil](The)(The World, the Flesh and the Devil (1959 film))*. Belafonte was offered the role of [Porgy](Porgy (novel)) in Preminger's *[and Bess](Porgy)(Porgy and Bess (film))*, where he would have once again starred opposite Dandridge, but refused the role because he objected to its [stereotyping](racial)(racial stereotype); [Poitier](Sidney)(Sidney Poitier) played the role instead.
### Later film and theatre involvement (1960–2018)
[[File:Harry Belafonte Viennale2011b (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Belafonte at the 2011 [Viennale](Viennale)]]
Dissatisfied with most of the film roles offered to him during the 1960s, Belafonte concentrated on music. In the early 1970s, Belafonte appeared in more films, among which are two with Poitier: *[and the Preacher](Buck)(Buck and the Preacher)* (1972) and *[Saturday Night](Uptown)(Uptown Saturday Night)* (1974). In 1984, Belafonte produced and scored the musical film *[Street](Beat)(Beat Street)*, dealing with the rise of [hip-hop](hip hop) culture. Together with [Baker](Arthur)(Arthur Baker (musician)), he produced the gold-certified soundtrack of [same name](the)(Beat Street (soundtrack)). Belafonte next starred in a major film in the mid-1990s, appearing with [Travolta](John)(John Travolta) in the race-reverse drama ''[Man's Burden](White)(White Man's Burden (film))'' (1995); and in [Altman](Robert)(Robert Altman)'s [age](jazz)(jazz age) drama *[City](Kansas)(Kansas City (1996 film))* (1996), the latter of which garnered him the [York Film Critics Circle Award](New)(New York Film Critics Circle Award) for Best Supporting Actor. He also starred as an Associate Justice of the [Court of the United States](Supreme)(Supreme Court of the United States) in the TV drama *[Vote](Swing)(Swing Vote (1999 film))* (1999). In 2006, Belafonte appeared in *[Bobby](Bobby (2006 film))*, [Estevez](Emilio)(Emilio Estevez)'s ensemble drama about the [of Robert F. Kennedy](assassination)(assassination of Robert F. Kennedy); he played Nelson, a friend of an employee of the Ambassador Hotel ([Hopkins](Anthony)(Anthony Hopkins)). His final film appearance was in [Lee](Spike)(Spike Lee)'s Academy Award-winning *[BlacKkKlansman](BlacKkKlansman)* (2018) as an elderly civil rights pioneer.
## Political and humanitarian activism
[[File:Kung king belafonte.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Belafonte with King [VI Adolf](Gustav)(Gustav VI Adolf) and [Luther King Jr.](Martin)(Martin Luther King Jr.) in 1964]]
Belafonte is said to have married politics and pop culture. Belafonte's political beliefs were greatly inspired by the singer, actor, and civil rights activist [Robeson](Paul)(Paul Robeson), who mentored him. Robeson opposed not only racial prejudice in the United States but also western [colonialism](colonialism) in Africa. Belafonte refused to perform in the American South from 1954 until 1961.
In 1960, Belafonte appeared in a campaign commercial for [Democratic](Democratic Party (United States)) Presidential candidate [F. Kennedy](John)(John F. Kennedy). Kennedy later named Belafonte cultural advisor to the [Corps](Peace)(Peace Corps). Belafonte supported [B. Johnson](Lyndon)(Lyndon B. Johnson) for the [United States presidential election](1964)(1964 United States presidential election).Jet, October 1, 1964
Belafonte gave the keynote address at the ACLU of Northern California's annual Bill of Rights Day Celebration In December 2007 and was awarded the Chief Justice [Warren](Earl)(Earl Warren) Civil Liberties Award. The 2011 [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival) featured the documentary film *[Your Song](Sing)(Sing Your Song)*, a biographical film focusing on Belafonte's contribution to and his leadership in the civil rights movement in America and his endeavors to promote social justice globally. In 2011, Belafonte's memoir *My Song* was published by [Books](Knopf)(Knopf Books).
### Involvement in the civil rights movement
[[File:Poitier Belafonte Heston Civil Rights March 1963.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Belafonte (center) at the 1963 [Rights March on Washington, D.C](Civil)(March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom)., with [Poitier](Sidney)(Sidney Poitier) (left) and [Heston](Charlton)(Charlton Heston)]]
Belafonte supported the [rights movement](civil)(civil rights movement) in the 1950s and 1960s and was one of [Luther King Jr.](Martin)(Martin Luther King Jr.)'s confidants. He provided for King's family since King earned only $8,000 ($80,000 in today's time) a year as a preacher. As with many other civil rights activists, Belafonte was [blacklisted](Hollywood blacklist) during the [era](McCarthy)(McCarthyism). During the 1963 [campaign](Birmingham)(Birmingham campaign), Belafonte bailed King out of the [Alabama](Birmingham,)(Birmingham, Alabama) jail and raised $50,000 to release other civil rights protesters. He contributed to the 1961 [Rides](Freedom)(Freedom Rides), supported [registration drive](voter)(voter registration drive)s, and helped to organize the 1963 [on Washington](March)(March on Washington). He later recalled, "Paul Robeson had been my first great formative influence; you might say he gave me my backbone. Martin King was the second; he nourished my soul." Throughout his career, Belafonte was an advocate for political and humanitarian causes, such as the [Movement](Anti-Apartheid)(Anti-Apartheid Movement) and [for Africa](USA)(USA for Africa). From 1987 until his death, he was a [Goodwill Ambassador](UNICEF)(UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador).
During the [Freedom Summer](Mississippi)(Freedom Summer) of 1964, Belafonte bankrolled the [Nonviolent Coordinating Committee](Student)(Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee), flying to [Mississippi](Mississippi) that August with Sidney Poitier and $60,000 in cash and entertaining crowds in [Greenwood](Greenwood, Mississippi). In 1968, Belafonte appeared on a [Clark](Petula)(Petula Clark) primetime television special on [NBC](NBC). In the middle of a duet of *On the Path of Glory*, Clark smiled and briefly touched Belafonte's arm, which prompted complaints from Doyle Lott, the advertising manager of the show's sponsor, [Motors](Plymouth)(Plymouth Motors). Lott wanted to retape the segment, but Clark, who had ownership of the special, told NBC that the performance would be shown intact or she would not allow it to be aired at all. Newspapers reported the controversy, Lott was relieved of his responsibilities, and when the special aired, it attracted high ratings.
Belafonte taped an appearance on an episode of *[Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour](The)(The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour)* to be aired on September 29, 1968, performing a controversial [Gras](Mardi)(Mardi Gras) number intercut with footage from the [Democratic National Convention](1968)(1968 Democratic National Convention) riots. [CBS](CBS) censors deleted the segment. The full unedited content was broadcast in 1993 as part of a complete *Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour* syndication package.
### Humanitarian activism
[[Belafonte (left) with opera star Stacey Robinson in 1988.jpg|thumb|right|Belafonte (left) with activist and opera star Stacey Robinson in 1988.](File:Harry)]
In 1985, Belafonte helped organize the [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Awards)-winning song "[Are the World](We)(We Are the World)", a multi-artist effort to raise funds for Africa. He performed in the [Aid](Live)(Live Aid) concert that same year. In 1987, he received an appointment to [UNICEF](UNICEF) as a [ambassador](goodwill)(goodwill ambassador). Following his appointment, Belafonte traveled to [Dakar](Dakar), [Senegal](Senegal), where he served as chairman of the International Symposium of Artists and Intellectuals for African Children. He also helped to raise funds—along with more than 20 other artists—in the largest concert ever held in [Africa](sub-Saharan)(sub-Saharan Africa). In 1994, he embarked on a mission to [Rwanda](Rwanda) and launched a media campaign to raise awareness of the needs of Rwandan children.
In 2001, Belafonte visited South Africa to support the campaign against [HIV/AIDS](HIV/AIDS). In 2002, [Africare](Africare) awarded him the [John T. Walker Distinguished Humanitarian Service Award](Bishop)(Bishop John T. Walker Distinguished Humanitarian Service Award) for his efforts. In 2004, Belafonte traveled to [Kenya](Kenya) to stress the importance of educating children in the region. UN News |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2004/02/94202 |access-date=April 25, 2023 |website=news.un.org |language=en}}
Belafonte had been involved in [cancer](prostate)(prostate cancer) advocacy since 1996, when he was diagnosed and successfully treated for the disease. On June 27, 2006, Belafonte received the [BET](Black Entertainment Television) Humanitarian Award at the 2006 [Awards](BET)(BET Awards). He was named one of nine 2006 Impact Award recipients by *[The Magazine](AARP:)(AARP: The Magazine)*. On October 19, 2007, Belafonte represented [UNICEF](UNICEF) on [Norwegian](Norway) television to support the annual telethon ([TV Aksjonen](http://www.tvaksjonen.no)) and helped raise a world record of $10 per Norwegian citizen. UNICEF |url=https://www.unicef.org/goodwill-ambassadors/harry-belafonte |access-date=April 25, 2023 |website=Unicef.org |language=en}} Belafonte was also an ambassador for the [Bahamas](Bahamas). Entertainment Tonight|first= Latifah |last=Muhammad |author2=Anthony Dominic |url=https://www.etonline.com/harry-belafonte-egot-winner-and-activist-dead-at-96-116105 |date=April 25, 2023|access-date=April 25, 2023 |website=Etonline.com |language=en-US}} He sat on the board of directors of the Advancement Project. He also served on the advisory council of the [Age Peace Foundation](Nuclear)(Nuclear Age Peace Foundation).
### Political activism
Belafonte was a longtime critic of [foreign policy](U.S.)(U.S. foreign policy). He began making controversial political statements on the subject in the early 1980s. At various times, he made statements opposing the U.S. embargo on [Cuba](Cuba); praising Soviet peace initiatives; attacking the [invasion of Grenada](U.S.)(U.S. invasion of Grenada); praising the [Lincoln Brigade](Abraham)(Abraham Lincoln Brigade); honoring [and Julius Rosenberg](Ethel)(Ethel and Julius Rosenberg); and praising [Castro](Fidel)(Fidel Castro). Belafonte is also known for his visit to Cuba that helped ensure [hip-hop](hip-hop)'s place in Cuban society. According to Geoffrey Baker's article "Hip hop, Revolucion! Nationalizing Rap in Cuba", in 1999, Belafonte met with representatives of the rap community immediately before meeting with Castro. This meeting resulted in Castro's personal approval of, and hence the government's involvement in, the incorporation of rap into his country's culture. In a 2003 interview, Belafonte reflected upon this meeting's influence:
[[File:Harry Belafonte Civil Rights March 1963.jpg|thumb|left|Belafonte speaking at the 1963 [on Washington for Jobs and Freedom](March)(March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom).]]
"When I went back to [Havana](Havana, Cuba) a couple years later, the people in the hip-hop community came to see me and we hung out for a bit. They thanked me profusely and I said, 'Why?' and they said, 'Because your little conversation with Fidel and the Minister of Culture on hip-hop led to there being a special division within the ministry and we've got our own studio.'."
Belafonte was active in the [Movement](Anti-Apartheid)(Anti-Apartheid Movement). In 1987, he was the master of ceremonies at a reception honoring [National Congress](African)(African National Congress) President [Tambo](Oliver)(Oliver Tambo) at Roosevelt House, [College](Hunter)(Hunter College), in New York City. The reception was held by the American Committee on Africa (ACOA) and The Africa Fund. He was a board member of the [Forum](TransAfrica)(TransAfrica Forum) and the [for Policy Studies](Institute)(Institute for Policy Studies).
### Opposition to the George W. Bush administration
Belafonte achieved widespread attention for his political views in 2002 when he began making a series of comments about President [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush), his administration and the [War](Iraq)(Iraq War). During an interview with [Leitner](Ted)(Ted Leitner) for [Diego](San)(San Diego)'s 760 KFMB, on October 10, 2002, Belafonte referred to [X](Malcolm)(Malcolm X). Belafonte said:
Belafonte used the quotation to characterize former [States Secretaries of State](United)(United States Secretary of State) Colin Powell and [Rice](Condoleezza)(Condoleezza Rice). Powell and Rice both responded, with Powell calling the remarks "unfortunate" and Rice saying, "I don't need Harry Belafonte to tell me what it means to be black."
[[Belafonte-IPS.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Belafonte in 2003](File:Harry)]
The comment resurfaced in an interview with [Goodman](Amy)(Amy Goodman) for *[Now!](Democracy)(Democracy Now!)* in 2006. In January 2006, Belafonte led a delegation of activists including actor [Glover](Danny)(Danny Glover) and activist/professor [West](Cornel)(Cornel West) to meet with [president](Venezuelan)(President of Venezuela) [Chávez](Hugo)(Hugo Chávez). In 2005, Chávez, an outspoken Bush critic, initiated a program to provide cheaper [oil](heating)(heating oil) for poor people in several areas of the United States. Belafonte supported this initiative. He was quoted as saying, during the meeting with Chávez, "No matter what the greatest tyrant in the world, the greatest [terrorist](terrorism) in the world, George W. Bush says, we're here to tell you: Not hundreds, not thousands, but millions of the American people support your revolution." Belafonte and Glover met again with Chávez in 2006. The comment ignited a great deal of controversy. [Clinton](Hillary)(Hillary Clinton) refused to acknowledge Belafonte's presence at an awards ceremony that featured both of them. [AARP](AARP), which had just named him one of its 10 Impact Award honorees 2006, released this statement following the remarks: "AARP does not condone the manner and tone which he has chosen and finds his comments completely unacceptable."
During a [Luther King Jr. Day](Martin)(Martin Luther King Jr. Day) speech at [University](Duke)(Duke University) in 2006, Belafonte compared the American government to the [hijackers](9/11 hijackers) of the [11 attacks](September)(September 11 attacks), saying, "What is the difference between that terrorist and other terrorists?" In response to criticism about his remarks, Belafonte asked, "What do you call Bush when the war he put us in to date has killed almost as many Americans as died on 9/11 and the number of Americans wounded in war is almost triple? ... By most definitions Bush can be considered a terrorist." When he was asked about his expectation of criticism for his remarks on the war in Iraq, Belafonte responded, "Bring it on. [Dissent](Dissent) is central to any democracy."
In another interview, Belafonte remarked that while his comments may have been "hasty", he felt that the Bush administration suffered from "arrogance wedded to ignorance" and its policies around the world were "[bankrupt](morally)(morally bankrupt)." In a January 2006 speech to the annual meeting of the Arts Presenters Members Conference, Belafonte referred to "the new [Gestapo](secret police) of [Security](Homeland)(Homeland Security)," saying, "You can be arrested and have no [to counsel](right)(right to counsel)!" During a Martin Luther King Jr. Day speech at [University](Duke)(Duke University) in [North Carolina](Durham,)(Durham, North Carolina) in January 2006, Belafonte said that if he could choose his [epitaph](epitaph), it would read "Harry Belafonte, Patriot."
In 2004, he was awarded the Domestic Human Rights Award in San Francisco by [Exchange](Global)(Global Exchange).
### Obama administration
In the 1950s, Belafonte was a supporter of the African American Students Foundation, which gave a grant to [Obama Sr.](Barack)(Barack Obama Sr.), the late father of 44th U.S. president [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama), to study at the [of Hawaii](University)(University of Hawaii) in 1959.
In 2011, Belafonte commented on the [administration](Obama)(Obama administration) and the role that popular opinion played in shaping its policies. "I think [Obama] plays the game that he plays because he sees no threat from evidencing concerns for the poor."
On December 9, 2012, in an interview with [Sharpton](Al)(Al Sharpton) on [MSNBC](MSNBC), Belafonte expressed dismay that many political leaders in the United States continue to oppose Obama's policies even after his reelection: "The only thing left for Barack Obama to do is to work like a third-world dictator and just put all of these guys in jail. You're violating the American desire."
On February 1, 2013, Belafonte received the [NAACP](NAACP)'s [Medal](Spingarn)(Spingarn Medal), and in the televised ceremony, he counted [L. Rice](Constance)(Constance L. Rice) among those previous recipients of the award whom he regarded highly for speaking up "to remedy the ills of the nation."
### New York City Pride Parade
In 2013, Belafonte was named a grand marshal of the New York City Pride Parade alongside [Windsor](Edie)(Edith Windsor) and Earl Fowlkes.
### Support for Bernie Sanders
In 2016, Belafonte endorsed Vermont U.S. senator [Sanders](Bernie)(Bernie Sanders) in the [primaries](Democratic)(Democratic Party presidential primaries, 2016), saying, "I think he represents opportunity, I think he represents a moral imperative, I think he represents a certain kind of truth that's not often evidenced in the course of politics."
Belafonte was an honorary cochairman of the [March on Washington](Women's)(2017 Women's March), which took place on January 21, 2017, the day after the [of Donald Trump](inauguration)(inauguration of Donald Trump) as president.
### The Sanders Institute
Belafonte was a fellow at [Sanders Institute](The)(The Sanders Institute).
## Business career
Belafonte liked and often visited the Caribbean island of [Bonaire](Bonaire). He and Maurice Neme of [Aruba](Oranjestad,)(Oranjestad, Aruba) formed a joint venture to create a luxurious [community](private)(private community) on Bonaire named [Belnem](Belnem), a portmanteau of the two men's names. Construction began on June 3, 1966. The neighborhood is managed by the Bel-Nem Caribbean Development Corporation. Belafonte and Neme served as its first directors. In 2017, Belnem was home to 717 people.
## Personal life, health and death
[[Belafonte 1998.jpg|thumb|upright|Second wife Julie Robinson in 1998](File:Julie)]
[[with third wife Pamela Frank in April 2011](File:HarryPamelaBelafonteApr2011.jpg|thumb|upright|Belafonte)]
Belafonte and Marguerite Byrd were married from 1948 to 1957. They had two daughters: Adrienne and [Shari](Shari Belafonte). They separated when Byrd was pregnant with Shari. Adrienne and her daughter Rachel Blue founded the Anir Foundation/Experience, focused on humanitarian work in southern Africa.
In 1953, Belafonte was financially able to move from [Heights, Manhattan](Washington)(Washington Heights, Manhattan) "into a white neighborhood in [Elmhurst, Queens](East)(East Elmhurst, Queens)."[Jr., Henry Louis](Gates)(Henry Louis Gates, Jr.). ["Belafonte's Balancing Act"](http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1996/08/26/belafontes-balancing-act), *[New Yorker](The)(The New Yorker)*, August 26, 1996. Accessed March 19, 2019. "In 1953, enjoying his first real taste of affluence, Belafonte moved from Washington Heights into a white neighborhood in Elmhurst, Queens."
Belafonte had an affair with actress [Collins](Joan)(Joan Collins) during the filming of [in the Sun*](*Island)(Island in the Sun (film)).
On March 8, 1957, Belafonte married his second wife Julie Robinson, a former dancer with the [Dunham Company](Katherine)(Katherine Dunham Company) who was of [Jewish](American Jews) descent They had two children: Gina and David.
After 47 years of marriage, Belafonte and Robinson divorced in 2004. In April 2008, he married Pamela Frank, a photographer.[[belafonte 0103.JPG|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Belafonte in 2013](File:Harry)]
Belafonte had five grandchildren: Rachel and Brian through his children with Marguerite Byrd, and Maria, Sarafina and Amadeus through his children with Robinson. He had two great-grandchildren by his oldest grandson Brian. In October 1998, Belafonte contributed a letter to [Ullmann](Liv)(Liv Ullmann)'s book *Letter to My Grandchild*.
In 1996, Belafonte was diagnosed with prostate cancer and was successfully treated for the disease. He suffered a stroke in 2004, which took away his inner-ear balance. From 2019, Belafonte's health began to decline, but still was a active and prominent figure in the civil rights movement.
Belafonte died from [heart failure](congestive)(congestive heart failure) at his home on the [West Side](Upper)(Upper West Side) of [Manhattan](Manhattan), New York City on April 25, 2023, at the age of 96.
His interment was at [Cemetery and Mausoleum](Ferncliff)(Ferncliff Cemetery and Mausoleum) in [New York](Hartsdale,)(Hartsdale, New York).
## Discography
Belafonte released 30 studio albums and 8 live albums, and achieved critical and commercial success.
## Filmography
### Film
;Documentary
### Television
[[File:After Dark 11th June 1988.jpg|upright=1.36|right|thumb|Appearing (second from left) on British television discussion programme *[Dark](After)(After Dark (TV programme))* in 1988]]
* *[Ed Sullivan Show](The)(The Ed Sullivan Show)* (1953–1964)
* *The Nat King Cole Show* (1957)
* *[Steve Allen Show](The)(The Steve Allen Show)* (1958)[Cast](http://www.tv.com/shows/the-steve-allen-show/harry-belafonte-and-the-belafonte-singers-johnny-carson-martha-raye-676944/cast/) (Harry Belafonte and the Belafonte Singers; Johnny Carson; Martha Raye). *The Steve Allen Show* Season 4 Episode 9.
* *Tonight With Belafonte* (1959)
* *Round Table on March on Washington* (1963)
* *[Danny Kaye Show](The)(The Danny Kaye Show)* (1965)
* *Petula* (1968)
* *[Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour](The)(The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour)* (1968)
* *[Tonight Show](The)(The Tonight Show)* (1968)
* *A World in Music* (1969)
* *Harry & Lena, For The Love Of Life* (1969)
* *A World in Love* (1970)
* *[Flip Wilson Show](The)(The Flip Wilson Show)* (1973)
* *[to Be ... You and Me](Free)(Free to Be ... You and Me)* (1974)
* *[Muppet Show](The)(The Muppet Show)* (1978)
* ''[White Tiger](Grambling's)(Grambling's White Tiger)* (1981)
* *Don't Stop The Carnival'' (1985)
* *[Dark](After)(After Dark (TV series))* (1988) (extended appearance on political discussion programme, more [here](After Dark (TV series)#Harry Belafonte, Denis Worrall and "South Africa"))
* *[Evening with Harry Belafonte and Friends](An)(An Evening with Harry Belafonte and Friends)* (1997)
* *Swing Vote* (1999)
* *Swing Vote* (1999 TV movie)
* *[Otter](PB&J)(PB&J Otter)* "The Ice Moose" (1999)
* *[on Tanner](Tanner)(Tanner on Tanner)* (2004)
* ''That's What I'm Talking About'' (2006) (miniseries)
* *[the Levees Broke: A Requiem in Four Acts](When)(When the Levees Broke)* (2006) (miniseries)
* *Speakeasy*, interviewing [Santana](Carlos)(Carlos Santana) (2015)
}}
### Concert videos
* *En Gränslös Kväll På Operan* (1966)
* ''Don't Stop The Carnival'' (1985)
* *Global Carnival* (1988)
* *[Evening with Harry Belafonte and Friends](An)(An Evening with Harry Belafonte and Friends)* (1997)
## Theatre
* ''[Murray Anderson's Almanac](John)(John Murray Anderson's Almanac)'' (1953)
* *3 for Tonight* (1955)
* *Moonbirds* (1959) (producer)
* *Belafonte at the Palace* (1959)
* *Asinamali!* (1987) (producer)
## Accolades and legacy
Belafonte is an [EGOT](List of EGOT winners) honoree, having received three [Awards](Grammy)(Grammy Awards), an [Award](Emmy)(Emmy Award), a [Award](Tony)(Tony Award), and, in 2014, the [Hersholt Humanitarian Award](Jean)(Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award) at the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences' [Annual Governors Awards](6th)(Governors Awards#6th Annual Governors Awards).
He also received various honours including the [Center Honors](Kennedy)(Kennedy Center Honors) in 1989, the [Medal of Arts](National)(National Medal of Arts) in 1994 and was inducted into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame) in the Early Influence category in 2022.
Belafonte celebrated his 93rd birthday on March 1, 2020, at Harlem's [Theater](Apollo)(Apollo Theater) in a tribute event that concluded "with a thunderous audience singalong" with rapper [E. Fresh](Doug)(Doug E. Fresh) to 1956's "Banana Boat Song". Soon after, the New York Public Library's [Center for Research in Black Culture](Schomburg)(Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture) announced it had acquired Belafonte's vast personal archive of "photographs, recordings, films, letters, artwork, clipping albums," and other content.
## See also
* [of peace activists](List)(List of peace activists)
## References
## Further reading
*
* Smith, Judith. *Becoming Belafonte: Black Artist, Public Radical*. University of Texas Press, 2014. .
* Wise, James. ''Stars in Blue: Movie Actors in America's Sea Services''. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1997. . .
## External links
*[SNCC Digital Gateway: Harry Belafonte](https://snccdigital.org/people/harry-belafonte/), Documentary website created by the SNCC Legacy Project and Duke University, telling the story of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee & grassroots organizing from the inside-out
*
*[Harry Belafonte](https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/person/12907%7C66480/Harry-Belafonte) at the [Movie Database](TCM)(Turner Classic Movies)
*
*
*
*
}}
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|
Dr. Jerry Graham
|
dr._jerry_graham
|
# Dr. Jerry Graham
*Revision ID: 1156457067 | Timestamp: 2023-05-22T23:36:05Z*
---
|weight=
|birth_date=
|birth_place=[Oklahoma](Woodward,)(Woodward, Oklahoma), U.S.
|death_date=
|trainer=Self-trained at the [YMCA](YMCA)
|debut=1947
|retired=1981
|death_place=[California](Glendale,)(Glendale, California), U.S.}}
**Jerry Martin Graham** (born **Jerry Martin Matthews**, December 16, 1928 – January 24, 1997) was an American [wrestler](professional)(Professional wrestling). He is best known for his time spent in the [Wide Wrestling Federation](World)(WWE) and as the founder of the Graham wrestling family.
## Early life
Graham was adopted by his stepfather Harold Graham and his name was legally changed. He was raised in [Arizona](Arizona), and falsified his age to enlist in [War II](World)(World War II), where he served with the [Airborne Division Paratroopers](82nd)(82nd Airborne Division). After the war, he attended [College](Phoenix)(Phoenix College) and [State University](Arizona)(Arizona State University).
## Professional wrestling career
Graham began wrestling at the age of 14 in his hometown of [Phoenix](Phoenix, Arizona), and won his first major title, the [Southern Heavyweight Championship](NWA)(NWA Southern Heavyweight Championship (Georgia version)), in December 1956. He was the founder of the [storyline](Kayfabe) Graham wrestling family, which included [Graham (Edward Gossett)](Eddie)(Eddie Graham), [Luke Graham (James Grady Johnson)]("Crazy")(Luke Graham (wrestler)), [Billy Graham (Wayne Coleman)]("Superstar")(Superstar Billy Graham), [Graham (Mike Gossett)](Mike)(Mike Graham (wrestler)), Jerry Graham Jr., Crazy Luke Graham Jr. and Mad Dog Steele Graham (Tom Hankins). Along with Eddie, Jerry sold out [Square Garden](Madison)(Madison Square Garden) many times in the 1950s and late 1960s, when they were known as The Golden Grahams. After his [team](tag)(tag team) success, Dr. Graham brought "Crazy" Luke Graham and "Superstar" Billy Graham into the Graham family.
Graham feuded with [Rogers](Buddy)(Buddy Rogers (wrestler)) in 1956, predominantly in [York](New)(New York City). On November 19, 1957, Graham and [the Bruiser](Dick)(Dick the Bruiser) wrestled [Rocca](Antonio)(Antonino Rocca) and [Carpentier](Edouard)(Edouard Carpentier) at [Square Garden](Madison)(Madison Square Garden III). During the match, a major riot exploded and many fans were arrested, with eight police officers being injured from chairs that were thrown by fans. All of the wrestlers during the match were fined, and Dick the Bruiser was banned for life from wrestling in [York](New)(New York (state)).
Graham was a top contender for [Sammartino](Bruno)(Bruno Sammartino)'s [Wide Wrestling Federation](World)(WWE#World Wide Wrestling Federation) (WWWF) [Heavyweight Championship](World)(WWE World Championship), wrestling him in three bouts at Madison Square Garden. The arena was so packed that more than 10,000 fans were turned away. Despite coming up short in winning the world title, Graham held the [United States Tag Team Championship](WWWF)(WWWF United States Tag Team Championship) six times; his first reign with Eddie Graham began in September 1958, when they defeated [Lewin](Mark)(Mark Lewin) and [Curtis](Don)(Don Curtis). They won the titles again in May 1959 until it was vacated due to Jerry suffering an injury. He also held it in November with [Valentine](Johnny)(Johnny Valentine) until Eddie took his place the following year. This also included a reign with "brother" Crazy Luke Graham in March 1964. Graham also won the [Canadian Tag Team Championship](NWA)(NWA Canadian Tag Team Championship (Vancouver version)) with [the Butcher](Abdullah)(Abdullah the Butcher) in October 1967. He spent the 1970s training other wrestlers and occasionally wrestling himself. Graham attempted a comeback to the now WWF in 1984, but this did not last long and he spent the rest of his career as a manager on the [circuit](independent)(independent circuit).
On March 31, 2017, he was posthumously inducted into the [Hall of Fame](WWE)(WWE Hall of Fame) as a part of the Legacy wing.
## Personal life and death
Graham suffered from alcoholism and depression. In August 1969, when his mother died, he grabbed a shotgun from the back of his car and took his mother's corpse out of the Good Samaritan Hospital in Phoenix. After the incident, he spent time in the Arizona State Mental Hospital.
In [Billy Graham]("Superstar")("Superstar" Billy Graham)'s book *Tangled Ropes*, he speaks about the real life hatred that Graham had for [Blassie](Freddie)(Freddie Blassie).
Graham suffered from failing health in the mid-90s, causing him to enter a nursing home. On January 24, 1997, Graham died in [Glendale](Glendale, California) at the age of 68, due to complications from a stroke six weeks earlier.
## Championships and accomplishments
* **[Wrestling Corporation](Capitol)(Capitol Wrestling Corporation) / [Wide Wrestling Federation](World)(World Wide Wrestling Federation) / [WWE](WWE)**
** [United States Tag Team Championship (Northeast version)](NWA)(WWWF United States Tag Team Championship) ([times](5)(WWWF United States Tag Team Championship#Title history)) – with [Graham](Eddie)(Eddie Graham) (4), [Valentine](Johnny)(Johnny Valentine) (1)
** [United States Tag Team Championship](WWWF)(WWWF United States Tag Team Championship) ([time](1)(WWWF United States Tag Team Championship#Title history)) – with [Graham](Luke)(Luke Graham (wrestler))
** [Hall of Fame](WWE)(WWE Hall of Fame) (Class of 2017)
* **[Coast Championship Wrestling](Gulf)(Continental Championship Wrestling)**
** [Gulf Coast Heavyweight Championship](NWA)(NWA Southeastern Heavyweight Championship (Southern Division)) ([time](1)(NWA Southeastern Heavyweight Championship (Southern Division)#Title history))
* **[Leaf Wrestling](Maple)(Maple Leaf Wrestling)**
** [International Tag Team Championship (Toronto version)](NWA)(NWA International Tag Team Championship (Toronto version)) ([time](1)(NWA International Tag Team Championship (Toronto version)#Title history)) – with [Brower](Bulldog)(Bulldog Brower)
* **[Sports](Mid-South)(Georgia Championship Wrestling)**
** [Southern Heavyweight Championship (Georgia version)](NWA)(NWA Southern Heavyweight Championship (Georgia version)) ([times](2)(NWA Southern Heavyweight Championship (Georgia version)#Title history))
** [World Tag Team Championship (Georgia version)](NWA)(NWA World Tag Team Championship (Georgia version)) ([time](1)(NWA World Tag Team Championship (Georgia version)#Title history)) – with [McIntyre](Don)(Don McIntyre)
* **[All-Star Wrestling](NWA)(NWA All-Star Wrestling)**
** [Canadian Tag Team Championship (Vancouver version)](NWA)(NWA Canadian Tag Team Championship (Vancouver version)) ([time](1)(NWA Canadian Tag Team Championship (Vancouver version)#Title history)) – with [the Butcher](Abdullah)(Abdullah the Butcher)
** [World Tag Team Championship (Vancouver version)](NWA)(NWA World Tag Team Championship (Vancouver version)) ([time](1)(NWA World Tag Team Championship (Vancouver version)#History)) – with Abdullah the Butcher
* **[Wrestling](Stampede)(Stampede Wrestling)**
** [International Tag Team Championship (Calgary version)](NWA)(Stampede International Tag Team Championship) ([time](1)(Stampede International Tag Team Championship#Title history)) – with [Wright](Jim)(Jim Wright)
* **[Wrestling Association](World)(World Wrestling Association (Indianapolis))**
** [World Tag Team Championship](WWA)(WWA World Tag Team Championship) ([times](2)(WWA World Tag Team Championship#Title history)) – with [Kent](Don)(Don Kent (wrestler))
## References
## External links
*
*
}}
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|
Edward III of England
|
edward_iii_of_england
|
# Edward III of England
*Revision ID: 1160183629 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T22:17:45Z*
---
in the [Garter Book](Bruges)(Bruges Garter Book)
| succession = [of England](King)(King of England)
| moretext = [(more...)](Styles of English sovereigns)
| reign = 25 January 1327 – 21 June 1377
| coronation = 1 February 1327
| predecessor = [II](Edward)(Edward II)
| successor = [II](Richard)(Richard II)
| birth_date = 13 November 1312
| birth_place = [Castle](Windsor)(Windsor Castle), Berkshire, England
| death_date = 21 June 1377 (aged 64)
| death_place = [Palace](Sheen)(Sheen Palace), Richmond, London, England
| burial_date = 5 July 1377
| burial_place = [Abbey](Westminster)(Westminster Abbey), London
| spouse =
| issue =
| issue-link = Issue of Edward III of England
| house = [Plantagenet](Plantagenet)
| father = [II of England](Edward)(Edward II of England)
| mother = [of France](Isabella)(Isabella of France)
}}
**Edward III** (13 November 1312 – 21 June 1377), also known as **Edward of Windsor** before his accession, was [of England](King)(King of England) from January 1327 until his death in 1377. He is noted for his military success and for restoring royal authority after the disastrous and unorthodox reign of his father, [Edward II](Edward II). EdwardIII transformed the [of England](Kingdom)(Kingdom of England) into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe. His fifty-year reign was [of the longest in English history](one)(List of monarchs in Britain by length of reign#Ten longest-reigning British monarchs), and saw vital developments in legislation and government, in particular the evolution of the [Parliament](English)(English Parliament), as well as the ravages of the [Death](Black)(Black Death). He outlived his eldest son, [the Black Prince](Edward)(Edward the Black Prince), and the throne passed to his grandson, [II](Richard)(Richard II).
Edward was crowned at age fourteen after his father was deposed by his mother, [of France](Isabella)(Isabella of France), and her lover [Mortimer](Roger)(Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March). At age seventeen he led a successful coup d'état against Mortimer, the *de facto* ruler of the country, and began his personal reign. After a successful campaign in [Scotland](Kingdom of Scotland) he declared himself [heir to the French throne](rightful)(English claim to the French throne),}} starting the [Years' War](Hundred)(Hundred Years' War). Following some initial setbacks, this [phase of the war](first)(Hundred Years' War, 1337–1360) went exceptionally well for England, which would become known as the Edwardian War: victories at [Crécy](Battle of Crécy) and [Poitiers](Battle of Poitiers (1356)) led to the highly favourable [of Brétigny](Treaty)(Treaty of Brétigny), in which England made territorial gains, and Edward renounced his claim to the French throne. Edward's later years were marked by international failure and domestic strife, largely as a result of his inactivity and poor health.
He was temperamental and thought himself capable of feats such as healing by the [touch](royal)(royal touch) as some prior English kings did, but he was capable of unusual clemency. He was in many ways a conventional king whose main interest was warfare, although with also a broad range of non-military interests. Admired in his own time and for centuries after, he was later denounced as an irresponsible adventurer by [historians](Whig)(Whig historians), and modern historians credit him with significant achievements.
## Background
King [II of England](Edward)(Edward II of England) had court favourites who were unpopular with his nobility, such as [Gaveston](Piers)(Piers Gaveston, 1st Earl of Cornwall) and [Despenser the Younger](Hugh)(Hugh Despenser the Younger). Gaveston was killed during an earlier noble rebellion against Edward in 1312, and Despenser was hated by the English nobility. Edward was also unpopular with the common people due to his repeated demands from them for unpaid military service in Scotland. None of his campaigns there were successful, and this led to a further decline in his popularity, particularly with the nobility. His image was further diminished in 1322 when he executed his cousin, [Earl of Lancaster](Thomas,)(Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster), and confiscated the Lancaster estates. Historian [Given-Wilson](Chris)(Chris Given-Wilson) has written how by 1325 the nobility believed that "no landholder could feel safe" under the regime. This distrust of Edward was shared by his wife, [of France](Isabella)(Isabella of France), This is at variance with the impression received from chroniclers writing under Isabella and Mortimer between 1327 and 1330, who, says Lisa St John, tend to give "the impression that Isabella's relationship with Edward was dysfunctional from the start".}} who believed Despenser responsible for poisoning the King's mind against her. In September 1324 Queen Isabella was publicly humiliated when the government declared her an enemy alien, and the King had immediately [repossessed](Repossession) her estates, probably at the urging of Despenser. Edward also disbanded her retinue. Edward had already been threatened with deposition on two previous occasions (in 1310 and 1321). Historians agree that hostility towards Edward was universal. W. H. Dunham and C. T. Wood ascribed this to Edward's "cruelty and personal faults", suggesting that "very few, not even his half-brothers or his son, seemed to care about the wretched man" and that none would fight for him. A contemporary chronicler described Edward as , or a "useless king".
## Early life (1312–1327)
Edward was born at [Castle](Windsor)(Windsor Castle) on 13 November 1312, and was described in a contemporary prophecy as "the boar that would come out of Windsor". The reign of his father, [Edward II](Edward II), was a particularly problematic period of English history.II's early years, see John Maddicot's 1970 monograph, *Thomas of Lancaster, 1307–1322*}} The King had alienated several [nobles](English)(English peerage) and Scottish allies by abandoning [father](his)(Edward I of England)'s [with Scotland](war)(First War of Scottish Independence) soon after his accession, and continued to lose battles against the Scots intermittently. Also controversial was the king's [patronage](patronage) of a small group of royal [favourite](favourite)s rather than his nobility generally. This, says the historian [Prestwich](Michael)(Michael Prestwich), "unbalanced the whole system of royal patronage". However, the birth of a male heir in 1312—the future Edward III—soon improved EdwardII's relations with the French, and a moderate element within the nobility temporarily quelled baronial opposition. The young prince was created [of Chester](Earl)(Earl of Chester) at only twelve days old, and by January the following year had been provided with an entire [household](household). An early influence on the new King was the [of Durham](Bishop)(Bishop of Durham), [de Bury](Richard)(Richard de Bury), one of the century's major [bibliophile](bibliophile)s. Originally a tutor, he appears to have become a mentor to the King. Under Bury's tutelage, Edward learned to write, and to read French and Latin. He would have had access to famous contemporary works, such as [Vegetius](Vegetius)'s *De Re Militari*, which had been translated into [Anglo-Norman](Anglo-Norman language), as well as the *[for Princes](Mirror)(Mirror for Princes)* and various [psalters](psalters) and religious texts.
Since the [Conquest](Norman)(Norman Conquest) had united the [of Normandy](Duchy)(Duchy of Normandy) and its French estates with those of the Crown and the land of England, English kings had held several landed interests, including [Poitou](Poitou), [Acquitaine](Acquitaine), [Normandy](Normandy), [Anjou](Duchy of Anjou) and [Maine](Maine), and these holdings—at one point covering more of France than that held by the French Kings—had frequently led to conflict in the past. In 1325, Edward II was faced with a demand from his brother-in-law, [of France](Charles IV)(Charles IV of France), to perform [homage](homage (feudal)) for the English [of Aquitaine](Duchy)(Duchy of Aquitaine). Edward was reluctant to leave the country, as discontent was once again brewing domestically, particularly over his relationship with the favourite [Despenser the Younger](Hugh)(Hugh Despenser the Younger).II's later years, see Natalie Fryde's 1979 *The Tyranny and Fall of Edward II, 1321–1326*.}} Instead, he had his son Edward created Duke of Aquitaine in his place and sent him to France to perform the homage. The young Edward was accompanied by his mother [Isabella](Isabella of France), who was King Charles's sister, and was meant to negotiate a peace treaty with the French. While in France, Isabella conspired with the exiled [Mortimer](Roger)(Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March) to have Edward deposed. To build up diplomatic and military support for the venture, Isabella had her son engaged to the twelve-year-old [of Hainault](Philippa)(Philippa of Hainault). An [of England](invasion)(Invasion of England (1326)) was launched and EdwardII's forces deserted him completely. Isabella and Mortimer summoned [parliament](a)(Parliament of 1327), and the King was forced to relinquish the throne to his son, who was proclaimed king in London on 25 January 1327. The new king was crowned as EdwardIII at [Abbey](Westminster)(Westminster Abbey) on 1February at the age of 14.II has been a source of much scholarly debate. For a summary of the evidence, see pages 405–410 of Mortimer's 2006 monograph, *The Perfect King: The Life of Edward III, Father of the English Nation*}}
## Early reign (1327–1337)
### Mortimer's rule and fall
One of Edward's first acts—*de facto* Mortimer's—was to lead another campaign to Scotland in July 1327. It was not long before the new reign also met with other problems caused by the central position at court of Mortimer, who was now the [facto](de)(de facto) ruler of England. Mortimer used his power to acquire noble estates and titles, and his unpopularity grew with the humiliating defeat by the Scots at the [of Stanhope Park](Battle)(Battle of Stanhope Park) in the [of Durham](county)(county of Durham), and the ensuing [of Edinburgh–Northampton](Treaty)(Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton), agreed with the Scots in 1328. The young king also came into conflict with his guardian. Mortimer knew his position in relation to the King was precarious and subjected Edward to disrespect. The tension increased after Edward and Philippa, who had married at [Minster](York)(York Minster) on 24 January 1328, had a son, [of Woodstock](Edward)(Edward of Woodstock), on 15 June 1330. Eventually, the King decided to take direct action against Mortimer. Although up until now Edward had kept a low profile, drawing little attention to himself, it is likely that he increasingly suspected that Mortimer's behaviour could endanger Edward's own life, as the former's position became more unpopular. This was exacerbated by his execution of Edward's uncle, [Earl of Kent](Edmund,)(Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent). Contemporary chroniclers suspected, too, that Mortimer had designs on the throne, and it is likely that it was these rumours that brought things to a head: both his mother and Mortimer were to go. If [Thomas Grey](Sir)(Thomas Grey (chronicler)), in his *[Scalacronica](Scalacronica)* is correct, Edward hated the "rule of the Queen his mother, and hating the Earl of March, for the Queen did everything in accordance with him".
Aided by his close companion [Montagu, 3rd Baron Montagu](William)(William Montagu, 3rd Baron Montagu), and a small number of other trusted men, Edward took Mortimer by surprise at [Castle](Nottingham)(Nottingham Castle) on 19 October 1330. Mortimer was executed and Edward's personal reign began. The historian [Ormrod](Mark)(Mark Ormrod (historian)) argued that at this point Edward had had "little instruction in the art of kingship", and although he had received several books on the subject on his betrothal to Phillipa, "it is extremely doubtful that he read or comprehended these works". His reign, continues Ormrod, was to be guided by his practical, rather than theoretical, experience.
### War in Scotland
Edward III was not content with the peace agreement made in his name, but the renewal of the war with Scotland originated in private, rather than royal initiative. A group of English [magnate](magnate)s known as The Disinherited, who had lost land in Scotland by the peace accord, staged an [of Scotland](invasion)(Second War of Scottish Independence#The repelled invasion of Edward Balliol - 1332) and won a great victory at the [of Dupplin Moor](Battle)(Battle of Dupplin Moor) in 1332. They attempted to install [Balliol](Edward)(Edward Balliol) as king of Scotland in place of the infant [DavidII](David II of Scotland), but Balliol was soon expelled and was forced to seek the help of EdwardIII. The English king responded by [siege to](laying)(Capture of Berwick (1333)) the important border town of [Berwick](Berwick-upon-Tweed) and defeated a large relieving army at the [of Halidon Hill](Battle)(Battle of Halidon Hill), even while under threat from foreign raids. However, Berwick was taken after the besieged Scots set fire to the town, forcing them to [treat](Mercy); at one point Edward's queen was under siege in [Castle](Bamburgh)(Bamburgh Castle), but this was too late to save the Scots' campaign. He reinstated Balliol on the throne and received a substantial amount of land in southern Scotland. These victories proved hard to sustain, as forces loyal to DavidII gradually regained control of the country. A Scottish uprising in 1344 required the raising of another army and a supporting navy. Edward, having repaired [Castle](Roxburgh)(Roxburgh Castle),}} launched a number of ineffective strikes against the Scots, In 1338, Edward agreed a truce with the Scots.
[[File:Artist, maker unknown, English - Heraldic panel with the Coat of Arms of Edward III, King of England (reigned 1327–77) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Coat of arms with three lions, gold on red, in two quarter, fleurs de lys, gold on blue, in two|To mark his claim to the French crown, Edward quartered the arms of France, placing them in the first and fourth quarters. English [glass](stained)(stained glass), c. 1350–1377]]
One reason for the change of strategy towards Scotland was a growing concern for the relationship between England and France. As long as Scotland and France were in [alliance](an)(Auld Alliance), the English were faced with the prospect of fighting a war on two fronts. The French carried out raids on English coastal towns, leading to rumours in England of a full-scale French invasion.
## Creation of a new nobility
When Edward took control of power, he found his family in "complete disarray", says Ormrod, and his nobility split along partisan lines after the troublesome reign of his father, and also, in many families' cases, weakened by line failure. While the lesser baronage—the barons and bannerets, for example—were less affected by political misadventure as their seniors, they were also weaker due to their rights being more insubstantive. Edward had to pacify two noble parties: one which had been against his father from the beginning, and another which had opposed Mortimer's and Isabella's minority regime. James Bothwell argues that, while the fact that he managed to reconcile the sides bloodlessly and with minimum acrimony is rightfully well known, it was insufficient to leave him secure on his own: he had lanced the opposition but had not turned them into a loyalist cadre. He comments, "He could not simply negotiate a peace between the various factions and expect royal authority suddenly to be revived"; Indeed, respect for the monarchy had reached such a low that it was unlikely that the peace would last. Only the [of Arundel](Earls)(Richard Fitzalan, 3rd Earl of Arundel), [Oxford](John de Vere, 7th Earl of Oxford) and [Warwick](Thomas Beauchamp, 11th Earl of Warwick) could be counted on as loyalists, or as a contemporary put it, would serve Edward "hard and faithfully... until they died". To counter this, following the March 1337 parliament, Edward created a duke and eight new [earl](earl)s. He also summonsed 61 new men to the lords with lesser titles, usually by [of summons](writ)(writ of summons), over the rest of his reign. These creations—although expensive—received very little ill will among the extant aristocracy, including the royal family: "All sectors of the ruling class were willing to do business with Edward's favoured", he suggests. The 1337 creations were [de Audley](Hugh)(Hugh de Audley, 1st Earl of Gloucester) to the [of Gloucester](Earldom)(Earldom of Gloucester), [de Bohun](William)(William de Bohun, 1st Earl of Northampton) to that of [Northampton](Earl of Northampton), [de Clinton](William)(William de Clinton) to [Huntingdon](Earl of Huntingdon), [of Grosmont](Henry)(Henry of Grosmont) to [Lancaster](Earl of Lancaster), [de Montagu](William)(William Montagu, 1st Earl of Salisbury) to [Salisbury](Earl of Salisbury) and [de Ufford](Robert)(Robert Ufford, 1st Earl of Suffolk) to [Suffolk](Earl of Suffolk). Of these, Bohun, Clinton, Montagu and Ufford had played leading roles in Edward's coup against Mortimer; they were likewise the greatest beneficiaries in terms of grants and estates. Another common denominator was that most of them had also been trusted companions of Edward before the coup; Ufford, for example, jousted with him and attended him in his [homage](Homage (feudal)) before [VI of France](Philip)(Philip VI of France), while Montagu had been his "closest supporter", and had run secret diplomatic missions to the Pope for him before the coup. James Bothwell has noted that, while these men may have been less well off before they were promoted, they were not less experienced, either politically or militarily. He argues that "a mixture of wealth, experience and/or drive seems to have marked them out" to Edward, and while all his promotions were important to him, the earldoms were especially so. This was because it had been from among the earls that his father had created so many bitter enemies, and therefore that was the demography that Edward wanted to reorganise in his favour. Not only did he reinforce his own and the Crown's position, but, with war approaching, he created six new recruitment conduits from the regions directly to the royal army. For the earls themselves, however, the prospect was not so positive: such was the parlous state of the royal finances, that most of them did not receive, although they had been promised, and were due, a minimum of 1000 [mark](Mark (currency))s}} a year to uphold their new estate; Edward was unable to provide such sums. All except Gloucester}} had to be satisfied with irregular grants of land to boost their incomes, but these would often not be available until the incumbent died and they [escheat](escheat)ed to the King.
## Mid-reign (1337–1360)
### Sluys
In 1337, [of France](Philip VI)(Philip VI of France) confiscated the English king's [of Aquitaine](Duchy)(Duchy of Aquitaine) and the county of [Ponthieu](Ponthieu). Instead of seeking a peaceful resolution to the conflict by paying homage to the French king, as his father had done, Edward responded by [claim](laying)(English claims to the French throne) to the French crown as the grandson of [IV](Philip)(Philip IV of France).}} The French rejected this based on the precedents for [succession](agnatic)(agnatic succession) set in 1316 and 1322. Instead, they upheld the rights of PhilipIV's nephew, King PhilipVI (an agnatic descendant of the [of France](House)(Capetian dynasty)), thereby setting the stage for the [Years' War](Hundred)(Hundred Years' War) ([family tree below](see)(#Genealogical tables)). In the early stages of the war, Edward's strategy was to build alliances with other Continental rulers. In 1338, [Holy Roman Emperor](Louis IV,)(Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor), named Edward vicar-general of the [Roman Empire](Holy)(Holy Roman Empire) and promised his support. As late as 1373, the [Treaty of 1373](Anglo-Portuguese)(Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1373) established an [Alliance](Anglo-Portuguese)(Anglo-Portuguese Alliance). These measures produced few results.
The only major military victory in this phase of the war was the English naval victory at [Sluys](Battle of Sluys) on 24 June 1340, which secured control of the [Channel](English)(English Channel). An English fleet managed, with the help of climatic conditions and better tactics, to wipe out a superior French fleet and, in doing so, raise the threat of an invasion of England. The King was, however, unlikely to have been happy with this sole victory in the light of his continuing financial problems, although one modern commentator has described the battle as "unequalled until the modern era in destruction and decisiveness". Apart from the military defeat, the English captured 166 French merchantmen, which, Cushway suggests, was "ample repayment for years of raiding" along the south coast. For years these French raids had been the stuff of legend among English sailors, with lurid tales as to what the French did to their women circulating. As a result, [quarter](no)(no quarter) was given to the French sailors, which may have resulted in as many as 16,000 dead. The King, too, was not in the mood for mercy; the French captain, [Béhuchet](Nicolas)(Nicolas Béhuchet)—who could otherwise have expected to be [ransom](ransom)ed—was hanged from his own [yardarm](yardarm). Edward saw God's hand in his triumph; a contemporary wrote that from now, he was "the Lord of the Sea"; a triumphal coin was struck in commemoration—showing Edward in a ship, probably meant to be Béhuchet's own—and the King's reputation as a naval warrior was made, if not actually deserved.}}
### Cost of war
Meanwhile, the fiscal pressure on the kingdom caused by Edward's expensive alliances led to discontent at home. The regency council at home was frustrated by the mounting national debt, while the king and his commanders on the Continent were angered by the failure of the government in England to provide sufficient funds. To deal with the situation, Edward himself returned to England, arriving in London unannounced on 30 November 1340. Finding the affairs of the realm in disorder, he purged the royal administration of a great number of ministers and judges. These measures did not bring domestic stability, and a stand-off ensued between the king and [de Stratford](John)(John de Stratford), [of Canterbury](Archbishop)(Archbishop of Canterbury), during which Stratford's relatives [Stratford](Robert)(Robert Stratford), Bishop of Chichester, and [de Stratford](Henry)(Henry de Stratford) were temporarily stripped of title and imprisoned respectively. Stratford claimed that Edward had violated the laws of the land by arresting royal officers. A certain level of conciliation was reached at the parliament of April 1341. Here Edward was forced to accept severe limitations to his financial and administrative freedom, in return for a grant of taxation. Yet in October the same year, the king repudiated this statute and Archbishop Stratford was politically ostracised. The extraordinary circumstances of the April parliament had forced the king into submission, but under normal circumstances the powers of the king in medieval England were virtually unlimited, a fact that Edward was able to exploit.
[[File:Edward III Groat.jpg|thumb|left|[Groat](Groat (coin)) featuring EdwardIII]]
Historian [Rodger](Nicholas)(Nicholas Rodger) called EdwardIII's claim to be the "Sovereign of the Seas" into question, arguing there was hardly any [navy](royal)(History of the Royal Navy) before the reign of [HenryV](Henry V of England) (1413–1422). Despite Rodger's view, [John](King)(John, King of England) had already developed a royal fleet of [galley](galley)s and had attempted to establish an administration for these ships and others which were arrested (privately owned ships pulled into royal/national service). [HenryIII](Henry III of England), his successor, continued this work. Notwithstanding the fact that he, along with his predecessor, had hoped to develop a strong and efficient naval administration, their endeavours produced one that was informal and mostly ad hoc. A formal naval administration emerged during Edward's reign, comprising lay administrators and led by William de Clewre, Matthew de Torksey and John de Haytfield successively bearing the title of ''Clerk of the King's Ships''. [de Crull](Robert)(Robert de Crull) was the last to fill this position during EdwardIII's reign and would have the longest tenure in this position. It was during his tenure that Edward's naval administration would become a base for what evolved during the reigns of successors such as [Henry VIII](Henry VIII)'s *Council of Marine* and *Navy Board* and [I](Charles)(Charles I of England)'s *Board of Admiralty*. Rodger also argues that for much of the fourteenth century, the French had the upper hand, apart from Sluys in 1340 and, perhaps, off [Winchelsea](Battle of Winchelsea) in 1350. Yet, the French never invaded England and King [of France](John II)(John II of France) died in captivity in England. There was a need for an English navy to play a role in this and to handle other matters, such as the insurrection of the Anglo-Irish lords and acts of piracy.
### Command structure
Edward's military command structure began with himself at the centre, and then members of the court acted as his generals. This included the King's family, and Edward utilised the martial capabilities of his sons, particularly the Black Prince. This was not only pragmatic, in that they were all good warriors, but had the added propaganda value of demonstrating the hereditary nature of Edward's claim to the French throne.}} However, command was not always the pejorative of the nobility. [Banneret](Knights)(Knights Banneret)—knights able to lead other knights—were also favoured as leaders of armies or divisions, as they were also already close to the King, being part of his household and bodyguard. They bore particular responsibilities during Edward's *chevauchées*, which often required the main army to split into smaller forces, each requiring its own captain. This sometimes led to dissension. For example, in the 1369 [Loire](Loire) campaign, the [of Pembroke](Earl)(John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke) shared command with [John Chandos](Sir)(Sir John Chandos); although the latter was appointed [seneschal](seneschal) of France by the Black Prince, Pembroke refused to work beneath him on account of his superior social status. Ultimately, though, the task of raising the armies that they would lead fell to both: the aristocracy could raise the largest number of tenants and [retainers](Affinity (medieval)) after the King, but it was the lower men who acted as recruiting sergeants in the regions. Unlike during his father's or great grandfather's campaigns in Scotland, the [levy](feudal)(feudal levy)―whereby military service was provided for free in exchange for land rights―by the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War it had become the norm for men of all ranks to be paid for their service from the King. In return, the crown shouldered the responsibility for paying for the bulk of equipment. The military historian Andrew Ayton has described this transition as amounting to a "military revolution", and one spearheaded by the King himself.
### Crécy and Poitiers
By the early 1340s, it was clear that Edward's policy of alliances was too costly, and yielded too few results. The following years saw more direct involvement by English armies, including in the [War of Succession](Breton)(Breton War of Succession), but these interventions also proved fruitless at first.}} Edward defaulted on [Florentine](Florence) loans of 1,365,000 [florin](florin)s, resulting in the ruin of the lenders.
A change came in July 1346, when Edward staged a major offensive, sailing for [Normandy](Normandy) with a force of 15,000 men. His army [sacked](Battle of Caen (1346)) the city of [Caen](Caen), and marched across northern France, to meet up with Flemish forces in [Flanders](County of Flanders). It was not Edward's initial intention to engage the French army, but at [Crécy](Crécy-en-Ponthieu), just north of the [Somme](Somme (river)), he found favourable terrain and decided to fight a pursuing army led by PhilipVI. On 26 August, the English army defeated a far larger French army in the [of Crécy](Battle)(Battle of Crécy). Shortly after this, on 17 October, an English army defeated and captured King DavidII of Scotland at the [of Neville's Cross](Battle)(Battle of Neville's Cross). With his northern borders secured, Edward felt free to continue his major offensive against France, [siege](laying)(Siege of Calais (1346)) to the town of [Calais](Calais). The operation was the greatest English venture of the Hundred Years' War, involving an army of 32,000 men. The siege started on 4September 1346, and lasted until the town surrendered on 3August 1347.
[[File:Edward III counting the dead on the battlefield of Crécy.jpg|thumb|Edward III counting the dead on the [of Crécy](battlefield)(Battle of Crécy)]]
After the fall of Calais, factors outside of Edward's control forced him to wind down the war effort. In 1348, the [Death](Black)(Black Death in England) struck England with full force, killing a third or more of the country's population.}} This loss of manpower led to a shortage of farm labour, and a corresponding rise in wages. The great landowners struggled with the shortage of manpower and the resulting inflation in labour cost. To curb the rise in wages, the king and parliament responded with the [of Labourers](Ordinance)(Ordinance of Labourers) in 1349, followed by the [of Labourers](Statute)(Statute of Labourers) in 1351. These attempts to regulate wages could not succeed in the long run, but in the short term they were enforced with great vigour. All in all, the plague did not lead to a full-scale breakdown of government and society, and recovery was remarkably swift. This was to a large extent thanks to the competent leadership of royal administrators such as [Treasurer](Lord High Treasurer) [Edington](William)(William Edington) and [Justice](Chief)(Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales) [de Shareshull](William)(William de Shareshull).
It was not until the mid-1350s that military operations on the Continent were resumed on a large scale. In 1356, Edward's eldest son, Edward, Prince of Wales, won an important victory in the [of Poitiers](Battle)(Battle of Poitiers). The greatly outnumbered English forces not only routed the French, but captured the French king JohnII and his youngest son, [Philip](Philip the Bold). After a succession of victories, the English held great possessions in France, the French king was in English custody, and the French central government had almost totally collapsed. There has been a historical debate as to whether Edward's claim to the French crown originally was genuine, or if it was simply a political ploy meant to put pressure on the French government..}} Regardless of the original intent, the stated claim now seemed to be within reach. Yet a campaign in 1359, meant to complete the undertaking, was inconclusive. In 1360, therefore, Edward accepted the [of Brétigny](Treaty)(Treaty of Brétigny), whereby he renounced his claims to the French throne, but secured his extended French possessions in full sovereignty. Edward kept his subjects fully informed of political and military developments abroad by means of what by a large number of regular reports from himself and his captains to various outlets, including [convocation](convocation), the [of London](City)(City of London) and the archbishops, that, while the scholar A. E. Prince acknowledged that taken singularly, these reports may not represent a cohesive [relations](public)(public relations) within government, they do perhaps indicate, as a whole, the existence of a "simple propaganda organization" with which the King boosted domestic morale. These then ended up as part of popular chronicles, either verbatim or in part, whether newsletters or public letters.
## Government
### Legislation
[[File:Gold quarter noble of Edward III (YORYM 2015 140) reverse.jpg|thumb|Gold quarter [noble](Noble (English coin)) of EdwardIII, York Museums Trust]]
The middle years of Edward's reign were a period of significant legislative activity. Perhaps the best-known piece of legislation was the [of Labourers of 1351](Statute)(Statute of Labourers of 1351), which addressed the labour shortage problem caused by the Black Death. The statute fixed wages at their pre-plague level and checked peasant mobility by asserting that lords had first claim on their men's services. In spite of concerted efforts to uphold the statute, it eventually failed due to competition among landowners for labour The law has been described as an attempt "to legislate against the law of [and demand](supply)(supply and demand)", which made it doomed to fail. Nevertheless, the labour shortage had created a community of interest between the smaller landowners of the House of Commons and the greater landowners of the [of Lords](House)(House of Lords). The resulting measures angered the peasants, leading to the [Revolt](Peasants')(Peasants' Revolt) of 1381.
The reign of Edward III coincided with the so-called [Captivity](Babylonian)(Avignon Papacy) of the papacy at [Avignon](Avignon). During the wars with France, opposition emerged in England against perceived injustices by a papacy largely controlled by the French crown. Papal taxation of the English Church was suspected to be financing the nation's enemies, while the practice of provisions (the Pope's providing benefices for clerics) caused resentment in the English population. The statutes of [Provisors](Statute of Provisors) and [Praemunire](Praemunire), of 1350 and 1353 respectively, aimed to amend this by banning papal benefices, as well as limiting the power of the papal court over English subjects. The statutes did not sever the ties between the king and the Pope, who were equally dependent upon each other.
Other legislation of importance includes the [Act 1351](Treason)(Treason Act 1351). It was precisely the harmony of the reign that allowed a consensus on the definition of this controversial crime. Yet the most significant legal reform was probably that concerning the [of the Peace](Justices)(Justices of the Peace). This institution began before the reign of EdwardIII but, by 1350, the justices had been given the power not only to investigate crimes and make arrests, but also to try cases, including those of [felony](felony). With this, an enduring fixture in the administration of local English justice had been created.
### Parliament and taxation
[[File:King Edward III half groat York mint.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Half [groat](Groat (coin)) with portrait of King EdwardIII, York mint]]
[Parliament](Parliament of England) as a representative institution was already well established by the time of EdwardIII, but the reign was nevertheless central to its development. During this period, membership in the English [baron](baron)age, formerly a somewhat indistinct group, became restricted to those who received a personal [summons](Hereditary peer#Writs of summons) to parliament. This happened as parliament gradually developed into a [bicameral](bicameral) institution, composed of a House of Lords and a House of Commons. Yet it was not in the Lords, but in the Commons that the greatest changes took place, with the expanding political role of the Commons. Informative is the Good Parliament, where the Commons for the first time—albeit with noble support—were responsible for precipitating a political crisis. In the process, both the procedure of [impeachment](Impeachment in the United Kingdom) and the office of the [Speaker](List of Speakers of the House of Commons of England) were created. Even though the political gains were of only temporary duration, this parliament represented a watershed in English political history.
The political influence of the Commons originally lay in their right to grant taxes. The financial demands of the Hundred Years' War were enormous, and the king and his ministers tried different methods of covering the expenses. The king had a steady income from [lands](crown)(Crown Estate), and could also take up substantial loans from Italian and domestic financiers. To finance warfare, he had to resort to taxation of his subjects. Taxation took two primary forms: levy and customs. The levy was a grant of a proportion of all moveable property, normally a tenth for towns and a fifteenth for farmland. This could produce large sums of money, but each such levy had to be approved by parliament, and the king had to prove the necessity. The customs therefore provided a welcome supplement, as a steady and reliable source of income. An "ancient duty" on the export of wool had existed since 1275. [Edward I](Edward I) had tried to introduce an additional duty on wool, but this unpopular *[maltolt](maltolt)*, or "unjust exaction", was soon abandoned. Then, from 1336 onwards, a series of schemes aimed at increasing royal revenues from wool export were introduced. After some initial problems and discontent, it was agreed through the [of the Staple](Statute)(Statute of the Staple) of 1353 that the new customs should be approved by parliament, though in reality they became permanent.
Through the steady taxation of EdwardIII's reign, parliament—and in particular the Commons—gained political influence. A consensus emerged that in order for a tax to be just, the king had to prove its necessity, it had to be granted by the community of the realm, and it had to be to the benefit of that community In addition to imposing taxes, parliament would also present [petition](petition)s for redress of grievances to the king, most often concerning misgovernment by royal officials. This way the system was beneficial for both parties. Through this process the commons, and the community they represented, became increasingly politically aware, and the foundation was laid for the particular English brand of constitutional monarchy. It became the norm for the King's ministers to argue his case before parliament, the Commons to grant the King the tax he requested, and then the King's concessions to parliament would be announced at its end.
The King occasionally attempted to avoid resorting to parliament to raise taxes, such as in 1338 when he attempted a forced loan on wool. This soon collapsed—in the words of [B. Fryde](E.)(E. B. Fryde) it was a "lamentable failure"—and once again, Edward had to return to parliament. Edward also attempted to reinforce what he believed to be his ancient rights, such as the return of all [and chattels](goods)(Personal property) of [felons](felons) to the crown, and [scutage](scutage), as well as new proposals, such as that debts should be repaid to the crown in one payment rather than incrementally. All these schemes collapsed, however, the latter because the lords claimed that such a method of taxation infringed upon their traditional rights. According to Fryde, "one of Edward's most onerous and wasteful liabilities" came in February 1339, when he effectively [pawned](pawned) the [Crown](Great)(Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom) of England to The [of Trier](Archbishop)(Archbishop of Trier), for which the King promised repayment of £16,650. The King met his creditors in [Ghent](Ghent) in 1340, but, unable to immediately satisfy their demands, notes [Wilkinson](Bertie)(Bertie Wilkinson), "pretending that he wanted to take a walk, he secretly rode away".
### Chivalry and national identity
[[File:The Great Seal of Edward III.JPG|thumb|alt=Partly ruined black seal, showing Edward III on horseback, in armour and sword raised|The [Seal](Great)(Great Seal of the Realm) of EdwardIII]]
Central to Edward III's policy was reliance on the higher nobility for purposes of war and administration. While Edward II had regularly been in conflict with a great portion of his peerage, his son successfully created a spirit of camaraderie between himself and his greatest subjects. Both EdwardI and EdwardII had been limited in their policy towards the nobility, allowing the creation of few new peerages during the sixty years preceding EdwardIII's reign. EdwardIII reversed this trend when, in 1337, as a preparation for the imminent war, he created six new [earl](earl)s on the same day.
At the same time, Edward expanded the ranks of the peerage upwards, by introducing the new title of [duke](duke) for close relatives of the king, for example, in 1351 the Earl of Lancaster was elevated to the [of Lancaster](Dukedom)(Dukedom of Lancaster). Furthermore, he bolstered the sense of community within this group by the creation of a new [of chivalry](Order)(Order of chivalry). In January 1344 a great feast was held in [castle](Windsor)(Windsor castle) to which large numbers were invited; not just the lords but the City of London also sent a contingent. The first night saw a feast at which all the attending ladies, with only two knights among them, dined, while the other men ate in their tents. This was followed by jousting over the next three days, where Edward—"not because of his kingly rank but because of his great exertions", iterates [Murimuth](Adam)(Adam Murimuth) in his chronicle—was deemed champion. This was followed by the King's announcement of the founding of the [Table](Round)(Round Table) of [Arthur](King)(King Arthur), to which "certain lords" took an oath. The first meeting of the new chapter was arranged for the following [Whitsun](Whitsun).}} Nothing, however, was to come of the project; as Murimuth comments, "this work was later stopped for various reasons".
Instead, around four years later, Edward founded [of the Garter](Order)(Order of the Garter), probably in 1348. The new order carried connotations from the legend by the circular shape of the garter. Edward's wartime experiences during the Crécy campaign (1346–7) seem to have been a determining factor in his abandonment of the Round Table project. It has been argued that the total warfare tactics employed by the English at Crécy in 1346 were contrary to Arthurian ideals and made Arthur a problematic paradigm for Edward, especially at the time of the institution of the Garter. There are no formal references to King Arthur and the Round Table in the surviving early fifteenth-century copies of the Statutes of the Garter, but the Garter Feast of 1358 did involve a round table game. Thus there was some overlap between the projected Round Table fellowship and the actualized Order of the Garter. [Vergil](Polydore)(Polydore Vergil) tells of how the young [of Kent](Joan)(Joan of Kent)—allegedly the king's favourite at the time—accidentally dropped her [garter](garter) at a ball at Calais. King Edward responded to the ensuing ridicule of the crowd by tying the garter around his own knee with the words *[soit qui mal y pense](honi)(honi soit qui mal y pense)* (shame on him who thinks ill of it).
This reinforcement of the aristocracy and the emerging sense of national identity must be seen in conjunction with the war in France. Just as the war with Scotland had done, the fear of a French invasion helped strengthen a sense of national unity, and nationalise the aristocracy that had been largely Anglo-Norman since the [conquest](Norman)(Norman conquest). Since the time of EdwardI, popular myth suggested that the French planned to extinguish the English language, and as his grandfather had done, EdwardIII made the most of this scare. As a result, the English language experienced a strong revival; in 1362, a [of Pleading](Statute)(Statute of Pleading) ordered English to be used in law courts, and the year after, Parliament was for the first time opened in English. At the same time, the vernacular saw a revival as a literary language, through the works of [Langland](William)(William Langland), [Gower](John)(John Gower) and especially *[Canterbury Tales](The)(The Canterbury Tales)* by [Chaucer](Geoffrey)(Geoffrey Chaucer). Yet the extent of this [Anglicisation](Anglicisation) must not be exaggerated. The statute of 1362 was in fact written in the French language and had little immediate effect, and parliament was opened in that language as late as 1377. The Order of the Garter, though a distinctly English institution, included also foreign members such as [IV, Duke of Brittany](John)(John IV, Duke of Brittany), and [of Namur](Robert)(Robert of Namur (1323–1391)).
## Later reign (1360–1377)
### Further campaigns in France and governance
While Edward's early reign had been energetic and successful, his later years were marked by [inertia](inertia), military failure and political strife. The day-to-day affairs of the state had less appeal to Edward than military campaigning, so during the 1360s Edward increasingly relied on the help of his subordinates, in particular [Wykeham](William)(William Wykeham)}} A relative upstart, Wykeham was made [of the Privy Seal](Keeper)(Lord Privy Seal) in 1363 and [Chancellor](Lord Chancellor) in 1367, though due to political difficulties connected with his inexperience, the Parliament forced him to resign the chancellorship in 1371. Compounding Edward's difficulties were the deaths of his most trusted men, some from the 1361–62 recurrence of the plague. [Montagu, 1st Earl of Salisbury](William)(William Montagu, 1st Earl of Salisbury), Edward's companion in the 1330 coup, died as early as 1344. [de Clinton, Earl of Huntingdon](William)(William de Clinton, Earl of Huntingdon), who had also been with the king at Nottingham, died in 1354. One of the earls created in 1337, [de Bohun, 1st Earl of Northampton](William)(William de Bohun, 1st Earl of Northampton), died in 1360, and the next year [of Grosmont](Henry)(Henry of Grosmont), perhaps the greatest of Edward's captains, succumbed to what was probably plague. Their deaths left the majority of the magnates younger and more naturally aligned to the princes than to the king himself.
[[File:Edward III Black Prince 14thc.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.9|King Edward III grants Aquitaine to his son [the Black Prince](Edward,)(Edward, the Black Prince). Initial letter "E" of miniature, 1390; [Library](British)(British Library), London, [shelfmark](shelfmark): Cotton MS Nero D VI, f.31.]]
Increasingly, Edward began to rely on his sons for the leadership of military operations. The king's second son, [of Antwerp](Lionel)(Lionel of Antwerp), attempted to subdue by force the largely autonomous [Anglo-Irish](Normans in Ireland) lords in Ireland. The venture failed, and the only lasting mark he left were the suppressive [of Kilkenny](Statutes)(Statutes of Kilkenny) in 1366. In France, meanwhile, the decade following the Treaty of Brétigny was one of relative tranquillity, but on 8April 1364 JohnII died in captivity in England, after unsuccessfully trying to raise his own ransom at home. He was followed by the vigorous [CharlesV](Charles V of France), who enlisted the help of the capable [du Guesclin](Bertrand)(Bertrand du Guesclin), [of France](Constable)(Constable of France) In 1369, the French war started anew, and Edward's son [of Gaunt](John)(John of Gaunt) was given the responsibility of a military campaign. The effort failed, and with the Treaty of Bruges in 1375, the great English possessions in France were reduced to only the coastal towns of [Calais](Calais), [Bordeaux](Bordeaux), and [Bayonne](Bayonne).
### Alice Perrers
Alice Perrers was originally one of Philippa's household ladies, having been appointed by 1359. old. Within five years, by which time she would have been 18, and after the death of her husband, she is speculated to have become the lover of the elderly King. She maintained an active business life outside her career in the royal household, particularly as a [moneylender](moneylender), while also making the most out of her royal connections, accepted gifts from courtiers and those wishing to further their causes with the King. Edward presented her with gifts, including land, manors and jewels, and in 1371 these included those of the now-dead Philippa. Alice, in what may have been an attempt to keep her new estates after the King's death, tied them up in a series of [enfeoffment](enfeoffment)s. This meant that legally they ceased to be royal gifts which could be [resumed](Eminent domain#United_Kingdom) to the Crown, but hers to receive from her feoffees when she chose. These gifts included 50 manors in 25 counties and £20,000 in jewels. The contemporary chronicler [Walsingham](Thomas)(Thomas Walsingham) saw her as a low-born woman who, through her own ambition, made a fortune from the besotted King; and this was the popular view presented to the [Parliament](Good)(Good Parliament) of 1376, in which she was also accused of taking 2000 to 3000 [pounds](Avoirdupois) in gold and silver per annum from the [treasury](royal)(royal treasury). Another contemporary, the [Chronicle](Anonimalle)(The Anonimalle Chronicle)r, complained that this was all "without any notable profit and in great damage to our lord the king", and argued that Alice be removed from the King's circle even though he was still living, albeit known to be dying. Modern historians have credited her with more agency than merely using 'womanly wiles' to get her own way, noting her head for business and the law. Bothwell also notes that she probably recognised the precariousness of her own position after the King had died—"which it was obvious to all in the 1370s was imminent"—and intended much of her wealth to provide for her two daughters, whose lives would be even more precarious in the following reign. She was correct in her surmise: by the time the Good Parliament met, Edward was too weak but to acquiesce in her [banishment](banishment). This did not, however, last very long; she had returned to his inner circle later that year and remained their until his death. However, in 1378 her previous fears resurfaced, and this time put on trial before parliament in the first year of [II](Richard)(Richard II)'s reign. She was found guilty and sentenced to be exiled. Further, her property was forfeited to the Crown.
### Discontent at home
Military failure abroad, and the associated fiscal pressure of constant campaigns, led to political discontent in England. Finance was a particular grievance; although it was rarely raised as an issue before 1371, after that time complaints about the royal household's expenditure were frequent.}} The problems came to a head in the parliament of 1376, the so-called [Parliament](Good)(Good Parliament). The parliament was called to grant taxation, but the [of Commons](House)(House of Commons of England) took the opportunity to address specific grievances. In particular, criticism was directed at some of the king's closest advisors. [Chamberlain](Lord)(Lord Chamberlain) [Latimer, 4th Baron Latimer](William)(William Latimer, 4th Baron Latimer), and [of the Household](Steward)(Steward of the Household) [Neville, 3rd Baron Neville de Raby](John)(John Neville, 3rd Baron Neville de Raby), were dismissed from their positions. Edward's mistress, [Perrers](Alice)(Alice Perrers), who was seen to hold far too much power over the ageing king, was banished from court. Yet the real adversary of the Commons, supported by powerful men such as Wykeham and [Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March](Edmund)(Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March), was John of Gaunt. Both the king and Edward of Woodstock were by this time incapacitated by illness, leaving Gaunt in virtual control of government. Gaunt was forced to give in to the demands of parliament, but at its [convocation](next)(Bad Parliament), in 1377, most of the achievements of the Good Parliament were reversed.
## Illness and death
Edward did not have much to do with any of this; after around 1375 he played a limited role in the government of the realm. Around 29 September 1376 he fell ill with a large [abscess](abscess). After a brief period of recovery in February 1377, the king died of a stroke at Sheen on 21 June.
### Succession
[[File:Edward-III-king-England.jpg|thumb|Edward's funerary monument in [Abbey](Westminster)(Westminster Abbey)]]
Edward III was succeeded by his ten-year-old grandson, [Richard II](King)(King Richard II), son of Edward of Woodstock, since Woodstock himself had died on 8June 1376. In 1376, Edward had signed [patent](letters)(letters patent) on the order of succession to the crown, citing in second position John of Gaunt, born in 1340, but ignoring [Philippa](Philippa, 5th Countess of Ulster), daughter of [Lionel](Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence), born in 1338. Philippa's exclusion contrasted with a decision by [I](Edward)(Edward I of England) in 1290, which had recognized the right of women to inherit the crown and to pass it on to their descendants. The order of succession determined in 1376 led the [of Lancaster](House)(House of Lancaster) to the throne in 1399 (John of Gaunt was Duke of Lancaster), whereas the rule decided by Edward I would have favoured Philippa's descendants, among them the [of York](House)(House of York), beginning with [of York](Richard)(Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York), her great-grandson. The large number of cousins that were created is sometimes argued to have laid the foundations for the [of the Roses](Wars)(Wars of the Roses) in the fifteenth century.
## Family
Edward III and his wife, [of Hainault](Philippa)(Philippa of Hainault), had eight sons and five daughters born over a 25-year period. This was considered a success by contemporaries and a sign of God's favour. Edward understood the importance of a "strong and united royal family", argues Ormrod. It allowed him, through their marriages, to make alliances within his own aristocracy and also with continental dynasties. However, the latter policy gradually fell apart with the gradual loss of England's European possessions towards the end of the century. For example, he organised the marriage of his sister [of Woodstock](Eleanor)(Eleanor of Woodstock) to [Count of Guelders](the)(Reginald II, Duke of Guelders) as part of a pro-Netherlandish, anti-French policy in 1332. Yet when the coalition collapsed in 1340, the fact that he had only lost her in that particular marriage market was a positive. From around this time, says Ormrod, "the Hundred Years' War became a family enterprise": the [Prince](Black)(Black Prince) commanded a force at Crécy, and ten years later his younger brothers Lionel, John and Edmund had joined the war. However, while his sons were fighting in France, they could not be procreating the royal line; by 1358, only Lionel had married and provided Edward with a grandchild. By the mid-1360s his family had furthered his continental policy, both diplomatically and militarily, sufficiently that he allowed the Black Prince and his eldest daughter [Isabelle](Isabella of England) to do that rarest of things in the Middle Ages: marry for love. Neither the former's match with [of Kent](Joan)(Joan of Kent) and the latter to the [de Coucy, Earl of Bedford](Enguerrand)(Enguerrand VII de Coucy) were particularly advantageous to Edward; the first was a clandestine marriage, while de Courcy was a French hostage. Ormrod concludes that, by 1376
}}
A fourth son, Thomas of Windsor, is also sometimes posited as being born in 1347 and dying the following year. However, the historian [Warner](Kathryn)(Kathryn Warner) has suggested that, as William of Woodstock was also born and died the same year, and combined with the paucity of material evidence, it is likely that this Thomas is a composite. She argues that "the entire existence of 'Thomas of Windsor' in some modern books and websites appears to be based on the spurious story by two chroniclers that Philippa was heavily pregnant when she interceded for the Calais burghers in early August 1347". She also notes that for William, who also died young, there is much evidence for his existence, including "his funeral or tomb, or for the queen's purification after his birth, or for any kind of celebration held to mark the birth of another royal child". The [medievalist](medievalist) [Orme](Nicholas)(Nicholas Orme) has noted that medieval chroniclers were particularly accurate when it came to recording royal births.
The [geneticist](geneticist) [Rutherford](Adam)(Adam Rutherford) has calculated Edward had over 300 great-great-grandchildren and, therefore, over 20,000 descendants by 1600. Thus, by the 21st century, it is "virtually impossible" that a person with a predominantly British ancestry is not descended from Edward III, as they would have around 32,000 ancestors from 1600. Conversely, Rutherford has calculated that statistically, the odds on a 20th-century British person not being descended from Edward III is .}}
### Issue
#### Sons
* [the Black Prince](Edward)(Edward the Black Prince) (1330–1376), eldest son and [apparent](heir)(heir apparent), born at [Palace](Woodstock)(Woodstock Palace), [Oxfordshire](Oxfordshire). He predeceased his father, having in 1361 married his cousin [Countess of Kent](Joan,)(Joan, Countess of Kent), by whom he had issue: King [RichardII](King Richard II of England).
* William of Hatfield (1337–1337), second son, born at [South Yorkshire](Hatfield,)(Hatfield, South Yorkshire), died shortly after birth and was buried in York Minster.
* [of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence](Lionel)(Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence) (1338–1368), third son (second surviving son), born at [Antwerp](Antwerp) in the [of Brabant](Duchy)(Duchy of Brabant), where his father was based. In 1352 he married firstly [de Burgh, 4th Countess of Ulster](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth de Burgh, 4th Countess of Ulster), without male issue, but his female issue was the senior royal ancestor of the Yorkist King EdwardIV: [5th Countess of Ulster](Philippa,)(Philippa, 5th Countess of Ulster). Descent from Lionel was the basis of the Yorkist claim to the throne, not direct paternal descent from the 1st Duke of York, a more junior line. Secondly, in 1368, Lionel married [Visconti](Violante)(Violante Visconti), without issue.
* [of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster](John)(John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster) (1340–1399), Edward's third surviving son, was born at "Gaunt" ([Ghent](Ghent)) in the [of Flanders](County)(County of Flanders), which city was an important buyer of English wool, then the foundation of English prosperity. In 1359, he married firstly his distant cousin the great heiress [of Lancaster](Blanche)(Blanche of Lancaster), descended from the 1st Earl of Lancaster, a younger son of King HenryIII. By Blanche he had issue: Henry of Bolingbroke, who became King [HenryIV](Henry IV of England), having seized the throne from his first cousin King RichardII. In 1371, he married secondly the [Infanta](Infanta) [of Castile](Constance)(Constance of Castile, Duchess of Lancaster), by whom he had issue. In 1396, he married thirdly, his mistress [Swynford](Katherine)(Katherine Swynford), by whom he had illegitimate issue, later legitimised as the [of Beaufort](House)(House of Beaufort).
* [of Langley, 1st Duke of York](Edmund)(Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York) (1341–1402), fifth son (fourth surviving son), born at [Langley Palace](Kings)(Kings Langley), [Hertfordshire](Hertfordshire). He married firstly the [of Castile](Isabella)(Infanta Isabella of Castile), by whom he had issue, sister of [of Castile](Constance)(Constance of Castile, Duchess of Lancaster), second wife of his elder brother John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster. Secondly in 1392 he married his second cousin [Holland](Joan)(Joan Holland), without issue. His great-grandson (the 4th Duke of York) became King [EdwardIV](Edward IV of England) in 1461, having deposed his half-second cousin the Lancastrian King HenryVI.
* William of Windsor (1348–1348), sixth son, born before 24 June 1348 at [Castle](Windsor)(Windsor Castle), died in infancy probably on 9 July1348, buried on 5 September 1348 in [Abbey](Westminster)(Westminster Abbey);
* [of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester](Thomas)(Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester) (1355–1397), seventh son (fifth surviving son), born at [Palace](Woodstock)(Woodstock Palace) in [Oxfordshire](Oxfordshire); in 1376 he married [de Bohun](Eleanor)(Eleanor de Bohun), by whom he had issue. His eventual heir was the Bourchier family, Earls of Bath, of [Tawstock](Manor of Tawstock) in Devon, today represented by the [baronets](Wrey)(Wrey baronets), who quarter the arms of Thomas of Woodstock and continue as lords of the manor of Tawstock.
#### Daughters
* [of England](Isabella)(Isabella, Countess of Bedford) (1332–), born at [Palace](Woodstock)(Woodstock Palace), [Oxfordshire](Oxfordshire), in 1365 married [de Coucy](Enguerrand VII)(Enguerrand VII de Coucy), 1st [of Bedford](Earl)(Earl of Bedford), by whom she had issue.
* [of England](Joan)(Joan of England (died 1348)) (1333/4–1348), born in the [of London](Tower)(Tower of London); she was betrothed to [of Castile](Peter)(Peter of Castile) but died of the [death](black)(black death) en route to Castile before the marriage could take place. Peter's two daughters from his union with [de Padilla](María)(María de Padilla) married Joan's younger brothers [of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster](John)(John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster) and [of Langley, 1st Duke of York](Edmund)(Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York).
* Blanche (1342–1342), born in the [of London](Tower)(Tower of London), died shortly after birth and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
* [of Waltham](Mary)(Mary of Waltham) (1344–1361), born at [Waltham](Bishop's)(Bishop's Waltham), [Hampshire](Hampshire); in 1361 she married [IV, Duke of Brittany](John)(John IV, Duke of Brittany), without issue.
* [Margaret](Margaret, Countess of Pembroke) (Countess of Pembroke) (1346–1361), born at [Castle](Windsor)(Windsor Castle); in 1359 she married [Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke](John)(John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke), without issue.
## Personality
Mark Ormrod has noted that in this period, politics was often dictated by the personality and character of the King. However, it was also understood that not only should a King rule well and wisely, but that he should be seen to do so. Ormrod argues that, while he did not begin his reign with these skills, unlike many of his fellow Plantagenet kings, he acquired them. His collection of chronicles indicates an interest in history, even to the extent that, on occasion, he consulted their authors.}} He may have been particularly keen to emulate [II](Henry)(Henry II of England) and [I](Edward)(Edward I), whose own martial prowess and success would have resonated with him. His tastes were conventional, Ormrod says, and [R. Lander](J.)(J. R. Lander) also has argued that this is reflected in his hobbies. Unlike his father's passion for manual work, including carpentry, thatching and rowing, Edward III "shared to the full the conventional tastes and pleasure of the aristocracy", with his principal interest being architecture.}} This conservativism is also reflected in his religious views, which, expressed as they were through the patronage of [friaries](friaries) and visiting of [shrine](shrine)s, demonstrate a conventional religion. This is also reflected in his [almsgiving](almsgiving). While ancestors such as Henry III had often been haphazard and exuberant in the amounts they gave and when they did so, Edward III maintained a regular 366 meals a week to be provided for the poor with another £25 to be distributed during the four main feasts.}} However, alongside his conventionality ran a populist streak, and Ormrod has described him as a "natural showman", particularly in his alacrity to heal those suffering from [scrofula](scrofula) by his [touch](royal)(royal touch). In reality, the disease had a high-recovery rate and often went into remission naturally, leaving the impression that the King had cured it.}} In less than two years, between 1338 and 1340, he touched for scrofula in both England and while campaigning in France; another 355 occurred between November 1340 and the same month the following year. He was generous to the point of extravagance. In an alternate view, [Cantor](Norman)(Norman Cantor) has described Edward as an "avaricious and sadistic thug".
From what is known of Edward's character, he could be impulsive and temperamental, as was seen by his actions against Stratford and the ministers in 1340/41. Other escapades were not just impulsive but dangerous, such as in 1349, when he sailed to Calais with only a small bodyguard. At the same time, he was well known for his clemency; Mortimer's [grandson](Roger de Mortimer, 2nd Earl of March) was not only absolved, he came to play an important part in the French wars and was eventually made a Knight of the Garter. His favourite pursuit was the art of war and, in this, he conformed to the medieval notion of good kingship. As a warrior he was so successful that one modern military historian has described him as the greatest general in English history. He seems to have been unusually devoted to his wife, [Philippa](Queen)(Philippa of Hainault). Much has been made of Edward's sexual licentiousness, but there is no evidence of any infidelity on his part before Alice Perrers became his lover, and by that time the queen was already terminally ill. This devotion extended to the rest of the family as well; in contrast to so many of his predecessors, Edward never experienced opposition from any of his five adult sons.
## Legacy
[[Edward III from NPG.jpg|thumb|alt=Early modern half-figure portrait of Edward III in his royal garb|Edward III as he was depicted in the late 16th century](File:King)]
Edward III, argues the scholar [A.R. Graves](Michael)(Michael A.R. Graves), left a "dual legacy". These were the large brood of children and grandchildren he left, and his [to the French throne](claim)(English claims to the French throne). In the first instance, his endowment of his sons as Dukes of Clarence, Lancaster and York allowed them to create their own dynasties which were both part of the royal family and the aristocracy, which, following [Bolingbroke](Henry)(Henry Bolingbroke)'s usurpation of Edward's grandson, Richard II, "bedevilled" the [dynasty](Lancastrian)(House of Lancaster). Secondly, while the resumption of Edward's claims and war in France was initially successful—contemporaries compared [V](Henry)(Henry V of England )'s decisive victory at [Agincourt](Battle of Agincourt) with Edward's at Crécy and Poitiers— when the tide turned against the English in France, the dynasty was also weakened. Indeed, war in France was problematic for the [of York](House)(House of York) as well as Lancaster. [IV](Edward)(Edward IV) was probably consciously following in his namesake's footsteps when he invaded France in 1475, even if the subsequent [of Picquigny](Treaty)(Treaty of Picquigny) was wholly unintended. The Yorkist King's looked back on the reign of Edward III—with its martial and administrative progress—as something to model their own on, argues Morgan. Edward IV's own *Household Books*, summarise the approach as "we take to bylde upon a more perfit new house", and indeed many of their grants and warrants contain a final clause that whatever was under discussion should be as they were in Edward III final year. Even the final destruction of the Plantagenets, at [Bosworth](Battle of Bosworth) in 1485 failed to impinge on Edward III's posthumous image; he was also the only King the [Tudors](House of Tudor) could lay claim of descent from.
## Historiography
Edward III enjoyed unprecedented popularity in his own lifetime, and even the troubles of his later reign were never blamed directly on the king himself. His contemporary [Froissart](Jean)(Jean Froissart) wrote in his [*Chronicles*](Froissart's Chronicles): "His like had not been seen since the days of King Arthur." [A. L. Morgan](D.)(D. A. L. Morgan) has drawn attention to the continuing popularity of Edward into the next century, observing that "by 1500 Edward III was well into his stride as the greatest King ever to have ruled England", quoting *The Great Chronicle of London* on [VII](Henry)(Henry VII of England ), who if not for his [avarice](avarice), "mygth have been pereless of alle princis that regnyd ovyr England syne the tyme of Edwardthe thyrd". This view persisted for a while but, with time, the image of the king changed. The [historians](Whig)(Whig historians) of a later age preferred constitutional reform to foreign conquest and accused Edward of ignoring his responsibilities to his own nation. Bishop Stubbs, in his *The Constitutional History of England*, states:
}}
This view has been challenged through most of the 20th century, and Ormrod has observed that "no modern reader could seriously accept all these compliments at face value", although also that in their efforts to counter the prevailing [hagiography](hagiography), early 20th-century historians were more critical:
}}
Later scholarship, suggests Ormrod, "tended to be rather kinder". In a 1960 article, [McKisack](May)(May McKisack) points out the [teleological](teleological) nature of Stubbs' judgement. A medieval king could not be expected to work towards some future ideal of a parliamentary monarchy as if it were good in itself; rather, his role was a pragmatic one–to maintain order and solve problems as they arose. At this, Edward excelled. Edward had also been accused of endowing his younger sons too liberally and thereby promoting dynastic strife culminating in the [of the Roses](Wars)(Wars of the Roses). This claim was rejected by [B. McFarlane](K.)(K. B. McFarlane), who argued that this was not only the common policy of the age, but also the best. Later biographers of the king such as Mark Ormrod and [Mortimer](Ian)(Ian Mortimer (historian)) have followed this historiographical trend. The older negative view has not completely disappeared; Cantor has argued that Edward was a "destructive and merciless force". Ormrod argues that in overturning the Stubbsian paradigm, historians may have gone too far in the opposite direction, not taking into account the problems he had to solve and the number of different factions he had to accommodate to get things done. [Given-Wilson](Chris)(Chris Given-Wilson) and Michael Prestwich, in their introduction to the proceedings of the 1999 [for Medieval Studies](Centre)(Centre for Medieval Studies) conference at the [of York](University)(University of York), summarise modern consensus as being, effectively, that he was, overall, a strong King, a just King and a good warrior and strategist; basically a good king for the time. This, they argue, is the most important point regarding modern scholarship on Edward III: not necessarily to overturn previous consensus, but to look at all aspects of a multi-faceted King and examine how he achieved this success. Modern historians are also more distant than contemporaries in their view of the King's fecundity being a sign of success; more often, it is seen as a liability as each mouth had to be paid for, draining limited resources. Further, it may have led to later partisanship between the crown and its cadet branches.
## Later events
Edward's grandson, the young [II](Richard)(Richard II of England), faced political and economic problems, many resulting from the Black Death, including the [Revolt](Peasants')(Peasants' Revolt) that broke out across the south of England in 1381. Over the coming decades, Richard and groups of nobles vied for power and control of policy towards France until [of Bolingbroke](Henry)(Henry IV of England) seized the throne with the support of [parliament](Parliament of England) in 1399. Ruling as Henry IV, he exercised power through a royal council and parliament, while attempting to enforce political and religious conformity. His son, [V](Henry)(Henry V of England), reinvigorated the war with France and came close to achieving strategic success shortly before his death in 1422. [VI](Henry)(Henry VI of England) became king at the age of only nine months and both the English political system and the military situation in France began to unravel.
A sequence of bloody civil wars, later termed the [of the Roses](Wars)(Wars of the Roses), finally broke out in 1455, spurred on by an economic crisis and a widespread perception of poor government. The idea that Edward was to blame for the later-15th century [of the Roses](Wars)(Wars of the Roses) was prevalent as late as the 19th century, but came to be challenged in the 20th.
## Genealogical tables
### Contemporaries and the Hundred Years' War
Edward's relationship to contemporary kings of France, Navarre, and Scotland
### Ancestor to the Wars of the Roses
Edward was also the ancestor of the families of the Wars of the Roses.
## Notes
## References
### Citations
### Sources
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## External links
* [Edward III](https://www.royal.uk/edward-iii) at the official website of the British Monarchy
* [Edward III](https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/edward_iii_king.shtml) at *[History](BBC)(BBC History)*
* [*Medieval Sourcebook*](The)(Internet Medieval Sourcebook) has some sources relating to the reign of EdwardIII:
** [The Ordinance of Labourers, 1349](http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/seth/ordinance-labourers.html)
** [The Statute of Labourers, 1351](http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/seth/statute-labourers.html)
** [Thomas Walsingham's account of the Good Parliament of 1376](http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1376goodparliament.html)
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[ ](Category:Edward III of England)
[births](Category:1312)(Category:1312 births)
[deaths](Category:1377)(Category:1377 deaths)
[English monarchs](Category:14th-century)(Category:14th-century English monarchs)
[peers of France](Category:14th-century)(Category:14th-century peers of France)
[at Westminster Abbey](Category:Burials)(Category:Burials at Westminster Abbey)
[of Chester](Category:Earls)(Category:Earls of Chester)
[people of French descent](Category:English)(Category:English people of French descent)
[people of Spanish descent](Category:English)(Category:English people of Spanish descent)
[people of the Wars of Scottish Independence](Category:English)(Category:English people of the Wars of Scottish Independence)
[pretenders to the French throne](Category:English)(Category:English pretenders to the French throne)
[of Plantagenet](Category:House)(Category:House of Plantagenet)
[of the Garter](Category:Knights)(Category:Knights of the Garter)
[who took power by coup](Category:Leaders)(Category:Leaders who took power by coup)
[child monarchs](Category:Medieval)(Category:Medieval child monarchs)
[of the Hundred Years' War](Category:People)(Category:People of the Hundred Years' War)
[of kings](Category:Sons)(Category:Sons of kings)
[of Edward II of England](Category:Children)(Category:Children of Edward II of England)
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One Direction
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one_direction
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# One Direction
*Revision ID: 1159186888 | Timestamp: 2023-06-08T20:07:24Z*
---
One-way}}
| years_active = 2010–2016
| label =
| associated_acts = [X Factor* finalists 2010](*The)(List of The X Factor finalists (UK series 7))
| current_members = * [Styles](Harry)(Harry Styles)
* [Horan](Niall)(Niall Horan)
* [Payne](Liam)(Liam Payne)
* [Tomlinson](Louis)(Louis Tomlinson)
| website =
| past_members = * [Malik](Zayn)(Zayn Malik)
}}
**One Direction**, often shortened to **1D**, are an English-Irish [pop](Pop music) [band](boy)(boy band) formed in London in 2010. The group is composed of [Horan](Niall)(Niall Horan), [Payne](Liam)(Liam Payne), [Styles](Harry)(Harry Styles), [Tomlinson](Louis)(Louis Tomlinson), and previously [Malik](Zayn)(Zayn Malik) until his departure from the group in March 2015. The group signed with [Cowell](Simon)(Simon Cowell)'s record label [Records](Syco)(Syco Music) after forming and finishing third in the [series](seventh)(The X Factor (British series 7)) of the British televised singing competition *[X Factor](The)(The X Factor (British TV series))* in 2010.
Propelled to global success by [media](social)(social media), One Direction's five albums, *[All Night](Up)(Up All Night (One Direction album))* (2011), *[Me Home](Take)(Take Me Home (One Direction album))* (2012), *[Memories](Midnight)(Midnight Memories)* (2013), *[Four](Four (One Direction album))* (2014), and *[in the A.M.](Made)(Made in the A.M.)* (2015), topped charts in several countries, and generated hit singles including "[Makes You Beautiful](What)(What Makes You Beautiful)" (their first number one on the [Singles Chart](UK)(UK Singles Chart), and the highest debut for a British act on the US [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100) since 1998), "[While We're Young](Live)(Live While We're Young)", "[Song Ever](Best)(Best Song Ever (song))", "[of My Life](Story)(Story of My Life (One Direction song))" and "[Me Down](Drag)(Drag Me Down)". After the release of *Four*, One Direction became the first band in the US [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200) history to have their first four albums debut at number one. Their third album, *Midnight Memories*, was the [album worldwide of 2013](best-selling)(List of best-selling albums#Best-selling album by year worldwide).
Considered [idol](teen)(teen idol)s, One Direction were often subject to fan hysteria. They embarked on four world tours, two of which were all-stadium. The band's [We Are Tour](Where)(Where We Are Tour (One Direction)), in support of *Midnight Memories*, was the [concert tour](highest-grossing)(List of highest-grossing concert tours) in 2014, the highest-grossing tour by a vocal group in history, and the 15th [concert tour](highest-grossing)(List of highest-grossing concert tours) of all time, grossing $290.2 million (unadjusted for inflation). The band went on indefinite hiatus in January 2016, allowing all members to pursue other projects.
As of 2020, the band have sold a total of 70 million records worldwide, making them one of the [boy bands of all time](best-selling)(List of best-selling boy groups). The band have won nearly 200 [awards](List of awards and nominations received by One Direction), including seven [Awards](Brit)(Brit Awards), four [Video Music Award](MTV)(MTV Video Music Award)s, six [Music Awards](*Billboard*)(Billboard Music Award), seven [Music Awards](American)(American Music Awards) (including [of the Year](Artist)(American Music Award for Artist of the Year) in 2014 and 2015), and 28 [Choice Awards](Teen)(Teen Choice Awards). In 2013, they earned an estimated $75 million, becoming the second highest earning celebrity under 30 according to *[Forbes](Forbes)*. As the world's best-selling artist of 2013, the group was named the [Recording Artist of the Year](Global)(Global Recording Artist of the Year) by the [Federation of the Phonographic Industry](International)(International Federation of the Phonographic Industry). In 2014, *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))* named the band "Artist of the Year".["The Year in Pop 2014: One Direction, 'Frozen,' & Pharrell Dominate"](https://www.billboard.com/articles/events/year-in-music-2014/6386043/the-year-in-pop-2014-one-direction-frozen-pharrell). *Billboard*. Retrieved 8 January 2015 *[Forbes](Forbes)* ranked them as the fourth [celebrities](highest-earning)(Forbes Celebrity 100) in the world in 2015, and subsequently in second in 2016.
## History
### 2010–2011: *The X Factor*
[[Direction X Factor Live Glasgow.jpg|thumb|left|One Direction on *The X Factor* Live tour in 2011](File:One)]
[Horan](Niall)(Niall Horan), [Malik](Zayn)(Zayn Malik), [Payne](Liam)(Liam Payne), [Styles](Harry)(Harry Styles), and [Tomlinson](Louis)(Louis Tomlinson) auditioned as solo candidates for the [series](2010)(The X Factor (British series 7)) of the British singing competition *[X Factor](The)(The X Factor (British TV series))*. They all failed to progress in the "Boys" category at the bootcamp stage of the competition, but were instead put together to form a five-piece boy band, thus qualifying for the "Groups" category. American singer [Scherzinger](Nicole)(Nicole Scherzinger), a guest judge, and long-time judge [Cowell](Simon)(Simon Cowell) both claimed to have come up with the idea of forming the band. In 2013, Cowell said that it "took [him] 10 minutes to put them together as a group". In 2022, a never-before-seen video proved that Scherzinger did indeed play the most significant role in forming the band. The video revealed Horan being chosen as the band's first member, followed by Styles, Tomlinson, Payne, and Malik. The band got together for two weeks to get to know each other and rehearse. Styles came up with the band's name. For their qualifying song at "judges' houses", and their first song as a group, One Direction sang an acoustic version of "[Torn](Torn (Ednaswap song))". Cowell later commented that their performance convinced him that they "were confident, fun, like a gang of friends, and kind of fearless as well." Within the first four weeks of the [shows](live)(The X Factor (British series 7)#Live show details), they were his final act in the competition. The group quickly gained popularity in the UK.
One Direction achieved third place in the competition and immediately after the final, their song "[Young](Forever)(Forever Young (Alphaville song))", which would have been released if they had won *The X Factor*, was leaked onto the internet. Shortly afterwards it was confirmed that One Direction had been signed by Cowell to a reported [£](Pound sterling)2 million [Records](Syco)(Syco Music) record contract. Recording for their debut album began in January 2011, as they flew to Los Angeles to work with [RedOne](RedOne), a record producer. A book licensed by One Direction, *One Direction: Forever Young (Our Official X Factor Story)*, was published by [HarperCollins](HarperCollins) in February 2011, subsequently topping [Sunday Times* Best Seller list](*The)(The Sunday Times). The same month, the boy band and other contestants from the series participated in the *X Factor* Live Tour. During the tour, the group performed for 500,000 people throughout the UK. After the tour concluded in April 2011, the group continued working on their debut album. Recording took place in Stockholm, London and Los Angeles, as One Direction worked with producers [Falk](Carl)(Carl Falk), [Kotecha](Savan)(Savan Kotecha), [Mac](Steve)(Steve Mac), and [Yacoub](Rami)(Rami (producer)), among others.
### 2011–2012: *Up All Night*
Released in September 2011 in the UK and Ireland, One Direction's debut single, "[Makes You Beautiful](What)(What Makes You Beautiful)", was a commercial and international success. It reached number one on the [Singles Chart](UK)(UK Singles Chart) after becoming the most pre-ordered [Music Entertainment](Sony)(Sony Music Entertainment) single in history. Subsequent singles, "[Be You](Gotta)(Gotta Be You (One Direction song))" and "[Thing](One)(One Thing (One Direction song))", peaked in the UK Singles Chart top ten. In November 2011, they signed a record deal with [Records](Columbia)(Columbia Records) in North America. [Barnett](Steve)(Steve Barnett (music executive)), the co-chairman of Columbia Records, said it was not a difficult decision to sign One Direction; "I just thought there was a void, and maybe they could seize and hold it." That same month, they released *[All Night](Up)(Up All Night (One Direction album))*, their debut studio album, in the UK and Ireland. Critically commended for its appeal to the teenage audience, it became the UK's fastest-selling debut album of 2011. In December 2011, they embarked on their first headlining UK concert tour, the [All Night Tour](Up)(Up All Night Tour).
Upon One Direction's arrival in the US in February 2012, the group embarked on a radio promotion spree, as well as their first North American concert tour as an opening act for [Time Rush](Big)(Big Time Rush (band)), opening 16 shows after they had completed the first leg of the Up All Night Tour. That month, they announced that an Oceania leg had been added to the tour. They made their first US television appearance on *[Today Show](The)(Today (U.S. TV program))*, at the [Center](Rockefeller)(Rockefeller Center); an estimated 15,000 fans descended on the plaza. "What Makes You Beautiful" was officially released in the United States that same month, where it debuted on the [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100) at number 28, becoming the highest debut for a British act since 1998. On the US *Billboard* Hot 100, it reached as high as number four. As of June 2016, it has sold 4.8 million copies in the US and over 7 million copes worldwide. *Up All Night* was released internationally in March, and One Direction became the first UK group to have their debut album reach number one in the US, and were inducted into the *[World Records](Guinness)(Guinness World Records)* as a result. After the album's international release, it topped the charts in sixteen countries. *Up All Night* also became the first album by a boy band to sell 500,000 digital copies in the US and, by August 2012, had sold over 3 million copies worldwide. It was the third global best-selling album of the year, selling 4.5 million copies. Following the success of the album, a North American leg of the tour was announced later that month.
The Up All Night Tour, comprising 62 shows, was met with positivity both critically and commercially, with critics praising their singing abilities and stage presence, and with tickets selling out in minutes. A recording of a concert from the tour, *[All Night: The Live Tour](Up)(One Direction: Up All Night – The Live Tour)*, was released in May 2012. In addition to the DVD topping the charts in twenty-five countries, its global sales had exceeded 1 million copies by August 2012. One Direction's first book to be licensed in America, *Dare to Dream: Life as One Direction*, published in the US in May 2012, topped [New York Times* Best Seller list](*The)(The New York Times Best Seller list). In June 2012, Nick Gatfield, the chairman and chief executive officer of [Music Entertainment UK](Sony)(Sony Music Entertainment), stated how he expects One Direction to represent a $100 million business empire over 2013. Gatfield stated, "What you might not know about One Direction is that they already represent a $50 million business and that's a figure we expect to double next year". In August 2012, the group's record sales exceeded 8 million singles, 3 million albums, and 1 million DVDs, and they performed "What Makes You Beautiful" at the [Summer Olympics closing ceremony](2012)(2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony) in London, which represented the handover to Rio de Janeiro as the host of the [Summer Olympics](2016)(2016 Summer Olympics). One Direction were the biggest winners of the [MTV Video Music Awards](2012)(2012 MTV Video Music Awards) winning their three nominations on 6 September 2012, including [New Artist](Best)(MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist).
[[File:One Direction Sydney 6.jpg|thumb|right|One Direction performing on their [All Night Tour](Up)(Up All Night Tour), April 2012]]
In April 2012, an American band that went by the same name filed a [infringement](trademark)(trademark infringement) lawsuit. According to the lawsuit, the US band had been using the name since 2009, recorded two albums and filed an application to register the trademark name in the US in February 2011. The US band said they were entitled to three times the profits made by the UK band, as well as compensatory damages in excess of US$1 million. The lawsuit claimed that Syco and Sony Music "chose to ignore the plaintiff's rights and wilfully infringed them" after they realised in early 2011 that the two bands shared the same name. Syco Records subsequently counter-sued, suggesting the US group was trying to make money from One Direction's success and that the boy band was the first to use the name in US interstate commerce. The [BBC](BBC) reported in September 2012 that the UK group won the legal dispute over the right to keep using their band name; the US band changed its name to Uncharted Shores. The change of name was announced in a joint statement that also noted both groups were happy with the outcome.
### 2012–2013: *Take Me Home*
[[File:One Direction at the Logies Awards 2012.jpg|thumb|left|One Direction at red carpet of the [Awards of 2012](Logie)(Logie Awards of 2012) in [Melbourne](Melbourne)]]
In September 2012, "[While We're Young](Live)(Live While We're Young)", the lead single from the group's second album, was released, and was a global success. It reached the top ten in almost every country it charted in and recorded the highest one-week opening sales figure for a song by a non-US artist in the US. A second single, "[Things](Little)(Little Things (One Direction song))", resulted in the band's second [one single](number)(List of UK Singles Chart number ones of the 2010s) in the UK. In November 2012, One Direction's second studio album, *[Me Home](Take)(Take Me Home (One Direction album))*, was released. *Take Me Home* sold 540,000 copies in its first week in the US, debuted atop the *Billboard* 200, and topped the charts in more than thirty-four other countries. Additionally, *Up All Night* and *Take Me Home* were the number three and number four best-selling albums of 2012 globally, each album selling over 4.4 million units worldwide. Upon reaching number one on the [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200), the group became the first boy band in US chart history to record two number-one albums in the same calendar year alongside becoming the first group since 2008 to record two number-one albums in the same year. One Direction became the first group ever to have their first two albums reach atop the *Billboard* 200. The album and "Little Things" both debuted at number one in the UK simultaneously, making One Direction the youngest act in British chart history to achieve that.
*Take Me Home* was written in groups and has an average of just under five songwriters per track. Savan Kotecha, Rami Yacoub, and Carl Falk, who composed One Direction's hits "What Makes You Beautiful" and "One Thing", spent six months in Stockholm developing songs for the album, and were able to shape melodies around their tones. One Direction began recording the album in May 2012, in Stockholm at Kinglet Studios. The album cover artwork features the group surrounding a traditional British K2 [telephone box](red)(red telephone box), a familiar sight on the streets of the UK. *Take Me Home* garnered generally favorable reviews from [critics](music)(music journalism). There was praise for its quality of production although it was criticised for its generic, rushed nature.
One Direction performed "Little Things" at the 2012 [Variety Performance](Royal)(Royal Variety Performance) in the presence of [Elizabeth II](Queen)(Elizabeth II), and headlined a sold-out show at New York City's [Square Garden](Madison)(Madison Square Garden) on 3 December 2012. In February 2013, One Direction released a cover version of "[Way or Another](One)(One Way or Another)" and "[Kicks](Teenage)(Teenage Kicks)", "[Way or Another (Teenage Kicks)](One)(One Way or Another (Teenage Kicks))", as the 2013 [Relief](Comic)(Comic Relief) single. The charity single reached number one in the UK and Ireland alongside various other countries while peaking at 13 in the US. As part of their involvement with the UK charity, One Direction travelled to Ghana to volunteer at a children's hospital, visit a school and make donations.
Following the release of *Take Me Home*, One Direction embarked on their second concert tour and first all-arena tour in February 2013, the [Me Home Tour](Take)(Take Me Home Tour (One Direction)). The concert tour consisted of 123 shows in Europe, North America, Asia, and Oceania. Ticket sales reached 300,000 within a day of release in the UK and Ireland, which included a six-date sell-out at [O2 Arena](the)(The O2 Arena) in London. In the Australian and New Zealand markets, tickets grossed US$15.7 million, with all 190,000 tickets being sold for the eighteen shows to be held. The tour received critical acclaim from music critics who praised the band's live vocals and their performance abilities and was a commercial success, selling 1,635,000 tickets from 134 shows. In total, the tour grossed $114 million. The [Charts Company](Official)(Official Charts Company) revealed that One Direction had sold 2,425,000 records in the UK by February 2013.
### 2013–2014: *Midnight Memories* and *This Is Us*
[[File:One Direction 2, 2013.jpg|thumb|right|One Direction in [Glasgow](Glasgow) on their [Me Home Tour](Take)(Take Me Home Tour (One Direction)) in February 2013]]
"[Song Ever](Best)(Best Song Ever (song))", the lead single of the group's then-upcoming third studio album *[Memories](Midnight)(Midnight Memories)*, was released on 22 July 2013. The song is their highest charting single in the US to date, reaching number two. It broke the [Vevo Record](24-Hour)(Vevo#Record holders) with 10.9 million views on YouTube (this was the second time the band held the record with "Live While We're Young" attaining 8.2 million views on 20 September 2012). *[Direction: This Is Us](One)(One Direction: This Is Us)*, a 3D documentary and concert film about the group directed by [Spurlock](Morgan)(Morgan Spurlock) and produced by Spurlock, Ben Winston, Adam Milano and Simon Cowell, was released by [Pictures](TriStar)(TriStar Pictures) on 30 August 2013. The film was a box office success, topping the UK and US box offices and grossing over $60 million worldwide, and became the fourth highest-grossing concert movie.
On 16 May 2013, the band announced their first all-stadium tour, the [We Are Tour](Where)(Where We Are Tour (One Direction)). Tickets for the tour sold out in minutes and more shows were added due to "overwhelming demand". On 23 November 2013, in support of *Midnight Memories*, the band participated in "1D Day", a day dedicated to One Direction fans. The day constituted of a landmark 7.5-hour socially interactive YouTube live-stream featuring live band performances, celebrity guests including, [Cowell](Simon)(Simon Cowell), [Crawford](Cindy)(Cindy Crawford), [Morgan](Piers)(Piers Morgan), and [Springer](Jerry)(Jerry Springer). On 28 October 2013, the second single from *Midnight Memories*, "[of My Life](Story)(Story of My Life (One Direction song))", was released, charting at number six in the US and at number two in the UK, while charting at number one in countries such as Mexico, Spain, Bulgaria, Denmark, and Ireland.
[[File:One_Direction_at_the_New_Jersey_concert_on_7.2.13_IMG_4238_(9206417991).jpg|thumb|left|The band performing in [Rutherford](East)(East Rutherford), New Jersey on 2 July 2013]]
*Midnight Memories* was released globally on 25 November 2013. It debuted at number one in the UK and in the US, making them the first group to debut at number one on the [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200) with its first three albums, and the second to reach the top after [Monkees](The)(The Monkees) in 1967. The album has since been recognized as a turning point in the musical style of the band, with sites quoting it as having a "significant shift in sound" in addition to the solos in songs being more evenly spread out in contrast to their previous two albums. 15 of the album's 18 songs were written by members in the band (Tomlinson being the leader with 12 writing credits) compared to only four songs being written by the group on *Take Me Home* and three on *Up All Night*. The album was described by the band as edgier and as having a "slightly rockier tone" than their previous efforts. Despite being released at the year's end, it was the best-selling album worldwide in 2013 with 4 million copies sold globally. To promote the album, the band performed on both the [American](The X Factor (U.S. TV series)) and [British](The X Factor (UK TV series)) versions of *The X Factor*.
In December 2013, One Direction broke yet another UK sales record with the DVD and [Blu-ray](Blu-ray) release of *This Is Us*. Nearly 270,000 copies of the film were sold in the UK within three days of its release, beating the record previously set by ''[Jackson's This Is It](Michael)(Michael Jackson: This Is It)'' in 2010 by 10,000 copies. The group was named among the Top Global artists of 2013 by the [IFPI](International Federation of the Phonographic Industry) because of strong digital downloads, physical albums, on-demand streams, and music videos. In 2013, they became the first boy band in history to gross [$](United States dollar)1 billion dollars.
The band embarked on the Where We Are Tour on 25 April 2014, and it was concluded on 5 October 2014. Playing 69 shows with an average of 49,848 fans per show, the tour grossed over $290 million, becoming the [concert tour](highest-grossing)(List of highest-grossing concert tours) in 2014 (grossing $87 million more than the second highest-grossing tour, [Timberlake](Justin)(Justin Timberlake)'s [20/20 Experience World Tour](The)(The 20/20 Experience World Tour)), the 15th [concert tour](highest-grossing)(List of highest-grossing concert tours) of all time, and the highest-grossing tour of all time by a vocal group. The tour was attended by 3.4 million fans. In August of that same year, the group released their third book, *One Direction: Where We Are: Our Band, Our Story: 100% Official*.
### 2014–2015: *Four*
[[File:OnedirectionWWATchile.jpg|thumb|right|One Direction on stage in [Santiago](Santiago), Chile on 14 April 2014 during their [We Are Tour](Where)(Where We Are Tour (One Direction)) ]]
On 21 July 2014, One Direction announced *[Direction: Where We Are - The Concert Film](One)(One Direction: Where We Are - The Concert Film)*, a film which documents the concerts of 28 and 29 June 2014 that took place in [Siro Stadium](San)(San Siro Stadium) during their [We Are Tour](Where)(Where We Are Tour (One Direction)). After the announcement, the band announced the film would also have a limited 10–11 October 2014 international cinema release before its home media release in November 2014. The group also released an autobiography book titled *Who We Are* on 25 September 2014.
On 8 September 2014, One Direction announced their fourth studio album to be titled *[Four](Four (One Direction album))*, set to be released on 17 November 2014. As part of the announcement, one of the songs from the album, "Fireproof" was released for free download for 24 hours on their official website. "[My Girl](Steal)(Steal My Girl)", the album's lead single, was released on 29 September 2014,
receiving critical acclaim for its classic rock sound. The second single from the album, "[Changes](Night)(Night Changes)", was released on 14 November, three days before the album's release. It also achieve platinum status, selling over one million units in the United States. *Four* was released on 17 November 2014, topping the [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200) and the [Album Chart](UK)(UK Album Chart). In total, in debuted at number one in 18 countries, selling 3.2 million copies. It became the top charted album on [iTunes](iTunes) in 67 countries. One Direction became the only group in the 58-year history of the *Billboard* 200 albums chart to have their first four albums debut at number one. In February 2015, the group embarked on their fourth world tour and second all-stadium tour, the [the Road Again Tour](On)(On the Road Again Tour), grossing $208 million, making it the second highest-grossing tour of 2015.
### 2015–2017: Malik's departure, *Made in the A.M.* and hiatus
On 25 March 2015, the band released a statement announcing Malik's departure. In the official statement, Malik stated "I'd like to apologise to the fans if I've let anyone down, but I have to do what feels right in my heart" and that "I am leaving because I want to be a normal 22-year-old who is able to relax and have some private time out of the spotlight. I know I have four friends for life in Louis, Liam, Harry and Niall. I know they will continue to be the best band in the world." Malik denied rumours of any rift between the members and stated "my band has been really supportive". In later interviews, Malik stated that he left the group due to being unhappy with the group's musical direction and his inability to "put any input in". The group made their first official public appearance as a four-piece on *[Late Late Show with James Corden](The)(The Late Late Show with James Corden)* on 14 May, where they confirmed that they would continue working without a new fifth member. The On the Road Again tour concluded on 31 October 2015 after playing eighty shows in stadiums across Australia, Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America. Grossing $208 million, over 2.3 million tickets were sold.
[[File:Chicago IMG 9077 (21423367939).jpg|thumb|right|The group performing as a four piece after Zayn Malik's departure from the group at [Field](Soldier)(Soldier Field), Chicago in 2015]]
On 31 July 2015, the group released "[Me Down](Drag)(Drag Me Down)" without promotional material or announcement. Despite this, it still topped the charts in multiple countries, including France and Australia, making the song their first single to reach number one in those respective countries. It also reached number one in multiple other countries, including Ireland and the UK, while charting third in the United States. The single was the first single from their fifth studio album, *[in the A.M.](Made)(Made in the A.M.)*, and the first material released by the group after Malik's departure. On 22 September, *Made in the A.M.* was officially announced along with promotional single "[Infinity](Infinity (One Direction song))" being released.["Made in the A.M: One Direction announce new album title and single 'Infinity'"](https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/made-in-the-am-one-direction-announce-new-album-title-and-single-infinity-10513171.html). The Independent. Retrieved 25 October 2015 The group began to reveal the track listing on their [Snapchat](Snapchat) stories to which it was later confirmed on [iTunes](iTunes).["One Direction's 'Made in the A.M.' Tracklist Revealed Via Snapchat"](http://www.etonline.com/news/173824_one_direction_made_the_am_tracklist_revealed_via_snapchat/). E!. Retrieved 25 October 2015 In October, another single, "[Perfect](Perfect (One Direction song))", was released. It reached the *Billboard* top ten, making it the group's second consecutive (after "Drag Me Down") and fifth overall top ten hit, breaking [Beatles](The)(The Beatles)' record for the most top ten Hot 100 debuts among bands.
In August 2015, it was revealed that the group would be going on hiatus in 2016 to work on individual projects but that "they will remain together and plan to work together in the future". Styles stated in a 2017 interview that he was the first member of the group to bring up the idea of the hiatus in late 2014, saying he "didn't want to exhaust our fanbase" and that all members later eventually agreed. Tomlinson later stated in a 2020 interview that he was "fuming" and not ready when the idea was brought up and that "even though I don't fully understand everyone's individual reasons, I respect them".
[[File:One Direction 2015.jpg|left|thumb|One Direction in [Glasgow](Glasgow) on their [the Road Again Tour](On)(On the Road Again Tour), one of the last concerts before hiatus, in October 2015]]
*Made in the A.M.* was released on 13 November 2015,["One Direction & Justin Bieber Album Release Showdown Set for November 13?"](https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop-shop/6706833/one-direction-justin-bieber-album-release-november-13-poll). *Billboard*. Retrieved 25 October 2015 topping the charts in the UK amongst other countries, while reaching number two in the U.S. It was the sixth-best selling album of 2015. At the 2015 [Music Awards](American)(American Music Awards of 2015) on 22 November, One Direction won the award for [of the Year](Artist)(American Music Award for Artist of the Year) for the second year in succession. On 13 December, One Direction performed on *The X Factor* final. Their last televised performance as a group, before their hiatus, was on ''[Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve](Dick)(Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve)'' on 31 December 2015.
On 13 January 2016, *[Weekly](Us)(Us Weekly)* published a report claiming that the group's hiatus would become a permanent split, with unnamed sources citing that each of the four remaining group members did not renew their contracts following the completion of the On The Road Again Tour in October 2015. Representatives for the group denied the report in a statement to *Billboard*, stating, "nothing has changed regarding hiatus plans for the group, and all will be revealed in due time from the band members' own mouths." By May 2017, all members of the group had released solo singles. Since then, all band members have pursued other projects and released at least one solo album.
At the [Brit Awards](2017)(2017 Brit Awards), One Direction won the Video of the Year award for their song "[History](History (One Direction song))". Payne, the only member in attendance, accepted the award on behalf of the band. In February 2018, it was reported that the group had folded its touring company after applying for removal within the [House](Companies)(Companies House) registry in October 2017.
## Artistry
It also contains [cowbell](cowbell (instrument)) instrumentation, and the [eight](middle)(middle eight) consists of an "oh na na na" hook. It is among the [singles of all time](best-selling)(List of best-selling singles), selling over 5 million copies.
| pos = right
}}
One Direction's debut studio album, *Up All Night* (2011), is predominantly a pop music record, containing elements of [pop](teen)(teen pop), [dance-pop](dance-pop), [rock](pop)(pop rock), with [electropop](Synthpop) and rock influences. [Spy](Digital)(Digital Spy)'s Robert Copsey described the album as a "collection of PG pop rock with killer choruses", while *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* considered it "full of easy rock-inflected pop, blithe and sometimes clever". Jason Lipshutz of *Billboard* acknowledged that the album demonstrates an originality in sound that was "necessary for the revitalization of the boy band movement". The songs "One Thing" and "What Makes You Beautiful" were particularly noted for the genres of power pop and pop rock, for their "powerhouse" [riff](guitar)(guitar riff)s and "forceful" choruses.
Their second studio album, *Take Me Home* (2012), is characterised by rock-inherited pop, prominent electric guitar riffs, bright synthesisers, a [homogeneous](Homogeneity and heterogeneity) sound and message, and the pitch-correcting software [Auto-Tune](Auto-Tune). [Petridis](Alexis)(Alexis Petridis) of *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* interpreted its signature sound as a "peppy, [synth](synth)-bolstered take on early-80s [new-wave](New wave music) pop, heavy on clipped rhythms and chugging guitars", which, he said, is at least an improvement on the substitute [R&B](contemporary)(contemporary R&B) "that was once the grim lot of the boyband". Jon Caramanica, writing in *The New York Times*, considered the album "far more mechanical" than their debut album, although noted that it is sonically and lyrically similar. The album's lyricism speaks of falling in love, [love](unrequited)(unrequited love), the insistence that flaws are what make a person unique, commitment, jealousy and longing for past significant others.
Erica Futterman for *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* favoured their live [acoustic](Musical acoustics) performances as both showing, "Horan's ability to play guitar, as well as One Direction's admirable live vocals. There was no need to worry about a backing track or a bum note, a pleasant realization at a pop show." *[Sun](Herald)(Herald Sun)*s Cameron Adams opined that One Direction have "strong pop voices". Melody Lau of the *[Post](National)(National Post)* wrote, "It's easy to get lost in inherent appeal of their perfectly coiffed dos and almost-too-put-together preppy style but somewhere in the midst of all the love-struck squeals of teenage girls are guys who can actually sing and, to a certain extent, entertain." Jane Stevenson of the portal site [Canoe](Canoe.ca) concurred: "What I didn't really prepare myself for was that they all can actually sing in concert." Chris Richards, writing in *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)*, dissented from the approval: "As the five traded couplets, it was tough to imagine a future [Timberlake](Justin)(Justin Timberlake), [Martin](Ricky)(Ricky Martin) or [Brown](Bobby)(Bobby Brown) emerging from the pack. No one voice stood out." Mike Wass of [Idolator](Idolator (website)) felt One Direction's "surprisingly accomplished effort" of [of Leon](Kings)(Kings of Leon)'s "[Somebody](Use)(Use Somebody)" proved that One Direction are "more than capable" of evolving their sound.
Their third album *Midnight Memories* (2013) is a pop rock record, a slight departure from the band's original teen pop sound. Liam Payne called Midnight Memories a "slightly rockier and edgier" album than their previous material. The album is heavily influenced by 80's rock and folk music and briefly integrates elements of dubstep, notably in "Little White Lies". The album's lyrical themes primarily revolve around love, heartbreak and sexual intercourse. Many critics praised its lyrical depth and musical composition, as well as the group's level of involvement in the production process.
Their fourth album *Four* (2014) was released on 17 November 2014. Payne once again claimed that the album would be "edgier" and that the group had written most of the songs for it; Horan came up with the name of the album, commemorating the fact that it is One Direction's fourth record to date and that it has been four years since the band's formation. Signifying a further maturation of their pop sound, the album's first single, "[My Girl](Steal)(Steal My Girl)", was dubbed by *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))* as "no [Makes You Beautiful](What)(What Makes You Beautiful), but its [Coldplay](Coldplay)-like piano pop could be a good direction", and that the band was "not entirely ready to let go of its bubble-gum days". *Rolling Stone* described the record as "saturated with retro vibes"; its songs "split the difference between big, splashy Eighties [rock](pop)(pop rock) and more elegant Seventies flavours – a very pesky whipper-snapper move that's not so far from what [Haim](Haim (band))'s hit "[Are Gone](Days)(Days Are Gone)" did last year".
## Other ventures
### Endorsements
In 2011, One Direction became the face of *[Black and White](Pokémon)(Pokémon Black and White)*, starring in a series of television adverts. They were the first installments in the fifth [generation](Pokémon#Generations) of the *[Pokémon](Pokémon (video game series))* series of role-playing games. They also launched [C3](Nokia)(Nokia C3 (disambiguation)) and [C2-02](Nokia)(Nokia C2-02) phones. To promote the launch [Nokia](Nokia) made a series of photos of the band members using the phones to take photos of themselves.
In 2012, they teamed up with [Colgate](Colgate (toothpaste)) to launch their own One Direction Colgate MaxFresh Power Toothbrush, the One Direction Colgate Maxfresh Manual Toothbrush, and the One Direction Colgate MaxFresh Toothpaste. The band was signed by [Pepsi](Pepsi) in a multimillion-dollar advertising deal in 2012. Social media marketing included a tie up with [Shazam](Shazam (application)), whereby consumers that used the digital music app in conjunction with the ad both on TV and online were able to view exclusive content and link back to [iTunes](iTunes) to buy One Direction's single, "[While We're Young](Live)(Live While We're Young)". Mini figures based on members of the group were launched for the band's US fans after the agreement was signed by American firm [Hasbro](Hasbro). In October 2012, the band also signed up to endorse Filipino clothing brand, [Penshoppe](Penshoppe).
[[File:1D World, Albion Street, Leeds (30th March 2013) 001.JPG|thumb|right|A One Direction merchandising shop in [Leeds](Leeds), Yorkshire in March 2013]]
In 2013, One Direction announced pop-up shops around the world, including Brisbane, Toronto, Chicago, New York, Tokyo and Stockholm, selling exclusive merchandise. [Nabisco](Nabisco) became the title sponsor of One Direction's North American tour. The band became the new faces of [Toyota](Toyota) [VIOS](Toyota Vios), releasing behind-the-scenes look at their commercial for the vehicle. One Direction's debut fragrance, [Moment](Our)(Our Moment), launched at [Harrods](Harrods) in London and on their website in 2013. The full length advert for the fragrance was released on 24 August 2013, featuring the song "[Favourite Things](My)(My Favorite Things (song))". The perfume was the best-selling famous fragrance of Christmas 2013. In 2014, the band released their second scent That Moment. The fragrance was released with a matching shower gel and body lotion. They released a commercial for their third fragrance, "You & I", named after their [song of the same name](2014)(You & I (One Direction song)).
In 2015, One Direction appeared in an advert for the [Vios](Toyota)(Toyota Vios), which aired in Thailand. [Coca-Cola](Coca-Cola) Mexico launched the session and full interview with One Direction, with a series of commercials in which Tomlinson, Payne, Styles and Horan showed us what it means to be a True Friend. One Direction revealed their fourth fragrance 'Between Us' at The Sanderson in London, England on 24 June. The band appeared in a [Civic](Honda)(Honda Civic) ad which shows the quartet testing out the car's stereo, style and trunk space with a humorous tone and the tagline "It's all One Direction approved." The ad is set to the 1D single "[Me Down](Drag)(Drag Me Down)". The group's 2015 U.S. tour was also supported by [Honda](Honda).
### Philanthropy
In 2011, the band performed on the BBC's [in Need 2011](Children)(Children in Need 2011) charity telethon. In 2012, they extended their involvement with Children in Need as they opened the telecast with a performance of their single "[While We're Young](Live)(Live While We're Young)". A prominent annual event in British television, the group said it was "incredible" to be involved in [in Need](Children)(Children in Need) as it was something that they had "always watched as children".
In February 2013, One Direction released "[Way or Another (Teenage Kicks)](One)(One Way or Another (Teenage Kicks))" (a medley of "[Way or Another](One)(One Way or Another)" and "[Kicks](Teenage)(Teenage Kicks)") as the 2013 single for the UK's other major charity telethon [Relief](Comic)(Comic Relief). For [ITV](ITV (TV network))'s Santa charity Christmas campaign, they filmed a set of pleas to their fans and the general public, asking them to donate £2. The band have made numerous other appearances for charitable causes, including the 2011 [of Britain Awards](Pride)(Pride of Britain Awards) where they presented 13-year-old quadruple amputee Danielle Bailey the Child of Courage award at her school assembly, and the 2014 [Variety Performance](Royal)(Royal Variety Performance) where they played in front of [William](Prince)(Prince William, Duke of Cambridge) and [Catherine](Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge) at the [Palladium](London)(London Palladium).["One Direction surprise Pride of Britain winner Danielle Bailey at school assembly"](https://www.mirror.co.uk/3am/celebrity-news/one-direction-surprise-pride-of-britain-156163). *Mirror*. Retrieved 26 August 2015["Duke and Duchess of Cambridge meet One Direction at Royal Variety Performance"](https://web.archive.org/web/20141114161509/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/theroyalfamily/11230239/Duke-and-Duchess-of-Cambridge-meet-One-Direction-at-Royal-Variety-Performance.html). *The Telegraph*. Retrieved 26 August 2015
In September 2012, Niall Horan organised an event to raise money for Irish Autism Action and another charity, called Temporary Emergency Accommodation Mullingar, based in his hometown. Due to overwhelming demand to participate in the fundraising, the ticket website for the event broke down. Horan's brother Greg commented on the website crash, saying that "there were 500 tickets and they were all snapped up pretty quick".
In 2013, band members Liam Payne and Harry Styles partnered with Trekstock, a leading cancer charity to help raise money for cancer research. As ambassadors of the charity, the duo collaborated to offer the chance for one fan and a friend to win an evening out with them in return for a donation to the charity as part of an exclusive "#HangwithLiam&Harry" global campaign. They had originally set a goal of raising $500,000 and ended up raising $784,984. Trekstock later added that this amount would allow them to "complete funding of their [lymphoma](Hodgkin's)(Hodgkin's lymphoma) trial, in the hope of offering a much brighter future to thousands of children and young people affected by this form of disease". One Direction were named the most charitable in 2013 behind [Swift](Taylor)(Taylor Swift) by social change organisation [DoSomething.org](DoSomething.org). On 30 May 2013, the band announced a partnership with [Depot](Office)(Office Depot) on a limited-edition capsule collection of back to school supplies. They also confirmed that a portion of the proceeds from the alliance would go toward an anti-bullying educational program intended to promote kinder behaviour in schools.["One Direction Boys Launch Anti-Bullying Campaign with Office Depot"](http://uk.eonline.com/news/426786/one-direction-boys-launch-anti-bullying-campaign-with-office-depot). E!. Retrieved 13 September 2015
In 2014, One Direction donated £600,000 for the Stand up to Cancer campaign by giving portions of their ticket sales revenues from their [We Are Tour](Where)(Where We Are Tour (One Direction)). On 15 November 2014, One Direction joined the charity group [Aid 30](Band)(Band Aid 30) along with other British and Irish pop acts, recording the latest version of the track "[They Know It's Christmas?](Do)(Do They Know It's Christmas?)" at [West Studios](Sarm)(Sarm West Studios) in [Hill](Notting)(Notting Hill), London, to raise money for the [Ebola crisis](2014)(West African Ebola virus epidemic) in Western Africa.
In 2015, One Direction launched 'Action 1D' campaign to raise awareness of global issues. The initiative aims to end extreme poverty, tackle inequality and slow down climate change with the help of their millions of fans. It is part of the wider [action/2015](action/2015) campaign, a global citizen's movement that is all about the idea that 2015 can be the year when the world can set the agenda to end major global issues. One Direction will be asking their fans to describe the kind of world they want to live in by sharing powerful pieces of creative content, including videos and photos, using the hashtag #Action1D. The quartet also starred in a campaign video, appealing to fans to join the movement.
## Image
[[File:One Direction 2012 Stockholm.jpg|thumb|right|One Direction greet Swedish fans in [Stockholm](Stockholm), May 2012]]
During the mid-2010s, One Direction were dubbed as [idol](teen)(teen idol)s, and were often subject to fan hysteria. Neil McCormick of *[Daily Telegraph](The)(The Daily Telegraph)*, in an article on One Direction's success in North America, notes that Americans had left a gap in the market and it took the prominence of [Bieber](Justin)(Justin Bieber) to demonstrate that there still was a market for "clean cut, wholesome, whiter-than-white, middle class parent friendly pop: cute boys advocating puppy love. And what could be better than one cute boy, if not five?" Bill Werde, a representative of [*Billboard*](Billboard (magazine)) magazine, commented, "There's a lot of possibility here, there's a lot of upside, that level of talent with those kinds of looks, it's really a perfect storm for a massive, massive successful phenomenon." In [NPR](NPR), Maria Sherman noticed that before One Direction's breakthrough, boy bands were "off the radar" since [NSYNC](NSYNC) went on an indefinite hiatus in 2002.
Horan commented on One Direction as a boy band, "People think that a boy band is air-grabs and [being] dressed in all one colour. We're boys in a band. We're trying to do something different from what people would think is the typical kind of boy band. We're trying to do different kinds of music and we're just trying to be ourselves, not squeaky clean." Leah Collins, writing for the *[Post](National)(National Post)*, remarked they had succeeded on the latter front. "For the most part, that just means the group presents themselves as typical, goofy and uncensored teenage boys – posting jokey YouTube videos, for instance, or boozing at awards shows." Writing for *[Observer](The)(The Observer)*, [Empire](Kitty)(Kitty Empire) opined, "One Direction fulfill a great many boy band prerequisites (looks, soppy lyrics, tune-grasp, fame-lust) but their lack of routines points to the subtle digressions afoot here". Each member's individual identity is reinforced by their intentionally different personal styles. Caroline Watson, the band's original stylist, spoke about styling the band, "At the beginning I didn't want them all in black or all in leather – that whole stereotypical boy band thing." Instead, her original idea was for them to be the "male equivalent to the [Girls](Spice)(Spice Girls)", with each member being a part of the group but still having his own individual style.
## Legacy
[[File:One Direction figures at Madame Tussauds London (33783672342).jpg|thumb|Waxwork of One Direction at [Tussauds](Madame)(Madame Tussauds), London]]
One Direction have been described as sparking a resurgence in the interest in boy bands as well as forming part of a new "[Invasion](British)(British Invasion)" (along with acts like [Adele](Adele)) in the United States. NME|url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/adele-219-1254386|access-date=10 September 2020|website=NME Music News, Reviews, Videos, Galleries, Tickets and Blogs NME.COM}} Many media outlets noted that One Direction was the first boyband to rise to and eventually surpass a level of popularity comparable to [NSYNC](NSYNC), [Boys](Backstreet)(Backstreet Boys), and [Kids on the Block](New)(New Kids on the Block) before their respective hiatuses and breakups. *[HuffPost](HuffPost)* wrote that "One Direction's level of fame surpassed anything that modern audiences had seen" and that "fans and non-fans alike widely agree that such intense levels of fandom hadn't been seen since [Beatles](The)(The Beatles) in the 1960s". *[NPR](NPR)* described the group as "one of the biggest boy bands the world had ever seen" and the group has been described as "the world's biggest boy band" as recently as 2020, four years since their hiatus. *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* named "[Makes You Beautiful](What)(What Makes You Beautiful)" the sixth greatest boy band song of all time. *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))* named *Four* the best boy band album of the last thirty years, calling it "the absolute standard-bearer for the last decade of pop". One Direction's music was considered pop that was rooted in guitar rock which was rare during their active years, with *Rolling Stone* calling the group "one of the great rock bands of the 21st century."
One Direction was widely considered the biggest boy band in the world with band "barreling into international success" and falling into "seemingly effortless superstardom". Their main "competitor", in terms of boy bands, was [Wanted](The)(The Wanted), who formed in 2009 (one year prior to One Direction), with many expecting a "rivalry" between the two groups similar to the one between NSYNC and the Backstreet Boys. However, in a 2014 story by *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))*, they wrote "the boy band war was over before it even began" and that "the boy band war was not a war at all; it had been a one-sided stomping". The Wanted went on indefinite hiatus in 2014, and they cited One Direction's global success as part of the reason, saying "One Direction are a phenomenon that no one else can compete with" and "For The Wanted to try and compete against one of the biggest bands in the world ... it's almost impossible".
One Direction's rise to fame has been called "meteoric" with the group becoming the first British band to ever have their debut album top the US charts. *[Forbes](Forbes)* noted that their "meteoric rise has surpassed any other boy band in history, NSYNC included". During their continued rise in the United States in 2012, the mania surrounding the group was dubbed "One Direction Infection". That same year, "1D World" stores were opened around the United States as the group worked on their second studio album to meet the high demand for the band and "to give fans the ultimate One Direction experience". Part of the group's rise to popularity was their "atypical construct" in the sense that they don't dance, rarely wear matching outfits, and are heavily tattooed, all three which were rare in boybands of the past. The *Huffington Post* added that they "didn't just sing cheesy ballads" and instead "embraced their differences". *[Slate](Slate (magazine))* noted that One Direction portrayed more of a "joking" and "fun" manner in their songs, music videos, and individual personas when compared to boy bands of the past. They were credited with breaking "the boy band mold". Despite their differences in that regard, the group still used an approach pioneered by [Beatles](The)(The Beatles) in which each member was applied a persona; Horan as "the cute Irish one", Malik as "the quiet and mysterious one", Payne as "the sensible one", Styles as "the charming flirt" and Tomlinson as "the funny one". *TMRW Magazine* wrote in a 2020 story that the group "helped defy traits typically associated with toxic masculinity" and that "their friendship set them apart, made them more real".
One Direction are also widely considered to have been one of the first groups and celebrities to have been propelled to global recognition by [media](social)(social media). Sonny Takhar, the chief executive officer of Syco Records, attributes the breakthrough to the power of social media, saying "sometimes you feel the song's the star, but it's not like that here – it's the act," he said. "It's a real moment. Social media has become the new radio, it's never broken an act globally like this before." Will Bloomfield, the group's manager, added, "These guys live online, and so do their fans." Their management employs a social media team and the members all tweet themselves, "which helps create the illusion that they couldn't be any closer to their fans", according to Caspar Llewellyn Smith, writing for *The Guardian*. Sunil Singhvi, [Twitter](Twitter) head of entertainment in the UK, stated that "the fans' ability, via Twitter, to tell Europeans about One Direction really catapulted them there, then from Europe to America, and now it's a global phenomenon." [Kotecha](Savan)(Savan Kotecha), who wrote multiple songs for the band, said in an interview with *Rolling Stone* that "they instinctively had this - [...] they just knew how to speak to their fans. And they did that by being themselves. That was a unique thing about these boys: When the cameras turned on, they didn't change who they were". Their rise in success has been greatly credited to social media, which allowed fans to not only spread the word about the group, but get live updates from concerts and interviews as well as about the band's whereabouts daily. One Direction, in their active years, were extremely present on social media and interacted with fans daily, giving them "an army of online fans". *[Detroit News](The)(The Detroit News)* named them "the first megastar boyband of the Social Media Era."
In 2017, [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) premiered the [series](television)(television series) *[Band](Boy)(Boy Band (TV series))* which aims to find male vocalists to become a member of a new five-piece boy band. Many media outlets suspected the show's premise and inspiration was to find "the next One Direction".
### Fandom
One Direction's fans dubbed themselves as "Directioners" and were considered one of the largest [fandom](fandom)s on the internet. *Huffington Post* noted the fandom as "making news for forming unprecedented mobs outside hotels, at airports and outside concert venues. For years, the boys would discreetly exit buildings to remain safe". *The Independent* wrote that "the legacy of One Direction isn't anything to do with the 1D boys or Simon Cowell, but the extraordinary power of teenage girls" while calling them "sole engineers of the band's unbelievable success" and "alchemists". A 2022 article by *[Company](Fast)(Fast Company)* writes that "One Direction fangirls made the internet a better place" and that "we should thank Harry Styles-obsessed fandoms for shaping our social interactions online". In a 2020 story in honor of the band's 10-year anniversary, *Billboard* wrote that their "groundbreaking success" was "all made possible by the group's fervent international fanbase, characterized by its rabid devotion and accelerated by the rise of social media and music streaming, ultimately rivaling the fandom of any other boy band in history". After Malik left the band in March 2015, fan reactions went [viral](Viral phenomenon) on social media, with *[Bustle](Bustle (magazine))* titling an article "Zayn leaves, fans lose it". Specifically, [vigil](candlelight)(candlelight vigil)s held in memory of Malik went viral, with sites like *Rolling Stone* writing stories over fan reactions. In 2022, Kaitlyn Tiffany released a book titled *Everything I Need I Get From You: How Fangirls Created the Internet as We Know It*, focusing on the cultural impact and online community created by Directioners.
### 10-year anniversary event
On 22 July 2020, One Direction posted on their Twitter, Instagram and YouTube accounts an image with the words "10 Years of One Direction" and the caption "Tomorrow! You and me got a whole lot of history #10YearsOf1D" in anticipation of their tenth anniversary the following day. The Instagram post received 7.5 million likes. The tweet received 1.8 million likes and the hashtag "10YearsofOneDirection" trended on Twitter.
On 23 July, One Direction launched a new anniversary website, however, the site crashed shortly after its announcement due to the high volume of fans entering at once. Members [Payne](Liam Payne), [Horan](Niall Horan), [Tomlinson](Louis Tomlinson) and [Styles](Harry Styles) also posted on their individual social media pages, thanking their fans and all five initial members for their support. Styles' tweet reached one million likes in just over an hour, making it the fastest tweet ever to reach one million likes.
On 23 July, One Direction premiered a retrospective video in celebration of their anniversary. Select remastered 4K versions of their past music videos and concert recordings were released between 23 and 28 July.
## Discography
* *[All Night](Up)(Up All Night (One Direction album))* (2011)
* *[Me Home](Take)(Take Me Home (One Direction album))* (2012)
* *[Memories](Midnight)(Midnight Memories)* (2013)
* *[Four](Four (One Direction album))* (2014)
* *[in the A.M.](Made)(Made in the A.M.)* (2015)
## Filmography
## Tours
**Headlining**
*[All Night Tour](Up)(Up All Night Tour) (2011–12)
*[Me Home Tour](Take)(Take Me Home Tour (One Direction)) (2013)
*[We Are Tour](Where)(Where We Are Tour (One Direction)) (2014)
*[the Road Again Tour](On)(On the Road Again Tour) (2015)
**Opening act**
*[Factor Tour 2011](X)(The X Factor (British TV series)) (2011)
*[with U Tour](Better)(Better with U Tour) (2012)
## Awards and honours
As of 2020, One Direction have sold a total of 70 million records worldwide, making them one of the [boy bands of all time](best-selling)(List of best-selling boy groups). In 2013, they earned an estimated $75 million, becoming the second highest earning celebrity under 30 according to *[Forbes](Forbes)*. *Forbes* ranked them as the fourth [celebrities](highest-earning)(Forbes Celebrity 100) in the world in 2015, and second in 2016.
The band has received seven [Awards](Brit)(Brit Awards), seven [Music Awards](American)(American Music Awards), six [Music Awards](*Billboard*)(Billboard Music Award), five [Touring Awards](*Billboard*)(Billboard Touring Awards), and four [Video Music Awards](MTV)(MTV Video Music Awards), among other awards. One Direction holds the record as the most awarded act at the [Choice Awards](Teen)(Teen Choice Awards) with 28 wins from 31 nominations. Being the world's best-selling artist of 2013, the [Federation of the Phonographic Industry](International)(International Federation of the Phonographic Industry) (IFPI) named them the [Recording Artist of the Year](Global)(Global Recording Artist of the Year). In 2014, *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))* named the band "Artist of the Year".
## Publications
* *One Direction: Forever Young*, HarperCollins (17 February 2011)
* *One Direction: The Official Annual 2012*, HarperCollins (1 September 2011)
* *Dare to Dream: Life as One Direction*, HarperCollins (15 September 2011)
* *One Direction: Where We Are: Our Band, Our Story: 100% Official*, HarperCollins (19 November 2013)
* *One Direction: Who We Are: Our Official Autobiography*, HarperCollins (25 September 2014)
## Further reading
*
## See also
* [boy bands](Best-selling)(List of best-selling boy groups)
* [of *Billboard* Social 50 number-one artists](List)(List of Billboard Social 50 number-one artists)
* [of artists who reached number one on the UK Singles Chart](List)(List of artists who reached number one on the UK Singles Chart)
* [of highest-grossing concert tours](List)(List of highest-grossing concert tours)
## Explanatory notes
## References
## External links
*
*
*
}}
}}
[ ](Category:One Direction)
[establishments in England](Category:2010)(Category:2010 establishments in England)
[Award winners](Category:ARIA)(Category:ARIA Award winners)
[Award winners](Category:Brit)(Category:Brit Award winners)
[Records artists](Category:Columbia)(Category:Columbia Records artists)
[boy bands](Category:English)(Category:English boy bands)
[pop music groups](Category:English)(Category:English pop music groups)
[pop rock music groups](Category:English)(Category:English pop rock music groups)
[boy bands](Category:Irish)(Category:Irish boy bands)
[vocal groups](Category:English)(Category:English vocal groups)
[Europe Music Award winners](Category:MTV)(Category:MTV Europe Music Award winners)
[Video Music Award winners](Category:MTV)(Category:MTV Video Music Award winners)
[groups established in 2010](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups established in 2010)
[groups from London](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups from London)
[Awards winners](Category:NME)(Category:NME Awards winners)
[Award winners](Category:Shorty)(Category:Shorty Award winners)
[BMG artists](Category:Sony)(Category:Sony BMG artists)
[Music Publishing artists](Category:Sony)(Category:Sony Music Publishing artists)
[Music artists](Category:Syco)(Category:Syco Music artists)
[pop groups](Category:Teen)(Category:Teen pop groups)
[quartets](Category:Vocal)(Category:Vocal quartets)
[quintets](Category:Vocal)(Category:Vocal quintets)
[X Factor (British TV series) contestants](Category:The)(Category:The X Factor (British TV series) contestants)
|
Alan Wake
|
alan_wake
|
# Alan Wake
*Revision ID: 1157920977 | Timestamp: 2023-05-31T20:22:25Z*
---
| publisher = [Game Studios](Microsoft)(Microsoft Game Studios)
| director = Markus Mäki
| producer = Jyri Ranki
| designer = Mikael Kasurinen
| programmer = Olli Tervo
| artist = Saku Lehtinen
| writer =
| composer = Petri Alanko
| engine =
| platforms =
| released =
| **Xbox 360**
|
| **Windows**
|
| ***Remastered***
| **PS4, PS5, Windows, Xbox One, Xbox Series X/S**
|
| **Nintendo Switch**
|
}}
| genre = [Action-adventure](Action-adventure game), [shooter](third-person)(third-person shooter)
| modes = [Single-player](Single-player)
}}
***Alan Wake*** is an [game](action-adventure)(action-adventure game) developed by [Entertainment](Remedy)(Remedy Entertainment) and published by [Game Studios](Microsoft)(Xbox Game Studios). The game was released in May 2010 for the [360](Xbox)(Xbox 360), with a [Windows](Microsoft Windows) version following in February 2012 and a [remastered](video game remaster) version released for [4](PlayStation)(PlayStation 4), [5](PlayStation)(PlayStation 5), [One](Xbox)(Xbox One), [Series X/S](Xbox)(Xbox Series X/S), and Windows in October 2021, as well as a [Switch](Nintendo)(Nintendo Switch) version in October 2022. The story follows bestselling [thriller](Thriller (genre)) novelist Alan Wake as he tries to uncover the mystery behind his wife's disappearance during a vacation in the small fictional town of Bright Falls, Washington, all while experiencing events from the plot in his latest novel, which he cannot remember writing, coming to life.
In its pacing and structure, *Alan Wake* is similar to a thriller television series, with episodes that contain plot twists and cliffhangers. The game itself consists of six episodes, and the storyline is continued by two special episodes, *The Signal* and *The Writer*, that were made available as [content](downloadable)(downloadable content) (DLC) within the same year of the game's release. Additionally, a six-episode live-action web series called *Bright Falls* acts as a prequel to the game, and a number of related books also expand upon the *Alan Wake* story.
Chiefly written by [Lake](Sam)(Sam Lake), *Alan Wake* took over five years to create. The game was originally developed as an open-world [game](survival)(survival game) as an anti-thesis to Remedy's prior linear *[Payne](Max)(Max Payne)* games, but struggled over three years in merging the gameplay with the action-thriller story they wanted to tell. After an intense two-month period, the team reworked the game to be a more traditional linear game broken into an episodic approach but which better supported the planned narrative structure and capable of reusing much of the open world assets already built.
The game received positive reviews from critics, has garnered a [following](cult)(cult following), and is often praised for its visuals, sound, narrative, pacing and atmosphere. *Alan Wake* was awarded the first spot in *[Time](Time (magazine))* magazine's list of the top 10 video games of 2010. ''[Wake's American Nightmare](Alan)(Alan Wake's American Nightmare)'', a stand-alone spin-off, was released in February 2012 on the [Live Arcade](Xbox)(Xbox Live Arcade) service.
One cancelled sequel became the foundation and inspiration of Remedy's next title, *[Break](Quantum)(Quantum Break)*. Later, Remedy released *[Control](Control (video game))* in 2019, which takes place in a [universe](shared)(shared universe) with *Alan Wake*. A sequel, *[Wake II](Alan)(Alan Wake II)*, was announced at [Game Awards 2021](The)(The Game Awards 2021) in December 2021 and is scheduled for release in October 2023.
## Gameplay
[[File:Alan Wake - Fighting with Light.png|thumb|left|alt=A screenshot of *Alan Wake*, showing the player's character aiming his flashlight and handgun at an enemy, in an exterior environment.|Above, the player, as Alan, "fight[s] with light" against a Taken. The ammo counter for the gun is visible at the top right, and the flashlight meter at the top left.]]
*Alan Wake* is described by Remedy as "the mind of a [thriller](psychological)(psychological thriller)" and "the body of a cinematic [game](action)(action game)" put together. In interviews, the game's creators hold that the game does not belong squarely in the [horror](survival)(survival horror) video-game genre. The game is primarily set in the fictional idyllic small town of Bright Falls, [Washington](Washington (state)). The main gameplay happens in various areas of Bright Falls—such as the forest, a national park, or a farm—during the night time; these are punctuated by calmer, non-combative sequences set during the day.
The player controls the eponymous protagonist Alan Wake, a well-known novelist who is going through [block](writer's)(writer's block). In the game, a "darkness" is taking over humans, animals, and objects. These enemies, dubbed the "Taken", are murderous shadows that attack Wake, wielding weapons of their own, ranging from mallets and knives to shovels and chainsaws. They vary by speed, size and the amount of damage they can take, and some can teleport between short distances. Besides the Taken, the player must combat flocks of possessed ravens and [objects](animated)(poltergeist). When enemies are close, Alan can perform a [slow-motion](Bullet time) cinematic dodge maneuver.
The Taken are protected by a shield of darkness, initially rendering them impervious to attack; they can only be injured with a firearm after exposure to light, which burns the darkness away. This puts significant emphasis on [flashlight](flashlight)s in conjunction with conventional weapons, such as a [revolver](revolver) or [shotgun](shotgun). Flashlight beams act as a [reticle](reticle). The handheld lights Wake can carry can be boosted, which destroys the darkness faster, but also reduces the light's battery level. Besides the conventional shooter gameplay need for reloading [ammunition](ammunition), the player must also insert fresh batteries into the flashlight when they run out, or wait for it to recharge slowly. The strength of the darkness protecting an enemy can vary among the Taken. The amount of darkness "shield" remaining on an enemy is represented by a corona of light that appears when aiming at an enemy. Instead of traditional health bars, this shield is represented by a circle that decreases in diameter as it weakens. A stronger darkness may recharge after exposure to light over time. When a Taken is finally destroyed, it disappears.
The player is often encouraged to take advantage of environmental light sources and placing, and to use other light-based weapons and accessories, such as [gun](flare)(flare gun)s, hand-held [flare](flare)s and [flashbangs](Stun grenade). Wake can use searchlights to take out massive waves of Taken. Streetlights and other light stands can provide a safe haven, which the Taken cannot enter, and will regenerate the character's [health](Health (game terminology)) faster. Otherwise, health regenerates slowly with time, when not taking any damage. In certain sections of the game, it is possible to use a car to traverse between locations in Bright Falls. When in a car, the player can run down Taken on the road, or boost the vehicle's [headlights](Headlamp) to destroy them.
A major element of gameplay is the optional discovery and collection of [manuscript](manuscript) pages from Alan Wake's latest novel, *Departure*. Although Wake does not remember writing this book, its storyline seems to be coming to life around him. These readable manuscript pages are scattered around the game world, out of chronological order; they often describe scenes that have yet to occur and act as warning and instructions for proceeding through upcoming challenges. Other optional collectibles include coffee thermos flasks scattered around the game world (100 in all), as well as discovering television sets which show different episodes of the fictional *Night Springs* series, radios airing talk and music from Bright Falls' local radio station, and textual signs around the town. The radio shows and signs provide a deeper understanding of the town's history and culture. The game's downloadable content episodes introduce other collectibles such as alarm clocks.
## Plot
Alan Wake (voiced by [Porretta](Matthew)(Matthew Porretta)) is a bestselling [fiction](crime)(crime fiction) author suffering from a two-year stretch of [block](writer's)(writer's block). He and his wife Alice travel to the small mountain town of Bright Falls, [Washington](Washington (state)) for a short vacation at the advice of their friend and agent Barry Wheeler. Before arriving, Alan has a nightmare about shadowy figures who try to kill him, when an ethereal figure in a diving suit intervenes in the dream and teaches him how to utilise light to fend off the shadows.
Upon arrival in Bright Falls, Alan goes to a diner to retrieve the keys to their cabin from Carl Stucky, the landlord, but instead encounters a mysterious old woman, who tells him that Stucky had fallen ill and she was entrusted to give Alan the keys. The woman directs the couple to a cabin on an island in the middle of Cauldron Lake, a [crater lake](volcanic)(volcanic crater lake), where Alan experiences a vision of the old woman. As they unpack, Alice reveals that the real purpose of their trip is to help break his writer's block by arranging for him to see a famous Bright Falls psychologist named Dr. Emil Hartman. Alan is infuriated and storms out, only to rush back when he hears Alice crying for help. He returns just as Alice is dragged into the lake's waters by a mysterious force. Alan dives in after her, blacking out as he submerges.
After yet another hallucination of the old woman, Alan regains consciousness, apparently having driven his car off the road with no memory of how he got there. He attempts to reach a nearby gas station but progress is hampered by murderous, shadowy figures resembling those in his dream. While fighting the shadows with light, Alan repeatedly encounters an ethereal figure in a diving suit similar to the one from his dream, who leaves behind pages of a manuscript entitled *Departure*. Ostensibly written by Alan, he has no memory of writing. He soon discovers that the events of the manuscript are coming true and that the shadowy figures, named "Taken," are townsfolk possessed by a dark force. After killing a possessed Carl Stucky and reaching the gas station, Alan tries to alert Sheriff Sarah Breaker of his wife's disappearance but Sheriff Breaker states that there has been no island or cabin in Cauldron Lake for decades after it sank in a volcanic eruption. Breaker believes Alan is mentally unwell and takes him to the police station. Meanwhile, Barry arrives in Bright Falls in search of Alan.
At the police station, Alan lies to hide the hallucinations he's been experiencing. He receives a call from a man purporting to be Alice's kidnapper, demanding the pages of *Departure* in exchange for her. Emil Hartman appears at the station to invite Alan to stay at his [hospital](psychiatric)(psychiatric hospital), Cauldron Lake Lodge—Alan punches Hartman as a response. Alan meets the kidnapper at a nearby national park, who demands pages of *Departure* as ransom. The two fight before the kidnapper runs off into the night.
Alan and Barry attempt to retrieve more pages and attract the attention of FBI agent Robert Nightingale. Alan leaves Barry behind and flees Nightingale, who chases him through the forest unsuccessfully. He meets the kidnapper again to deliver the pages. As he arrives at the location he witnesses the kidnapper being tortured by the mysterious old woman, confessing that he never actually had Alice. Alan and the kidnapper are then attacked by a dark tornado that hurls Alan into Cauldron Lake.
He awakens in the lodge overlooking Cauldron Lake under the care of Hartman who claims Alan is experiencing a [break](psychotic)(psychotic break), triggered by Alice drowning. He claims the supernatural phenomena Alan has been experiencing were all fabrications of his imagination. Alan attempts to escape the lodge as the shadowy force starts to attack it, learning in the process that the fake kidnapper was employed by Hartman to lure Alan to him. Hartman tries to stop Alan from escaping, and gives the impression that he is aware of the supernatural events surrounding the lake. Barry helps Alan escape the lodge before the shadow subsumes it and all those inside.
Alan and Barry gradually begin to learn the truth about Cauldron Lake from other townsfolk. An entity known as the Dark Presence is trapped within the lake, attempting to escape by using the lake's power to turn fiction into reality. It had previously tried this with a poet named Thomas Zane— the figure in the diving suit — by taking the form of his spouse who drowned in the lake, Barbara Jagger; the old woman who Alan has encountered. Zane was able to resist its will and used his writings to cause the volcanic eruption that sank the island, stranding himself within the lake. The Dark Presence has grown strong enough to start to influence the townspeople and create the forces that have pursued Alan. That night as Alan and Barry take shelter, they get drunk on [moonshine](moonshine) and Alan recall memories of being forced to write *Departure* during the prior week. He realised that the Dark Presence is trying to use his writings to escape, holding Alice in the lake so to coerce him.
Alan and Barry are arrested by Robert Nightingale but the Taken assault the police station and drag Nightingale away. Sheriff Breaker, now convinced of the Dark Presence's existence, helps Alan and Barry to reach Cynthia Weaver, a hermit who knew Thomas Zane and prepared countermeasures for the Dark Presence's return. Weaver leads them to the "Well-Lit Room" containing a light switch known as the Clicker, which, through the power of Alan's writings, possesses the narrative ability to destroy the Dark Presence. Alan returns to Cauldron Lake alone and dives in, finding himself in a surreal alternate dimension known as the Dark Place, where thoughts and ideas become reality. Alan encounters Jagger and destroys her with the Clicker; realising he must maintain balance in the story, Alan completes *Departure* by freeing Alice, but strands himself in the Dark Place in the process. Finishing *Departure,* Alan writes the final line, "It's not a lake, it's an ocean."
### Special One: The Signal
Continuing from the end of the main game, Alan finds himself in a [surreal](surrealism) version of Bright Falls and realises he is still trapped in the Dark Place. Zane directs Alan to follow a signal through a cell phone in order to "focus" and guide himself through the Dark Place. While navigating the realm's shifting, dreamlike topography, Alan encounters television screens depicting a more maniacal version of himself, who uses the power of the Dark Place to narrate circumstances that plunge Alan into danger, sending hordes of Taken after him. Alan also encounters an ethereal version of Barry, a figment of his subconsciousness, who helps guide Alan safely across the abstract landscape.
Zane eventually reveals that Alan himself is the cause of his current circumstance; the maniacal version of Alan on the television screens is an irrational aspect of Alan consumed by fear, his frenzied thoughts affecting the subjective world of the Dark Place. Alan encounters a monstrous conglomeration of televisions, through which the irrational Alan tries to kill him. Alan defeats the televisions, but wakes up back in the cabin again, and realises he is still trapped.
### Special Two: The Writer
Still trapped in the Dark Place, Alan regains consciousness and accepts that he is the cause of the insanity he is experiencing, regaining his memories in the process. Zane tells him that the "irrational Alan" is still inside the cabin, controlling the Dark Place; the "rational Alan" must regain control in order to have any chance of escaping the Dark Place. Zane directs Alan to a lighthouse across the increasingly surreal landscape of the Dark Place, while the irrational Alan attempts to stop him by creating delusions of Alice, manipulating the landscape, and sending armies of Taken after him. Alan eventually outwits his other self and reaches the lighthouse, passing through it to reach the cabin.
As Alan nears the cabin, the imaginary Barry reappears and tells Alan that he will have to reject all the illusions before he can face off against the insane version of Alan, including the apparition of Barry. Alan is forced to confront Taken versions of Barry and the other townsfolk, defeating them all and reentering the cabin. The irrational Alan is in a paranoid state on the cabin floor; when Alan touches him, the two are made whole again. Alan realises that he cannot let himself fall into a delusional state again for fear of never being able to escape, and returns to the typewriter to start a new story—''"[Return](Alan Wake's American Nightmare)"*.
## Development
By 2003, the Finnish studio [Entertainment](Remedy)(Remedy Entertainment) had created the critically acclaimed *[Payne](Max)(Max Payne (video game))* (2001), and its sequel, *[Payne 2: The Fall of Max Payne](Max)(Max Payne 2: The Fall of Max Payne)* (2003). After shipping *Max Payne 2*, Remedy Entertainment spent some time "recovering from the [crunch](Crunch (video games))," and started coming up with different concepts for a new project. Among these was the concept for *Alan Wake*. Early on, this was based on trying to tell a deeper narrative story than what *Max Payne* had been, influenced by works of [King](Stephen)(Stephen King) and [Lynch](David)(David Lynch), in particular *[Peaks](Twin)(Twin Peaks)*, and approached as a television episodic format to tell the story of the action-[thriller](Thriller (genre)). The basic elements of the narrative were set early on: Alan Wake as a successful writer finds himself in the small town of Bright Falls where due to supernatural events his writings have come to life to attack him.
To further distance this next game from the linear style of *Max Payne*, Remedy planned Bright Falls as a free-roaming, sandbox-style [world](open)(open world) city, similar to those seen in the *[Theft Auto](Grand)(Grand Theft Auto)'' series. They developed a semi-automatic system to help generate this open world using biomes and other features based on their research on the [Northwest](Pacific)(Pacific Northwest) where Bright Falls was set. For example, this tool allowed them to path a road across the game world, upon which the tool would make sure no vegetation would appear near the road though added sprout of grass near its edges, and would add approach ditches and other features along the sides of the roads to simplify the world creation. Remedy also wanted cinematic action, so light and darkness was to play a significant factor in the game, which was first built into a dynamic day-and-night cycle. The game would have been more like a [game](survival)(survival game); during daylight hours the player would collect resources, such as gasoline to run portable generators to run lights, as to protect and defend the player-character at night. According to Remedy's creative director [Lake](Sam)(Sam Lake), this approach created numerous difficulties in establishing a story and narrative for the thriller to explain how the gameplay elements tied together with the supernatural events. For example, Lake said one idea was based on the supernatural events tied to the no-longer-dormant volcano under Cauldron Lake, which would have led to the evacuation of Bright Falls and left Alan dealing only with the supernatural forces.
The game, still designed around this open-world approach, was announced at [2005](E3)(E3 2005) in June for "the [generation of consoles](next)(History of video game consoles (seventh generation)) and [PCs](Personal computer)", and was shown to the press behind closed doors in the form of a [demo](tech)(tech demo). Remedy also used this demo to gain publisher interest. By 2006, Remedy announced they had partnered with [Game Studios](Microsoft)(Microsoft Game Studios) to publish the game exclusively for Microsoft's [360](Xbox)(Xbox 360) [game console](video)(video game console) and then-current [Vista](Windows)(Windows Vista) PC [system](operating)(operating system).
Remedy still continued to struggle with merging the open-world survival gameplay and story, now further complicated with Microsoft's involvement and suggestions for improvement, which Lake compared to a "[many cooks](too)(Design by committee)" situation. They were now missing various publisher milestones as they tried various changes to the open-world format with no clear resolution. Roughly three years into development, the team recognised they needed to stop and refocus on what the core elements of the gameplay was to be. According to Lake, Remedy took the leads from each department to form a "sauna" group, making them work in a room together to lock down the gameplay that *Alan Wake* should have without losing much of work they had already done, "with all the heat and pressure on us". This took about two months but from it came the revised gameplay loop, which they were able to reapply to the existing open-world setting they had, breaking it apart into linear chapter-sized levels for the final game and adding some additional assets as needed. This allowed some levels to be used for daytime that would be used to advance the story, letting the player talk to NPCs and explore the area, and others for the night levels that were predominately action-based, and even with some levels having both daytime and nighttime versions. This change better supported the thriller narrative as well. Other key gameplay ideas that came out from this period were the ideas for the Taken and how the player would fight them, how these enemies would appear and the in-game signals the player would see and hear to prepare, and the use of lit safe havens between combat. Lake stated that because they kept as much of the previous open-world elements they already built in this rework, this helped to give "a sense of realness" to the game world. Oskari Häkkinen, the head of franchise development at Remedy during *Alan Wake*s development, said that retaining the open world map, with features planned and rendered in the distance, gave them a means to provide landmarks to give a sense of direction to the player, gave the ability to create foreshadowing in the narrative, and generally helped with overall cohesion of the game world.
The first screenshots depicted the character of Alan Wake in much different attire, as well as a different layout for the town of Bright Falls, compared to the released game.
According to Lake, the character of Alan Wake was also intended to be the opposite of Max Payne. While Max was a cop and thus suited to an action game, Remedy wanted Alan to be atypical of an action hero, making him a writer, partially influenced by King, that became involved in the events and forced into action. Near the end of the game's development, Alan's story started to become a [metaphor](metaphor) for Remedy's work on the game itself, according to Lake: Alan's past work as a novelist was based on a fictional police detective (mirroring Remedy's *Max Payne*), but now struggled with writing something different (representing their troubles in finding the vision for *Alan Wake*).
The game's enemies were designed by drawing concept art and then pouring water over them to make them feel "Just a bit off". For the character of Alan Wake himself, Remedy used "concept photos" as opposed to more traditional concept artwork. All the characters featured in *Alan Wake* were based on real-life models. [Villi](Ilkka)(Ilkka Villi) and Jonna Järvenpää, the models for Alan and Alice Wake, respectively, are the only Finnish models in the game; all other models were American. Voice-overs were provided by native actors from Japan and America for their respective regions.Limited Edition Bonus Disk
After four years of having repeatedly demonstrated the [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows) version, in 2009, Remedy confirmed that at that point the game was being developed [exclusively](Console exclusivity) for the Xbox 360 and the decision to make a PC version was in Microsoft's hands. The game was announced as "done" and undergoing final polishing in August 2009. The game eventually [gold](went)(Goes gold) on 7 April 2010, and was released in May.
After the game's release in 2010, Remedy said that bringing the game to the PC was "not on the cards at the moment." However, nearly two years after its release, Remedy was able to secure the rights to publish a PC version.
### Influences and allusions
[[File:Alan Wake allusion to The Shining.png|thumb|right|alt=Top: A screenshot from the game, with Alan looking at an ax that is being smashed through a door from the other side. Bottom: A similar-looking picture from the movie The Shining, where a woman is witnessing the same situation.|*Alan Wake* includes many references to works of popular culture. This cutscene directly alludes to a famous scene from *[Shining](The)(The Shining (film))*.]]
*Alan Wake* was influenced by and often alludes to certain films, TV shows and books, as well as paying [homage](Homage (arts)) to a number of artists and works. Remedy has explained the shared themes and ideas between the game and other existing works of popular culture as "taking something familiar to people as an element, and building something of your own, and hopefully something [is](that) unique in games, but still familiar from other forms of entertainment."
Bestselling author Stephen King was a major inspiration for *Alan Wake*. The main character as a writer whose work is coming true is a theme that has been explored by King in a number of his works. Wake's narration directly alludes to King on several occasions, including the game's opening line, in which he quotes a Stephen King essay.The game's opening line is: "Stephen King once wrote, 'Nightmares exist outside of logic, and there's little fun to be had in explanations; they're antithetical to the poetry of fear'." The quote's source is the following: The game also pays homage to the film *[Shining](The)(The Shining (film))* (based on King's [of the same name](novel)(The Shining (novel))) with a [maze](hedge)(hedge maze) area similar to the iconic maze in the film, among other references, as well as King's novel *[Christine](Christine (novel))*, with one of the in-game cars resembling her. King himself was asked for permission to use his quote. He also received copies of the game as a "thank you", but was unable to try them out because he does not own an Xbox. In addition to King's work, Lake has cited the stories of [Easton Ellis](Bret)(Bret Easton Ellis) and [Gaiman](Neil)(Neil Gaiman) as influences, as well as [Z. Danielewski](Mark)(Mark Z. Danielewski)'s *[of Leaves](House)(House of Leaves)*.
In the game there are a number of television sets that can be found around the town in different places. They can be switched on and a short episode of the fictional series *Night Springs* will be played, which is influenced by the television series *[Twilight Zone](The)(The Twilight Zone)*, created by [Serling](Rod)(Rod Serling) in the late 1950s. [Hitchcock](Alfred)(Alfred Hitchcock) is also cited as an inspiration, with the flocks of birds that often attack the protagonist being influenced by his classic horror film *[Birds](The)(The Birds (film))*.
The game's setting, Bright Falls, draws much inspiration from the early 1990s TV show *[Peaks](Twin)(Twin Peaks)*, which was set in the titular town; both fictional small towns in the state of [Washington](Washington (state)). To research the [Northwest](Pacific)(Pacific Northwest) setting for the game, a Remedy team travelled to the area and drove about 2,000 miles between [Oregon](Oregon); Washington; and [Columbia](British)(British Columbia), Canada, over two weeks, bringing back over 6,000 photographs and videos of various natural settings and [Americana](Americana (culture)) of the small towns in the area. These included [Oregon](Astoria,)(Astoria, Oregon) and [Bend, Washington](North)(North Bend, Washington), the latter where *Twin Peaks* was filmed, as well as locations used around Seattle for the film *[Ring](The)(The Ring (2002 film))*. Even after returning to Finland, the Remedy team contacted Microsoft, based in Washington, for help with additional photographs.
### Episodic format
In its structure, the story of *Alan Wake* plays out similarly to a mystery television program, where each episode brings another piece of the puzzle to the main ongoing story, yet have a distinct plot of their own. As such, *Alan Wake* is organised into episodes, which include narrative and [device](plot)(plot device)s normally used in TV, such as [cliffhanger](cliffhanger)s at the end of the episodes. A prominent borrowing from television is the "Previously on *Alan Wake*..." [sequence](recap)(recap sequence) that opens each episode, and serve to "refresh the player's memory and point to things that will become relevant shortly." A different song plays at the end of every episode, imitating certain TV shows that feature different music during each episode's [credits](closing)(closing credits).
The main game itself is divided up into six episodes. Additionally, two "special features", titled "The Signal" and "The Writer", have been released as [content](downloadable)(downloadable content) (DLC). Together, *Alan Wake* and its DLCs constitute the "first season" of a bigger story. The main game is designed to have a satisfactory ending with the main character reaching his goal, while the DLCs form a two-part special that further expands on the game's story by "[continuing] the fiction and [serving] as a bridge between seasons." The game's developers expressed interest in following *Alan Wake* up with a second season or a sequel.
Remedy Entertainment chose the TV series storytelling format to establish a certain stylisation and pacing. The developers felt that watching episodes of certain TV shows—such as the heavily serialised series *[Lost](Lost (TV series))*—in the form of released [set](box)(box set)s, at the viewers' pace, was a "natural way of 'consuming media'", and that this episodic format was a better fit for a long game. Remedy lauded *Lost* for its pacing as a thriller TV show.
While Remedy had wanted to use the [release format](episodic)(Episodic video game), with each of the above episodes released digitally over time, Microsoft instead pushed Remedy to release the main game as a full product on retail disc. [Spencer](Phil)(Phil Spencer (business executive)), head of [Game Studios](Xbox)(Xbox Game Studios), said in 2020 that at the time, Microsoft was concerned about if the episode format would work and its revenue potentials, projecting there would be declining sales with each successive episode, and instead believed a single release was likely more profitable. Spencer said that since then, they recognised this was likely a bad decision as it forced them into a certain way of thinking with respect to monetisation.
### Product placement
A number of real-life brands and products appear in *Alan Wake*. The developers said that they tried to "be very conservative and attentive towards gamers" with their use of [placement](product)(product placement), and that they aimed "to make the world feel more real rather than put ads in-your-face."
Examples of such marketing include collectable [Energizer](Energizer) batteries and [batteries](lithium)(lithium batteries) to insert into the player's hand-held lights. The phone service provider [Wireless](Verizon)(Verizon Wireless) is another prominent brand in *Alan Wake*: besides Verizon branded mobile phones appearing on screen, there is a 30-second Verizon commercial viewable on one of the game's interactive TVs, as well as an allusion to the company's famous advertising line "Can you hear me now?" during a phone conversation in "The Signal" [DLC](downloadable content). Additionally, [billboards](Billboard (advertising)) around Bright Falls advertise both Energizer and Verizon. [Ford](Ford Motor Company) and [Lincoln](Lincoln (automobile)) automobiles are also featured in the game.
Several [Microsoft](Microsoft) related brands also appear in the game. Alan and Alice Wake's car shows that it has the Microsoft-powered [Sync](Ford)(Ford Sync) [entertainment](in-vehicle)(In car entertainment) system. An [360](Xbox)(Xbox 360) console can be seen in one section of the game, with the box of the fictional *Night Springs* video game next to it, which are collectibles in "The Writer" DLC episode. In multiple sections of the game, [Tag](Microsoft)(Microsoft Tag) bar codes can be seen; these can be scanned in real life by the user with the appropriate software on their mobile device. When scanned, these tags redirect players to a phone number with the voicemail from one of the game's characters, or to a Verizon-sponsored web site where users gain access to exclusive *Alan Wake* extras for their console. This functionality is only available in the United States.
The product placement has been removed in the remastered version.
### Soundtrack
The game's score is composed by Petri Alanko. The soundtrack features the song "War" by [of the Fall](Poets)(Poets of the Fall), from the band's fourth studio album, *[Theater](Twilight)(Twilight Theater)*. Sam Lake said that the song "...is a prominent part of the *Alan Wake* soundtrack and the theme also links strongly to the game's storyline." Poets of the Fall also perform two original songs, "Children of the Elder God" and "The Poet and the Muse", under the name Old Gods of Asgard. The band wrote the ending theme to Remedy's previous game, *[Payne 2: The Fall of Max Payne](Max)(Max Payne 2: The Fall of Max Payne)*, called "Late Goodbye", which is based on a poem written by Lake. "War", however, was not written specifically for *Alan Wake*. On 20 July 2010, an official soundtrack consisting of 18 tracks was released.
In addition to the original soundtrack and these songs, *Alan Wake* includes several licensed songs used typically at the closing of each episode or elsewhere. "[Haunted](Haunted (Poe album))" by [Poe](Poe (singer)) plays at the end of the second episode. "[Oddity](Space)(Space Oddity)" by [Bowie](David)(David Bowie) plays over the end credits. [Belle](Anomie)(Anomie Belle)'s "How Can I Be Sure" is featured in the third episode. "[Coconut](Coconut (song))" by [Nilsson](Harry)(Harry Nilsson) is played several times during the game.
Due to expiration of these music licenses, all digital and retail versions of *Alan Wake* were pulled from purchase from the various storefronts in May 2017; Remedy offered a large discount for the title in the days prior to removal. The removal did not affect those who already own the game, nor did it impact the availability of ''Alan Wake's American Nightmare*, though that title will likely be affected similarly when its own licensing deals expire. With the help of Microsoft, Remedy was able to resecure these licensing rights by October 2018 and the game was relisted on digital storefronts.
## Marketing and release
*Alan Wake'' was first released [exclusively](Platform exclusivity) for the [360](Xbox)(Xbox 360) [game console](video)(video game console). The game was scheduled to be released on 18 May 2010 in North America, and on 21 May in Europe. When the game [gold](went)(Goes gold) on 7 April 2010, the European release date was moved up a week. Therefore, the game was released in Europe first, on 14 May 2010, and then in North America on 18 May, as originally scheduled. On 23 November 2010, *Alan Wake* was released on the [on Demand](Games)(Games on Demand) service of [Live](Xbox)(Xbox Live). On 16 February 2012, a version of the game for Microsoft Windows was released.
*Alan Wake* was also released in a limited collector's edition, packaged in a case resembling a [book](hardcover)(hardcover book). The collector's edition contains the game, a book titled *The Alan Wake Files*, and an exclusive soundtrack CD. It also features a developer [commentary](Audio commentary), and lends access to virtual items for Xbox 360, such as themes and [Avatar](Avatar (Xbox 360)) clothes.
### Microsoft Windows version
Despite the cancellation of the PC version at the same time as the Xbox 360 release as a result of Microsoft's decision, Remedy's Oskari Häkkinen stated that "PC gaming is part of Remedy's heritage" and that the developers still wanted to release a PC version of the game. Remedy continued pressing Microsoft to allow the creation of a PC version, eventually gaining it in mid-2011; Häkkinen attributed Microsoft's agreement partially to their repeated requests, but as well as Remedy's good standing with Microsoft, and the time factor, having the PC version be available ahead of *American Nightmare*. Development of the PC version began in earnest, with a small team from Remedy working with Finnish independent developer Nitro Games. Instead of starting from the scrapped PC version, the team worked from the Xbox 360 code and added in new features to take advantage of more powerful elements on modern PC machines. Core to the PC version was to make sure that the game played well using typical keyboard and mouse controls in addition to a controller, and to assure the graphics exceeded the limitations of the Xbox 360; Matias Myllyrinne, Remedy's CEO, stated that these elements were important, as "If this is not tuned to perfection, all the visuals are lost and the emotional touchstones are missed". The PC version was completed in about five months, and the game formally announced to the public in December 2011.
The game, which includes the main game and both DLC chapters, was released on the Steam platform on 16 February 2012. Within 48 hours, Remedy announced that revenue from sale of this version surpassed their development and marketing costs for the game. A retail PC version, distributed by [Games](Nordic)(JoWooD), was released on 2 March 2012, in both a regular edition and a collector's edition, containing a soundtrack disc, *The Alan Wake Files*, and other special content. The PC retail release for the United States was released on 24 April 2012, being distributed by [Interactive](Legacy)(Legacy Interactive).
In December 2013, Remedy and Xbox released a special collector's edition of the hit horror game, loaded with new content on the disc, including a 44-page digital comic book with art by [Kissell](Gerry)(Gerry Kissell) and Amin Amat, and written by Remedy Entertainment's Mikko Rautalahti, who also wrote the script for the video game.
### *Bright Falls* web series
A promotional live-action [tie-in](tie-in) [series](web)(web series)/[miniseries](miniseries) titled *Bright Falls* was made available a few weeks before the game's release on the web and the [Live](Xbox)(Xbox Live) service. The six episodes of *Bright Falls* were co-written and directed by Phillip Van, and they serve as a prequel to the game, set in the eponymous town before Alan Wake arrives there. The main character in the series is Jake Fischer (played by Christopher Forsyth), a newspaper reporter who visits the town on business.
A number of characters are shared between *Bright Falls* and *Alan Wake*, including diner waitress Rose, Dr. Emil Hartman, radio host Pat Maine and Alan Wake himself, who appears briefly in the final episode. The actors who play these characters also serve as voice actors and physical models for the characters in the game. The episodes were filmed in rural areas of Oregon and Washington, trying to match settings with the in-game locations as best as possible, according to Van.
The web series begins as Jake Fischer arrives in Bright Falls to interview Dr. Hartman on his new book, an assignment from his publication agency. After a series of encounters with local townspeople, Jake soon finds himself the victim of long periods of lost time and black outs. He finds himself waking up in the middle of a forest and other locations where he had not been previously. He also develops an aversion towards lights and daytime. The longer he stays in Bright Falls, the more violent his behaviour becomes. When he realises this, he tries to duct-tape himself to a refrigerator and recording videotape himself in his sleep to see what might be causing the behaviour. It is implied that he is being completely taken over by the Dark Presence, to the point of murdering several people. He then vanishes, just before the arrival of Alan and Alice Wake.
### Downloadable content
During 2010, two "special feature" [episodes](#Episodic format) of *Alan Wake* were developed and released as [content](downloadable)(downloadable content) (DLC) on the [Live](Xbox)(Xbox Live) service, which serve to bridge the gap between the game's ending, and a possible sequel.
The first of the two, titled "The Signal", was released on 27 July 2010. David Houghton of [GamesRadar+](GamesRadar+) said it was one of the best segments of the game, but worried that it made the main game feel comparatively less impressive.
The second episode, "The Writer", was released on 12 October 2010. Erik Brudvig of [IGN](IGN) called it a must-buy for anyone that already purchased "The Signal", and said it satisfyingly closed out the game's story. He did feel that both DLCs were pricey for the amount of content they provided.
### Books
The limited collector's edition of the game includes a 144-page book called *The Alan Wake Files*, which expands on the storyline of the game. A [novelisation](novelisation) of *Alan Wake* was written by Rick Burroughs. An art/making of book, entitled *Alan Wake: Illuminated* is also available.
## Reception
### Critical response
PC: 83/100
| 1UP= B+
| CVG= 9.0/10
| EuroG= 7/10
| GI= 8.5/10
| GamePro= 4/5
| GSpot= 8.5/10
| GT= 8.6/10
| IGN= 9/10
| OXM= 9/10
| rev1= [Kill](Spawn)(Spawn Kill)
| rev1Score= 8.5/10
| rev2= *[Wired](Wired (magazine))*
| rev2Score= 6/10
| award1Pub= [IGN](Imagine Games Network)
| award1= Editors' Choice Award
| award2Pub= *[Time](Time (magazine))*
| award2= No. 1 video game of 2010
}}
*Alan Wake* received "generally favorable" reviews on both platforms according to [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) [Metacritic](Metacritic).
Michael Plant from *[Independent](The)(The Independent)* gave the game a score of 5/5. He praised *Alan Wake* for its "flawless pacing", which "ensures a compulsive experience". The editing and plot were also received very positively, making the game "the kind of experience the current console generation was made for."
*[Daily Telegraph](The)(The Daily Telegraph)* rated the game 9/10 with editor Nick Cowen being impressed by its "stunning" look, stating the town of Bright Falls and its surrounding environment to be "authentic" in terms of architecture, vegetation, weather and lighting. He described the atmosphere as being able to "...turn on a dime from feeling safe and serene to one of choking menace and foreboding...". Combat mechanics and plot were also praised with the first making "the player feel constantly under threat." and the latter being described as one of the game's "strongest assets". Criticism included the quality of the facial animation and the relatively short length of the game.
Dirk Lammers said the game kept "players on the edge of their seats", giving a final score of 4 out of 4 in his review for the [Press](Associated)(Associated Press). Matt Greenop from *[New Zealand Herald](The)(The New Zealand Herald)* rated the game 5/5 and praised the game's "excellent pace" due to its episodic format. He also praised the "chilling" storyline, "brilliant environments" and concluded the game to be "one of the most innovative and entertaining titles so far this year." William Vitka from the *[York Post](New)(New York Post)* graded it B+, praising the game for its "scary atmosphere", music, graphics and "surprising level of complexity" in combat, but commented negatively on the game's animation and storyline.
[Crecente](Brian)(Brian Crecente), editor-in-chief of [Kotaku](Kotaku), praised the general use of light as a gameplay-mechanic. He commented on the episodic structure, saying it made the player feel satisfied even after short gameplay sessions. He also praised the overall storyline, having played the final episode thrice in a row, saying: "For the first time in my life, I have experienced something that plays like a game but has the impact of a movie... Alan Wake is a powerful ride, an experience bound to leave you thinking about it and wanting more for days after its completion." He criticised the game for not providing enough information about Wake and his wife, despite being "packed with memorable people", but concluded that the game "redefines interactive storytelling".
Tom McShea criticised the game for lacking "surprising, memorable gameplay moments" in his review for [GameSpot](GameSpot), but hailed it for its "fresh" story-telling, great original as well as licensed music, "subtle" lighting effects, which, along with the soundtrack, "create a disturbing atmosphere", "satisfying" combat system and "clever" inclusion of collectibles, giving a final score of 8.5/10.
[IGN](IGN)'s Charles Onyett scored the game 9/10, providing it with the "Editors' Choice Award". He described it as "hard to put down once you have started", and appreciated the game for its episodic structure, "interesting" story-telling mechanic, lighting effects, soundtrack and combat system, which he described as "fast and responsive", but criticised the writing as "uneven". The game received high marks for its "strong atmosphere", "fun gameplay" and "great visuals", but lost some due to its "weak ending".
Tom Orry from VideoGamer.com also awarded a score of 9/10, praising the game for its "clever narrative", "incredible atmosphere" and soundtrack which he described as "one of the best and most memorable I've ever heard in a video game". [GameTrailers](GameTrailers) gave the game an 8.6/10. The review praised the game's presentation for "selling you completely on its twisted nightmare", and providing a "genuine sense of dread". [Eurogamer](Eurogamer)'s Ellie Gibson awarded a score of 7/10, stating that although she did not consider the game to be very original, she found it accessible and undemanding, with a "neat combat mechanic".
Chris Kohler from *[Wired](Wired magazine)* was more critical and gave it 6/10, saying "when presented with an infinite number of possible resolutions, any answer is going to feel arbitrary. Alan Wake starts strong but finishes weak. Neither the gameplay nor the story deliver on their potential by the time the credits roll". Kohler, however, praised main character, certain gameplay decisions and "unique story".
### Awards
|}
*Alan Wake* has received a number of nominations and awards for its achievements in [gaming in 2010](video)(2010 in video games). Editors of *[Time](Time (magazine))* magazine rendered *Alan Wake* the best video game of 2010. In its Best Xbox 360 Games of 2010 list, *[IGN](IGN)* awarded *Alan Wake* "Best Horror Game", and also nominated it for "Best Story," "Coolest Atmosphere," "Most Innovative Gameplay," and "Best Character" (for the character of Alan Wake). The game was nominated in the "Best Xbox 360 Game" category at the 2010 [Video Game Awards](Spike)(Spike Video Game Awards), and received three nominations at the 2nd Annual Inside Gaming Awards in the categories "Best Narrative," "Best Sound Design" and "Most Compelling Character" (for Alan Wake). [GameSpot](GameSpot)'s Best Games of 2010 Awards featured seven nominations for the game, including "Best Story" and "Best Writing/Dialogue," and won the reader's choice award for "Best Original [IP](Intellectual property)." IGN ranked it No. 61 in their "Top Modern Games" ranking.
The game's soundtrack has won Best Score – European at the 2010 Annual Game Music Awards, with the panel stating "Breaking composer Petri Alanko's expansive score for the critically acclaimed Alan Wake captured the hearts of gamers and stand-alone listeners alike with its intimate orchestrations and psychological explorations."
### Sales
*Alan Wake* was released the same week as *[Dead Redemption](Red)(Red Dead Redemption)*, and thus initial sales were slow; [Group](NPD)(NPD Group) stated sales for the first two weeks reached 145,000 units while *Red Dead Redemption* had reached 1.5 million during the same period. However, in the months that followed, it gained more sales traction through word-of-mouth.
IndustryGamers reported in December 2011 that sales of *Alan Wake*, currently reported at 330,000 by NPD Group, were omitting about 900,000 units digitally redeemed during the Xbox's 2011 Holiday Bundle, in addition to an additional 170,000 global units, bringing the total sales to around 1.4 million.
On 13 March 2012, Remedy Entertainment announced that the game has passed 2 million copies sold, including Xbox 360 and PC. On 23 May 2013, Remedy creative director Sam Lake announced that the game and its [follow-up](stand-alone)(Alan Wake's American Nightmare) had sold 3 million copies. On 25 March 2015, Remedy's CEO Matias Myllyrinne [tweeted](tweeted) that the franchise had sold over 4.5 million units. The following month a [Polygon](Polygon (website)) story on the game's prototype for a sequel mentioned that *Alan Wake* had sold more than 3.2 million copies.
According to a report, *Alan Wake* was the second-most-[copied](illegally)(Copyright infringement) Xbox 360 game of 2010, with more than 1.1 million downloads. It includes an amusing feature where if "pirated", the character wears an eye patch during the game.
## Related works
### Spin-off and sequel
At *Alan Wake*s release, Remedy had intended for a sequel; developer Oskari Häkkinen stated that Remedy saw the game as "Season 1" and its [DLC](Downloadable content) was to "bridge the gap to what we're working towards." Häkkinen stated they were not directly working on a sequel at that time, as Microsoft had focused them to complete the DLC. Writer Mikko Rautalahti adds the story is "bigger than one game" and the sequel would be "weird and wonderful".
In May 2011, leaked information led to Remedy confirming they were working on a new *Alan Wake* project, but affirmed it was not a full sequel. This was ultimately revealed to be ''[Wake's American Nightmare](Alan)(Alan Wake's American Nightmare)'', a short standalone game released in 2012 that follows Alan's adventures after the first game that they wanted to release on the [Live Arcade](Xbox)(Xbox Live Arcade) platform. The Remedy team had looked at a project borrowing from zombie and monster films like *[Dusk till Dawn](From)(From Dusk till Dawn)*, and wanted to create more of a sandbox mode for players to fight off waves of enemies (which became the game's Arcade mode, "Fight Till Dawn"); they then worked these elements into Alan's story, keeping the theme of *The Twilight Zone* to progress the story.
*Alan Wake II* was announced at [Game Awards 2021](The)(The Game Awards 2021), for planned release in 2023 on Windows, PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S. The game will be more of a [horror](survival)(survival horror) game than action as the original *Alan Wake*. It will be published by [Games Publishing](Epic)(Epic Games Publishing).
### Subsequent Remedy games
Following *Alan Wake: American Nightmare*, Remedy released *[Break](Quantum)(Quantum Break)* in 2016, and then *[Control](Control (video game))* in 2019. *Control* is based on a fictional Federal Bureau of Control (FBC) set in the Oldest House in New York City that seeks out paranormal activity and secures objects that may be behind "Altered World Events" (AWEs). *Control* describes the events in Bright Falls as an AWE for the Bureau; elements of *Alan Wake*, such as Alan himself, the typewriter and cabin, and the Clicker, are mentioned in memos within *Control*.
*Control*s second paid DLC, titled "AWE", was released in August 2020, featured "what the [Bureau of Control](Federal) has been investigating regarding Alan Wake". The expansion reveals that after Alan had disappeared into Cauldron Lake, Dr. Hartman continued to study the Dark Presence until the arrival of the Bureau, who took all his research. Infuriated, Dr. Hartman dove into the lake himself where the Dark Presence, with Alan's persona still within it, took over his body. The Bureau captured Hartman and brought him back to the Oldest House in New York City. During events of *Control*, Hartman escaped, and the fusion of the Hiss and Dark Presence became a monstrous being that Jesse is forced to subdue, with advice given to her by Alan through mysterious visions. After finishing off Hartman, Jesse is warned of a new AWE in Bright Falls, but oddly from a future date.
Remedy stated that its next game following *Control* will be part of a "Remedy connected universe" shared by *Alan Wake* and *Control*.
### *Alan Wake Remastered*
Remedy announced a [remaster](remaster) of *Alan Wake* in September 2021. The remaster was co-developed by Remedy and [D3T](D3T), and distributed through [Games](Epic)(Epic Games) Publishing. *Alan Wake Remastered* was released on October 5, 2021, for Windows, [One](Xbox)(Xbox One) and [Series X/S](Xbox)(Xbox Series X/S), and for the first time on the PlayStation platform via [4](PlayStation)(PlayStation 4) and [5](PlayStation)(PlayStation 5). It was released for [Switch](Nintendo)(Nintendo Switch) on 20 October 2022.
Remedy felt a remaster was the better route than a [remake](remake), maintaining the core gameplay and narrative elements of the game but improving the visuals for newer game systems with support for [resolution](4K)(4K resolution)s so that the title would appeal to both those that played the original and new players. Remedy recognised that changing any part of the gameplay would have cascading effects across the game and would lead to major redesign issues, and did not opt to go that route. Several visual assets were remade for high-definition visuals, including reworking some of the non-3D elements such as water movement into 3D motion. Cutscenes were also remade incorporating original and new assets including new motion capture, though due to this combination, limited their presentation to 30 frames per second. They opted to keep the game in the original engine rather than upgrade it to their Northlight Engine as that would have taken resources away from the remastering aspect, and decided against support for [tracing](ray)(Ray tracing (graphics)) and [rendering](high-dynamic-range)(high-dynamic-range rendering) given the range of systems they needed to support.
The remastered version removed the product placement that had been in the original game, but retained all of the same licensed music. In addition to these improvements, the remastered edition includes both pieces of DLC and a new commentary track by Sam Lake. The remastered version was found to contain at least one new [egg](Easter)(Easter egg (media)) to *Control*, via way of a letter from Bright Falls' sheriff to the FBC about paranormal events happening in town which, through in-game dates, correlate with the FBC's investigation of the Bright Falls AWE as revealed in *Control*s DLC.
Remedy said they had no plans on remastering ''Alan Wake's American Nightmare*, believing that *Alan Wake* and the two DLC episodes formed a "sensible" package.
### Television series
In September 2018, Remedy Entertainment and [Films](Contradiction)(Contradiction Films) announced plans to develop a live-action *Alan Wake'' series, with Peter Calloway as the showrunner and Remedy's Sam Lake as executive producer. Contradiction Film's Tomas Harlan had seen *Alan Wake*s potential as a television series, in part that the game was constructed in episodic chapters and presented in a linear fashion, and had spoken to Lake about it several times, and in 2018 began to start on a firm planning process, which including bringing Calloway on board during the [2018](E3)(E3 2018). The show plans to use concepts from the scrapped *Alan Wake 2*, as well as building upon what the first game and *American Nightmare* provided; Harlan does not expect the series to be in lock-step with the game and while Alan Wake would be the central character of the series, they would spend more time developing his companions from the game. The group planned to shop the series around to networks in October. Lake affirmed the television series was still being developed during a December 2020 investors' meeting.
In May 2022, Remedy announced that [AMC](AMC (TV channel)) acquired the rights to develop a series.
## Notes
## References
## External links
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*
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|
The Temptations
|
the_temptations
|
# The Temptations
*Revision ID: 1159545945 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T01:18:29Z*
---
| years_active = 1960–present
| label =
| associated_acts =
| website =
| current_members = [Williams](Otis)(Otis Williams) Ron Tyson [Weeks](Terry)(Terry Weeks)Tony GrantJawan M. Jackson
| past_members = [Franklin](Melvin)(Melvin Franklin) [Kendricks](Eddie)(Eddie Kendricks) [Williams](Paul)(Paul Williams (The Temptations singer)) Elbridge "Al" Bryant [Ruffin](David)(David Ruffin) [Edwards](Dennis)(Dennis Edwards) Ricky Owens Richard Street [Harris](Damon)(Damon Harris) [Leonard](Glenn)(Glenn Leonard) [Price](Louis)(Louis Price) [Woodson](Ali-Ollie)(Ali-Ollie Woodson) [Peoples](Theo)(Theo Peoples) [Davis](Ray)(Ray Davis (musician)) [McGilberry](Harry)(Harry McGilberry) ["Bo" Henderson](Barrington)(Barrington "Bo" Henderson) [C. Cameron](G.)(G. C. Cameron) [Herndon](Joe)(Joe Herndon) [Williamson](Bruce)(Bruce Williamson (singer)) Larry Braggs Willie Greene Mario Corbino
}}
**The Temptations** are an American vocal group from [Detroit](Detroit), Michigan, who released a series of successful singles and albums with [Records](Motown)(Motown Records) during the 1960s to early 1970s. The group's work with producer [Whitfield](Norman)(Norman Whitfield), beginning with the Top 10 hit [single](45 rpm single) "[Nine](Cloud)(Cloud Nine (The Temptations song))" in October 1968, pioneered [soul](psychedelic)(psychedelic soul), and was significant in the evolution of [R&B](Rhythm and blues) and [music](soul)(soul music).Graff, Gary (August 29, 1988). "The Temptations: Otis tells the group's tale", *Detroit Free Press*. Online version available from [Archive](Internet)(Internet Archive) at [https://web.archive.org/web/20050406060553/http://www.freep.com/motownat40/archives/082888mo.htm] The band members are known for their choreography, distinct harmonies, and dress style. Having sold tens of millions of albums, the Temptations are among the most successful groups in [music](popular)(popular music).(2005). "[The Temptations](http://www.memorabletv.com/memorablemusic/temptations.htm) ". *Memorabletv.com*. Retrieved November 5, 2005.(2003). "[The Temptations](http://classic.motown.com/artist.aspx?ob=ros&src=lb&aid=52) ". *ClassicMotown.com*. Retrieved November 5, 2005.(2005) Ankeny, Jason. "[The Temptations]()". *[AllMusic](AllMusic)*. Retrieved November 5, 2005.
Featuring five male vocalists and dancers (save for brief periods with fewer or more members), the group formed in 1960 in [Detroit](Detroit) under the name *the Elgins*. The founding members came from two rival Detroit vocal groups: [Williams](Otis)(Otis Williams), Elbridge "Al" Bryant, and [Franklin](Melvin)(Melvin Franklin) of Otis Williams & the Distants, and [Kendricks](Eddie)(Eddie Kendricks) and [Williams](Paul)(Paul Williams (The Temptations)) of the Primes. In 1964, Bryant was replaced by [Ruffin](David)(David Ruffin), who was the lead vocalist on a number of the group's biggest hits, including "[Girl](My)(My Girl (The Temptations song))" (1964), "[Too Proud to Beg](Ain't)(Ain't Too Proud to Beg)" (1966), and "[Wish It Would Rain](I)(I Wish It Would Rain)" (1967).Ribowsky, Mark (2010). Ain't Too Proud to Beg: The Troubled Lives and Enduring Soul of the Temptations, Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 85–95, . Ruffin was replaced in 1968 by [Edwards](Dennis)(Dennis Edwards), with whom the group continued to record hit records such as "Cloud Nine" (1968), "[Can't Get Next to You](I)(I Can't Get Next to You)" (1969), and "[of Confusion (That's What the World Is Today)](Ball)(Ball of Confusion (That's What the World Is Today))" (1970). The group's lineup has changed frequently since the departures of Kendricks and Paul Williams from the act in 1971. Later members of the group have included singers such as Richard Street, [Harris](Damon)(Damon Harris), Ron Tyson, and [Woodson](Ali-Ollie)(Ali-Ollie Woodson), with whom the group scored a late-period hit in 1984 with "[Her Like a Lady](Treat)(Treat Her Like a Lady (The Temptations song))" and in 1987 with the theme song for the children's movement program *Kids in Motion.*
Over the course of their career, the Temptations released four [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100) number-one singles and fourteen [number-one singles](R&B)(Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs). Their music has earned three [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award)s. The Temptations were the first Motown recording act to win a Grammy Award – for "Cloud Nine" in 1969Ribowsky (2010), p. 197. – and in 2013 received the [Lifetime Achievement Award](Grammy)(Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award). Six of the Temptations (Edwards, Franklin, Kendricks, Ruffin, Otis Williams and Paul Williams) were [inducted](List of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees) into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame) in 1989. Three classic Temptations songs, "My Girl", "[My Imagination (Running Away with Me)](Just)(Just My Imagination (Running Away with Me))", and "[Was a Rollin' Stone](Papa)(Papa Was a Rollin' Stone)", are among [Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll](The)(The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll). The Temptations were ranked at number 68 on *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* magazine's list of the 100 Greatest Artists of all time. They were the first Motown artist to get a Grammy Award and to get a Lifetime Achievement Award (which they gained in 2014).
, the Temptations continue to perform with founder [Williams](Otis)(Otis Williams) in the lineup (Williams owns the rights to the Temptations name).
## History
### Origins
Eddie Kendricks and Paul Williams started singing together in church as children. By their teenage years, they formed a doo-wop quartet in 1955 with [Osborne](Kell)(Kell Osborne) and Wiley Waller, naming themselves the Cavaliers.
After Waller left the group in 1957, the remaining trio left Birmingham to break into the music business. The group settled in Detroit where they changed their name to the Primes under the direction of Milton Jenkins. The Primes soon became well known around the Detroit area for their meticulous performances.Williams and Romanowski (1988), pp. 26–30. Jenkins later created a sister group, the Primettes, later known as [Supremes](the)(the Supremes). Kendricks was already seen as a "matinee idol" in the Detroit area, while Williams was well received for his baritone vocals.
Meanwhile, concurrently, [Texas](Texarkana, Texas) teenager Otis Williams moved to Detroit as a youngster to be with his mother. By 1958, Williams was the leader of a vocal group named Otis Williams and the Siberians. The group included Elbridge "Al" Bryant, James "Pee-Wee" Crawford, Vernard Plain and Arthur Walton. The group recorded a song, "Pecos Kid" for a label run by radio deejay Senator Bristol Bryant.Ribowsky (2010), p. 232. Shortly after its release, the group changed its name to The El Domingoes. Subsequently, [Montgomery](Montgomery, Alabama) native Melvin Franklin replaced Arthur Walton as bass vocalist and Detroit-born Richard Street (claimed by Melvin Franklin to be his cousin)Ribowsky (2010), pp. 93–94. replaced Vernard Plain as lead singer. Signing with [Mae Matthews](Johnnie)(Johnnie Mae Matthews)' Northern Records, the group had their name changed again to the Distants.
The group recorded two Northern singles including "Come On" (1959) and "Alright" (1960).Williams and Romanowski (1988), pp. 32–38. Between these releases, Albert "Mooch" Harrell replaced Pee-Wee Crawford. "Come On" became a local hit, and the Warwick Records label picked the record up for national distribution. Following the release of "Alright", Matthews appointed Williams the group leader, and the group's name was changed to Otis Williams & The Distants.Williams and Romanowski (1988), pp. 40. During this period, both the Primes and Distants were influenced by other vocal groups including [Miracles](the)(the Miracles).Williams and Romanowski (1988), pp. 30, 40–41. Other inspirations included the [Cadillacs](The Cadillacs), [Lymon & the Teenagers](Frankie)(The Teenagers), [Drifters](the)(the Drifters), and [Isley Brothers](the)(the Isley Brothers).Williams and Romanowski (1988), pp. 9, 32. Though "Come On" was a local hit in the Detroit area, the Distants never saw much record sales, and "Alright" was not as successful. After receiving an offer from [Gordy](Berry)(Berry Gordy) to sign with [Records](Motown)(Motown Records), the Distants got out of their contract with Northern Records. However, Mooch Harrell and Richard Street shortly departed from the group and the remaining members lost use of the Distants name. Richard Street later formed another Distants group who recorded for the Thelma label in the early 1960s.
### Early years
[[Temptations (early 1960s original lineup).jpg|thumb|A promotional image of the original early 1960s Temptations lineup. Clockwise from top right: Otis Williams, Paul Williams, Melvin Franklin, Eddie Kendricks, and Elbridge "Al" Bryant.](File:The)]
Members of the Distants were acquainted with the Primes, as both groups participated in the same talent shows and performed at the same public venues. Friendly rivals, the Primes were considered to be the more polished and vocally stronger group of the two. However, the Primes disbanded in 1960 after Kell Osborne moved to California. Eddie Kendricks and Paul Williams returned to Alabama following the band's dissolution. While visiting relatives in Detroit, Kendricks called Otis Williams, who desperately needed two more members for an audition for Gordy's label and offered Kendricks a lead singer place in his new group, which would also include fellow former Distants members Franklin and Bryant. Kendricks agreed on the condition he bring Paul Williams with him. Otis Williams happily agreed, and Kendricks and Paul Williams moved back to Detroit to join the new group.
The original name for the new lineup of Otis Williams, Melvin Franklin, Elbridge "Al" Bryant, Eddie Kendricks, and Paul Williams was the Elgins. Under that name, the group auditioned for Motown in March 1961. Already impressed with some of the members after hearing session work, Berry Gordy agreed to sign the group to the Motown imprint, Miracle. However, before signing, Gordy discovered another group was using the name of Elgins. The group began tossing about ideas for a new name on the steps of the [U.S.A.](Hitsville)(Hitsville U.S.A.) studio. On a suggestion from Miracle Records employee Billy Mitchell, songwriter [Stevenson](Mickey)(William "Mickey" Stevenson), and group members Otis Williams and Paul Williams, the Temptations became the group's new moniker. The "Elgins" name re-surfaced at Motown in 1965, when Gordy renamed a quartet called the Downbeats as [Elgins](the)(the Elgins).
The Temptations' first two singles, "[Mother of Mine](Oh)(Oh Mother of Mine)" and "[Yourself](Check)(Check Yourself)", with Paul Williams on lead, were released on Miracle before Gordy closed the label down and reassigned the band to his latest imprint, Gordy Records. On the Gordy imprint, Eddie Kendricks sang lead on the Temptations' first charted single, "[My) Dream Come True]((You're)((You're My) Dream Come True)", which peaked at number 22 on the R&B chart in 1962. Later that year, the Temptations began touring as part of the [Revue](Motortown)(Motortown Revue). The group issued eight recordings between 1961 and 1963 without much success.
Paul Williams and Eddie Kendricks split the leads during this early period, with Al Bryant, Otis Williams, and Melvin Franklin occasionally singing lead, as they did on a song titled "Isn't She Pretty". For a brief time, the group almost had their name changed to the Pirates, and recorded the songs "Mind Over Matter" and "I'll Love You Till I Die" under that name. Eventually the label and the group decided against it. One hit song, "[You Love Me](Do)(Do You Love Me)", was originally to be recorded by the Temptations. When he couldn't get a hold of the group, Gordy produced a version for [Contours](the)(the Contours). In 1963, the Temptations began working with [Robinson](Smokey)(Smokey Robinson) as producer and writer. Robinson's first work with the group was the Paul Williams-led "[Want a Love I Can See](I)(I Want a Love I Can See)". While the song failed to chart, it did eventually become a popular live performance spot for the group and particularly for Paul Williams in general. Some called the group "the Hitless Temptations" due to their lack of hits.
During this time, [Ruffin](David)(David Ruffin) began following the group around as he aspired to join them. During a local Detroit performance, Ruffin joined the group onstage and impressed the group with his vocal talent and dancing skills.Williams and Romanowski (1988), pp. 68–70. Following that same time, Al Bryant had grown frustrated with the group's lack of success and became restless and uncooperative, preferring the mundane routine of his day job as a milkman over the rigors of rehearsal and performing. After a second altercation onstage at a [Christmas](Christmas) performance, following an incident where he struck Paul with a beer bottle during a heated quarrel at an earlier gig in the middle of the year, Bryant was summarily fired from the group. As a result, [Ruffin](David)(David Ruffin) was brought in as his replacement in January 1964. Biography & History AllMusic|website=AllMusic|access-date=2017-09-25}} Though Ruffin's brother [Jimmy](Jimmy Ruffin) was also considered for the slot, David was selected following his performance with them in 1963.
Bryant continued to perform in a number of other local groups and died at the age of 36 in [County, Florida](Flagler)(Flagler County, Florida), of [cirrhosis](liver)(Cirrhosis) on October 26, 1975.
### "Classic Five" Era
The Temptations then consisted of Otis Williams, Melvin Franklin, Paul Williams, Eddie Kendricks, and David Ruffin; the success that followed the group resulted in what would, in later years, be frequently referred to as the "Classic Five" lineup. In [1964](January)(1964 in music), Smokey Robinson and Miracles bandmate [Rogers](Bobby)(Bobby Rogers) co-wrote and produced "[Way You Do the Things You Do](The)(The Way You Do the Things You Do)" with Eddie Kendricks on lead and the single became the Temptations' first Top 20 hit that April.
Shortly afterward, "The Way You Do The Things You Do" and several pre-David Ruffin singles were compiled into the group's first album, *[the Temptations](Meet)(Meet the Temptations)*, released in early 1964. The next two Temptations singles in 1964, "[(Why You Wanna Make Me Blue)](Girl)(Girl (Why You Wanna Make Me Blue))" along with "[Be in Trouble](I'll)(I'll Be in Trouble)" and its [B-side](B-side) "[Girl's Alright with Me](The)(The Girl's Alright with Me)", all featured Kendricks on lead (although Franklin sang one line in "I'll Be in Trouble"). However, producer Smokey Robinson saw potential in the "mellow yet gruff" voice of David Ruffin, and thought that if he could write the perfect song for his lead, then the group could have a Top 10 hit.Blair, Elizabeth (June 4, 2000). ["Weekend Edition: 'My Girl'"](https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1074993), NPR.org; retrieved May 17, 2009.
While traveling as part of Motown's [Revue](Motortown)(Motortown Revue) later that year, Robinson and fellow Miracles member [White](Ronnie)(Ronnie White) wrote "[Girl](My)(My Girl (The Temptations song))", which the Temptations recorded in the fall of 1964 with Ruffin singing his first lead vocal for the group. Released as a single on December 21, 1964, the song became the Temptations' first number-one pop hit in [1965](March)(1965 in music). Over 50 years and multiple chart topping songs later, it is still their signature song to this day.
After the success of "My Girl", Ruffin sang lead on the next three singles: "[Growing](It's)(It's Growing)", "[I Lost My Baby](Since)(Since I Lost My Baby)", and "[Baby](My)(My Baby (The Temptations song))", which all made it to the Top 20 in 1965. The [B-side](B-side) to "My Baby", "[Look Back](Don’t)(Don't Look Back (The Temptations song))", featured a stirring lead from Paul Williams, and was a [hit](sleeper)(sleeper hit) on the R&B charts and a standard for vocal group playlists.
Norman Whitfield had requested the opportunity to write for the group and in 1966, Berry Gordy promised him that if Robinson's "[Ready](Get)(Get Ready (The Temptations song))", with Eddie Kendricks on lead, failed to chart in the Top 20, Whitfield would be allowed to produce the next song. "Get Ready" subsequently missed its mark, and Gordy issued the Whitfield-produced "[Too Proud to Beg](Ain't)(Ain't Too Proud to Beg)", with David Ruffin on lead, as the next single. "Ain't Too Proud to Beg" outperformed "Get Ready" on the *Billboard* charts, and Whitfield became the Temptations' new main producer. He began pulling the group away from the [ballad](ballad)-based productions espoused by Robinson, toward a harder-edged and [brass](brass)-heavy soul sound reminiscent of [Brown](James)(James Brown (musician)).
Nearly all singles Whitfield produced prior to 1968 featured David Ruffin on lead, including the R&B number-one/pop Top 10 hits "[Is Only Skin Deep](Beauty)(Beauty Is Only Skin Deep)", "[Know) I'm Losing You]((I)((I Know) I'm Losing You)" and the early 1967 hit "[Made Me Realize) It's You That I Need]((Loneliness)((Loneliness Made Me Realize) It's You That I Need)". Other important singles from this period include "[I Need](All)(All I Need (The Temptations song))", produced by [Wilson](Frank)(Frank Wilson (musician)), a Whitfield protégé, and the "[My Everything](You're)(You're My Everything (The Temptations song))", on which Kendricks and Ruffin share lead. Studio albums during the "Classic Five" period apart from *Meet the Temptations* include *[Temptations Sing Smokey](The)(The Temptations Sing Smokey)* (1965), ''[Temptin' Temptations](The)(The Temptin' Temptations)* (1965), *[Ready](Gettin')(Gettin' Ready)* (1966), *[Temptations with a Lot o' Soul](The)(The Temptations with a Lot o' Soul)* (1967), and *[Temptations Wish It Would Rain](The)(The Temptations Wish It Would Rain)'' (1968).
During this period, the various songwriting partners of Norman Whitfield included [Penzabene](Roger)(Roger Penzabene), [Holland, Jr.](Edward)(Edward Holland, Jr.), and Temptations road show manager and guitarist [Grant](Cornelius)(Cornelius Grant). Subsequently, [Strong](Barrett)(Barrett Strong), who sang the very first hit at Motown in 1959, "[(That's What I Want)](Money)(Money (That's What I Want))", began working with Whitfield and Penzabene on Temptations material after Eddie Holland left Motown with the rest of the [Holland-Dozier-Holland](Holland-Dozier-Holland) songwriting/production team in 1967. Two of the Whitfield-Strong-Penzabene collaborations, "[Wish It Would Rain](I)(I Wish It Would Rain)" and "[Could Never Love Another (After Loving You)](I)(I Could Never Love Another (After Loving You))", became hits in early 1968 after the [suicide](suicide) of Roger Penzabene in December 1967. Subsequently, Barrett Strong became the sole collaborator of Norman Whitfield.
From early 1964 to mid 1968, the Temptations went from unknown hopefuls to international stars and as a result, appeared frequently on television shows such as *[Bandstand](American)(American Bandstand),* *[Ed Sullivan Show](The)(The Ed Sullivan Show),* and *[Hollywood Palace](The)(The Hollywood Palace).* At the same time, the group began to achieve a crossover success, catering to middle America with a pop standards album (*[Temptations in a Mellow Mood](The)(The Temptations in a Mellow Mood)*, 1967), the success of which resulted in performances at the famous [Copacabana](Copacabana (nightclub)) in [York City](New)(New York City) along with dates at other similar supper clubs. Outside of music, the Temptations were made honorary members of [Beta Sigma](Phi)(Phi Beta Sigma) fraternity.
### David Ruffin's departure and Dennis Edwards' arrival
By 1967, David Ruffin had begun demanding special treatment as lead singer, riding to and from gigs in a private [mink](mink)-lined [limousine](limousine) with his then-girlfriend, Motown singer [Terrell](Tammi)(Tammi Terrell), instead of the group limousine used by the other four Temptations. The other members slowly became irritated and annoyed with Ruffin's behavior. Following Motown's decision to rechristen [Supremes](the)(the Supremes) as *Diana Ross & the Supremes* and [& the Vandellas](Martha)(Martha & the Vandellas) as *Martha Reeves & the Vandellas,* Ruffin felt entitled to the same treatment and demanded that his group be renamed as well, to *David Ruffin & the Temptations*. Ruffin was also causing friction with Berry Gordy by demanding an accounting of the group's earnings; Motown partially acquiesced by allowing the Temptations to retain an outside accounting firm, but the firm did not have full access to the books from the Temptations' manager, International Talent Management, Inc. – a subsidiary of Motown.Ribowsky (2010), pp. 122–124, 174–177.
Some of this behavior was attributed to the fact that by this time Ruffin had begun using [cocaine](cocaine) regularly, building further tension within the group and causing him to miss a number of group meetings, rehearsals, and concerts. There was a consensus among the rest of the group that Ruffin needed to be replaced. When Ruffin missed a June 1968 engagement at a Cleveland supper club in order to attend a show by his new girlfriend, Barbara Gail Martin (daughter of Dean Martin),Ribowsky (2010), p. 171. the group decided that he had crossed the line. The other four Temptations drew up legal documentation, officially firing Ruffin on June 27, 1968.Ribowsky (2010), p. 181. The next day, [Edwards](Dennis)(Dennis Edwards), a singer formerly of the Contours that Eddie Kendricks and Otis Williams already had pegged as a potential Ruffin replacement, was hired to take Ruffin's place.
Edwards and Ruffin were good friends, and at first, Ruffin accepted his dismissal and encouraged Edwards. However, at Edwards' official debut with the Temptations in [Forge, Pennsylvania](Valley)(Valley Forge, Pennsylvania), on July 7, Ruffin came to the show and jumped onstage, taking the microphone from Edwards, singing lead on "Ain't Too Proud to Beg", and disappearing as quickly as he had appeared.Ribowsky (2010), pp. 184–187. Ruffin repeated this stunt several times throughout the group's July tour run. Despite the group hiring extra security to keep Ruffin out, he continued to find ways to sneak into the venue and jump onstage when the group performed one of the songs he had once sung lead on.
In a story recounted several times by Dennis Edwards, (rebutted by Otis Williams and Temptations road manager Don Foster), after several of these stunts, the positive audience reactions and a remorseful Ruffin's pleas to be let back into the act convinced the other Temptations to do so. Otis Williams informed the then still-new Edwards that the group would lay him off and rehire Ruffin while in [Maryland](Gaithersburg,)(Gaithersburg, Maryland). However, when Ruffin failed to show up on time the next night for his "return" engagement, the group kept Edwards on and ceased to entertain the prospect of rehiring Ruffin.Ribowsky (2010), pp. 187–88.
After Gaithersburg, Ruffin stopped attempting to disrupt the Temptations' concerts and instead turned his attention to the Motown offices back in Detroit. He sued Motown in October 1968, seeking a release from the label, but Motown countersued to keep the singer from leaving and the case was eventually settled out of court.Ribowsky (2010), pp. 199–200. The settlement required Ruffin to remain with Motown as a solo artist to finish out his contract.
Edwards' first album with the Temptations was *[at the Copa](Live)(Live at the Copa (Temptations album))*, recorded at the group's return to the Copacabana nightclub. The Temptations debuted the first of a number of collaborations with Diana Ross & the Supremes in 1968. The results included two studio albums: 1968's *[Ross & the Supremes Join The Temptations](Diana)(Diana Ross & the Supremes Join The Temptations)*, which featured Edwards's first studio recordings with the group and the number-two hit single "[Gonna Make You Love Me](I'm)(I'm Gonna Make You Love Me)" and "[Together](Together (The Supremes and The Temptations album))". There was also a joint tour and two [NBC](NBC) television specials, *[TCB](TCB (television special))* (aired December 9, 1968) and *[on Broadway](G.I.T.)(G.I.T. on Broadway)* (aired November 12, 1969).
### Psychedelic soul
[[File:The Temptations on the Ed Sullivan Show.JPG|thumb|right|The Temptations perform on *[Ed Sullivan Show](The)(The Ed Sullivan Show)* in September 1969. Left to right: [Williams](Otis)(Otis Williams), [Franklin](Melvin)(Melvin Franklin), [Kendricks](Eddie)(Eddie Kendricks), [Williams](Paul)(Paul Williams (The Temptations)), and [Edwards](Dennis)(Dennis Edwards).]]
The addition of Dennis Edwards to the Temptations coincided with the adoption of a new sound for the group by producer Norman Whitfield, and in the fall of 1968, Whitfield began producing [psychedelic](psychedelic music)-based material for the Temptations, derived primarily from the sound of [funk](funk) bands [& the Family Stone](Sly)(Sly & the Family Stone) and [Funkadelic](Funkadelic). This new style, which debuted with the Top 10 hit single "[Nine](Cloud)(Cloud Nine (The Temptations song))" in October 1968, was a marked departure from the David Ruffin-era ballads. The instrumentation was [funk](funk)ier, the beat was hard-driving, and all five Temptations traded lead vocals, similar to Sly & the Family Stone. "Cloud Nine", the centerpiece of the group's landmark *[Nine](Cloud)(Cloud Nine (The Temptations album))* LP, was a Top 10 hit and won Motown its first [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award), for [R&B Vocal Group Performance](Best)(Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals) [1969](of)(Grammy Awards of 1969).
The blending of the Motown sound and psychedelic rock sound resulted in a new subgenre of music called [soul](psychedelic)(psychedelic soul), also evident in the work of Diana Ross and the Supremes ("[Reflections](Reflections (The Supremes song))", "[Child](Love)(Love Child (song))"), Marvin Gaye's version of "[Heard It Through the Grapevine](I)(I Heard It Through the Grapevine)", and music of [5th Dimension](the)(the 5th Dimension), [Undisputed Truth](the)(the Undisputed Truth), and [Friends of Distinction](the)(the Friends of Distinction). More Temptations psychedelic soul singles followed in 1969 and 1970—among them "[Child, Running Wild](Runaway)(Runaway Child, Running Wild)" (a number-one R&B hit), "[Can't Get Next to You](I)(I Can't Get Next to You)" (a number-one pop hit), "[Shack](Psychedelic)(Psychedelic Shack (song))", and "[of Confusion (That's What the World Is Today)](Ball)(Ball of Confusion (That's What the World Is Today))", but the formula began to wear thin when "Ungena Za Ulimwengu (Unite the World)", only went to number 33 Pop in the fall of 1970. The group's other important albums from this period included *[People](Puzzle)(Puzzle People)* (1969) and *[Shack](Psychedelic)(Psychedelic Shack (album))* (1970). *Psychedelic Shack* includes the original version of "[War](War (Edwin Starr song))", later made famous by [Starr](Edwin)(Edwin Starr).
### Eddie Kendricks and Paul Williams
Paul Williams, who suffered from [disease](sickle-cell)(sickle-cell disease), fell into [depression](Clinical depression) because of the stress of touring and personal issues. By the late 1960s, he had developed a serious case of [alcoholism](alcoholism). Having never previously consumed anything stronger than milk, he began to drink quite heavily, and it was hard to take, according to Otis Williams.Ribowsky (2010), pp. 165, 212, 217–222.Pierce, Scott D., ["Tale of the Temptations"](http://www.deseretnews.com/article/660060/Tale-of-the-Temptations.html?pg=all), *Deseret News*, November 1, 1998. As his physical and mental health began to decline sharply, it made performing increasingly difficult. Williams began traveling with oxygen tanks, and the other four Temptations made valiant efforts to raid and drain his alcohol stashes.
In late 1969, Richard Street, lead singer of Motown act the [Monitors](The Monitors (American band)) and a former Distant, was hired by Otis Williams to tour with the group as a backup replacement for Williams. For most shows, save for his solo numbers, Williams danced and [lip-sync](lip-sync)ed on stage to parts sung live by Street into an offstage mic behind a curtain. At other shows, and during most of the second half of 1970, Street substituted for Williams on stage when he was too sick to go on.Interview with Richard Street, [Showcase Magazine](R&B)(R&B Showcase (magazine)) Retrieved from [http://www.rnbshowcasemag.com/temptations] on May 13, 2010.
Eddie Kendricks became detached from the group after David Ruffin's firing and as the health of Paul Williams continued to fail. He regularly picked fights with Otis Williams and Melvin Franklin, which often became violent, and in addition, he preferred the ballad material from the earlier days and was uncomfortable with the psychedelic soul material the group was now performing. Kendricks rekindled his friendship with Ruffin, who persuaded him to go solo. He no longer felt he had a say in Otis Williams's handling of the group and was also convinced Motown's handling of the Temptations' finances was cheating the group out of money.Ribowsky (2010), pp. 213–216, 219–221. Kendricks, being the only member to continue an alliance with Ruffin, also repeatedly suggested that Ruffin should be allowed back into the group, despite the other members' strong objections.
Kendricks lobbied strongly in 1970 to have the Temptations go on "strike" – no performances, no recordings – until Berry Gordy and the Motown staff were willing to go over all group finances with independent accountants. Otis Williams and Franklin strongly opposed this idea, and regular group infighting between Kendricks, Otis Williams, and Franklin grew from this disagreement. After a November 1970 Copacabana engagement, a final confrontation between the three caused Kendricks to walk out in-between shows and not return. Both Kendricks and Williams then agreed that Kendricks would be leaving the group. Kendricks later stated that he actually considered leaving as early as 1965, but remained with the Temptations and unsuccessfully attempted to get permission to record a solo album without leaving the group.
Before Kendricks officially left the Temptations, he and Paul Williams recorded the lead vocals for "[My Imagination (Running Away with Me)](Just)(Just My Imagination (Running Away with Me))", a ballad that became Kendricks' final single with the group. Included on the ''[the Limit](Sky's)(Sky's the Limit (The Temptations album))'' LP along with the original album version of "[Faces Sometimes](Smiling)(Smiling Faces Sometimes)", "Just My Imagination" was released as a single in [1971](January)(1971 in music), and the song began steadily climbing the US pop singles chart, peaking at number 1 two months later. By the time "Just My Imagination" topped the charts, Kendricks had negotiated his release from the group and signed a solo deal with Motown's Tamla label.
The Temptations originally hired [Owens](Ricky)(Ricky Owens), from the [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles)-based vocal group [Vibrations](the)(the Vibrations), to replace Kendricks. However, Owens only played two dates with the group before he was fired for forgetting the words to his solo numbers due to nervousness.Ribowsky (2010), p. 226. For several weeks of the spring of 1971, the Temptations were without a fifth member. Owens meanwhile returned to the Vibrations and died in [Angeles, California](Los)(Los Angeles, California), on December 6, 1996, at the age of 57.
Whitfield took the remaining Temptations quartet and re-recorded "It's Summer", the B-side to "[of Confusion (That's What the World Is Today)](Ball)(Ball of Confusion (That's What the World Is Today))", as a replacement single. "Smiling Faces Sometimes" was released as a single for [Undisputed Truth](the)(the Undisputed Truth) instead, becoming a Top 5 hit on the [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100) in 1971. Meanwhile, "It's Summer" peaked at number 51 on the *Billboard* Hot 100, making it the first Temptations single to miss the Top 40 since "[My Love](Farewell)(Farewell My Love)" eight years earlier.
After his doctor declared a few weeks later that he was unable to continue performing due to medical reasons, Paul Williams quit the Temptations in May.Ribowsky (2010), p. 227. Richard Street officially took Williams's place, although Williams continued to be paid his customary one-fifth of group revenue (Street was paid on salary for the first eighteen months of his tenure),Ribowsky (2010), p. 236. and worked when he could with the group as an adviser and choreographer. After Williams had recovered enough to record again, he recorded two sides in 1973 for a debut solo single. However, on August 17, 1973, Williams died in Detroit at the age of 34 from a gunshot wound, his death ruled a suicide by the [County](Wayne)(Wayne County, Michigan) coroner.
### Early 1970s/funk years
In May 1971, the Temptations finally found a permanent replacement for the first tenor position in twenty-year-old [Baltimore](Baltimore) native [Harris](Damon)(Damon Harris). Otis Williams, Edwards, Franklin, Street, and Harris continued recording and performing, and Norman Whitfield continued producing hits for them. There were Top 40 hits such as "[(Remember How You Got Where You Are)](Superstar)(Superstar (Remember How You Got Where You Are))" (1971), a message from the Temptations to David Ruffin and Eddie Kendricks, and "Take a Look Around" (1972). During this period, the group toured with [Elegance](Quiet)(Quiet Elegance) as their back-up singers. Quiet Elegance featured [Reeves](Lois)(Lois Reeves), the sister of [Reeves](Martha)(Martha Reeves), alongside Frankie Gearing and Millie Vaney-Scott.
Late 1972 saw the release of "[Was a Rollin' Stone](Papa)(Papa Was a Rollin' Stone)", a [opus](magnum)(Masterpiece) written by Norman Whitfield and Barrett Strong and produced by Whitfield. Originally a three-minute record written and produced for [Undisputed Truth](The)(The Undisputed Truth), Whitfield took the somber tune and created a sprawling, dramatic twelve-minute version for the Temptations—a forerunner of the extended single, soon to become popular in clubs and discothèques. An edited seven-minute version was released as a single and became one of the longest hit singles in music history: it hit number 1 on the pop charts and number 5 on the R&B charts. In 1973, "Papa Was a Rollin' Stone" won the Temptations their second Grammy for [R&B Performance by a Group](Best)(Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals). Whitfield and arranger/conductor Paul Riser won the award for [R&B Instrumental Performance](Best)(Grammy Award for Best R&B Instrumental Performance) for the instrumental version on the B-side, and Whitfield and Barrett Strong won the songwriting Grammy for [R&B Song](Best)(Grammy Award for Best R&B Song).
After "Papa Was a Rollin' Stone", Whitfield stopped working with Barrett Strong, and began writing the Temptations' material on his own. The success of "Papa" led Whitfield to create more elongated, operatic pieces, including the Top 10 hit "[Masterpiece](Masterpiece (Temptations song))" (1973) and several of the tracks on the resulting *[Masterpiece](Masterpiece (Temptations album))* album. Tensions developed between Whitfield and the group, who found Whitfield arrogant and difficult to work with. Citing his habitual tardiness, his emphasis of the instrumental tracks at the expense of their vocals on many of his productions, and the declining singles and albums sales as other sources of conflict, the group sought to change producers.Williams and Romanowski (2002), pp. 161–166. Otis Williams complained about Whitfield's actions and the Temptations' stagnant sales to Berry Gordy; as a result, the group was reassigned to [Bowen](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Bowen), co-producer of the 1967 *[a Mellow Mood](In)(In a Mellow Mood (Temptations album))* album.
The final Norman Whitfield-produced Temptations album, *[1990](1990 (Temptations album))*, was released in December 1973, and included the Top 30 single "[Your Hair Down](Let)(Let Your Hair Down (The Temptations song))". Shortly afterwards, Whitfield left Motown, and in 1975 established [Records](Whitfield)(Whitfield Records), taking the Undisputed Truth and [Hutch](Willie)(Willie Hutch) with him, along with [Royce](Rose)(Rose Royce)---who performed an instrumental track for "Let Your Hair Down" before recording their 1976 smash "[Wash](Car)(Car Wash (song))".
### Adult Contemporary
Bowen's first LP with the Temptations was [1975](January)(1975 in music)'s *[Song for You](A)(A Song for You (The Temptations album))*, which included a cover of the titular [Russell](Leon)(Leon Russell) tune (popularized with soul audiences by [Hathaway](Donny)(Donny Hathaway)), along with the pop Top 40/R&B number-one hits "[People](Happy)(Happy People (The Temptations song))" (featuring the [Commodores](The Commodores) as the instrumentalists) and "[Ground](Shakey)(Shakey Ground)" (featuring instrumentation by [Parliament-Funkadelic](Parliament-Funkadelic)'s [Hazel](Eddie)(Eddie Hazel) along with [Bass Nelson](Billy)(Billy Bass Nelson)). "[Glasshouse](Glasshouse (The Temptations song))", the group's final Top 40 Pop hit was also included. Damon Harris was fired from the group during the recording of *A Song for You*, as his behavior and work ethic were deemed unprofessional,Williams and Romanowski (2002), pp. 170–171. and his replacement was [D.C.](Washington,)(Washington, D.C.) native [Leonard](Glenn)(Glenn Leonard), formerly of the [Unifics](The Unifics).Williams and Romanowski (2002), p. 172.
A number of producers, including Bowen, [Holland](Brian)(Brian Holland), [Anthony Carmichael](James)(James Anthony Carmichael), and even the Temptations themselves tried producing hits for the next three LPs, *[Party](House)(House Party (The Temptations album))* (November 1975), *[of Love](Wings)(Wings of Love)* ([1976](March)(1976 in music)), and *[Temptations Do the Temptations](The)(The Temptations Do the Temptations)* (August 1976). None of these recordings were as commercially successful as *A Song for You* however, and none of their associated singles entered the Billboard charts.Williams and Romanowski (2002), pp. 249, 259.
As time progressed, Bowen pushed Dennis Edwards further to the front of the group. This was evident on *Wings of Love*, where several tracks featured Edwards' vocal more prominently than the other Temptations' backing vocals.Williams and Romanowski (2002), p. 177. Otis Williams felt that this was hurting the group, accused Motown of inattention, and cited this as the reason for the group's declining sales and popularity. After *The Temptations Do the Temptations* was recorded in 1976, Edwards was fired from the group,Williams and Romanowski (2002), p. 183. and with new lead [Price](Louis)(Louis Price) on board, they left Motown for [Records](Atlantic)(Atlantic Records).Williams and Romanowski (2002), pp. 178–82.
Success continued to elude the group at Atlantic, however. Their two releases on Atlantic – *[to Tempt You](Hear)(Hear to Tempt You)* (1977), and *[Back](Bare)(Bare Back)* (1978), along with their associated singles, had failed to perform any better at Atlantic than their last handful of singles had at Motown. As a result, in 1979, Atlantic released the group from its contract, and shortly afterwards, the Temptations met once again with Smokey Robinson and Berry Gordy, who re-signed the group to Motown in 1980.Williams and Romanowski (2002), pp. 193–197.
### Return to Motown and *Reunion*
Upon the return to Motown several lineup changes occurred. Louis Price departed from the group and joined the Drifters. Dennis Edwards—who had made an unsuccessful attempt at developing a solo career during his three-year exit from the group—returned to the lineup. Berry Gordy co-wrote and produced "Power", the Temptations' first single under the new contract. "Power", from the album of the same name, hit number 11 on the R&B charts but failed to chart in the Top 40. Two years of under-performing singles and albums followed, including an eponymous album with [Philadelphia](Philadelphia)-based producer [Bell](Thom)(Thom Bell), until Motown began planning a Temptations reunion tour in 1982.
Eddie Kendricks and David Ruffin agreed to rejoin the group for the new album, aptly titled *[Reunion](Reunion (The Temptations album))*, and its subsequent promotional tour. [James](Rick)(Rick James), the Motown [funk](funk music) star who had previously used the Temptations as backup vocalists on his 1981 hit "[Freak](Super)(Super Freak)" and whom Franklin claimed as his nephew, wrote, produced, and guested on the *Reunion* album's lead single, "[on the Top](Standing)(Standing on the Top)". The single went to number-six on the R&B charts and featured Ruffin, Kendricks and Edwards trading back and forth on lead.
While the ensuing *Reunion* tour with all seven Temptations (Ruffin, Kendricks, Otis Williams, Franklin, Edwards, Richard Street, and Glenn Leonard) was financially successful, it ended up being a stressful venture: Kendricks' voice had weakened after decades of [smoking](chain)(chain smoking), Ruffin (still addicted to drugs) missed a number of the performances due to being incapacitated, and current group members Dennis Edwards and Glenn Leonard were causing problems. At the conclusion of the *Reunion* tour, Ruffin and Kendricks were dismissed, and they began touring and performing together as a duo.
One more album, *[Thrills](Surface)(Surface Thrills)*, released in 1983, featured a sharp departure in the group's sound by incorporating elements of then-current rock. Following its release, Glenn Leonard was let go and replaced by Ron Tyson, who was with the Philadelphia groups the Ethics and Love Committee. Tyson had been a staff songwriter at Atlantic during the Temptations' tenure at that label, and co-wrote several songs on the album *Hear to Tempt You*.
### From the 1980s to the 1990s
By this time, the Temptations' releases were no longer performing well on the pop charts, though some singles still made the R&B Top 20. "Love on My Mind Tonight", a single from *Surface Thrills*, charted at number 17.
The lineup of Franklin, Williams, Street, Tyson, and Edwards proved to be short-lived. The five performed on *[25](Motown)(Motown 25)* and released the [to video](direct)(direct to video) *The Temptations: Live in Concert* (filmed at [Atlantic City](Harrah's)(Harrah's Atlantic City)). The album *Back to Basics*, released later in 1983, was the first album featuring Ron Tyson on lead. "Sail Away", produced by a returning Norman Whitfield and featuring Ron Tyson's first lead vocal, peaked at number 13 on the US R&B chart.
In addition, a then-relatively unknown singer/musician, [Woodson](Ali-Ollie)(Ali-Ollie Woodson) was featured on one track, "Stop the World Right Here (I Wanna Get Off)". Woodson was a Detroit native who had been a potential candidate to replace Dennis Edwards back in 1977. Meanwhile, Edwards (who also had his share of lead vocals on the *Back to Basics* album) was again fired in 1984, for missing rehearsals or showing up [hungover](hangover). He then attempted a second solo career, scoring a hit with the 1984 single "[Look Any Further](Don't)(Don't Look Any Further)", a duet with [Garrett](Siedah)(Siedah Garrett).
At this point, Woodson officially joined the group, taking Edwards' place. Woodson's first lead on a single was 1984's "[Her Like a Lady](Treat)(Treat Her Like a Lady (The Temptations song))", co-written by himself and Otis Williams, and co-produced by former [Wind & Fire](Earth,)(Earth, Wind & Fire) members [McKay](Al)(Al McKay) and Ralph Johnson. The single became their biggest success on R&B radio since 1975, reaching number-two on the R&B charts, and just missing the Pop Top 40 at number 48. The group enjoyed further successes with 1985's "Do You Really Love Your Baby", a number 14 R&B hit co-written by soul star [Vandross](Luther)(Luther Vandross), and 1986's "Lady Soul", the group's third Top 10 R&B hit of the decade.
Ali Woodson remained with the Temptations until 1987, when he was fired for consistent lateness. He was replaced by the again-returning Dennis Edwards. The group recorded one album during Edwards's third tenure, *[Again](Together)(Together Again (The Temptations album))*, released in late 1987. The following year, Otis Williams published his autobiography, *Temptations*, co-written with Patricia Romanowski, chronicling the careers of the group from the Primes/Distants days and focusing on the lives of Williams and Melvin Franklin. (An updated version of the book was published in 2002.) Together, they worked on the theme song to the children's educational musical movement series, *Kids in Motion* created by [& Steve](Greg)(Greg & Steve).
Edwards was fired from the group for the third and final time in late 1988, with Woodson re-joining the lineup. In 1989, The Temptations released the album *Special*, which included the soulful singles "Special" and "Soul to Soul". On January 18, 1989, the Temptations were inducted into the [and Roll Hall of Fame](Rock)(Rock and Roll Hall of Fame). The event honored Edwards, Franklin, Otis Williams, David Ruffin, Eddie Kendricks (now performing as "Eddie Kendrick"), and, posthumously, Paul Williams. Most of the Temptations, present and former, showed no ill feelings towards one another, although Otis Williams reported that Kendricks refused to speak to him during the ceremony. The Temptations ended their induction ceremony with a performance of Paul Williams' signature song, ''Don't Look Back*, dedicated to his memory.
After reuniting at the induction ceremony, and much to the chagrin of Otis Williams and Motown, Edwards, Ruffin, and Kendrick made plans to tour and record as *Ruffin, Kendricks and Edwards, Former Leads of The Temptations''. The tour was in fact carried out, but production on the album was canceled when 50-year-old David Ruffin died in Philadelphia after a cocaine overdose on June 1, 1991. Kendricks was diagnosed with [cancer](lung)(lung cancer) soon after; he continued to perform until his death on October 5, 1992, in his native Birmingham.
### 1990s
Richard Street missed a performance in 1992 after undergoing emergency surgery to remove kidney stones. Otis Williams, completely unaware of Street's surgery, called him angrily about his absence. Street felt Williams was unsympathetic, and as a result, he left the group in 1993 after twenty-two years. His replacement was [Louis](St.)(St. Louis) native [Peoples](Theo)(Theo Peoples).
By the early 1990s, bass Melvin Franklin began missing performances due to failing health and [Davis](Ray)(Ray Davis (musician)), former bass man of [Parliament-Funkadelic](Parliament-Funkadelic), began touring as a fill-in during 1993. Franklin died after suffering a [seizure](brain)(brain seizure) at the age of 52 on February 23, 1995, and Davis was named his official replacement. The group subsequently finished production on *[Lovers Only](For)(For Lovers Only (The Temptations album))*, an album of pop standards featuring two tracks recorded with Melvin Franklin prior to his death.
However, this lineup did not last, as Davis was diagnosed with [cancer](lung)(lung cancer) and left shortly after completing the album. Davis died in New Brunswick, New Jersey of respiratory problems and complications of lung cancer on the evening of Tuesday July 5, 2005.
The group continued as a quartet for a short time before recruiting bass [McGilberry](Harry)(Harry McGilberry), a former member of the Futures. *For Lovers Only* was also the last contribution for lead Ali-Ollie Woodson; he was released from the group shortly after McGilberry's hiring due to health problems: he suffered two bouts of throat cancer in a short time. He was replaced by new member [Weeks](Terry)(Terry Weeks), who had served as his sub.
The Temptations' new lineup, consisting of Otis Williams, Ron Tyson, Theo Peoples, and newcomers Harry McGilberry and Terry Weeks, toured throughout 1997, and was featured in the halftime show of [Bowl XXXII](Super)(Super Bowl XXXII) in early 1998, which celebrated the 40th anniversary of Motown. Later that year, the Temptations released *[Rising](Phoenix)(Phoenix Rising (Temptations album))*, vocally arranged by 1980s producer Narada Michael Walden, [Gamboa](Isaias)(Isaias Gamboa (music producer)), Claytoven Richardson, Theo Peoples, Tony Lindsey and [Jett](Skyler)(Skyler Jett), which became their first million-selling album in more than 20 years. The album was anchored by "Stay," a single featuring Theo Peoples on lead and including a [sample](sampling (music)) from "My Girl", which became a number-one hit on the urban adult contemporary charts. It was released to extremely positive reviews.
Peoples was fired from the group before the release of *Phoenix Rising* because of issues with drug addiction, and was replaced by ["Bo" Henderson](Barrington)(Barrington "Bo" Henderson). Henderson lip-synched to Peoples's vocals in the "Stay" music video, and the completed album features lead vocals on different tracks by both Henderson and Peoples.
### TV miniseries
Also in 1998, three months after the release of *Phoenix Rising* earlier in the year, [Passe Entertainment](de)(de Passe Entertainment) (run by former Motown vice-president [de Passe](Suzanne)(Suzanne de Passe)) and [Entertainment](Hallmark)(Hallmark Entertainment) produced *[Temptations](The)(The Temptations (TV miniseries))*, a four-hour television [miniseries](miniseries) based on Otis Williams' *Temptations* autobiography. The miniseries was broadcast in two parts on [NBC](NBC) on November 1 and November 2, 1998, with the first part covering the group's history from 1958 to 1968, and the second part the years from 1968 to 1995.Zurawick, David (October 31, 1998). "['Temptations' is hard to resist Preview: In the history department, this miniseries is a bit shaky. But when the music starts, holes in the plot melt into the background.](http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1998-10-31/features/1998304094_1_temptations-melvin-franklin-otis-williams)" *[Baltimore Sun](The)(The Baltimore Sun)*. Retrieved February 17, 2013. The miniseries was a ratings success and was nominated for five [Awards](Emmy)(Emmy Awards), with [Arkush](Allan)(Allan Arkush) winning for Best Direction;Williams and Romanowski, pp. 236–239. it was subsequently rerun on the [VH-1](VH-1) cable television network and released to [VHS](VHS) and [DVD](DVD).
Otis Williams' former wife Josephine Miles, Melvin Franklin's mother Rose Franklin, David Ruffin's family, and [Mae Matthews](Johnnie)(Johnnie Mae Matthews) filed lawsuits against Williams, Motown, de Passe and de Passe Entertainment, Hallmark, and NBC for a number of charges, including [defamation](defamation).
The lawsuits were consolidated, and the judges ruled in favor of the defendants, and the ruling was upheld when the plaintiffs appealed in 2001. Williams later claimed that, although his book was used as the source material for the film, he did not have a great deal of control over how the material was presented.
### From 2000 to present
The Temptations were inducted into the [Group Hall of Fame](Vocal)(Vocal Group Hall of Fame) in 1999. In 2001, their 2000 album *[Ear-Resistible](Ear-Resistible)* won the group its third Grammy, this one for [Traditional R&B Vocal Performance](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Traditional R&B Vocal Performance). Bo Henderson was fired from the group in 2003, prompting a wrongful termination lawsuit.
His replacement was former [Spinners](The Spinners (American R&B group)) lead [C. Cameron](G.)(G. C. Cameron). The lineup of Cameron, Otis Williams, Ron Tyson, Harry McGilberry, and Terry Weeks recorded for a short time before McGilberry was dismissed; his replacement was former [Spaniels](The Spaniels) member [Herndon](Joe)(Joe Herndon). McGilberry died on April 3, 2006, at the age of 56.
The group's final Motown album, *[Legacy](Legacy (Temptations album))*, was released in 2004. Later that year, the Temptations asked to be released from their Motown contract, and moved to another [Universal](Universal Music Group) label, New Door Records. Their sole album with this lineup, *Reflections*, was released on January 31, 2006, and contains covers of several popular Motown songs, including Diana Ross & the Supremes' "[Reflections](Reflections (Supremes song))", the Miracles' "[Baby Baby](Ooo)(Ooo Baby Baby)", Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell's "[Nothing Like the Real Thing](Ain't)(Ain't Nothing Like the Real Thing)", and [Jackson 5](the)(the Jackson 5)'s "[Be There](I'll)(I'll Be There (Jackson 5 song))".November 28, 2005. ["Temptations Record 15 Classics for *Reflections*](http://classic.motown.com/news.aspx?bid=20) ". Universal Records press release, Retrieved December 3, 2005. [Edwards](Dennis)(Dennis Edwards), [Woodson](Ali-Ollie)(Ali-Ollie Woodson) and David Sea (deep soul singer from Alabama, not David Ruffin) formed The Temptations tribute group "The Temptations Revue featuring Dennis Edwards".
G.C. Cameron left the group in June 2007 to focus on his solo career. He was replaced by [Williamson](Bruce)(Bruce Williamson (singer)), who first affiliated with the group a year earlier. The new lineup recorded another album of soul covers, *Back to Front*, released in October 2007. Former member Ali-Ollie Woodson died on May 30, 2010, after a long battle with leukemia.
On May 4, 2010, the group released their *[Here](Still)(Still Here (The Temptations album))* album. The first single from *Still Here*, "First Kiss", was criticized for having instances of using [Auto-Tune](Auto-Tune) technology.
The Temptations received the [Lifetime Achievement Award](Grammy)(Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award) on February 9, 2013. Otis Williams, Dennis Edwards, and the children of David Ruffin, Eddie Kendricks, Paul Williams, and Melvin Franklin attended the ceremony to accept the six Grammys given to the group for the occasion.
Former member Damon Harris died on February 18, 2013, from [cancer](prostate)(prostate cancer) at a [Baltimore](Baltimore, Maryland) hospital. Nine days later, former member Richard Street died of [embolism](pulmonary)(pulmonary embolism) in [Vegas, Nevada](Las)(Las Vegas, Nevada). At the time of his death, Street was in the process of writing a book regarding his time with the Temptations entitled ''Ball of Confusion: My Life as a Temptin' Temptation''. Completed by his co-author, Gary Flanigan, the book was published in 2014; it is the second autobiography regarding the group.
In late 2015 both [Williamson](Bruce)(Bruce Williamson (singer)) and [Herndon](Joe)(Joe Herndon) announced their departures from the group. Williamson's replacement, Larry Braggs, was lead singer of [of Power](Tower)(Tower of Power) from 2000 to 2013. Herndon's replacement is Willie Green, who had previously toured with former Temptations Richard Street and Ali-Ollie Woodson. Dennis Edwards died on February 1, 2018, two days before his 75th birthday. He had been battling with meningitis before his death.
On May 4, 2018, the Temptations released *All the Time*, their first album since 2010's *Still Here*, as well as their first for Universal's UMe Direct imprint.
Former member [C. Cameron](G.)(G. C. Cameron) substituted for an absent Larry Braggs in shows in August 2019. By October 2019 Braggs was no longer a member of the group. They then temporarily toured as a quartet until June 19, 2020, when it was announced that Mario Corbino was the new member of the group replacing Larry Braggs.
On September 6, 2020, former Temptations member Bruce Williamson died at age 49 from COVID-19.
In the Fall of 2021, The Temptations released two singles, "Is It Gonna Be Yes Or No", featuring [Robinson](Smokey)(Smokey Robinson), and "When We Were Kings", as part of their upcoming album, *[Temptations 60](Temptations 60)*. The album is scheduled to be released in January 2022. In December 2021, Otis Williams introduced [Grant](Tony)(Tony Grant (singer)) as the newest member of The Temptations at a concert in Orlando, Florida. Grant, who formerly sang with the R&B group, [Yet](Az)(Az Yet), and starred in several [Perry](Tyler)(Tyler Perry) stage plays, replaced Mario Corbino.
The band announced in June 2022 that Jawan M. Jackson was joining on bass, replacing Willie Green.
## Sound
### Motown Sound (1961–68)
Following their first Motown hit, the group altered their style several times over the ensuing years, adapting to the popular styles of the day while retaining their signature visual and vocal styles. The earliest Temptations recordings backed by Motown's stalwart studio band, the [Brothers](Funk)(Funk Brothers), reflect the influence of producers Berry Gordy and Smokey Robinson, and featured a cohesive blend of black rhythm and blues along with elements of white [music](pop)(pop music) that later came to be known as the *Motown Sound*. Recordings made prior to 1966, such as "My Girl", were built around songs with simple, direct lyrics supported by an R&B rhythm section with orchestral strings and horns added for pop appeal. During this period, each recording usually featured only one lead singer, usually David Ruffin or Eddie Kendricks, although Paul Williams, Melvin Franklin, and Otis Williams each had solo numbers of their own at various times during this period.
In 1966, Norman Whitfield changed the group's dynamic, moving them away from the previous one lead singer model and adding elements derived from the rougher soul of artists such as [Brown](James)(James Brown), [Pickett](Wilson)(Wilson Pickett), and the performers at [Records](Stax)(Stax Records). Whitfield and his lyricists crafted Temptations songs with shifts of dynamics, syncopated [stab](horn)(horn stab)s, and more intricate harmony arrangements which spotlighted each singer's unique vocal range. Onstage, this change was reflected in the group's use of a custom-made four-headed microphone stand, invented by David Ruffin.
### Psychedelic and cinematic soul (1968–73)
When Ruffin was replaced by Dennis Edwards, and [and the Family Stone](Sly)(Sly and the Family Stone) became popular, Whitfield again restructured the Temptations' sound, this time driving the group almost completely into a "psychedelic soul"-type sound. However, ballads in the traditional style of the group were still being recorded as B-sides and album fillers, with the lone exception being "Just My Imagination".
Tracks such as the album version of "Run Away Child, Running Wild" from *Cloud Nine*, "Take a Stroll Thru Your Mind" from *Psychedelic Shack*, and "[Faces Sometimes](Smiling)(Smiling Faces Sometimes)" from ''Sky's the Limit'', all run at least eight minutes. At Whitfield's insistence, a large portion of the additional running time for each song consisted of instrumental passages without vocals. For example, the hit version of their smash 1972 single "Papa Was a Rollin' Stone" was nearly seven minutes, featuring an instrumental intro that was almost two minutes, a rarity for songs of that era.
"Psychedelic soul" soon gave way to "[soul](cinematic)(cinematic soul)"—highlighting a further series of lengthy recordings featuring detailed orchestration, extended instrumental introductions and bridging passages. Often focusing on lyrics about the [ghettos](ghettos) and inner cities of black America, these songs were heavily influenced by the work of singer-songwriters [Hayes](Isaac)(Isaac Hayes) and [Mayfield](Curtis)(Curtis Mayfield).
Unlike Hayes and Mayfield however, the Temptations had no creative control over their recordings, and were in no way fond of the 12- and 13-minute-long songs being forced upon them by Whitfield, whose contributions were the focal point of Temptations albums such as *[Rock](Solid)(Solid Rock (The Temptations album))*, *[Directions](All)(All Directions)*, and particularly *Masterpiece*.
### From funk to disco to adult contemporary (1974 to present)
In 1974, after Whitfield was dismissed as the producer for the Temptations, the group altered its sound to accommodate a balance of both up-tempo dance material as well as ballads. The vocal arrangements began to again focus primarily on one lead singer per track, although some leads were still being shared periodically. In addition, the Temptations themselves, after fighting Motown and Berry Gordy for creative control, began to write and produce some of their own material. From this point on, the Temptations focused almost exclusively on songs about romance. However, songs about social issues similar to the recordings made during Whitfield's tenure were periodically produced as well.
Temptations recordings of the mid 1970s focused significantly on the influences of [music](funk)(funk music) from artists such as [Parliament-Funkadelic](Parliament-Funkadelic) and Sly and the Family Stone, and members of both acts contributed significantly to material recorded by the group during this period. Their signature ballad sound, reduced to filler material during much of the Whitfield period, was restored to the lush, full productions of the earlier hits produced by Smokey Robinson. After a brief diversion into [disco](disco) in the late-1970s, the Temptations settled into a form of an [contemporary](adult)(adult contemporary music)-rooted type of R&B, a style in which they continue to record.
## Legacy and influence
Berry Gordy insisted that all his acts be equally appealing to both white as well as black audiences, and employed an extensive creative team to help tailor Motown talent for the crossover success he desired. Motown [choreographer](choreographer) [Atkins](Cholly)(Cholly Atkins), along with Paul Williams, created the trademark precise and energetic, yet refined, dance steps used by the Temptations onstage. The most famous of these, the *Temptation Walk*, or *Temptation Strut*, was adapted from similar moves by [Flamingos](the)(the Flamingos) and [Vibrations](the)(the Vibrations), from those two sources, Atkins and Williams crafted the resulting signature dance routine.
Like other similar independent companies of the period, Motown was not a member of the [Industry of America](Recording)(Recording Industry of America), preferring to stay independent and handling their own widely varied distribution through thousands of "Mom & Pop" record stores and small radio stations. As such, hit singles by Motown artists such as the Temptations never achieved official "gold" or "platinum" [certification](RIAA)(RIAA certification) until after Motown joined the RIAA in 1977.
During the 1960s and 1970s, a number of soul groups showed significant influence from the Temptations, such as [Trammps](the)(the Trammps), Tavares, Manhattans, [Chi-Lites](the)(the Chi-Lites), [Parliaments](The Parliaments), [Dramatics](the)(the Dramatics), [Dells](the)(the Dells), [Spinners](the)(The Spinners (American R&B group)), [Softones](the)(the Softones), [Delfonics](the)(the Delfonics), [Hall & John Oates](Daryl)(Daryl Hall & John Oates), and Motown labelmates [Miracles](the)(the Miracles), [Tops](Four)(Four Tops), [Monitors](the)(The Monitors (American band)), [Knight & the Pips](Gladys)(Gladys Knight & the Pips), [Originals](the)(The Originals (band)), [Jackson Five](the)(the Jackson Five) and [Undisputed Truth](the)(the Undisputed Truth). These acts and others, showed the influence of the Temptations in both their vocal performances and their onstage choreography.
The Temptations' songs have been covered by scores of musicians, from R&B singers such as [Redding](Otis)(Otis Redding) ("My Girl"), [Womack](Bobby)(Bobby Womack) ("I Wish It Would Rain") and [Vandross](Luther)(Luther Vandross) ("Since I Lost My Baby"), to white soul and reggae bands such as [Earth](Rare)(Rare Earth (band)) ("[Ready](Get)(Get Ready (The Temptations song))"), [40](UB)(UB 40) ("The Way You Do and The Things You Do") and [Rolling Stones](the)(the Rolling Stones) ("My Girl", "Ain't Too Proud to Beg", "Just My Imagination") and [Jagger](Mick)(Mick Jagger)'s collaboration with reggae artist [Tosh](Peter)(Peter Tosh) on ("Don't Look Back"). Funk Brothers(Motown) recorded "My Girl", "Runnaway Child Running Wild", and "Papa Was a Rolling Stone". Hall & Oates performed "My Girl", "The Way You Do The Things You Do" in Live with Ruffin and Kendricks. Marcus Miller covered "Papa Was a Rolling Stone". [British](Great Britain) rock singer [Stewart](Rod)(Rod Stewart) released a cover of "I'm Losing You" in 1971, and, in 1991, collaborated with the Temptations on the single "The Motown Song". In 2017, The Temptations and Otis Williams' then-protégé, [Maack](Kyle)(Kyle Maack), recorded a cover of [Her Like a Lady"]("Treat)(Treat Her Like a Lady (The Temptations song)) for Maack's *Shaky Ground* EP which also included two additional Temptations covers.
In 2004, *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* magazine ranked the Temptations number 67 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. The Temptations were voted into the Michigan Rock and Roll Legends Hall of Fame in 2005. They received the [Achievement Grammy](Lifetime)(Lifetime Achievement Grammy) Award in 2013. On Saturday August 17, 2013, the Temptations were officially inducted into the [Music Hall of Fame](R&B)(Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame) at the inaugural ceremony held at the Waetejen Auditorium on the campus of [State University](Cleveland)(Cleveland State University).
In 2018, the story of the Temptations served as inspiration for the [musical](jukebox)(jukebox musical) ''[Too Proud](Ain't)(Ain't Too Proud (musical))'', which opened on [Broadway](Broadway theatre) in March 2019. The show was nominated for 11 [Award](Tony)(Tony Award)s at the [Tony Awards](73rd)(73rd Tony Awards) and won for [Choreography](Best)(Tony Award for Best Choreography).
## Group members
[[File:TemptationsRAH2005.JPG|right|200px|thumb|The Temptations on stage at London's [Albert Hall](Royal)(Royal Albert Hall), November 2005. Pictured L-R: Joe Herndon, Otis Williams, G.C. Cameron, Terry Weeks, and Ron Tyson.]]
### The Primes
*aka **The Cavaliers*** – merged with The Distants
* [Williams](Paul)(Paul Williams (The Temptations)) (1955–60) (d. 1973)
* [Kendricks](Eddie)(Eddie Kendricks) (1955–60) (d. 1992)
* [Osborne](Kell)(Kell Osborne) (1955–60) (d. 2012)
* Wiley Waller (1955–57)
### The Distants
*aka **Otis Williams & the Distants**, **Otis Williams & the Siberians*** – merged with The Primes
* [Williams](Otis)(Otis Williams) (1958–60)
* Elbridge "Al" Bryant (1958–60) (d. 1975)
* James "Pee-Wee" Crawford (1958–59)
* Vernard Plain (1958–59)
* Arthur Walton (1958–59)
* [Franklin](Melvin)(Melvin Franklin) (1959–60) (d. 1995)
* Richard Street (1959–60) (d. 2013)
* Albert "Mooch" Harrell (1959–60)
### The Temptations
*aka **The Elgins***
#### Current
* [Williams](Otis)(Otis Williams) (1960–present)
* Ron Tyson (1983–present)
* [Weeks](Terry)(Terry Weeks) (1997–present)
* [Grant](Tony)(Tony Grant (singer)) (2021–present)
* Jawan M. Jackson (2022–present)
#### Past
* [Franklin](Melvin)(Melvin Franklin) (1960–1994) (d. 1995)
* [Kendricks](Eddie)(Eddie Kendricks) (1960–1971, 1982 reunion) (d. 1992)
* [Williams](Paul)(Paul Williams (The Temptations)) (1960–1971) (d. 1973)
* Elbridge "Al" Bryant (1960–1964) (d. 1975)
* [Ruffin](David)(David Ruffin) (1964–1968, 1982 reunion) (d. 1991)
* [Edwards](Dennis)(Dennis Edwards) (1968–1977, 1980–1984, 1987–1989) (d. 2018)
* Richard Street (1971–1993) (d. 2013)
* [Owens](Ricky)(Ricky Owens) (1971) (d. 1996)
* [Harris](Damon)(Damon Harris) (1971–1975) (d. 2013)
* Glenn Leonard (1975–1983)
* [Price](Louis)(Louis Price) (1977–1980)
* [Woodson](Ali-Ollie)(Ali-Ollie Woodson) (1984–87, 1989–1996, 2002) (d. 2010)
* [Peoples](Theo)(Theo Peoples) (1993–1998)
* [Davis](Ray)(Ray Davis (musician)) (1994–1995) (d. 2005)
* [McGilberry](Harry)(Harry McGilberry) (1995–2003) (d. 2006)
* ["Bo" Henderson](Barrington)(Barrington "Bo" Henderson) (1998–2003)
* [C. Cameron](G.)(G. C. Cameron) (2003–2007, 2019)
* [Herndon](Joe)(Joe Herndon) (2003–2015)
* [Williamson](Bruce)(Bruce Williamson (singer)) (2007–2015) (d. 2020)
* Larry Braggs (2015–2019)
* Willie Greene (2015–2022)
* Mario Corbino (2020–2021)
## Discography
;Studio albums
* *[the Temptations](Meet)(Meet the Temptations)* (1964)
* *[Temptations Sing Smokey](The)(The Temptations Sing Smokey)* (1965)
* ''[Temptin' Temptations](The)(The Temptin' Temptations)* (1965)
* *[Ready](Gettin')(Gettin' Ready)* (1966)
* *[Temptations with a Lot o' Soul](The)(The Temptations with a Lot o' Soul)* (1967)
* *[Temptations in a Mellow Mood](The)(The Temptations in a Mellow Mood)* (1967)
* *[Temptations Wish It Would Rain](The)(The Temptations Wish It Would Rain)* (1968)
* *[Ross & the Supremes Join The Temptations](Diana)(Diana Ross & the Supremes Join The Temptations)* (with [Ross & The Supremes](Diana)(The Supremes)) (1968)
* *[Nine](Cloud)(Cloud Nine (The Temptations album))* (1969)
* *[Together](Together (The Supremes and The Temptations album))* (with [Ross & The Supremes](Diana)(The Supremes)) (1969)
* *[People](Puzzle)(Puzzle People)* (1969)
* *[Shack](Psychedelic)(Psychedelic Shack (album))* (1970)
* *[the Limit](Sky's)(Sky's the Limit (The Temptations album))* (1971)
* *[Rock](Solid)(Solid Rock (The Temptations album))* (1972)
* *[Directions](All)(All Directions)* (1972)
* *[Masterpiece](Masterpiece (The Temptations album))* (1973)
* *[1990](1990 (The Temptations album))* (1973)
* *[Song for You](A)(A Song for You (The Temptations album))* (1975)
* *[Party](House)(House Party (The Temptations album))* (1975)
* *[of Love](Wings)(Wings of Love)* (1976)
* *[Temptations Do the Temptations](The)(The Temptations Do the Temptations)* (1976)
* *[to Tempt You](Hear)(Hear to Tempt You)* (1977)
* *[Back](Bare)(Bare Back)* (1978)
* *[Power](Power (Temptations album))* (1980)
* *[Temptations](The)(The Temptations (1981 album))* (1981)
* *[Reunion](Reunion (The Temptations album))* (1982)
* *[Thrills](Surface)(Surface Thrills)* (1983)
* *[to Basics](Back)(Back to Basics (The Temptations album))* (1983)
* *[for You](Truly)(Truly for You)* (1984)
* *[Me](Touch)(Touch Me (The Temptations album))* (1985)
* *[Be Continued](To)(To Be Continued... (The Temptations album))* (1986)
* *[Again](Together)(Together Again (The Temptations album))* (1987)
* *[Special](Special (The Temptations album))* (1989)
* *[Milestone](Milestone (The Temptations album))* (1991)
* *[Lovers Only](For)(For Lovers Only (The Temptations album))* (1995)
* *[Rising](Phoenix)(Phoenix Rising (The Temptations album))* (1998)
* *[Ear-Resistible](Ear-Resistible)* (2000)
* *[Awesome](Awesome (The Temptations album))* (2001)
* *[Legacy](Legacy (The Temptations album))* (2004)
* *[Reflections](Reflections (The Temptations album))* (2006)
* *[to Front](Back)(Back to Front (The Temptations album))* (2007)
* *[Here](Still)(Still Here (The Temptations album))* (2010)
* *[the Time](All)(All the Time (The Temptations album))* (2018)
* *[60](Temptations)(Temptations 60)* (2022)
## Filmography
* 1973: *[the Children](Save)(Save the Children (film))*
* 1987: *[New Year](Happy)(Happy New Year (1987 film))*
* 1989: *[Harry Crumb?](Who's)(Who's Harry Crumb?)*
* 2007: *[Hard: The Dewey Cox Story](Walk)(Walk Hard: The Dewey Cox Story) *
### Television work
* 1985: *[Fall Guy](The)(The Fall Guy)* (TV episode *Rockabye Baby*, February 13, 1985)
* 1985: *[Love Boat](The)(The Love Boat)* (TV episode *Your Money or Your Wife/Joint Custody/The Temptations*, October 5, 1985)
* 1986: *[Moonlighting](Moonlighting (TV series))* (TV episode *Symphony in Knocked Flat*, October 21, 1986)
* 1986: *[227](227 (TV series))* (TV episode *Temptations*, November 15, 1986)
* 1990: *[Brown](Murphy)(Murphy Brown)* (TV episode *Goin' to the Chapel, Part 2'', May 21, 1990)
* 1990: performed [CBS](CBS) network's 1990–91 version of their "Get Ready" campaign with an updated version of *Get Ready*.
* 1993: *[By](Getting)(Getting By)* (TV episode *Reach for the Stars*, November 23, 1993)
* 1996: *[York Undercover](New)(New York Undercover)* (TV episode *Deep Cover*, May 2, 1996)
* 2008: *[Night with Jonathan Ross](Friday)(Friday Night with Jonathan Ross)* (TV appearance), March 7, 2008
* 2012: *[with the Stars](Dancing)(Dancing with the Stars)* (TV appearance), April 23, 2012 – Motown Week
### Video and DVD releases
* 1991: *The Temptations – Live in Concert*
* 2004: *20th Century Masters – The Best of the Temptations*
* 2006: *Get Ready: The Definitive Performances – 1965–1972*
* 2007: *The Temptations – Live In London (1987)*
## Citations
## General bibliography
* George, Nelson (1994). "Cool as They Wanna Be". The Temptations: *[of Soul](Emperors)(Emperors of Soul)* (CD box set). New York: Motown Record Co., L.P.
* George, Nelson (1985, rev. 2003). *Where Did Our Love Go: The Rise and Fall of the Motown*. London: Omnibus Press. .
* Posner, Gerald (2002). *Motown : Music, Money, Sex, and Power*. New York: Random House. .
* Ribowsky, Mark (2010). ''Ain't Too Proud to Beg: The Troubled Lives and Enduring Soul of the Temptations*. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons..
* Weinger, Harry (1994). "Sunshine on a Cloudy Day". The Temptations: *Emperors of Soul* (CD Box Set). New York: Motown Record Co., L.P.
* [Otis](Williams,)(Otis Williams) and Romanowski, Patricia (1988, updated 2002). *Temptations''. Lanham, MD: Cooper Square. .
## External links
*
*
*
*
* [Otis Williams' official website (includes current tour schedule)](https://web.archive.org/web/20140309121730/http://www.otiswilliams.net/main.aspx)
* [Ron Tyson's official website](http://www.rontyson.com/)
* [Official homepage for Glenn Leonard](http://www.GlennLeonardPromo.com)
* [Classic Temptations page at Classic Motown website](https://web.archive.org/web/20050305083631/http://classic.motown.com/artist.aspx?ob=ros&src=lb&aid=52)
* ["The Temptations" Vocal Group Hall of Fame page](https://web.archive.org/web/20070310072228/http://www.vocalgroup.org/inductees/the_temptations.html)
*
}}
[ ](Category:The Temptations)
[musical groups](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American musical groups)
[disco groups](Category:American)(Category:American disco groups)
[funk musical groups](Category:American)(Category:American funk musical groups)
[soul musical groups](Category:American)(Category:American soul musical groups)
[Records artists](Category:Atlantic)(Category:Atlantic Records artists)
[Award winners](Category:Grammy)(Category:Grammy Award winners)
[Lifetime Achievement Award winners](Category:Grammy)(Category:Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners)
[artists](Category:Motown)(Category:Motown artists)
[groups established in 1960](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups established in 1960)
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|
Little Boy
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little_boy
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# Little Boy
*Revision ID: 1157882868 | Timestamp: 2023-05-31T15:39:12Z*
---
| unit_cost =
| production_date = 1945–1947
| number = 33
| weight =
| length =
| diameter =
| filling = [enriched uranium](Highly)(Highly enriched uranium)
| filling_weight = 64 kg
| detonation =
| yield =
}}
**Little Boy** was the type of [bomb](atomic)(atomic bomb) [on the Japanese city of Hiroshima](dropped)(Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki) on 6 August 1945 during [War II](World)(World War II), making it the first nuclear weapon used in warfare. The bomb was dropped by the [B-29 Superfortress](Boeing)(Boeing B-29 Superfortress) *[Gay](Enola)(Enola Gay)* piloted by [Colonel](Colonel (United States)) [W. Tibbets Jr.](Paul)(Paul W. Tibbets Jr.), commander of the [Composite Group](509th)(509th Composite Group), and Captain [A. Lewis](Robert)(Robert A. Lewis). It exploded with an energy of approximately and caused widespread death and destruction throughout the city. The Hiroshima bombing was the second man-made nuclear explosion in history, after the [nuclear test](Trinity)(Trinity nuclear test).
Little Boy was developed by [Commander](Lieutenant)(Lieutenant Commander) [Birch](Francis)(Francis Birch (geophysicist))'s group at the [Project](Manhattan)(Manhattan Project)'s [Alamos Laboratory](Los)(Los Alamos Laboratory) during World War II, a reworking of their abandoned [Man](Thin)(Thin Man (nuclear bomb)) nuclear bomb. Like Thin Man, it was a [fission weapon](gun-type)(gun-type fission weapon), but it derived its explosive power from the [fission](nuclear)(nuclear fission) of [uranium-235](uranium-235), whereas Thin Man was based on fission of [plutonium-239](plutonium-239). Fission was accomplished by shooting a hollow cylinder (the "bullet") onto a solid cylinder of the same material (the "target") by means of a charge of [nitrocellulose](nitrocellulose) propellant powder. It contained of [enriched uranium](highly)(highly enriched uranium), although less than a kilogram underwent nuclear fission. Its components were fabricated at three different plants so that no one would have a copy of the complete design. Unlike the implosion design, which required sophisticated coordination of shaped explosive charges, the gun-type design was considered almost certain to work so it was never tested before its first use at Hiroshima.
After the war ended, it was not expected that the inefficient Little Boy design would ever again be required, and many plans and diagrams were destroyed. However, by mid 1946, the [Site](Hanford)(Hanford Site) reactors began suffering badly from the [effect](Wigner)(Wigner effect), the dislocation of atoms in a solid caused by neutron radiation, and plutonium became scarce, so six Little Boy assemblies were produced at [Base](Sandia)(Sandia Base). The Navy [of Ordnance](Bureau)(Bureau of Ordnance) built another 25 Little Boy assemblies in 1947 for use by the [P2V Neptune](Lockheed)(Lockheed P2V Neptune) nuclear strike aircraft which could be launched from the [aircraft carriers](*Midway*-class)(Midway-class aircraft carrier). All the Little Boy units were withdrawn from service by the end of January 1951.
## Naming
Physicist [Serber](Robert)(Robert Serber) named the first two [bomb](atomic)(atomic bomb) designs during [War II](World)(World War II) based on their shapes: [Man](Thin)(Thin Man (nuclear bomb)) and [Man](Fat)(Fat Man). The "Thin Man" was a long, thin device and its name came from the [Hammett](Dashiell)(Dashiell Hammett) detective novel and [of movies](series)(The Thin Man (film)) about *[Thin Man](The)(The Thin Man)*. The "Fat Man" was round and fat so it was named after Kasper Gutman, a rotund character in Hammett's 1930 novel [Maltese Falcon*](*The)(The Maltese Falcon (novel)), played by [Greenstreet](Sydney)(Sydney Greenstreet) in the 1941 [version](film)(The Maltese Falcon (1941 film)). Little Boy was named by others as an allusion to Thin Man since it was based on its design.
## Development
Because [uranium-235](uranium-235) was known to be fissionable, it was the first material pursued in the approach to bomb development. As the first design developed (as well as the first deployed for combat), it is sometimes known as the Mark I. The vast majority of the work came in the form of the [enrichment](isotope)(isotope enrichment) of the uranium necessary for the weapon, since uranium-235 makes up only 1 part in 140 of natural [uranium](uranium). Enrichment was performed at [Ridge, Tennessee](Oak)(Oak Ridge, Tennessee), where the [separation](electromagnetic)(calutron) plant, known as [Y-12](Y-12 National Security Complex), became fully operational in March 1944. The first shipments of [enriched uranium](highly)(highly enriched uranium) were sent to the Los Alamos Laboratory in June 1944.
Most of the uranium necessary for the production of the bomb came from the [Shinkolobwe](Shinkolobwe) mine in the [Congo](Belgian)(Belgian Congo), and was made available thanks to the foresight of the CEO of the [Katanga Mining Union](High)(Union Minière du Haut Katanga), [Sengier](Edgar)(Edgar Sengier), who had approximately of [ore](uranium)(uranium ore) transported to a warehouse in [Island](Staten)(Staten Island), New York in 1940. At least part of the 1,200 short tons in addition to the uranium ore and [oxide](uranium)(uranium oxide) captured by the [Mission](Alsos)(Alsos Mission) in 1944 and 1945 went to Oak Ridge for enrichment, as did of uranium oxide captured on the Japan-bound after Germany's surrender in May 1945.
[[File: Atombombe Little Boy.jpg|thumb|As part of [Alberta](Project)(Project Alberta), Commander [Francis Birch](A.)(Francis Birch (geophysicist)) (left) assembles the bomb while physicist [Ramsey](Norman)(Norman Ramsey) watches. This is one of the rare photos where the inside of the bomb can be seen.]]
Little Boy was a simplification of Thin Man, the previous [fission weapon](gun-type)(gun-type fission weapon) design. Thin Man, long, was designed to use plutonium, so it was also more than capable of using enriched uranium. The Thin Man design was abandoned after experiments by [G. Segrè](Emilio)(Emilio G. Segrè) and his P-5 Group at Los Alamos on the newly reactor-produced [plutonium](plutonium) from Oak Ridge and the Hanford site showed that it contained impurities in the form of the [isotope](isotope) [plutonium-240](plutonium-240). This has a far higher spontaneous fission rate and radioactivity than the [cyclotron](cyclotron)-produced plutonium on which the original measurements had been made, and its inclusion in reactor-bred plutonium (needed for bomb-making due to the quantities required) appeared unavoidable. This meant that the background fission rate of the plutonium was so high that it would be highly likely the plutonium would [predetonate](fizzle (nuclear test)) and blow itself apart in the initial forming of a critical mass.
In July 1944, almost all research at Los Alamos was redirected to the implosion-type plutonium weapon. Overall responsibility for the uranium gun-type weapon was assigned to [Captain](Captain (United States O-6)) [S. Parsons](William)(William S. Parsons)'s Ordnance (O) Division. All the design, development, and technical work at Los Alamos was consolidated under [Commander](Lieutenant)(Lieutenant Commander (United States)) [Birch](Francis)(Francis Birch (geophysicist))'s group. In contrast to the plutonium [nuclear weapon](implosion-type)(implosion-type nuclear weapon) and the plutonium gun-type fission weapon, the uranium gun-type weapon was straightforward if not trivial to design. The concept was pursued so that in case of a failure to develop a plutonium bomb, it would still be possible to use the gun principle. The gun-type design henceforth had to work with enriched uranium only, and this allowed the Thin Man design to be greatly simplified. A high-velocity gun was no longer required, and a simpler weapon could be substituted. The simplified weapon was short enough to fit into a B-29 bomb bay.
The design specifications were completed in February 1945, and contracts were let to build the components. Three different plants were used so that no one would have a copy of the complete design. The gun and breech were made by the [Gun Factory](Naval)(Naval Gun Factory) in Washington, D.C.; the target case and some other components by the Naval Ordnance Plant in [Line, Michigan](Center)(Center Line, Michigan); and the tail fairing and mounting brackets by the Expert Tool and Die Company in [Michigan](Detroit,)(Detroit, Michigan). The bomb, except for the uranium payload, was ready at the beginning of May 1945. Manhattan District Engineer [Nichols](Kenneth)(Kenneth Nichols) expected on 1 May 1945 to have enriched uranium "for one weapon before August 1 and a second one sometime in December", assuming the second weapon would be a gun type; designing an implosion bomb for enriched uranium was considered, and this would increase the production rate. The enriched uranium projectile was completed on 15 June, and the target on 24 July. The target and bomb pre-assemblies (partly assembled bombs without the fissile components) left [Point Naval Shipyard](Hunters)(Hunters Point Naval Shipyard), California, on 16 July aboard the [cruiser](heavy)(heavy cruiser) , arriving on 26 July. The target inserts followed by air on 30 July.
Although all of its components had been tested, no full test of a gun-type nuclear weapon occurred before the Little Boy was dropped over [Hiroshima](Hiroshima). The only [explosion](test)(nuclear testing) of a nuclear weapon concept had been of an implosion-type device employing plutonium as its fissile material, and took place on 16 July 1945 at the [nuclear test](Trinity)(Trinity nuclear test). There were several reasons for not testing a Little Boy type of device. Primarily, there was little enriched uranium as compared with the relatively large amount of plutonium which, it was expected, could be produced by the [Site](Hanford)(Hanford Site) reactors. Additionally, the weapon design was simple enough that it was only deemed necessary to do laboratory tests with the gun-type assembly. Unlike the implosion design, which required sophisticated coordination of shaped explosive charges, the gun-type design was considered almost certain to work.
Though Little Boy incorporated various safety mechanisms, an accidental detonation was nonetheless possible. For example, should the bomber carrying the device crash then the hollow "bullet" could be driven into the "target" cylinder, detonating the bomb or at least releasing massive amounts of radiation; tests showed that this would require a highly unlikely impact of 500 times the force of gravity. Another concern was that a crash and fire could trigger the explosives. If immersed in water, the uranium components were subject to a [moderator](neutron)(neutron moderator) effect, which would not cause an explosion but would release [contamination](radioactive)(radioactive contamination). For this reason, pilots were advised to crash on land rather than at sea.
## Design
[[File:Gun-type fission weapon en-labels thin lines.svg|thumb|The "gun" assembly method. When the hollow [uranium](uranium) projectile was driven onto the target cylinder, a nuclear explosion resulted.]]
[[boy casing open.png|thumb|Two Little Boy type bombs with casings open](File:Little)]
The Little Boy was in length, in diameter and weighed approximately . The design used the gun method to explosively force a hollow sub-[mass](critical)(critical mass (nuclear)) of [uranium](enriched)(enriched uranium) and a solid target cylinder together into a super-critical mass, initiating a [chain reaction](nuclear)(nuclear chain reaction). This was accomplished by shooting one piece of the uranium onto the other by means of four cylindrical silk bags of [cordite](cordite) powder. This was a widely used smokeless propellant consisting of a mixture of 65 percent [nitrocellulose](nitrocellulose), 30 percent [nitroglycerine](nitroglycerine), 3 percent [jelly](petroleum)(petroleum jelly), and 2 percent [carbamite](centralite) that was extruded into tubular granules. This gave it a high surface area and a rapid burning area, and could attain pressures of up to . Cordite for the wartime Little Boy was sourced from Canada; propellant for post-war Little Boys was obtained from the [Arsenal](Picatinny)(Picatinny Arsenal). The bomb contained of enriched uranium. Most was enriched to 89% but some was only 50% uranium-235, for an average enrichment of 80%. Less than a kilogram of uranium underwent [fission](nuclear)(nuclear fission), and of this mass only was transformed into several forms of energy, mostly [energy](kinetic)(kinetic energy), but also heat and radiation.
### Assembly details
Inside the weapon, the uranium-235 material was divided into two parts, following the gun principle: the "projectile" and the "target". The projectile was a hollow cylinder with 60% of the total mass (). It consisted of a stack of nine uranium rings, each in diameter with a bore in the center, and a total length of , pressed together into the front end of a thin-walled projectile long. Filling in the remainder of the space behind these rings in the projectile was a [carbide](tungsten)(tungsten carbide) disc with a steel back. At ignition, the projectile slug was pushed along the , smooth-bore gun barrel. The slug "insert" was a 4-inch cylinder, 7 inches in length with a axial hole. The slug comprised 40% of the total fissile mass (). The insert was a stack of six washer-like uranium discs somewhat thicker than the projectile rings that were slid over a 1-inch rod. This rod then extended forward through the tungsten carbide tamper plug, impact-absorbing anvil, and nose plug backstop, eventually protruding out of the front of the bomb casing. This entire target assembly was secured at both ends with locknuts.
When the hollow-front projectile reached the target and slid over the target insert, the assembled super-critical mass of uranium would be completely surrounded by a tamper and neutron reflector of tungsten carbide and steel, both materials having a combined mass of . [initiator](Neutron)(Neutron initiator)s inside the assembly were activated by the impact of the projectile into the target.
[center](File:Little Boy Internal Components.png)
### Counter-intuitive design
For the first fifty years after 1945, every published description and drawing of the Little Boy mechanism assumed that a small, solid projectile was fired into the center of a larger, stationary target. However, critical mass considerations dictated that in Little Boy the more extensive, hollow piece would be the projectile. The assembled fissile core had more than two [mass](critical)(critical mass)es of uranium-235. This required one of the two pieces to have more than one critical mass, with the larger piece avoiding criticality prior to assembly by means of shape and minimal contact with the neutron-reflecting tungsten carbide tamper.
A hole in the center of the larger piece dispersed the mass and increased the surface area, allowing more fission neutrons to escape, thus preventing a premature chain reaction. But, for this larger, hollow piece to have minimal contact with the tamper, it must be the projectile, since only the projectile's back end was in contact with the tamper prior to detonation. The rest of the tungsten carbide surrounded the sub-critical mass target cylinder (called the "insert" by the designers) with air space between it and the insert. This arrangement packs the maximum amount of fissile material into a gun-assembly design.
### Fuze system
[[File:Little Boy arming plugs in October 2009.JPG|thumb|Arming plugs for a Little Boy type atomic bomb on display at the [Air and Space Museum](National)(National Air and Space Museum)'s [F. Udvar-Hazy Center](Steven)(Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center)]]
The [fuzing](fuze) system was designed to trigger at the most destructive altitude, which calculations suggested was . It employed a three-stage interlock system:
* A timer ensured that the bomb would not explode until at least fifteen seconds after release, one-quarter of the predicted fall time, to ensure the safety of the aircraft. The timer was activated when the electrical [plugs](pull-out)(arming plug) connecting it to the airplane pulled loose as the bomb fell, switching it to its internal 24-volt battery and starting the timer. At the end of the 15 seconds, the bomb would be from the aircraft, and the radar altimeters were powered up and responsibility was passed to the [barometric](barometric) stage.
* The purpose of the barometric stage was to delay activating the radar altimeter firing command circuit until near detonation altitude. A thin metallic membrane enclosing a vacuum chamber (a similar design is still used today in old-fashioned wall barometers) gradually deformed as ambient air pressure increased during descent. The barometric fuze was not considered accurate enough to detonate the bomb at the precise ignition height, because air pressure varies with local conditions. When the bomb reached the design height for this stage (reportedly ), the membrane closed a circuit, activating the radar altimeters. The barometric stage was added because of a worry that external radar signals might detonate the bomb too early.
* Two or more [redundant](redundancy (engineering)) [altimeter](radar)(radar altimeter)s were used to reliably detect final altitude. When the altimeters sensed the correct height, the firing switch closed, igniting the three BuOrd Mk15, Mod 1 Navy gun primers in the breech plug, which set off the charge consisting of four silk powder bags each containing of WM slotted-tube [cordite](cordite). This launched the uranium projectile towards the opposite end of the gun barrel at an eventual [velocity](muzzle)(muzzle velocity) of . Approximately 10 milliseconds later the chain reaction occurred, lasting less than 1 microsecond. The radar altimeters used were modified U.S. Army Air Corps [APS-13](Monica (radar)) [warning radar](tail)(tail warning radar)s, nicknamed "Archie", normally used to warn a fighter pilot of another plane approaching from behind.
## Rehearsals
[[File:Atombombe Little Boy 2.jpg|thumb|Little Boy in the bomb pit on [Tinian](Tinian) island, before being loaded into *Enola Gay*s bomb bay. A section of the bomb bay door is visible on the top right.]]
The Little Boy pre-assemblies were designated L-1, L-2, L-3, L-4, L-5, L-6, L-7, and L-11. L-1, L-2, L-5, and L-6 were expended in test drops. The first drop test was conducted with L-1 on 23 July 1945. It was dropped over the sea near Tinian in order to test the radar altimeter by the B-29 later known as *[Stink](Big)(Big Stink (aircraft))*, piloted by [Colonel](Colonel (United States)) [W. Tibbets](Paul)(Paul W. Tibbets), the commander of the [Composite Group](509th)(509th Composite Group). Two more drop tests over the sea were made on 24 and 25 July, using the L-2 and L-5 units in order to test all components. Tibbets was the pilot for both missions, but this time the bomber used was the one subsequently known as *[Jabit](Jabit III)*. L-6 was used as a dress rehearsal on 29 July. The B-29 *[Objective](Next)(Next Objective)*, piloted by [Major](Major) [W. Sweeney](Charles)(Charles W. Sweeney), flew to [Jima](Iwo)(Iwo Jima), where emergency procedures for loading the bomb onto a standby aircraft were practiced. This rehearsal was repeated on 31 July, but this time L-6 was reloaded onto a different B-29, *[Gay](Enola)(Enola Gay)*, piloted by Tibbets, and the bomb was test dropped near Tinian. L-11 was the assembly used for the Hiroshima bomb.
## Bombing of Hiroshima
[[File:Enola Gay (plane).jpg|thumb|right|*Enola Gay* after Hiroshima mission, entering [hardstand](hardstand). It is in its 6th Bombardment Group livery, with [number](victor)(USAAF unit identification aircraft markings) 82 visible on fuselage just forward of the tail fin.]]
Parsons, the *Enola Gay*s weaponeer, was concerned about the possibility of an accidental detonation if the plane crashed on takeoff, so he decided not to load the four cordite powder bags into the gun breech until the aircraft was in flight. After takeoff, Parsons and his assistant, [Lieutenant](Second)(Second Lieutenant) [R. Jeppson](Morris)(Morris R. Jeppson), made their way into the bomb bay along the narrow catwalk on the port side. Jeppson held a flashlight while Parsons disconnected the primer wires, removed the breech plug, inserted the powder bags, replaced the breech plug, and reconnected the wires. Before climbing to altitude on approach to the target, Jeppson switched the three safety plugs between the electrical connectors of the internal battery and the firing mechanism from green to red. The bomb was then fully armed. Jeppson monitored the bomb's circuits.
[[File: Atomic cloud over Hiroshima - NARA 542192 - Edit.jpg|thumb|left|The [cloud](mushroom)(mushroom cloud) over [Hiroshima](Hiroshima) after the dropping of Little Boy]]
The bomb was dropped at approximately 08:15 (JST) on 6 August 1945. After falling for 44.4 seconds, the time and barometric triggers started the firing mechanism. The detonation happened at an altitude of . It was less powerful than the [Man](Fat)(Fat Man), which was dropped on [Nagasaki](Nagasaki), but the damage and the number of victims at Hiroshima were much higher, as Hiroshima was on flat terrain, while the [hypocenter](hypocenter) of Nagasaki lay in a small valley. According to figures published in 1945, 66,000 people were killed as a direct result of the Hiroshima blast, and 69,000 were injured to varying degrees. Later estimates put the deaths as high as 140,000 people. The [States Strategic Bombing Survey](United)(United States Strategic Bombing Survey) estimated that out of 24,158 [Japanese Army](Imperial)(Imperial Japanese Army) soldiers in Hiroshima at the time of the bombing, 6,789 were killed or missing as a result of the bombing.
The exact measurement of the explosive yield of the bomb was problematic since the weapon had never been tested. [President](President of the United States) [S. Truman](Harry)(Harry S. Truman) officially announced that the yield was . This was based on Parsons's visual assessment that the blast was greater than what he had seen at the [nuclear test](Trinity)(Trinity nuclear test). Since that had been estimated at , speech writers rounded up to 20 kilotons. Further discussion was then suppressed, for fear of lessening the impact of the bomb on the Japanese. Data had been collected by [Alvarez](Luis)(Luis Walter Alvarez), [Agnew](Harold)(Harold Agnew), and [H. Johnston](Lawrence)(Lawrence H. Johnston) on the instrument plane, *[Great Artiste](The)(The Great Artiste)*, but this was not used to calculate the yield at the time.
After hostilities ended, a survey team from the Manhattan Project that included [Penney](William)(William Penney), Robert Serber, and [T. Reynolds](George)(George T. Reynolds) was sent to Hiroshima to evaluate the effects of the blast. From evaluating the effects on objects and structures, Penney concluded that the yield was 12 ± 1 kilotons. Later calculations based on charring pointed to a yield of 13 to 14 kilotons. In 1953, [Reines](Frederick)(Frederick Reines) calculated the yield as . This figure became the official yield.
## Physical effects
[[General Effects of Atomic Bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.ogv|thumb|left|*The General Effects of the Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki*, a U.S. Air Force film](File:)]
After being selected in April 1945, Hiroshima was spared conventional bombing to serve as a pristine target, where the effects of a nuclear bomb on an undamaged city could be observed. While damage could be studied later, the energy yield of the untested Little Boy design could be determined only at the moment of detonation, using instruments dropped by parachute from a plane flying in formation with the one that dropped the bomb. Radio-transmitted data from these instruments indicated a yield of about 15 kilotons.
Comparing this yield to the observed damage produced a rule of thumb called the lethal area rule. Approximately all the people inside the area where the shock wave carried such an overpressure or greater would be killed. At Hiroshima, that area was in diameter.
The damage came from three main effects: blast, fire, and radiation.
### Blast
The blast from a nuclear bomb is the result of [X-ray](X-ray)-heated air (the fireball) sending a shock wave or pressure wave in all directions, initially at a velocity greater than the speed of sound, analogous to thunder generated by lightning. Knowledge about urban blast destruction is based largely on studies of Little Boy at Hiroshima. Nagasaki buildings suffered similar damage at similar distances, but the Nagasaki bomb detonated from the city center over hilly terrain that was partially bare of buildings.
[[File:House 1953 Nevada Nuclear Test 5 psi.jpg|thumb|Frame house in 1953 nuclear test, 5 [psi](Pound per square inch) overpressure]]
In Hiroshima, almost everything within of the point directly under the explosion was completely destroyed, except for about 50 heavily reinforced, earthquake-resistant concrete buildings, only the shells of which remained standing. Most were completely gutted, with their windows, doors, sashes, and frames ripped out. The perimeter of severe blast damage approximately followed the contour at .
Later test explosions of nuclear weapons with houses and other test structures nearby confirmed the 5 psi overpressure threshold. Ordinary urban buildings experiencing it were crushed, toppled, or gutted by the force of air pressure. The picture at right shows the effects of a nuclear bomb-generated 5 psi pressure wave on a test structure in Nevada in 1953.
A major effect of this kind of structural damage was that it created fuel for fires that were started simultaneously throughout the severe destruction region.
### Fire
The first effect of the explosion was blinding light, accompanied by radiant heat from the fireball. The Hiroshima fireball was in diameter, with a surface temperature of , about the same temperature as at the surface of the sun. Near ground zero, everything flammable burst into flame. One famous, anonymous Hiroshima victim, sitting on stone steps from the hypocenter, left only a shadow, having absorbed the fireball heat that permanently bleached the surrounding stone. Simultaneous fires were started throughout the blast-damaged area by fireball heat and by overturned stoves and furnaces, electrical shorts, etc. Twenty minutes after the detonation, these fires had merged into a [firestorm](firestorm), pulling in surface air from all directions to feed an inferno which consumed everything flammable.
[[Hiroshima Damage Map.png|thumb|Hiroshima blast and fire damage, U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey map](File:)]
The Hiroshima firestorm was roughly in diameter, corresponding closely to the severe blast-damage zone. (See the USSBS map, right.) Blast-damaged buildings provided fuel for the fire. Structural lumber and furniture were splintered and scattered about. Debris-choked roads obstructed firefighters. Broken gas pipes fueled the fire, and broken water pipes rendered hydrants useless. At Nagasaki, the fires failed to merge into a single firestorm, and the fire-damaged area was only one-quarter as great as at Hiroshima, due in part to a southwest wind that pushed the fires away from the city.
As the map shows, the Hiroshima firestorm jumped natural firebreaks (river channels), as well as prepared firebreaks. The spread of fire stopped only when it reached the edge of the blast-damaged area, encountering less available fuel. The Manhattan Project report on Hiroshima estimated that 60% of immediate deaths were caused by fire, but with the caveat that "many persons near the center of explosion suffered fatal injuries from more than one of the bomb effects."
### Radiation
[fallout](Local)(Nuclear fallout) is dust and ash from a bomb crater, contaminated with radioactive fission products. It falls to earth downwind of the crater and can produce, with radiation alone, a lethal area much larger than that from blast and fire. With an [burst](air)(air burst), the fission products rise into the [stratosphere](stratosphere), where they dissipate and become part of the global environment. Because Little Boy was an air burst above the ground, there was no bomb crater and no local radioactive fallout.
However, a burst of intense [neutron](neutron radiation) and [radiation](gamma)(gamma radiation) came directly from the fission of the uranium. Its lethal radius was approximately , covering about half of the firestorm area. An estimated 30% of immediate fatalities were people who received lethal doses of this direct radiation, but died in the firestorm before their radiation injuries would have become apparent. Over 6,000 people survived the blast and fire, but died of radiation injuries. Among injured survivors, 30% had radiation injuries from which they recovered, but with a lifelong increase in [cancer](Radiation-induced cancer) risk. To date, no radiation-related evidence of heritable diseases has been observed among the survivors' children.
After the surrender of Japan was finalized, Manhattan Project scientists began to immediately survey the city of Hiroshima to better understand the damage, and to communicate with Japanese physicians about radiation effects in particular. The collaboration became the [Bomb Casualty Commission](Atomic)(Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission) in 1946, a joint U.S.–Japanese project to track radiation injuries among survivors. In 1975 its work was superseded by the [Effects Research Foundation](Radiation)(Radiation Effects Research Foundation).
In 1962, scientists at Los Alamos created a mockup of Little Boy known as "Project Ichiban" in order to answer some of the unanswered questions about the exact [output](radiation)(dosimetry) of the bomb, which would be useful for setting benchmarks for interpreting the relationship between radiation exposure and later health outcomes. But it failed to clear up all the issues. In 1982, Los Alamos created a replica Little Boy from the original drawings and specifications. This was then tested with enriched uranium but in a safe configuration that would not cause a nuclear explosion. A hydraulic lift was used to move the projectile, and experiments were run to assess neutron emission.
### Conventional weapon equivalent
Although Little Boy exploded with the energy equivalent of 16,000 tons of TNT, the [Bombing Survey](Strategic)(Strategic Bombing Survey) estimated that the same blast and fire effect could have been caused by 2,100 tons of [bomb](conventional)(conventional bomb)s: "220 B-29s carrying 1,200 tons of [bombs](incendiary)(incendiary bombs), 400 tons of [high-explosive](high-explosive) bombs, and 500 tons of [anti-personnel](anti-personnel weapon) [bombs](fragmentation)(fragmentation bombs)." Since the target was spread across a two-dimensional plane, the vertical component of a single spherical nuclear explosion was largely wasted. A [bomb](cluster)(cluster bomb) pattern of smaller explosions would have been a more energy-efficient match to the target.
Based on the Project Ichiban data, and the pressure-wave data from *The Great Artiste*, the yield was estimated in the 1960s at 16.6 ± 0.3 kilotons. After considering many estimation methods, a 1985 report concluded that the yield was ± 20%.
## Post-war
[[File: Spare Little Boy atomic bomb casing at the Imperial War Museum in London in November 2015.jpg|thumb|One of five casings built for the Little Boy bomb used on Hiroshima on display at the [War Museum](Imperial)(Imperial War Museum) in London during 2015]]
When the war ended, it was not expected that the inefficient Little Boy design would ever again be required, and many plans and diagrams were destroyed. However, by mid-1946 the Hanford Site reactors were suffering badly from the [effect](Wigner)(Wigner effect). Faced with the prospect of no more plutonium for new cores and no more [polonium](polonium) for the initiators for the cores that had already been produced, the Director of the Manhattan Project, [General](Major)(Major general (United States)) [R. Groves](Leslie)(Leslie R. Groves), ordered that some Little Boys be prepared as an interim measure until a solution could be found. No Little Boy assemblies were available, and no comprehensive set of diagrams of the Little Boy could be found, although there were drawings of the various components, and stocks of spare parts.
At [Base](Sandia)(Sandia Base), three Army officers, [Captains](Captain (United States O-3)) Albert Bethel, Richard Meyer, and Bobbie Griffin attempted to re-create the Little Boy. They were supervised by Harlow W. Russ, an expert on Little Boy who served with [Alberta](Project)(Project Alberta) on Tinian, and was now leader of the Z-11 Group of the Los Alamos Laboratory's Z Division at Sandia. Gradually, they managed to locate the correct drawings and parts, and figured out how they went together. Eventually, they built six Little Boy assemblies. Although the casings, barrels, and components were tested, no enriched uranium was supplied for the bombs. By early 1947, the problem caused by the Wigner effect was on its way to solution, and the three officers were reassigned.
The Navy [of Ordnance](Bureau)(Bureau of Ordnance) built 25 Little Boy assemblies in 1947 for use by the nuclear-capable [P2V Neptune](Lockheed)(Lockheed P2V Neptune) [carrier](aircraft)(aircraft carrier) aircraft (which could be launched from, but not land, on the [aircraft carriers](*Midway*-class)(Midway-class aircraft carrier)). Components were produced by the Naval Ordnance Plants in [Idaho](Pocatello,)(Pocatello, Idaho), and [Kentucky](Louisville,)(Louisville, Kentucky). Enough fissionable material was available by 1948 to build ten projectiles and targets, although there were only enough initiators for six. All the Little Boy units were withdrawn from service by the end of January 1951.
The [Institution](Smithsonian)(Smithsonian Institution) displayed a Little Boy (complete, except for enriched uranium), until 1986. The [of Energy](Department)(United States Department of Energy) took the weapon from the museum to remove its inner components, so the bombs could not be stolen and detonated with fissile material. The government returned the emptied casing to the Smithsonian in 1993. Three other disarmed bombs are on display in the United States; another is at the [War Museum](Imperial)(Imperial War Museum) in London.
## Notes
## References
*
* |access-date=2013-11-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406172413/http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/atomic/hiroshim/hiro_med.pdf |archive-date=6 April 2012 |df=dmy-all }} This report can also be found [here](http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/MED/index.shtml) and [here](http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/mpmenu.asp).
*
*
*
*
*
* This report can also be found [here](http://marshall.csu.edu.au/Marshalls/html/WWII/USSBS_Summary.html).
* |access-date=2013-11-06 }}
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* |access-date=6 November 2013 }}
* |doi=10.1038/sj.bjc.6601322}}
* |doi=10.1002/ijc.11400|s2cid=23902907 |doi-access=free }}
*
*
*
* |access-date=2013-11-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130422224749/http://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/thermal.htm |archive-date=22 April 2013 |df=dmy-all }}
*
*
* |doi=10.1667/RR1801.1 |display-authors=etal|bibcode=2009RadR..172..368R }}
*
*
## External links
* [Little Boy description](http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq8.html#nfaq8.1.3) at Carey Sublette's NuclearWeaponArchive.org
* [Nuclear Files.org](http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/pre-cold-war/manhattan-project/littleboy.htm) Definition and explanation of 'Little Boy'
* [The Nuclear Weapon Archive](http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Med/Lbfm.html)
* [Simulation of "Little Boy"](http://beltoforion.de/article.php?a=little_boy) an interactive simulation of "Little Boy"
* [Little Boy 3D Model](http://www.atomicarchive.com/Movies/index.shtml)
* [Hiroshima & Nagasaki Remembered](http://www.hiroshima-remembered.com/history/index.html) information about preparation and dropping the Little Boy bomb
* [Little boy Nuclear Bomb at Imperial War museum London UK (jpg)](http://www.ssrichardmontgomery.com/download/littleboy.jpg)
[of the Manhattan Project](Category:History)(Category:History of the Manhattan Project)
[bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki](Category:Atomic)(Category:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki)
[nuclear bombs](Category:Gun-type)(Category:Gun-type nuclear bombs)
[War II weapons of the United States](Category:World)(Category:World War II weapons of the United States)
[names](Category:Code)(Category:Code names)
[bombs of the United States](Category:Nuclear)(Category:Nuclear bombs of the United States)
[War aerial bombs of the United States](Category:Cold)(Category:Cold War aerial bombs of the United States)
[Corporation](Category:Lockheed)(Category:Lockheed Corporation)
[containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips)
[War II aerial bombs of the United States](Category:World)(Category:World War II aerial bombs of the United States)
[and ammunition introduced in 1945](Category:Weapons)(Category:Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1945)
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Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
|
mohammad_reza_pahlavi
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# Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
*Revision ID: 1160055144 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T04:39:00Z*
---
| name = Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
| title = [of Kings](King)(Shahanshah)[of the Aryans](Light)(Aryamehr)
| image = File:Shah_fullsize.jpg
| caption = Mohammad Reza Shah in 1973
| succession = [of Iran](Shah)(Shah of Iran)
| reign = 16 September 1941 – 11 February 1979
| coronation = 26 October 1967
|}}
| predecessor = [Shah](Reza)(Reza Shah)
| successor = *Monarchy abolished* [Khomeini](Ruhollah)(Ruhollah Khomeini) (as [Leader](Supreme)(Supreme Leader of Iran))
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Tehran](Tehran), [State of Persia](Sublime)(Qajar Iran)
| death_date =
| death_place = [Cairo](Cairo), [Egypt](Egypt)
| burial_place =
| spouse =
*
*}}
| issue =
| regnal name = Mohammad Reza Shah
| native_lang1 = [mater](Alma)(Alma mater)
| native_lang1_name1 =
| house = [Pahlavi](House of Pahlavi)
| father = [Shah](Reza)(Reza Shah)
| mother = [ol-Molouk](Tadj)(Tadj ol-Molouk)
| religion = [Shi’ism](Twelver)(Twelver Shi’ism)
| signature = [120px](File:Mohammadreza pahlavi signature.svg)
| module =
}}
}}
**Mohammad Reza Pahlavi** (, ; 26 October 1919 – 27 July 1980), widely known in the West as **Mohammad Reza Shah** (), was the last *[Shah](Shah)* ([King](King)) of the [State of Iran](Imperial)(Imperial State of Iran) from 16 September 1941 until his overthrow in the [Revolution](Islamic)(Islamic Revolution) on 11 February 1979. Owing to his status, he was usually known as **the Shah**.
Mohammad Reza Shah took the title *Shahanshah* ("[of Kings](King)(King of Kings)")D. N. MacKenzie. *A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary.* Routledge Curzon, 2005. on 26 October 1967 and held several other titles, including that of *[Aryamehr](Aryamehr)* ("Light of the [Aryan](Aryan)s") and *[Arteshtaran](Bozorg)(Commander-in-Chief of the Iranian Armed Forces)* ("Commander-in-Chief"). He was the second and last monarch of the [of Pahlavi](House)(Pahlavi dynasty). His dream of what he referred to as a "[Civilization](Great)(Great Civilization)" () in Iran led to a rapid industrial and military modernization, as well as economic and social reforms.
Mohammad Reza came to power during World War II after the [invasion](Anglo-Soviet)(Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran) which forced the abdication of his father, [Shah Pahlavi](Reza)(Reza Shah). During Mohammad Reza's reign, the British-owned oil industry was briefly nationalized by Iranian Prime Minister [Mosaddegh](Mohammad)(Mohammad Mosaddegh) until an [coup d'état](Army)(1953 Iranian coup d'état) supported by the UK and the US deposed Mosaddegh, reinstalled the Shah, and brought back foreign oil firms under the [Agreement of 1954](Consortium)(The Consortium Agreement of 1954). The Shah went on to become a dominant figure in [OPEC](OPEC), promoting a surge in oil prices that crippled Western economies.
Mohammad Reza introduced the [Revolution](White)(White Revolution), a series of economic, social, and political reforms aimed at transforming Iran into a global power and modernizing the nation by nationalizing key industries and land redistribution. The regime implemented many [Iranian](Iranian peoples) nationalist policies, including making [the Great](Cyrus)(Cyrus the Great) a popular symbol of Iran.
The Shah initiated major investments in infrastructure, [subsidies](subsidies) and [grants](land)(land grants) for peasant populations, [sharing](profit)(profit sharing) for industrial workers, construction of [facilities](nuclear)(Nuclear power plant), the nationalization of Iran's natural resources, and literacy programs which were considered some of the most effective in the world. The Shah also instituted economic policy [tariffs](tariffs) and preferential loans to Iranian businesses which sought to create an independent economy for the nation. Manufacturing of cars, appliances, and other goods in Iran increased substantially leading to the creation of a new industrialist class that was considered insulated from threats of foreign competition. By the 1970s, the Shah was seen as a master statesman and used his growing power to pass the [Sale and Purchase Agreement](1973)(1973 Sale and Purchase Agreement).
These reforms culminated in decades of sustained economic growth that would make Iran one of the fastest-growing economies of both developed and undeveloped nations. During his 37-year rule, Iran spent billions on industry, education, health, and armed forces and enjoyed economic growth rates exceeding the United States, Britain, and France. National income rose 423 times over. The nation saw an unprecedented rise in [capita income](per)(per capita income) rising to the highest level at any point in Iran's history and high levels of [urbanization](urbanization). By 1977, Iran's armed services spending, which the Shah saw as a means to end foreign intervention in Iran, had made the nation the world's fifth strongest military.
By 1978, growing political unrest snowballed into a [revolution](popular)(Iranian Revolution) leading to the monarchy's overthrow. The [Square massacre](Jaleh)(Black Friday (1978)), where his military killed and wounded dozens of protestors and the [Rex](Cinema)(Cinema Rex fire) fire, an arson attack in [Abadan](Abadan, Iran) that was largely but erroneously blamed on [SAVAK](SAVAK), leading to protests across Iran, made his position in Iran untenable. The true perpetrators of the Cinema Rex fire, and whether they were pro- or anti-Shah remain unclear. A meeting of western leaders was perceived by the Shah as a withdrawal of their support. He left Iran for exile on 17 January 1979. Despite the Shah telling some Western contemporaries that he would rather leave Iran than fire on his people, the estimated total number of [during the Iranian Revolution](casualties)(Casualties of the Iranian Revolution) ranges from 540 to 2,000 (historians' figures) to 60,000 (figures of the Islamic Republic of Iran). With the Revolution, the Iranian monarchy was formally abolished, and Iran was declared an [republic](Islamic)(Islamic republic) led by [Khomeini](Ruhollah)(Ruhollah Khomeini). The Shah died in exile in [Egypt](Egypt), where he had been granted [asylum](Right of asylum) by Egyptian President [Sadat](Anwar)(Anwar Sadat).
## Early life
[[Prince Mohammad Reza Pahlavi in 1930.jpg|upright|thumb|Mohammad Reza in 1930](File:The)]
Born in [Tehran](Tehran) to [Khan](Reza)(Reza Shah) (later Reza Shah Pahlavi) and his second wife, [ol-Molouk](Tadj)(Tadj ol-Molouk), Mohammad Reza was the eldest son of Reza Khan, who later became the first Shah of the [dynasty](Pahlavi)(Pahlavi dynasty), and the third of his eleven children. His father, a former Brigadier-General of the [Cossack Brigade](Persian)(Persian Cossack Brigade), was [Mazandarani](Mazanderani people) origin and born in [Alasht](Alasht), [County](Savadkuh)(Savadkuh County), [Province](Māzandarān)(Māzandarān Province), his father was a [Mazandarani](Mazanderani people), commissioned in the 7th [Savadkuh](Savadkuh County) Regiment, and served in the [War](Anglo-Persian)(Anglo-Persian War) War in 1856, and mother was a [Georgian](Georgians) Muslim immigrant from [Georgia](Georgia (country)) (then part of the [Empire](Russian)(Russian Empire)), whose family had emigrated to mainland [Iran](Qajar dynasty) after Iran was forced to cede all of its territories in the [Caucasus](Caucasus) following the [Wars](Russo-Persian)(Russo-Persian Wars) several decades prior to Reza Khan's birth. Mohammad Reza's mother, [ol-Molouk](Tadj)(Tadj ol-Molouk), was of [Azerbaijani](Azerbaijanis) origin, being born in [Baku](Baku), Russian Empire (now [Azerbaijan](Azerbaijan)).
[[Prince Mohammad Reza in 1939](File:CrownPrinceMohammadRezaPahlavi1.jpg|thumb|upright|Crown)]
Mohammad Reza was born along with his twin sister, [Ashraf](Ashraf Pahlavi). However, [Shams](Shams Pahlavi), Mohammad Reza, Ashraf, [Reza](Ali)(Ali Reza Pahlavi I), and their older half-sister, [Fatimeh](Fatimeh Pahlavi), were not royalty by birth, as their father did not become Shah until 1925. Nevertheless, Reza Khan was always convinced that his sudden quirk of good fortune had commenced in 1919 with the birth of his son who was dubbed *khoshghadam* (bird of good omen).Fereydoun Hoveyda. *The Shah and the Ayatollah: Iranian Mythology and Islamic Revolution* (Westport: Praeger, 2003) p. 5; and Ali Dashti, *Panjah va Panj* ("Fifty Five") (Los Angeles: Dehkhoda, 1381) p. 13. Like most Iranians at the time, Reza Khan did not have a surname. After the [Persian coup d'état](1921)(1921 Persian coup d'état) which saw the deposal of [Shah Qajar](Ahmad)(Ahmad Shah Qajar), Reza Khan was informed that he would need a surname for his [house](Royal family). This led him to pass a law ordering all Iranians to take a surname; he chose for himself the surname Pahlavi, which is the name for the [Persian](Middle)(Middle Persian) language, itself derived from [Persian](Old)(Old Persian). At his father's coronation on 24 April 1926, Mohammad Reza was proclaimed [Prince](Crown)(Crown Prince).
### Family
Mohammad Reza described his father in his book *Mission for My Country* as "one of the most frightening men" he had ever known, depicting Reza Khan as a dominating man with a violent temper. A tough, fierce, and very ambitious soldier who became the first Persian to command the elite Russian-trained Cossack Brigade, Reza Khan liked to kick subordinates in the groin who failed to follow his orders; growing up under his shadow, Mohammad Reza was a deeply scared and insecure boy who lacked self-confidence according to Iranian-American historian [Milani](Abbas)(Abbas Milani).
[[File:Ashraf et shah.jpg|thumb|left|Mohammad Reza with his twin sister, [Ashraf](Ashraf Pahlavi), in the 1940s]]
Reza Khan believed if fathers showed love for their sons, it caused homosexuality later in life, and to ensure his favourite son was heterosexual, denied him any love and affection when he was young, though he later became more affectionate towards the Crown Prince when he was a teenager. Reza Khan always addressed his son as *shoma* ("sir") and refused to use more informal *tow* ("you"), and in turn was addressed by his son using the same word. The Polish journalist [Kapuściński](Ryszard)(Ryszard Kapuściński) observed in his book *Shah of Shahs* that looking at old photographs of Reza Khan and his son, he was struck by how self-confident and assured Reza Khan appeared in his uniform while Mohammad Reza appeared nervous and jittery in his uniform standing next to his father.Kapuściński, Ryszard. *Shah of Shahs*, New York: Vintage, 1992, p. 27. In the 1930s, Reza Khan was an outspoken admirer of [Hitler](Adolf)(Adolf Hitler), though this was less because of any racism and anti-Semitism on his part, but rather because Reza Khan saw Hitler as someone much like himself, namely a man who had risen from an undistinguished background to become a [leader of the 20th century](notable)(List of state leaders in the 20th century).Brogan, Patrick. *The Fighting Never Stopped: A Comprehensive Guide To World Conflicts Since 1945*, New York: Vintage Books, 1989, p. 246. Reza Khan often impressed on his son his belief that history was made by great men such as himself, and that a real leader is an autocrat. Reza Khan was a huge barrel-chested and muscular man towering at over , leading his son to liken him to a mountain, and throughout his life, Mohammad Reza was obsessed with height and stature, for example wearing elevator shoes to make himself look taller than he really was, often boasting that Iran's highest mountain [Damavand](Mount)(Mount Damavand) was higher than any peak in Europe or Japan, and he was always most attracted to tall women.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, pp. 13 f. As Shah, Mohammad Reza constantly disparaged his father in private, calling him a thuggish Cossack who achieved nothing as Shah, and most notably the son almost airbrushed his father out of history during his reign, to the point that the impression was given the House of Pahlavi began its rule in 1941 rather than 1925.
[[File:Banquet à Téhéran lors du mariage de Fawzia Fuad et de Mohammad Reza Pahlavi - 1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The Iranian and Egyptian imperial families after a wedding in [Palace](Saadabad)(Saadabad Palace), Tehran, 25 April 1939]]
Mohammad Reza's mother, Tadj ol-Molouk was an assertive woman who was also very superstitious. She believed that dreams were messages from another world, sacrificed lambs to bring good fortune and scare away evil spirits, and clad her children with protective amulets to ward off the power of the evil eye. Tadj ol-Molouk was the main emotional support to her son, cultivating a belief in him that destiny had chosen him for great things, as the soothsayers she consulted had explained her dreams as proving just precisely that. Mohammad Reza grew up surrounded by women, as the main influences on him were his mother, his older sister Shams and his twin sister Ashraf, leading the American psychologist [Zonis](Marvin)(Marvin Zonis) to conclude it was "from women, and apparently from women alone" that the future Shah "received whatever psychological nourishment he was able to get as a child".Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 33. Traditionally, male children were considered preferable to females, and as a boy, Mohammad Reza was often spoiled by his mother and sisters. Mohammad Reza was very close to his twin sister Ashraf who commented: "It was this twinship and this relationship with my brother that would nourish and sustain me throughout my childhood ... No matter how I would reach out in the years to come—sometimes even desperately—to find an identity and a purpose of my own, I would remain inextricably tied to my brother ... always, the center of my existence was, and is, Mohammad Reza".Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 121.
After becoming Crown Prince, Mohammad Reza was taken away from his mother and sisters to be given a "manly education" by officers selected by his father, who also ordered that everyone including his mother and siblings were to address the Crown Prince as "Your Highness". The result of his upbringing between a loving, if possessive and superstitious mother and an overbearing martinet father was to make Mohammad Reza in the words of Zonis "a young man of low self-esteem who masked his lack of self-confidence, his indecisiveness, his passivity, his dependency and his shyness with masculine bravado, impulsiveness, and arrogance", making him into a person of marked contradictions as the Crown Prince was "both gentle and cruel, withdrawn and active, dependent and assertive, weak and powerful".Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 54.
### Education
[[File:Mohammad Reza Pahlavi Entering a Military School, Tehran 1938.jpg|thumb|upright|Mohammad Reza entering [Nezam](Madrasa)(Madrasa Nezam), a [school](military)(military school) in [Tehran](Tehran), 1938]]
By the time Mohammad Reza turned 11, [father](his)(Rezā Shāh) deferred to the recommendation of [Teymourtash](Abdolhossein)(Abdolhossein Teymourtash), the Minister of Court, to dispatch his son to [Le Rosey](Institut)(Institut Le Rosey), a Swiss boarding school, for further studies. Mohammad Reza left Iran for [Switzerland](Switzerland) on 7 September 1931. On his first day as a student at Le Rosey in September 1931, the Crown Prince antagonised a group of his fellow students who were sitting on a bench in a park outside Le Rosey with his demand that they all stand to attention as he walked past, just as everybody did back in Iran, which led to an American student beating up Mohammad Reza, who swiftly learned to accept that no one would stand to attention wherever he went in Switzerland. As a student, Mohammad Reza played competitive football, but the school records indicate that his principal problem as a football player was his "timidity" as the Crown Prince was afraid to take risks. The Crown Prince was educated in French at Le Rosey, and his time there left Mohammad Reza with a lifelong love of all things French. In articles he wrote in French for the student newspaper in 1935 and 1936, Mohammad Reza praised Le Rosey for broadening his mind and introducing him to European civilisation.
Mohammad Reza was the first Iranian prince in line for the throne to be sent abroad to attain a foreign education and remained there for the next four years before returning to obtain his high school diploma in Iran in 1936. After returning to the country, the Crown Prince was registered at the local [academy](military)(military academy) in Tehran where he remained enrolled until 1938, graduating as a Second Lieutenant. Upon graduating, Mohammad Reza was quickly promoted to the rank of captain, a rank which he kept until he became Shah. During college, the young prince was appointed Inspector of the Army and spent three years travelling across the country, examining both civil and military installations.
Mohammad Reza spoke [English](English language), [French](French language) and [German](German language) fluently in addition to his native language [Persian](Persian language).
[[File:Crown Prince Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and Teymourtash2.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|A young Mohammad Reza with [Teymourtash](Abdolhossein)(Abdolhossein Teymourtash) at the [Le Rosey](Institut)(Institut Le Rosey) in [Lausanne](Lausanne), Switzerland, 1932]]
During his time in Switzerland, Mohammad Reza befriended [Perron](Ernest)(Ernest Perron) introducing Mohammad Reza to French poetry and under his influence Chateaubriand and Rabelais became his "favorite French authors".Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 50. The Crown Prince liked Perron so much that when he returned to Iran in 1936, he brought Perron back with him, installing his best friend in the [Palace](Marble)(Marble Palace (Tehran)).Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 116 f. Perron lived in Iran until his death in 1961 and as the best friend of Mohammad Reza was a man of considerable behind-the-scenes power.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 117. After the Islamic Revolution in 1979, a best-selling book was published by the new regime, *Ernest Perron, the Husband of the Shah of Iran* by Mohammad Pourkian, alleging a homosexual relationship between the Shah and Perron, which has remained the official interpretation in the Islamic Republic to the present day.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 118. Zonis described the book as long on assertions and short on evidence of a homosexual relationship between the two, noted that all of the Shah's courtiers rejected the claim that Perron was the Shah's lover, and argued that strong-willed Reza Khan, who was very homophobic, would not have allowed Perron to move into the Marble Palace in 1936 if he believed Perron was his son's lover.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 117 f.
## Early reign
### First marriage
[[File:Fawzia+Reza.jpg|thumb|Photograph of the wedding ceremony of Crown Prince Mohammad Reza (right) and Princess [of Egypt](Fawzia)(Fawzia Fuad of Egypt) at [Palace](Abdeen)(Abdeen Palace) in [Cairo](Cairo), 1939]]
One of the main initiatives of Iranian and Turkish foreign policy had been the Saadabad pact of 1937, an alliance bringing together Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Afghanistan, with the intent of creating a Muslim bloc that, it was hoped, would deter any aggressors. President [Kemal Atatürk](Mustafa)(Mustafa Kemal Atatürk) of Turkey suggested to his friend Reza Khan during the latter's visit to [Turkey](Turkey) that a marriage between the Iranian and Egyptian courts would be beneficial for the two countries and their dynasties, as it might lead to Egypt joining the Saadabad pact. In line with this suggestion, Mohammad Reza and Princess Fawzia married. Dilawar Princess [of Egypt](Fawzia)(Fawzia Fuad of Egypt) (5 November 1921 – 2 July 2013), a daughter of King [I of Egypt](Fuad)(Fuad I of Egypt) and [Sabri](Nazli)(Nazli Sabri), was a sister of [Farouk I of Egypt](King)(Farouk of Egypt). They married on 15 March 1939 in [Abdeen Palace](the)(Abdeen Palace) in [Cairo](Cairo). Reza Shah did not participate in the ceremony. During his visit to Egypt, Mohammad Reza was greatly impressed with the grandeur of the Egyptian court as he visited the various palaces built by the [Pasha](Isma'il)(Isma'il Pasha), aka "Isma'il the Magnificent", the famously free-spending Khedive of Egypt, and resolved that Iran needed palaces to match those built by Isma'il.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 63.
Mohammad Reza's marriage to Fawzia produced one child, a daughter, Princess [Pahlavi](Shahnaz)(Shahnaz Pahlavi) (born 27 October 1940). Their marriage was not a happy one as the Crown Prince was openly unfaithful, often being seen driving around Tehran in one of his expensive cars with one of his girlfriends.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan 2011, p. 78. Mohammad Reza's dominating and extremely possessive mother saw her daughter-in-law as a rival to her son's love, and took to humiliating Princess Fawzia, whose husband sided with his mother. A quiet, shy woman, Fawzia described her marriage as miserable, feeling very much unwanted and unloved by the Pahlavi family and longing to go back to Egypt. In his 1961 book *Mission For My Country*, Mohammad Reza wrote the "only happy light moment" of his entire marriage to Fawzia was the birth of his daughter.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 139.
### Deposition of his father
[[File:Shah with FDR.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.1|Pahlavi meeting with American president [D. Roosevelt](Franklin)(Franklin D. Roosevelt) during the [Conference](Tehran)(Tehran Conference) (1943), two years after his father's forced abdication during the [invasion of Iran](Anglo-Soviet)(Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran)]]
In the midst of [War II](World)(World War II) in 1941, [Germany](Nazi)(Nazi Germany) began [Barbarossa](Operation)(Operation Barbarossa) and invaded the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union), breaking the [Pact](Molotov–Ribbentrop)(Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact). This had a major impact on Iran, which had declared neutrality in the conflict. In the summer of 1941, Soviet and British diplomats passed on numerous messages warning that they regarded the presence of a number of Germans administering the Iranian state railroads as a threat, implying war if the Germans were not dismissed.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan 2011, p. 77. Britain wished to ship arms to the Soviet Union via Iranian railroads, and statements from the German managers of the Iranian railroads that they would not cooperate made both Moscow and London insistent that the Germans Reza Khan had hired to run his railroads had to be sacked at once. As his father's closest advisor, the Crown Prince Mohammad Reza did not see fit to raise the issue of a possible Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran, blithely assuring his father that nothing would happen.
[[File:Shahstalinmolotov.JPG|thumb|left|upright=1.1|Pahlavi (centre), pictured between [Stalin](Joseph)(Joseph Stalin) and [Molotov](Vyacheslav)(Vyacheslav Molotov) at the [Conference](Tehran)(Tehran Conference).]]
The Iranian-American historian [Milani](Abbas)(Abbas Milani) wrote about the relationship between the Reza Khan and the Crown Prince: "As his father's now constant companion, the two men consulted on virtually every decision".Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan 2011, p. 79. Later that year British and Soviet forces occupied Iran in a military invasion, forcing Reza Shah to abdicate. On 25 August 1941, British and Australian naval forces attacked the Persian Gulf while the Soviet Union conducted a land invasion from the north. On the second day of the invasion with the Soviet air force bombing Tehran, Mohammad Reza was shocked to see the Iranian military simply collapse, with thousands of terrified officers and men all over Tehran taking off their uniforms in order to desert and run away despite the fact they had not seen combat yet.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan 2011, p. 78 f. Reflecting the panic, a group of senior Iranian generals called the Crown Prince to receive his blessing to hold a meeting to discuss how best to surrender. When Reza Khan learned of the meeting, he flew into a rage and attacked one of his generals, Ahmad Nakhjavan, striking him with his riding crop, tearing off his medals and was about to personally execute him when his son persuaded him to have the general court-martialed instead. The collapse of the Iranian military in the summer of 1941 that his father had worked so hard to build up humiliated his son, who vowed that he would never see Iran defeated like that again, which explained Mohammad Reza's later obsession with military spending.
### Ascension to the throne
[[inauguration of Mohammad Reza as Shah of Iran in the National Assembly, 17 September 1941](File:Mrp1941.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|The)]
On 16 September 1941, Prime Minister Forughi and Foreign Minister Ali Soheili attended a special session of parliament to announce the resignation of Reza Shah and that Mohammad Reza was to replace him. The next day, at 4:30pm, Mohammad Reza took the oath of office and was received warmly by parliamentarians. On his way back to the palace, the streets filled with people welcoming the new Shah jubilantly, seemingly more enthusiastic than the Allies would have liked. The British would have liked to put a Qajar back on the throne, but the principal Qajar claimant to the throne was Prince [Mirza](Hamid)(Hamid Mirza), an officer in the Royal Navy who did not speak Persian, so the British had to accept Mohammad Reza as Shah.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 85. The main Soviet interest in 1941 was to ensure political stability to ensure Allied supplies, which meant accepting Mohammad Reza's ascension to the throne. Subsequent to his succession as king, Iran became a major conduit for British and, later, American aid to the USSR during the war. This massive supply effort became known as the [Corridor](Persian)(Persian Corridor).
Much of the credit for orchestrating a smooth transition of power from the King to the Crown Prince was due to the efforts of [Ali Foroughi](Mohammad)(Mohammad Ali Foroughi). Suffering from [angina](Angina pectoris), a frail Foroughi was summoned to the Palace and appointed prime minister when Reza Shah feared the end of the Pahlavi dynasty once the Allies invaded Iran in 1941. When Reza Shah sought his assistance to ensure that the Allies would not put an end to the Pahlavi dynasty, Foroughi put aside his adverse personal sentiments for having been politically sidelined since 1935. The Crown Prince confided in amazement to the British minister that Foroughi "hardly expected any son of Reza Shah to be a civilized human being", but Foroughi successfully derailed thoughts by the [Allies](Allies of World War II) to undertake a more drastic change in the political infrastructure of Iran.
[[File:PMforoughi2.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|[Ali Foroughi](Mohammad)(Mohammad Ali Foroughi) (left) with Mohammad Reza Shah]]
A general amnesty was issued two days after Mohammad Reza's accession to the throne on 19 September 1941. All political personalities who had suffered disgrace during his father's reign were rehabilitated, and the forced unveiling policy inaugurated by his father in 1935 was overturned. Despite the young king's enlightened decisions, the British minister in Tehran reported to London that "the young Shah received a fairly spontaneous welcome on his first public experience, possibly rather [due] to relief at the disappearance of his father than to public affection for himself". During his early days as Shah, Mohammad Reza lacked self-confidence and spent most of his time with Perron writing poetry in French.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan 2011, p. 91.
In 1942, Mohammad Reza met [Willkie](Wendell)(Wendell Willkie), the Republican candidate for the U.S. presidency in the 1940 election who was now on a world tour for President Roosevelt to promote his "one world" policy; Willkie took him flying for the first time.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 135. The prime minister, Ahmad Qavam, had advised the Shah against flying with Wilkie, saying he had never met a man with a worse flatulence problem, but the Shah took his chances. Mohammed Reza told Willkie that when he was flying he "wanted to stay up indefinitely". Enjoying flight, Mohammad Reza hired the American pilot Dick Collbarn to teach him how to fly. Upon arriving at the Marble Palace, Collbarn noted that "the Shah must have twenty-five custom-built cars...Buicks, Cadillacs, six Rolls-Royces, a Mercedes". During the Tehran conference in 1943, the Shah was humiliated when he met Joseph Stalin, who visited him in the Marble Palace and did not allow the Shah's bodyguards to be present, with the Red Army alone guarding the Marble Palace during Stalin's visit.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan 2011, p. 112.
### Opinion of his father's rule
Despite his public professions of admiration in later years, Mohammad Reza had serious misgivings about not only the coarse and roughshod political means adopted by his father, but also his unsophisticated approach to affairs of state. The young Shah possessed a decidedly more refined temperament, and amongst the unsavory developments that "would haunt him when he was king" were the political disgrace brought by his father on [Teymourtash](Teymourtash); the dismissal of Foroughi by the mid-1930s; and [Akbar Davar](Ali)(Ali Akbar Davar)'s suicide in 1937.Gholam Reza Afghami. *The Life and Times of the Shah* (2009), p. 34 f. An even more significant decision that cast a long shadow was the disastrous and one-sided agreement his father had negotiated with the [Oil Company](Anglo-Persian)(Anglo-Persian Oil Company) (APOC) in 1933, one which compromised the country's ability to receive more favourable returns from oil extracted from the country.
### Relationship with his exiled father
Mohammad Reza expressed concern for his exiled father who had previously complained to the British governor of Mauritius that living on the island was both a climatic and social prison. Attentively following his life in exile, Mohammad Reza would object to his father's treatment to British at any opportunity. The two sent letters to one another, although delivery was often delayed, and Mohammad Reza commissioned his friend, Ernest Perron, to hand-deliver a taped message of love and respect to his father, bringing back with him a recording of his voice.
[[Prince Mohammad Reza with his father, Reza Shah, September 1941](File:RSMRS.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Crown)]
My dear son, since the time I resigned in your favour and left my country, my only pleasure has been to witness your sincere service to your country. I have always known that your youth and your love of the country are vast reservoirs of power on which you will draw to stand firm against the difficulties you face and that, despite all the troubles, you will emerge from this ordeal with honour. Not a moment passes without my thinking of you and yet the only thing that keeps me happy and satisfied is the thought that you are spending your time in the service of Iran. You must remain always aware of what goes on in the country. You must not succumb to advice that is self-serving and false. You must remain firm and constant. You must never be afraid of the events that come your way. Now that you have taken on your shoulders this heavy burden in such dark days, you must know that the price to be paid for the slightest mistake on your part may be our twenty years of service and our family's name. You must never yield to anxiety or despair; rather, you must remain calm and so strongly rooted in your place that no power may hope to move the constancy of your will.
### The young Shah
[[Reza Shah Pahlavi in hospital 1949 jpeg.jpg|right|thumb|Picture of Mohammad Reza in hospital after the failed assassination attempt, 1949](File:Mohamad)]
In 1945–46, the main issue in Iranian politics were the Soviet-sponsored separatist government in Iranian [Azerbaijan](Azerbaijan) and [Kurdistan](Kurdistan), which greatly alarmed the Shah. He repeatedly clashed with his prime minister [Qavam](Ahmad)(Ahmad Qavam), whom he viewed as too pro-Soviet. At the same time, the growing popularity of the Tudeh Party also worried Mohammad Reza, who felt there was a serious possibility of a coup by the Tudeh. In June 1946, Mohammad Reza was relieved when the Red Army pulled out of Iran. In a letter to the Azerbaijani Communist leader [Pishevari](Ja'far)(Ja'far Pishevari), Stalin stated that he had to pull out of Iran as otherwise the Americans would not pull out of China, and he wanted to assist the Chinese Communists in their civil war against the [Kuomintang](Kuomintang). However, the Pishevari regime remained in power in Tabriz, and Mohammad Reza sought to undercut Qavam's attempts to make an agreement with Pishevari as way of getting rid of both. On 11 December 1946, the Iranian Army led by the Shah in person entered Iranian Azerbaijan and the Pishevari regime collapsed with little resistance, with most of the fighting occurring between ordinary people who attacked functionaries of the Pishevari regime who had behaved brutally. In his statements at the time and later, Mohammad Reza credited his easy success in Azerbaijan to his "mystical power". Knowing Qavam's penchant for corruption, the Shah used that issue as a reason to sack him. By this time, Fawzia had returned to Egypt, and despite efforts to have King Farouk persuade her to return to Iran she refused to go, which led Mohammad Reza to divorce her on 17 November 1948.
A qualified pilot, Mohammad Reza was fascinated with flying and the technical details of aeroplanes, and any insult to him was always an attempt to "clip my wings". Mohammad Reza directed more money to the Imperial Iranian Air Force than any branch of the armed forces, and his favourite uniform was that of the Marshal of the Imperial Iranian Air Force.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, pp. 8–13. Zonis wrote that Mohammad Reza's obsession with flying reflected an [complex](Icarus)(Icarus complex), also known as "ascensionism", a form of narcissism based on "a craving for unsolicited attention and admiration" and the "wish to overcome gravity, to stand erect, to grow tall ... to leap or swing into the air, to climb, to rise, to fly."
Mohammad Reza often spoke of women as sexual objects who existed only to gratify him, which led to his 1973 exchange with [Fallaci](Oriana Fallaci), who vehemently objected to his attitudes towards women.Zonis*Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, pp. 34–35. As a regular visitor to the nightclubs of Italy, France and the United Kingdom, Mohammad Reza was linked romantically to several actresses including [Tierney](Gene)(Gene Tierney), [De Carlo](Yvonne)(Yvonne De Carlo) and [Mangano](Silvana)(Silvana Mangano).
At least two unsuccessful assassination attempts were made against the young Shah. On 4 February 1949, he attended an annual ceremony to commemorate the founding of [University](Tehran)(Tehran University). At the ceremony, Fakhr-Arai fired five shots at him at a range of c. three metres. Only one of the shots hit the king, grazing his cheek. Fakhr-Arai was instantly shot by nearby officers. After an investigation, it was thought that Fakhr-Arai was a member of the [Party](Tudeh)(Tudeh Party), which was subsequently banned. However, there is evidence that the would-be assassin was not a Tudeh member but a religious fundamentalist member of [Islam](Fada'iyan-e)(Fada'iyan-e Islam). The Tudeh were nonetheless blamed and persecuted.Behrooz writing in *Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran*, edited by Mark j. Gasiorowski and Malcolm Byrne, Syracuse University Press, 2004, p. 121.
The Shah's second wife was [Esfandiary-Bakhtiary](Soraya)(Soraya Esfandiary-Bakhtiary), a half-German, half-Iranian woman and the only daughter of Khalil Esfandiary-Bakhtiary, Iranian Ambassador to [Germany](West)(West Germany), and his wife, the former Eva Karl. She was introduced to the Shah by Forough Zafar Bakhtiary, a close relative of Soraya's, via a photograph taken by Goodarz Bakhtiary, in London, per Forough Zafar's request. They married on 12 February 1951, when Soraya was 18 according to the official announcement; however, it was rumoured that she was actually 16, the Shah being 32. As a child she was tutored and brought up by Frau Mantel, and hence lacked proper knowledge of Iran, as she herself admits in her personal memoirs, stating, "I was a dunce—I knew next to nothing of the geography, the legends of my country, nothing of its history, nothing of Muslim religion."
### Oil nationalisation and the 1953 coup
[[File:Photograph of the President and Mrs. Truman with the Shah of Iran, in formal attire, during the Shah's visit to the... - NARA - 200150.jpg|thumb|Pahlavi with U.S. President [Truman](Harry S. Truman) in Washington, November 1949]]
By the early 1950s, the political crisis brewing in Iran commanded the attention of British and American policy leaders. Following the [Iranian legislative election](1950)(1950 Iranian legislative election), [Mosaddegh](Mohammad)(Mohammad Mosaddegh) was appointed prime minister in 1951. He was committed to nationalising the Iranian petroleum industry controlled by the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) (as [Oil Company](Anglo-Persian)(Anglo-Persian Oil Company), or APOC, had become). Under the leadership of Mosaddegh and his [nationalist](nationalization) movement, the Iranian parliament unanimously voted to nationalise the oil industry—thus shutting out the immensely profitable AIOC, which was a pillar of Britain's economy and provided it political clout in the region.
At the start of the confrontation, American political sympathy was forthcoming from the [Administration](Truman)(Harry Truman). In particular, Mosaddegh was buoyed by the advice and counsel he was receiving from the American Ambassador in Tehran, [F. Grady](Henry)(Henry F. Grady). However, eventually American decision-makers lost their patience, and by the time the [Republican](Republican Party (United States)) administration of President [D. Eisenhower](Dwight)(Dwight D. Eisenhower) entered office, fears that communists were poised to overthrow the government became an all-consuming concern; these concerns were later dismissed as "paranoid" in retrospective commentary on the coup from U.S. government officials. Shortly prior to the [presidential election](1952)(1952 United States presidential election) in the United States, the British government invited [Intelligence Agency](Central)(Central Intelligence Agency) (CIA) officer [Roosevelt Jr.](Kermit)(Kermit Roosevelt Jr.), to London to propose collaboration on a secret plan to force Mosaddegh from office.Kermit Roosevelt. *Counter Coup*, New York, 1979. This would be the first of three "regime change" operations led by [Dulles](Allen)(Allen Dulles) (the other two being the successful CIA-instigated [Guatemalan coup d'état](1954)(1954 Guatemalan coup d'état) and the failed [of Pigs Invasion](Bay)(Bay of Pigs Invasion) of Cuba).
Under the direction of Kermit Roosevelt Jr., a senior CIA officer and grandson of former U.S. President [Roosevelt](Theodore)(Theodore Roosevelt), the American CIA and British [Intelligence Service](Secret)(Secret Intelligence Service) (SIS) funded and led a [operation](covert)(covert operation) to depose Mosaddegh with the help of military forces disloyal to the government. Referred to as [Ajax](Operation)(Operation Ajax), the plot hinged on orders signed by Mohammad Reza to dismiss Mosaddegh as prime minister and replace him with General [Zahedi](Fazlollah)(Fazlollah Zahedi), a choice agreed on by the British and Americans.
Despite the high-level coordination and planning, the coup initially failed, causing the Shah to flee to [Baghdad](Baghdad), and then to Rome. During his time in Rome, a British diplomat reported about a monarch who spent most of his time in nightclubs with Queen Soraya or his latest mistress: "He hates taking decisions and cannot be relied on to stick to them when taken. He has no moral courage and succumbs easily to fear". To get him to support the coup, his twin sister Princess Ashraf — who was much tougher than he and publicly questioned his manhood several times — visited him on 29 July 1953 to berate him into signing a decree dismissing Mossaddegh. After a brief exile in Italy, he returned to Iran, this time through a successful second attempt at a coup. A deposed Mosaddegh was arrested and tried. The king intervened and [commuted](Pardon) the sentence to three years, to be followed by life in internal exile. Zahedi was installed to succeed Mosaddegh.Pollack, *The Persian Puzzle* (2005), p. 72 f.
Before the first attempted coup, the American Embassy in Tehran reported that Mosaddegh's popular support remained robust. The Prime Minister requested direct control of the army from the [Majlis](Majlis). Given the situation, alongside the strong personal support of [Conservative](Conservative Party (UK)) Prime Minister [Churchill](Winston)(Winston Churchill) and Foreign Secretary [Eden](Anthony)(Anthony Eden) for covert action, the American government gave the go-ahead to a committee, attended by the Secretary of State [Foster Dulles](John)(John Foster Dulles), [of Central Intelligence](Director)(Director of Central Intelligence) [Dulles](Allen)(Allen Dulles), Kermit Roosevelt, Henderson, and [of Defense](Secretary)(United States Secretary of Defense) [Erwin Wilson](Charles)(Charles Erwin Wilson). Kermit Roosevelt returned to Iran on 13 July 1953, and again on 1 August 1953, in his first meeting with the king. A car picked him up at midnight and drove him to the palace. He lay down on the seat and covered himself with a blanket as guards waved his driver through the gates. The Shah got into the car and Roosevelt explained the mission. The CIA bribed him with $1 million in Iranian currency, which Roosevelt had stored in a large safe—a bulky cache, given the then-exchange rate of 1,000 rial to 15 dollars.Robert Graham, *Iran: The Illusion of Power*, p. 66.
The Communists staged massive demonstrations to hijack Mosaddegh's initiatives, and the United States actively plotted against him. On 16 August 1953, the right wing of the Army attacked. Armed with an order by the Shah, it appointed General [Zahedi](Fazlollah)(Fazlollah Zahedi) as prime minister. A coalition of mobs and retired officers close to the Palace executed this coup d'état. They failed dismally and the Shah decided to leave the country. *[Ettelaat](Ettelaat)*, the nation's largest daily newspaper, and its pro-Shah publisher, Abbas Masudi, were against him, calling the defeat "humiliating".*The New York Times*, 23 July 1953, 1:5.
During the following two days, the Communists turned against Mosaddegh. Opposition against him grew tremendously. They roamed Tehran, raising red flags and pulling down statues of Reza Shah. This was rejected by conservative clerics like [Kashani](Abol-Ghasem Kashani) and [Front](National)(National Front (Iran)) leaders like [Makki](Hossein)(Hossein Makki), who sided with the king. On 18 August 1953, Mosaddegh defended the government against this new attack. Tudeh partisans were clubbed and dispersed.*The New York Times*, 19 August 1953, 1:4, p. 5.
[[File:Zahedifirman.jpg|thumb|The Shah's *[firman](firman)* naming General [Zahedi](Fazlollah)(Fazlollah Zahedi) the new [minister](prime)(Prime Minister of Iran). Coup operatives made copies of the document and circulated it around [Tehran](Tehran) to help regenerate momentum following the collapse of the original plan.]]
The Tudeh party had no choice but to accept defeat. In the meantime, according to the CIA plot, Zahedi appealed to the military, claimed to be the legitimate prime minister and charged Mosaddegh with staging a coup by ignoring the Shah's decree. Zahedi's son Ardeshir acted as the contact between the CIA and his father. On 19 August 1953, pro-Shah partisans—bribed with $100,000 in CIA funds—finally appeared and marched out of south Tehran into the city centre, where others joined in. Gangs with clubs, knives, and rocks controlled the streets, overturning Tudeh trucks and beating up anti-Shah activists. As Roosevelt was congratulating Zahedi in the basement of his hiding place, the new Prime Minister's mobs burst in and carried him upstairs on their shoulders. That evening, Henderson suggested to Ardashir that Mosaddegh not be harmed. Roosevelt gave Zahedi US$900,000 left from Operation Ajax funds.
U.S. actions further solidified sentiments that the West was a meddlesome influence in Iranian politics. In the year 2000, reflecting on this notion, U.S. Secretary of State [K. Albright](Madeleine)(Madeleine K. Albright) stated:
In 1953 the United States played a significant role in orchestrating the overthrow of Iran's popular prime minister, Mohammad Mosaddegh. The Eisenhower Administration believed its actions were justified for strategic reasons; but the coup was clearly a setback for Iran's political development. And it is easy to see now why many Iranians continue to resent this intervention by America in their internal affairs.[FAS.org](https://fas.org/news/iran/2000/000317.htm) , 17 March 2000 Albright remarks on American-Iran Relations
Mohammad Reza returned to power, but never extended the elite status of the court to the technocrats and intellectuals who emerged from Iranian and Western universities. Indeed, his system irritated the new classes, for they were barred from partaking in real power.R. W. Cottam, *Nationalism in Iran*.
### The Shah asserts himself: from playboy to authoritarian
[[File:Mohammad Reza Pahlavi with Ernest Perron.jpg|thumb|left|Mohammad Reza with his friend and advisor, [Perron](Ernest)(Ernest Perron) (left), 1950s]]
In the aftermath of the 1953 coup d'état, Mohammad Reza was widely viewed as a figurehead monarch, and General [Zahedi](Fazlollah)(Fazlollah Zahedi), the Prime Minister, saw himself and was viewed by others as the "strong man" of Iran. Mohammad Reza feared that history would repeat itself, remembering how his father was a general who had seized power in a coup d'état in 1921 and deposed the last Qajar shah in 1925, and his major concern in the years 1953–55 was to neutralise Zahedi. American and British diplomats in their reports back to Washington and London in the 1950s were openly contemptuous of Mohammad Reza's ability to lead, calling the Shah a weak-willed and cowardly man who was incapable of making a decision. The contempt in which the Shah was held by Iranian elites led to a period in the mid-1950s where the elite displayed fissiparous tendencies, feuding amongst themselves now that Mossadegh had been overthrown, which ultimately allowed Mohammad Reza to play off various factions in the elite to assert himself as the nation's leader.
The very fact that Mohammad Reza was considered a coward and insubstantial turned out be an advantage as the Shah proved to be an adroit politician, playing off the factions in the elite and the Americans against the British with the aim of being an autocrat in practice as well as in theory. Supporters of the banned [Front](National)(National Front (Iran)) were persecuted, but in his first important decision as leader, Mohammad Reza intervened to ensure most of the members of the National Front brought to trial, such as Mosaddegh himself, were not executed as many had expected. Many in the Iranian elite were openly disappointed that Mohammad Reza did not conduct the expected bloody purge and hang Mosaddegh and his followers as they had wanted and expected. In 1954, when twelve university professors issued a public statement criticising the 1953 coup, all were dismissed from their jobs, but in the first of his many acts of "magnanimity" towards the National Front, Mohammad Reza intervened to have them reinstated. Mohammad Reza tried very hard to co-opt the supporters of the National Front by adopting some of their rhetoric and addressing their concerns, for example declaring in several speeches his concerns about the Third World economic conditions and poverty which prevailed in Iran, a matter that had not much interested him before.
[[of a Young Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi in Full Military Dress.jpg|thumb|Formal portrait of the young Shah in full military dress, ](File:Portrait)]
Mohammad Reza was determined to copy Mosaddegh, who had won popularity by promising broad socio-economic reforms, and wanted to create a mass powerbase as he did not wish to depend upon the traditional elites, who only wanted him as a legitimising figurehead. In 1955, Mohammad Reza dismissed General Zahedi from his position as prime minister and appointed his archenemy, the technocrat [Ala'](Hossein)(Hossein Ala') as prime minister, whom he in turn dismissed in 1957. Starting in 1955, Mohammad Reza began to quietly cultivate left-wing intellectuals, many of whom had supported the National Front and some of whom were associated with the banned Tudeh party, asking them for advice about how best to reform Iran. It was during this period that Mohammad Reza began to embrace the image of a "progressive" Shah, a reformer who would modernise Iran, who attacked in his speeches the "reactionary" and "feudal" social system that was retarding progress, bring about land reform and give women equal rights.
[[Shah demonstration, 1954](File:Proshah1954.jpg|thumb|left|Pro)]
Determined to rule as well as reign, it was during the mid 1950s that Mohammad Reza started to promote a state cult around Cyrus the Great, portrayed as a great Shah who had reformed the country and built an empire with obvious parallels to himself. Alongside this change in image, Mohammad Reza started to speak of his desire to "save" Iran, a duty that he claimed he had been given by God, and promised that under his leadership Iran would reach a Western standard of living in the near future. During this period, Mohammad Reza sought the support of the *[ulema](ulema)*, and resumed the traditional policy of persecuting those Iranians who belonged to the [Faith](Baháʼí)(Baháʼí Faith), allowing the chief Baháʼí temple in Tehran to be razed in 1955 and bringing in a law banning the Baháʼí from gathering together in groups. A British diplomat reported in 1954 that Reza Khan "must have been spinning in his grave at [Rey](Ray, Iran). To see the arrogance and effrontery of the mullahs once again rampant in the holy city! How the old tyrant must despise the weakness of his son, who allowed these turbulent priests to regain so much of their reactionary influence!" By this time, the Shah's marriage was under strain as Queen Soraya complained about the power of Mohammad Reza's best friend Ernest Perron, whom she called a "*shetun*" and a "limping devil". Perron was a man much resented for his influence on Mohammad Reza and was often described by enemies as a "diabolical" and "mysterious" character, whose position was that of a private secretary, but who was one of the Shah's closest advisors, holding far more power than his job title suggested.
In a 1957 study compiled by the [State Department](U.S.)(U.S. State Department), Mohammad Reza was praised for his "growing maturity" and no longer needing "to seek advice at every turn" as the previous 1951 study had concluded. On 27 February 1958, a military coup to depose the Shah led by General Valiollah Gharani was thwarted, which led to a major crisis in Iranian-American relations when evidence emerged that associates of Gharani had met American diplomats in Athens, which the Shah used to demand that henceforward no American officials could meet with his opponents. Another issue in Iranian-American relations was Mohammad Reza's suspicion that the United States was insufficiently committed to Iran's defense, observing that the Americans refused to join the [Pact](Baghdad)(Baghdad Pact), and military studies had indicated that Iran could only hold out for a few days in the event of a Soviet invasion.
[[File:1959-11-02 Iran.ogv|thumb|*[Newsreel](Universal)(Universal Newsreel)* on the Shah's 40th birthday, 1959]]
[[lighting cigarette for his wife Sorraya.jpg|thumb|upright|The Shah lighting a cigarette for his wife Soraya, 1950s](File:Shah)]
In January 1959, the Shah began negotiations on a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, which he claimed to have been driven to by a lack of American support. After receiving a mildly threatening letter from President Eisenhower warning him against signing the treaty, Mohammad Reza chose not to sign, which led to a major Soviet propaganda effort calling for his overthrow. Soviet leader [Khrushchev](Nikita)(Nikita Khrushchev) ordered Mohammad Reza assassinated. A sign of Mohammad Reza's power came in 1959 when a British company won a contract with the Iranian government that was suddenly cancelled and given to Siemens instead. An investigation by the British embassy soon uncovered the reason why: Mohammad Reza wanted to bed the wife of the Siemens sales agent for Iran, and the Siemens agent had consented to allowing his wife to sleep with the Shah in exchange for winning back the contract that he had just lost. On 24 July 1959, Mohammad Reza gave Israel *de facto* recognition by allowing an Israeli trade office to be opened in Tehran that functioned as a *de facto* embassy, a move that offended many in the Islamic world. When Eisenhower visited Iran on 14 December 1959, Mohammad Reza told him that Iran faced two main external threats: the Soviet Union to the north and the new pro-Soviet revolutionary government in Iraq to the west. This led him to ask for vastly increased American military aid, saying his country was a front-line state in the Cold War that needed as much military power as possible.
The Shah and Soraya's marriage ended in 1958 when it became apparent that, even with help from medical doctors, she could not bear children. Soraya later told *The New York Times* that the Shah had no choice but to divorce her, and that he was heavy-hearted about the decision. However, even after the marriage, it is reported that the Shah still had great love for Soraya, and it is reported that they met several times after their divorce and that she lived her post-divorce life comfortably as a wealthy lady, even though she never remarried; being paid a monthly salary of about $7,000 from Iran. Following her death in 2001 at the age of 69 in Paris, an auction of the possessions included a three-million-dollar Paris estate, a 22.37-carat diamond ring and a 1958 Rolls-Royce.
Pahlavi subsequently indicated his interest in marrying [Maria Gabriella of Savoy](Princess)(Princess Maria Gabriella of Savoy), a daughter of the deposed Italian king, [II](Umberto)(Umberto II of Italy). [John XXIII](Pope)(Pope John XXIII) reportedly vetoed the suggestion. In an editorial about the rumours surrounding the marriage of a "Muslim sovereign and a Catholic princess", the Vatican newspaper, ''[Romano](L'Osservatore)(L'Osservatore Romano)*, considered the match "a grave danger",Paul Hofmann, "Pope Bans Marriage of Princess to Shah", *The New York Times'', 24 February 1959, p. 1. especially considering that under the 1917 Code of [Law](Canon)(Canon Law) a Roman Catholic who married a divorced person would be automatically, and could be formally, [excommunicated](excommunicated).
[[US visit.jpg|thumb|upright|The Shah visiting New York, 1960s](File:Shah)]
In the [U.S. presidential election](1960)(1960 U.S. presidential election), the Shah had favoured the Republican candidate, incumbent Vice President [Nixon](Richard)(Richard Nixon), whom he had first met in 1953 and rather liked, and according to the diary of his best friend [Alam](Asadollah)(Asadollah Alam), Mohammad Reza contributed money to the 1960 Nixon campaign. Relations with the victor of the 1960 election, the [Democrat](Democratic Party (United States)) [F. Kennedy](John)(John F. Kennedy), were not friendly. In an attempt to mend relations after Nixon's defeat, Mohammad Reza sent General [Bakhtiar](Teymur)(Teymur Bakhtiar) of SAVAK to meet Kennedy in Washington on 1 March 1961. From [Roosevelt](Kermit)(Kermit Roosevelt Jr.), Mohammad Reza learned that Bakhtiar, during his trip to Washington, had asked the Americans to support a coup he was planning, which greatly increased the Shah's fears about Kennedy. On 2 May 1961, a teacher's strike involving 50,000 people began in Iran, which Mohammad Reza believed was the work of the CIA. Mohammad Reza had to sack his prime minister [Sharif-Emami](Jafar)(Jafar Sharif-Emami) and give in to the teachers after learning that the Army probably would not fire on the demonstrators. In 1961, Bakhtiar was dismissed as chief of SAVAK and expelled from Iran in 1962 following a clash between demonstrating university students and the army on 21 January 1962 that left three dead. In April 1962, when Mohammad Reza visited Washington, he was met with demonstrations by Iranian students at American universities, which he believed were organised by [Attorney General](U.S.)(U.S. Attorney General) [F. Kennedy](Robert)(Robert F. Kennedy), the President's brother and the leading anti-Pahlavi voice in the Kennedy administration. Afterwards, Mohammad Reza visited London. In a sign of the changed dynamics in Anglo-Iranian relations, the Shah took offence when he was informed he could join Queen [II](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth II) for a dinner at [Palace](Buckingham)(Buckingham Palace) that was given in somebody else's honour, insisting successfully he would have dinner with the Queen only when given in his own honour.
Mohammad Reza's first major clash with [Khomeini](Ayatollah)(Ruhollah Khomeini) occurred in 1962, when the Shah changed the local laws to allow Iranian Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and Baha'i to take the oath of office for municipal councils using their holy books instead of the Koran. Khomeini wrote to the Shah to say this was unacceptable and that only the Koran could be used to swear in members of the municipal councils regardless of what their religion was, writing that he heard "Islam is not indicated as a precondition for standing for office and women are being granted the right to vote...Please order all laws inimical to the sacred and official faith of the country to be eliminated from government policies." The Shah wrote back, addressing Khomeini as *Hojat-al Islam* rather than as Ayatollah, declining his request. Feeling pressure from demonstrations organised by the clergy, the Shah withdrew the offending law, but it was reinstated with the White Revolution of 1963.
## Middle years
### The Shah and his enemies
[[File:Mpr1963.jpg|thumb|left|The Shah speaks about the principles of his [Revolution](White)(White Revolution), 1963]]
In 1963, Mohammad Reza launched the [Revolution](White)(White Revolution), a series of far-reaching reforms, which caused much opposition from the religious scholars. They were enraged that the referendum approving of the White Revolution in 1963 allowed women to vote, with the Ayatollah Khomeini saying in his sermons that the fate of Iran should never be allowed to be decided by women.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, pp. 294, 408. In 1963 and 1964, nationwide demonstrations against Mohammad Reza's rule took place all over Iran, with the centre of the unrest being the holy city of [Qom](Qom).Brogan, Patrick. *The Fighting Never Stopped: a comprehensive guide to world conflicts since 1945*, New York: Vintage Book, 1989, p. 246 f. Students studying to be imams at Qom were most active in the protests, and Ayatollah Khomeini emerged as one of the leaders, giving sermons calling for the Shah's overthrow. At least 200 people were killed, with the police throwing some students to their deaths from high buildings, and Khomeini was exiled to Iraq in August 1964.Brogan, Patrick. *The Fighting Never Stopped: a comprehensive guide to world conflicts since 1945*, New York: Vintage Book, 1989, p. 247.
The second attempt on the Shah's life occurred on 10 April 1965. A soldier shot his way through the [Palace](Marble)(Marble Palace (Tehran)). The assassin was killed before he reached the royal quarters, but two civilian guards died protecting the Shah.
According to [Kuzichkin](Vladimir)(Vladimir Kuzichkin), a former [KGB](KGB) officer who defected to [MI-6](Secret Intelligence Service), the Soviet Union also targeted the Shah. The Soviets tried to use a TV [control](remote)(remote control) to detonate a bomb-laden [Beetle](Volkswagen)(Volkswagen Beetle); the TV remote failed to function. A high-ranking Romanian defector, [Mihai Pacepa](Ion)(Ion Mihai Pacepa), also supported this claim, asserting that he had been the target of various assassination attempts by Soviet agents for many years.
### The Shah and his court
[[File:ShahanshahWedding1338.png|thumb|Wedding of the Shah with [Diba](Farah)(Farah Pahlavi) on 20 December 1959]]
[[File:A prince is born1.jpg|thumb|The Shah and his wife, Farah, after the birth of their son, [Reza](Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran), in a public hospital in [Tehran](Tehran), 1960]]
Mohammad Reza's third and final wife was [Diba](Farah)(Farah Pahlavi) (born 14 October 1938), the only child of Sohrab Diba, a captain in the Imperial Iranian Army (son of an Iranian ambassador to the [Romanov](House of Romanov) Court in St. Petersburg, Russia), and his wife, the former [Ghotbi](Farideh)(Farideh Ghotbi). They were married in 1959, and Queen Farah was crowned [Shahbanu](Shahbanu), or Empress, a title created specially for her in 1967. Previous royal consorts had been known as "Malakeh" (Arabic: [*Malika*](Malik)), or Queen. The couple remained together for 21 years, until the Shah's death. They had four children together:
* Crown Prince [Pahlavi](Reza)(Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran) (born 31 October 1960), heir to the now defunct Iranian throne. Reza Pahlavi is the founder and leader of [Council of Iran](National)(National Council of Iran), a [in exile](government)(government in exile) of [Iran](Iran);
* Princess [Pahlavi](Farahnaz)(Farahnaz Pahlavi) (born 12 March 1963);
* Prince [Reza Pahlavi](Ali)(Ali Reza Pahlavi (born 1966)) (28 April 1966 – 4 January 2011);
* Princess [Pahlavi](Leila)(Leila Pahlavi) (27 March 1970 – 10 June 2001).
One of Mohammad Reza's favourite activities was watching films and his favourites were light French comedies and Hollywood action films, much to the disappointment of Farah who tried hard to interest him in more serious films. Mohammad Reza was frequently unfaithful towards Farah, and his right-hand man [Alam](Asadollah)(Asadollah Alam) regularly imported tall European women for "outings" with the Shah, though Alam's diary also mentions that if women from the "blue-eyed world" were not available, he would bring the Shah "local product". Mohammad Reza had an insatiable appetite for sex, and Alam's diary has the Shah constantly telling him he needed to have sex several times a day, every day, or otherwise he would fall into depression. When Farah found out about his affairs in 1973, Alam blamed the prime minister Amir Abbas Hoveyda while the Shah thought it was the KGB. Milani noted that neither admitted it was the Shah's "crass infidelities" that caused this issue. Milani further wrote that "Alam, in his most destructive moments of sycophancy, reassured the Shah—or his "master" as he calls him—that the country was prosperous and no one begrudged the King a bit of fun". He also had a passion for automobiles and aeroplanes, and by the middle 1970s, the Shah had amassed one of the world's largest collection of luxury cars and planes. His visits to the West were invariably the occasions for major protests by the Confederation of Iranian Students, an umbrella group of left-wing Iranian university students studying abroad, and Mohammad Reza had one of the world's largest security details as he lived in constant fear of assassination.
[[Binder Haus der Geschichte Studentenrevolte 1968 2001 03 0275.0138 (16457761403).jpg|thumb|An anti-Shah demonstration in Germany, 1968](File:Ludwig)]
Milani described Mohammad Reza's court as open and tolerant, noting that his and Farah's two favourite interior designers, Keyvan Khosravani and Bijan Saffari, were openly gay, and were not penalised for their sexual orientation with Khosravani often giving advice to the Shah about how to dress. Milani noted the close connection between architecture and power in Iran as architecture is the "poetry of power" in Iran. In this sense, the Niavaran Palace, with its mixture of modernist style, heavily influenced by current French styles and traditional Persian style, reflected Mohammad Reza's personality. Mohammad Reza was a Francophile whose court had a decidedly French ambiance to it.
Mohammad Reza commissioned a documentary from the French film-maker [Lamorisse](Albert)(Albert Lamorisse) meant to glorify Iran under his rule. But he was annoyed that the film focused only on Iran's past, writing to Lamorisse there were no modern buildings in his film, which he charged made Iran look "backward". Mohammad Reza's office was functional whose ceilings and walls were decorated with Qajar art. Farah began collecting modern art and by the early 1970s owned works by [Picasso](Pablo Picasso), [Gauguin](Paul Gauguin), [Chagall](Marc Chagall), and [Braque](Georges Braque), which added to the modernist feel of the Niavaran Palace.
### Imperial coronation
On 26 October 1967, twenty-six years into his reign as Shah ("King"), he took the ancient title *Shāhanshāh* ("Emperor" or "King of Kings") in a lavish coronation ceremony held in Tehran. He said that he chose to wait until this moment to assume the title because in his own opinion he "did not deserve it" up until then; he is also recorded as saying that there was "no honour in being Emperor of a poor country" (which he viewed Iran as being until that time).*National Geographic magazine*, Vol. 133, No. 3 (March 1968), p. 299.
### 2,500-year celebrations
[[File:ShahanshahiIran2500YearsPasargad1.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|The arrival of Shah Mohammad Reza, Shahbanu Farah and Crown Prince Reza in [Pasargadae](Pasargadae), in front of Cyrus' tomb, 12 October 1971]]
As part of his efforts to modernise Iran and give the Iranian people a non-Islamic identity, Mohammad Reza quite consciously started to celebrate Iranian history before the Arab conquest with a special focus on the [Achaemenid](Achaemenid) period.Grigor, Tallinn. "Preserving the Antique Modern: Persepolis '71", pp. 21–29, in: *Future Anterior: Journal of Historic Preservation, History, Theory, and Criticism*, Vol. 2, No. 1 (Summer 2005), p. 24. In October 1971, he marked the anniversary of [years of continuous Persian monarchy](2,500)(2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire) since the founding of the [Empire](Achaemenid)(Achaemenid Empire) by [the Great](Cyrus)(Cyrus the Great). Concurrent with this celebration, Mohammad Reza changed the benchmark of the Iranian calendar from the [Hijrah](Hijrah) to the beginning of the [Persian Empire](First)(First Persian Empire), measured from Cyrus the Great's coronation.
At the celebration at [Persepolis](Persepolis) in 1971, the Shah had an elaborate fireworks show intended to send a dual message; that Iran was still faithful to its ancient traditions and that Iran had transcended its past to become a modern nation, that Iran was not "stuck in the past", but as a nation that embraced modernity had chosen to be faithful to its past.Grigor, Tallinn "Preserving the Antique Modern: Persepolis '71", pp. 21–29, in: *Future Anterior: Journal of Historic Preservation, History, Theory, and Criticism*, Vol. 2, No. 1 (Summer 2005), p. 26. The message was further reinforced the next day when the "Parade of Persian History" was performed at Persepolis when 6,000 soldiers dressed in the uniforms of every dynasty from the Achaemenids to the Pahlavis marched past Mohammad Reza in a grand parade that many contemporaries remarked "surpassed in sheer spectacle the most florid celluloid imaginations of Hollywood epics". To complete the message, Mohammad Reza finished off the celebrations by opening a brand new museum in Tehran, the Shahyad Aryamehr, that was housed in a very modernistic building and attended another parade in the newly opened Aryamehr Stadium, intended to give a message of "compressed time" between antiquity and modernity. A brochure put up by the Celebration Committee explicitly stated the message: "Only when change is extremely rapid, and the past ten years have proved to be so, does the past attain new and unsuspected values worth cultivating", going on to say the celebrations were held because "Iran has began to feel confident of its modernization". Milani noted it was sign of the liberalization of the middle years of Mohammad Reza's reign that Hussein Amanat, the architect who designed the Shahyad was a young Baha'i from a middle-class family who did not belong to the "thousand families" that traditionally dominated Iran, writing that only in this moment in Iranian history such a thing was possible.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 351 ff.
### 1973 oil price hike
Prior to the 1973 oil embargo Iran spearheaded OPEC's aim for higher oil prices. When raising oil prices Iran would point out the rising inflation as a means to justify the price increases.
In the aftermath of the [Kippur War](Yom)(Yom Kippur War), Arab states employed an oil embargo in 1973 against Western nations. Although the Shah declared neutrality, he sought to exploit the lack of crude oil supply to Iran's benefit. The Shah held a meeting of Persian Gulf oil producers declaring they should double the price of oil for the second time in a year. The price hike resulted in an “oil shock” that crippled Western economies while Iran saw a rapid growth of oil revenues. Iranian oil incomes doubled to $4.6 billion in 1973–1974 and spiked to $17.8 billion in the following year. As a result, the Shah was established as the dominant figure of OPEC, having control over oil prices and production. Iran experienced an economic growth rate of 33% in 1973 and 40% the next year, and GNP expanded 50% in the next year.
The Shah directed the growth in oil revenues back into the domestic economy. Elementary school education was made free and mandatory, major investments were made in the military, and in 1974, 16 billion dollars were spent on building new schools and hospitals. The Shah's oil coup signaled that the United States had lost the ability to influence Iranian foreign and economic policy. Under the Shah, Iran dominated OPEC and middle eastern oil exports.
### Nationalism
By the 19th century, the Persian word Vatan began to refer to a national homeland by many intellectuals in Iran. The education system was largely controlled by Shiite clergy who utilized a Maktab system in which open political discussion of modernization was prevented. However, a number of scholarly intellectuals including Mirzā FathʿAli Ākhundzādeh, Mirzā Āqā Khān Kermāni and Mirzā Malkam Khān began to criticize Islam's role in public life while promoting a secular identity for Iran. Over time studies of Iran's glorious history and present reality of a declined Qajar period led many to question what led to Iran's decline. Ultimately Iranian history was categorized into two periods pre-Islamic and Islamic. Iran's pre-Islamic period was seen as prosperous while the Arab invasions were seen as, ‘a political catastrophe that pummelled the superior Iranian civilization under its hoof.’ Therefore, as a result of the growing number of Iranian intellectuals in the 1800s, the Ancient Persian Empire symbolized modernity and originality, while the Islamic period brought by Arab invasions brought Iran to a period of backwardness.
Ultimately these revelations in Iran would lead to the rise of [Aryan](Aryan) nationalism in Iran and the perception of a ‘intellectual awakening’, as described by Homa Katouzian. In Europe, many concepts of Aryan Nationalism were directed at the anti-Jewish sentiment. In contrast, Iran's Aryan nationalism was deeply rooted in Persian history and became synonymous with an anti-Arab sentiment instead. Furthermore, the Achaemenid and Sasanian periods were perceived as the real Persia, a Persia which commanded the respect of the world and was void of foreign culture before the Arab invasions.
Thus under the Pahlavi state, these ideas of Aryan and pre-Islamic Iranian nationalism continued with the rise of Reza Shah. Under the last Shah, the tomb of Cyrus the Great was established as a significant site for all Iranians. The Mission for My Country, written by the Shah, described Cyrus as ‘one of the most dynamic men in history’ and that ‘wherever Cyrus conquered, he would pardon the very people who had fought him, treat them well, and keep them in their former posts ... While Iran at the time knew nothing of democratic political institutions, Cyrus nevertheless demonstrated some of the qualities which provide the strength of the great modern democracies’. The Cyrus Cylinder also became an important cultural symbol and Pahlavi successfully popularized the decree as an ancient declaration of human rights.
The Shah employed titles like Āryāmehr and Shāhanshāh in order to emphasize Iranian supremacy and the kings of Iran.
The Shah continued on with his father's ideas of Iranian nationalism concluding Arabs as the utmost [other](other (philosophy)). Nationalist narratives which were widely accepted by a majority of Iranians portraying Arabs as hostile to Pahlavi's revival of ‘modern’ and ‘authentic’ Iran.
### Economy
[[File:Shahvisitkharg.jpg|thumb|upright=1|The Shah visiting the [Kharg](Kharg Island) Petrochemical Complex, 1970]]
In the 1970s, Iran had an economic growth rate equal to that of South Korea, Turkey and Taiwan, and Western journalists all regularly predicted that Iran would become a [World](First)(First World) nation within the next generation.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 393. Significantly, a "reverse brain drain" had begun with Iranians who had been educated in the West returning home to take up positions in government and business.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 313. The firm of Iran National ran by the Khayami brothers had become by 1978 the largest automobile manufacturer in the Middle East producing 136,000 cars every year while employing 12,000 people in [Meshed](Meshed). One of the Khayami brothers complained if it had not been for the revolution "Iran National would be where the South Korean car industry is today". Mohammad Reza had strong étatist tendencies and was deeply involved in the economy, with his economic policies bearing a strong resemblance to the same étatist policies being pursued simultaneously by General [Chung-hee](Park)(Park Chung-hee) in South Korea. Mohammad Reza considered himself to be a socialist, saying he was "more socialist and revolutionary than anyone". Reflecting his self-proclaimed socialist tendencies, although unions were illegal, the Shah brought in labour laws that were "surprisingly fair to workers".Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 314. Iran in the 1960s and 70s was a tolerant place for [Jewish minority](the)(Persian Jews) with one Iranian Jew, David Menasheri, remembering that Mohammad Reza's reign was the "golden age" for Iranian Jews when they were equals, and when the Iranian Jewish community was one of the wealthiest Jewish communities in the world. The Baha'i minority also did well after the bout of persecution in the mid-1950s ended with several Baha'i families rising to prominence in the world of Iranian business.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, pp. 335 f.
Under his reign, Iran experienced over a decade of double-digit GDP growth coupled with major investments in military and infrastructure.
The Shah's first economic plan was geared towards large infrastructure projects and improving the agricultural sector which led to the development of many major dams particularly in Karaj, Safīdrūd, and Dez. The next economic plan was directed and characterized by an expansion in the credit and monetary policy of a nation which resulted in a rapid expansion of Iran's private sector, particularly construction. From the period 1955–1959, real gross fixed capital formation in the private sector saw an average annual increase of 39.3%. The private sector credit rose by 46 percent in 1957, 61 percent in 1958, and 32 percent in 1959 (Central Bank of Iran, Annual Report, 1960 and 1961). By 1963, the Shah had begun a redistribution of land offering compensation to landlords valued on previous tax assessments, and the land obtained by the government was then sold on favorable terms to Iranian peasants. The Shah also initiated the nationalization of forests and pastures, female suffrage, profit-sharing for industrial workers, privatization of state industries, and formation of literacy corps. These developments marked a turning point in Iranian history as the nation prepared to embark on a rapid and aggressive industrialization process.
1963–1978 represented the longest period of sustained growth in per capita real income the Iranian economy ever experienced. During the 1963–77 period gross Domestic Product (GDP) grew by an average annual rate of 10.5% with an annual population growth rate of around 2.7% placing Iran as one of the fasted growing economies in the world. Iran's GDP per capita was $170 in 1963 and rose to $2,060 by 1977. The growth was not just a result of increased oil revenues. In fact, the non-oil GDPs grew by an average annual rate of 11.5 percent, which was higher than the average annual rate of growth experienced in oil revenues. By the fifth economic planning, oil GDP rose to 15.3% strongly outpacing growth rates in oil revenue which only saw .5% growth. From 1963 to 1977 the industrial and the service sectors experienced annual growth rates of 15.0 and 14.3 percent, respectively. The manufacturing of cars, television sets, refrigerators, and other household goods increased substantially in Iran. For instance, over the small period of 1969 to 1977, the number of private cars produced in Iran increased steadily from 29,000 to 132,000 and the number of television sets produced rose from 73,000 in 1969 to 352,000 in 1975.
The growth of industrial sectors in Iran led to substantial urbanization of the country. The extent of urbanization rose from 31 percent in 1956 to 49 percent in 1978. By the mid-1970s Iran's national debt was paid off, turning the nation from a debtor to a creditor nation. The balances on the nation's account for the 1959–78 period actually resulted in a surplus of funds of approximately $15.17 billion. The Shah's fifth five-year economic plan sought to achieve a reduction in foreign imports through the use of higher tariffs on consumer goods, preferential bank loans to the industrialists, maintenance of an overvalued rial, and food subsidies in urban areas. These developments led to the development of a new large industrialist class in Iran and the nation's industrial structure was extremely insulated from threats of foreign competition.
In 1976, Iran saw its largest-ever GDP uptick, thanks in large part to the Shah's economic policies. According to the World Bank, when valued in 2010 dollars, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi improved the country's per-capita GDP to $10,261, the highest at any point in Iran's history.
According to economist Fereydoun Khavand, “During these 15 years, the average annual growth rate of the country fluctuated above 10%. The total volume of Iran's economy increased nearly fivefold during this period. In contrast, during the past 40 years, Iran's average annual economic growth rate has been only about two percent. Considering the growth rate of Iran's population in the post-revolution period, the average per capita growth rate of Iran in the last 40 years is estimated between zero percent and half a percent. Among the main factors hindering the growth rate in Iran are a lack of a favorable business environment, severe investment weakness, very low levels of productivity, and constant tension in the country's regional and global relations.”
Many European, American, and Japanese investment firms sought business ventures and to open up headquarters in Iran. According to one American investment banker,
}}
### Relationship with West and Media
By the 1960s and 1970s, Iranian oil revenues experienced rapid growth. By the mid-1960s Iran saw "weakened U.S. influence in Iranian politics" and a strengthening in the power of the Iranian state. According to [Katouzian](Homa)(Homa Katouzian), the perception that the US was the instructor of the Shah's regime due to their support for the 1953 coup contradicted the reality that "its real influence" in domestic Iranian politics and policy "declined considerably". In 1973 the Shah initiated an oil price hike with his control of OPEC further demonstrating the US no longer had influence over Iranian foreign and economic policies. In response to American media outlets critical of him, the Shah claimed that Iran's oil price hikes did little to contribute to the rising inflation in the United States. Pahlavi also implied criticism of the US for not taking the lead on anti-communist efforts.
In 1974 during the oil crisis, the Shah began an atomic nuclear energy policy prompting US Trade Administrator [E. Simon](William)(William E. Simon) to denounce the Shah as a "nut." In response, US President Nixon publicly apologized to the Shah and through a letter in order to disassociate the president and the United States from the statement. Simon's statement illustrated the growing American tensions with Iran over the Shah's raising of oil prices. Nixon's apology covered up the reality that Shah's ambitions to become the leader in the Persian Gulf Area and the Indian Ocean basin was placing a serious strain on his relationship with the United States, particularly as India had tested its first atomic bomb in May 1974.
Many critics labeled the Shah as a Western and American "puppet", an accusation that has been disproven as unfounded by contemporary scholars due to the Shah's strong regional and nationalist ambitions which often led Tehran to disputes with its Western allies. In particular, the Carter administration which took control of the White House in 1977 saw the Shah as a troublesome ally and sought change in Iran's political system.
By the 1970s, the Shah had become a [strongman](strongman). His power had dramatically increased both in Iran and internationally, and on the tenth anniversary of the [Revolution](White)(White Revolution), he challenged [Consortium Agreement of 1954](The)(The Consortium Agreement of 1954) and terminated the agreement after negotiations with the oil consortium resulting in the establishment of [Sale and Purchase Agreement](1973)(1973 Sale and Purchase Agreement).
Khomeini accused the Shah of false rumors and employed Soviet methods of deception. The accusations were amplified by international media outlets which widely propagated the information and protests were widely shown on Iranian televisions.
Many Iranian students studied across Western Europe and the United States where ideas of liberalism, democracy, and counterculture flourished. Among left-leaning Westerners, the Shah's reign was seen as equivalent to that of right-wing hate figures. Western anti-Shah fervor broadcast by European and American media outlets was ultimately adopted by Iranian students and intellectuals studying the West who accused the shah of Westoxification when it was the students themselves who were adopting Western liberalism they experienced during their studies. These Western ideas of liberalism resulted in utopian visions for revolution and social change. In turn, the Shah criticized Western democracies and equated them to chaos. Furthermore, the Shah chastised Americans and Europeans as being "lazy," and "lacking discipline," and criticized their student radicalism as being caused by Western decline. President Nixon expressed his concern to the Shah that Iranian students in the United States would similarly become radicalized, asking the Shah
### Foreign relations
[[File:Kennedy with Shah of Iran, 1961.jpg|thumb|Mohammad Reza, U.S. President [F. Kennedy](John)(John F. Kennedy), and [of Defense](Secretary)(United States Secretary of Defense) [McNamara](Robert)(Robert McNamara) in the [House Cabinet Room](White)(Cabinet Room (White House)), 1962]]
In 1961, the Francophile Mohammad Reza visited Paris to meet his favourite leader, General [de Gaulle](Charles)(Charles de Gaulle) of France.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 278. Mohammad Reza saw height as the measure of a man and a woman (the Shah had a marked preference for tall women) and the de Gaulle was his most admired leader. Mohammad Reza loved to be compared to his "ego ideal" of General de Gaulle, and his courtiers constantly flattered him by calling him Iran's de Gaulle. During the French trip, Queen Farah, who shared her husband's love of French culture and language, befriended the culture minister [Malraux](André)(André Malraux), who arranged for the exchange of cultural artifacts between French and Iranian museums and art galleries, a policy that remained a key component of Iran's cultural diplomacy until 1979.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 279. Many of the legitimising devices of the regime such as the constant use of referendums were modelled after de Gaulle's regime. Intense Francophiles, Mohammad Reza and Farah preferred to speak French rather than Persian to their children.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 347. Mohammad Reza built the [Palace](Niavaran)(Niavaran Palace Complex) which took up 9,000 square feet and whose style was a blend of Persian and French architecture.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, pp. 344–347.
The Shah's diplomatic foundation was the United States' guarantee that it would protect his regime, enabling him to stand up to larger enemies. While the arrangement did not preclude other partnerships and treaties, it helped to provide a somewhat stable environment in which Mohammad Reza could implement his reforms. Another factor guiding Mohammad Reza in his foreign policy was his wish for financial stability, which required strong diplomatic ties. A third factor was his wish to present Iran as a prosperous and powerful nation; this fuelled his domestic policy of Westernisation and reform. A final component was his promise that communism could be halted at Iran's border if his monarchy was preserved. By 1977, the country's treasury, the Shah's autocracy, and his strategic alliances seemed to form a protective layer around Iran.Precht, Henry. ["Ayatollah Realpolitik."](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1148618) *Foreign Policy* 70 (1988): 109–28.
[[File:Pahlavi meets Brezhnev in 1970.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|The Pahlavis meeting with general secretary [Brezhnev](Leonid)(Leonid Brezhnev) in Moscow, 1970]]
[[File:Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi in Tapiola, Finland in 1970.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.2|The Shah and his wife visited [Espoo](Espoo), [Finland](Finland) in June 1970. President [Kekkonen](Urho)(Urho Kekkonen) next to the Shah.]]
Although the U.S. was responsible for putting the Shah in power, he did not always act as a close American ally. In the early 1960s, when the State Department's [Planning Staff](Policy)(Policy Planning Staff (United States)) that included [R. Polk](William)(William R. Polk) encouraged the Shah to distribute Iran's growing revenues more equitably, slow the rush toward militarisation, and open the government to political processes, he became furious and identified Polk as "the principal enemy of his regime." In July 1964, the Shah, Turkish President [Gürsel](Cemal)(Cemal Gürsel), and Pakistani President [Khan](Ayub)(Ayub Khan (Field Marshal)) announced in [Istanbul](Istanbul) the establishment of the [Cooperation for Development](Regional)(Regional Cooperation for Development) (RCD) organisation to promote joint transportation and economic projects. It also envisioned [Afghanistan](Afghanistan)'s joining at some time in the future. The Shah was the first regional leader to grant *de facto* recognition to the [of Israel](State)(State of Israel). Although when interviewed on [Minutes*](*60)(CBS 60 Minutes) by reporter [Wallace](Mike)(Mike Wallace), he criticised [Jews](American)(American Jews) for their presumed control over U.S. media and finance; these remarks are widely believed to have only been intended to pacify the Shah's Arab critics, and in any case, bilateral relations between Iran and Israel were not adversely affected. In a 1967 memo to President [B. Johnson](Lyndon)(Lyndon B. Johnson), U.S. [Secretary](Defense)(United States Secretary of Defense) [McNamara](Robert)(Robert McNamara) wrote that "our sales [Iran](to) have created about 1.4 million man-years of employment in the U.S. and over $1 billion in profits to American industry over the last five years," leading him to conclude that Iran was an arms market the United States could not do without.Karsh, Effraim. *Islamic Imperialism: A History*, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, p. 199. In June 1965, after the Americans proved reluctant to sell Mohammad Reza some of the weapons he asked for, the Shah visited Moscow, where the Soviets agreed to sell some $110 million worth of weaponry; the threat of Iran pursuing the "Soviet option" caused the Americans to resume selling Iran weapons. Additionally, British, French, and Italian arms firms were willing to sell Iran weapons, thus giving Mohammad Reza considerable leverage in his talks with the Americans, who sometimes worried that the Shah was buying more weapons than Iran needed or could handle.
[[File:Pahlavis meet Indira Gandhi in India, 1970.jpg|thumb|The Shah with his wife Farah meets [Gandhi](Indira)(Indira Gandhi) in India, 1970]]
Concerning the fate of [Bahrain](Bahrain) (which Britain had controlled since the 19th century, but which Iran claimed as its own territory) and three small [Gulf](Persian)(Persian Gulf) islands, the Shah negotiated an agreement with the British, which, by means of a public consensus, ultimately led to the independence of Bahrain (against the wishes of Iranian nationalists). In return, [took full control](Iran)(Seizure of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs) of [and Lesser Tunbs](Greater)(Greater and Lesser Tunbs) and [Musa](Abu)(Abu Musa) in the [of Hormuz](Strait)(Strait of Hormuz), three strategically sensitive islands which were claimed by the [Arab Emirates](United)(United Arab Emirates). During this period, the Shah maintained cordial relations with the Persian Gulf states and established close diplomatic ties with [Arabia](Saudi)(Saudi Arabia). Mohammad Reza saw Iran as the natural dominant power in the Persian Gulf region, and tolerated no challenges to Iranian hegemony, a claim that was supported by a gargantuan arms-buying spree that started in the early 1960s.Karsh, Effraim. *[Islamic Imperialism: A History](https://books.google.com/books?id=LmZP3mixescC&q=Pahlavi)*, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, pp. 198–199. Mohammad Reza supported the [Yemen](Yemen)i royalists against republican forces in the [Civil War](Yemen)(North Yemen Civil War) (1962–70) and assisted the sultan of [Oman](Oman) in [down a rebellion](putting)(Dhofar Rebellion) in [Dhofar](Dhofar) (1971). In 1971, Mohammad Reza told a journalist: "World events were such that we were compelled to accept the fact that sea adjoining the Oman Sea—I mean the Indian Ocean—does not recognise borders. As for Iran's security limits—I will not state how many kilometers we have in mind, but anyone who is acquainted with geography and the strategic situation, and especially with the potential air and sea forces, know what distances from Chah Bahar this limit can reach".Karsh, Effraim *Islamic Imperialism: A History*, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, p. 198.
From 1968 to 1975 the Iraq deported over 60,000 Iraqis of Iranian descent into Iran causing a rise in tensions. Iran's relations with Iraq, however, were often difficult due to political instability in the latter country. Mohammad Reza was distrustful of both the Socialist government of [al-Karim Qasim](Abd)(Abd al-Karim Qasim) and the [nationalist](Arab)(Arab nationalist) [party](Baath)(Baath party). He resented the internationally recognised Iran-Iraq border on the [al-Arab](Shatt)(Shatt al-Arab) river, which a 1937 treaty fixed on the low watermark on the Iranian side, giving Iraq control of most of the Shatt al-Arab.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 142. On 19 April 1969, the Shah abrogated the treaty, and as a result Iran ceased paying tolls to Iraq when its ships used the Shatt al-Arab, ending Iraq's lucrative source of income.Karsh, Efraim. *The Iran-Iraq War 1980–1988*, London: Osprey, 2002 p. 7 f. He justified his move by arguing that almost all river borders all over the world ran along the *thalweg* (deep channel mark), and by claiming that because most of the ships that used the Shatt al-Arab were Iranian, the 1937 treaty was unfair to Iran.Bulloch, John and Morris, Harvey. *The Gulf War*, London: Methuen, 1989, p. 37. Iraq threatened war over the Iranian move, but when on 24 April 1969 an Iranian tanker escorted by Iranian warships sailed down the Shatt al-Arab without paying tolls, Iraq, being the militarily weaker state, did nothing.Karsh, Efraim. *The Iran-Iraq War 1980–1988*, London: Osprey, 2002, p. 8. The Iranian abrogation of the 1937 treaty marked the beginning of a period of acute Iraqi-Iranian tension that was to last until the Algiers Accords of 1975. The fact that Iraq had welcomed the former SAVAK chief General [Bakhtiar](Teymur)(Teymur Bakhtiar) to Baghdad, where he regularly met with representatives of the Tudeh Party and the Confederation of Iranian Students, added to the difficult relations between Iran and Iraq.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 317. On 7 August 1970, Bakhtiar was badly wounded by a SAVAK assassin who shot him five times, and he died five days later; Alam wrote in his diary that Mohammad Reza rejoiced at the news.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 318.
[[File:President Richard Nixon chats with the Shah of Iran, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi in the Oval Office.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Mohammad Reza speaks with [Nixon](Richard)(Richard Nixon) in the [Office](Oval)(Oval Office), 1973]]
On 7 May 1972, Mohammad Reza told a visiting President [Nixon](Richard)(Richard Nixon) that the Soviet Union was attempting to dominate the Middle East via its close ally Iraq, and that to check Iraqi ambitions would also be to check Soviet ambitions.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 360. Nixon agreed to support Iranian claims to have the *thalweg* in the Shatt al-Arab recognised as the border and to generally back Iran in its confrontation with Iraq. Mohammad Reza financed Kurdish separatist rebels in Iraq, and to cover his tracks, armed them with Soviet weapons which Israel had seized from Soviet-backed Arab regimes, then handed over to Iran at the Shah's behest. The initial operation was a disaster, but the Shah continued attempts to support the rebels and weaken Iraq. Then, in 1975, the countries signed the [Accord](Algiers)(Algiers Agreement (1975)), which granted Iran equal navigation rights in the Shatt al-Arab as the *thalweg* was now the new border, while Mohammad Reza agreed to end his support for Iraqi [Kurdish](Kurdish people) rebels. The Shah also maintained close relations with [Hussein](King)(Hussein of Jordan) of [Jordan](Jordan), President [Sadat](Anwar)(Anwar Sadat) of [Egypt](Egypt), and [Hassan II](King)(Hassan II of Morocco) of [Morocco](Morocco).[Interview with Farah Pahlavi](http://www.commonwealthclub.org/archive/04/04-03pahlavi-speech.html) Mary Bitterman, 15 March 2004. Beginning in 1970, Mohammad Reza formed an unlikely alliance with the militantly left-wing regime of Colonel [Gaddafi](Muammar)(Muammar Gaddafi) of Libya, as both leaders wanted higher oil prices for their nations, leading Iran and Libya joining forces to press for the "leapfrogging" of oil prices.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 199.
[[File:1975 Algiers Agreement.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The Shah meeting [Algeria](Algeria)n President [Boumediène](Houari)(Houari Boumediène) and [Iraq](Iraq)i Vice President [Hussein](Saddam)(Saddam Hussein) in [Algiers](Algiers) in order to sign the [Algiers Agreement](1975)(1975 Algiers Agreement)]]
The U.S.-Iran relationship grew more contentious as the U.S. became more dependent on Mohammad Reza to be a stabilising force in the Middle East, under the [Doctrine](Nixon)(Nixon Doctrine). In a July 1969 visit to Guam, President Nixon had announced the Nixon Doctrine, which declared that the United States would honour its treaty commitments in Asia, but "as far as the problems of international security are concerned ... the United States is going to encourage and has a right to expect that this problem will increasingly be handled by, and the responsibility for it taken by, the Asian nations themselves." The particular Asian nation the Nixon Doctrine was aimed at was [Vietnam](South)(South Vietnam), but the Shah seized upon the doctrine, with its message that Asian nations should be responsible for their own defense, to argue that the Americans should sell him arms without limitation, a suggestion that Nixon embraced. A particular dynamic was established in American-Iranian relations from 1969 onward, in which the Americans gave in to whatever Mohammad Reza demanded, as they felt they needed a strong Iran as a pro-American force in the Middle East and could not afford to lose Iran as an ally.Karsh, Effraim *Islamic Imperialism A History*, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, p. 200. Further adding to the Shah's confidence was the [border conflict](Sino-Soviet)(Sino-Soviet border conflict) of 1969, which forced the [Army](Red)(Red Army) to make a major redeployment to the Chinese border.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 321. Mohammad Reza, who always feared the prospect of a Soviet invasion, welcomed the Sino-Soviet war and the resulting reduction of Red Army divisions along the Soviet-Iranian border as giving him more room internationally.
[[File:Gerald Ford and Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi Whitehouse South Lawn.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Mohammad Reza and [Ford](Gerald)(Gerald Ford) on the [Lawn](South)(South Lawn), 1975]]
Under Nixon, the United States finally agreed to sever all contact with any Iranians opposed to the Shah's regime, a concession that Mohammad Reza had been seeking since 1958. The often very anti-American tone of the Iranian press was ignored because Mohammad Reza supported the U.S. in the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War) and likewise the Americans ignored the Shah's efforts to raise oil prices, despite the fact it cost many American consumers more. After 1969, a process of "reverse leverage" set in, when Mohammad Reza began to dictate to the United States as the Americans needed him more than he needed the Americans.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 201. The American [Security Advisor](National)(National Security Advisor (United States)) [Kissinger](Henry)(Henry Kissinger) wrote in 1982 that because of the Vietnam War, it was not politically possible in the 1970s for the United States to fight a major war: "There was no possibility of assigning any American forces to the Indian Ocean in the midst of the Vietnam War and its attendant trauma. Congress would have tolerated no such commitment; the public would not have supported it. Fortunately, Iran was willing to play this role." Consequently, the Americans badly needed Iran as an ally, which allowed Mohammad Reza to dictate to them. This experience greatly boosted the Shah's ego, as he felt he was able to impose his will on the world's most powerful nation.
The Americans initially rejected Mohammad Reza's suggestion that they join him in supporting the Iraqi Kurdish *peshmerga* fighting for independence on the grounds that an independent Kurdistan would inspire the Turkish Kurds to rebel, and they had no interest in antagonising the [NATO](NATO) member Turkey. Some of the Shah's advisers also felt it was unwise to support the *peshmerga*, saying that if the Iraqi Kurds won independence, then the Iranian Kurds would want to join them. When Nixon and Kissinger visited Tehran in May 1972, the Shah convinced them to take a larger role in what had, up to then, been a mainly Israeli-Iranian operation to aid [Kurds](Iraqi)(Iraqi Kurds) in their struggles against Iraq, against the warnings of the CIA and State Department that the Shah would ultimately betray the Kurds. He did this in March 1975 with the signing of the [Accord](Algiers)(1975 Algiers Agreement) that settled Iraqi-Iranian border disputes, an action taken without prior consultation with the U.S., after which he cut off all aid to the Kurds and prevented the U.S. and Israel from using Iranian territory to provide them assistance.
As a way of increasing pressure on Baghdad, the *peshmerga* had been encouraged by Iran and the U.S. to abandon guerrilla war for conventional war in April 1974, so the years 1974–75 saw the heaviest fighting between the Iraqi Army and the *[peshmerga](peshmerga)*. The sudden cut-off of Iranian support in March 1975 left the Kurds very exposed, causing them to be crushed by Iraq.Brogan, Patrick *The fighting never stopped*, New York: Vintage Books, 1989, p. 298. The British journalist Patrick Brogan wrote that "...the Iraqis celebrated their victory in the usual manner, by executing as many of the rebels as they could lay their hands on." Kissinger later wrote in his memoirs that it was never the intention of the U.S. or Iran to see the *peshmerga* actually win, as an independent Kurdistan would have created too many problems for both Turkey and Iran; rather, the intention was to "irritate" Iraq enough to force the Iraqis to change their foreign policy.
[[File:ShahOPECmembers.jpg|thumb|Mohammad Reza shakes hands with members of [OPEC](OPEC) in a landmark session in Tehran, 1970]]
The Shah also used America's dependence on Middle Eastern oil as leverage; although Iran did not participate in the [oil embargo](1973)(1973 oil crisis), he purposely increased production in its aftermath to capitalise on the higher prices. In December 1973, only two months after oil prices were raised by 70 per cent, he urged [OPEC](OPEC) nations to push prices even higher, which they agreed to do, more than doubling the price. Oil prices increased 470 per cent over a 12-month period, which also increased Iran's GDP by 50 per cent. Despite personal pleas from President Nixon, the Shah ignored any complaints, claimed the U.S. was importing more oil than any time in the past, and proclaimed that "the industrial world will have to realise that the era of their terrific progress and even more terrific income and wealth based on cheap oil is finished."
### Modernisation and evolution of government
[[visit microwave network.jpg|thumb|After opening the Micro-wave station, the Shah visits its different departments, 1970](File:Shahanshah)]
With Iran's great oil wealth, the Shah became the preeminent leader of the Middle East, and self-styled "Guardian" of the [Gulf](Persian)(Persian Gulf). In 1961 he defended his style of rule, saying "When Iranians learn to behave like Swedes, I will behave like the [of Sweden](King)(Monarchy of Sweden)."[ America's Mission: The United States and the Worldwide Struggle for Democracy in the Twentieth Century](https://archive.org/details/americasmission00tony/page/255). Tony Smith. Princeton Princeton University Press: p. 255
During the last years of his regime, the Shah's government became more autocratic. In the words of a U.S. Embassy dispatch: "The Shah's picture is everywhere. The beginning of all film showings in public theaters presents the Shah in various regal poses accompanied by the strains of the National Anthem ... The monarch also actively extends his influence to all phases of social affairs ... there is hardly any activity or vocation in which the Shah or members of his family or his closest friends do not have a direct or at least a symbolic involvement. In the past, he had claimed to take a two-party system seriously and declared, 'If I were a dictator rather than a constitutional monarch, then I might be tempted to sponsor a single dominant party such as Hitler organised'."Mohammad Reza, Mission for my Country, London, 1961, p. 173
However, by 1975, Mohammad Reza had abolished the two-party system of government in favour of a one-party state under the [Rastakhiz](Rastakhiz Party) (*Resurrection*) Party. This was the merger of the [Iran Party](New)(Iran Novin Party),[Nohlen](Dieter)(Dieter Nohlen), Florian Grotz & Christof Hartmann (2001) *Elections in Asia: A data handbook, Volume I*, p. 59, a centre-right party, and the [Party](People's)(People's Party (Iran)), a liberal party. The Shah justified his actions by declaring: "We must straighten out Iranians' ranks. To do so, we divide them into two categories: those who believe in Monarchy, the constitution and the Six Bahman Revolution and those who don't ... A person who does not enter the new political party and does not believe in the three cardinal principles will have only two choices. He is either an individual who belongs to an illegal organisation, or is related to the outlawed Tudeh Party, or in other words a traitor. Such an individual belongs to an Iranian prison, or if he desires he can leave the country tomorrow, without even paying exit fees; he can go anywhere he likes, because he is not Iranian, he has no nation, and his activities are illegal and punishable according to the law."Fred Halliday, Iran; Dictatorship and Development, Penguin, In addition, the Shah had decreed that all Iranian citizens and the few remaining political parties become part of Rastakhiz.
### Image and self-image of Mohammad Reza in the 1970s
[[File:Mrpwr.jpg|thumb|The Shah greeting the people – advertising his [Revolution](White)(White Revolution) as a step towards modernisation, photograph from 1963]]
From 1973 onward, Mohammad Reza had proclaimed his aim as that of the *tamaddon-e-bozorg*, the "Great Civilisation," a turning point not only in Iran's history, but also the history of the entire world, a claim that was taken seriously for a time in the West.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 62. On 2 December 1974, *[New Yorker](The)(The New Yorker)* published an article by [Erdman](Paul)(Paul Erdman) that was a conjectural [history](future)(future history) entitled "The Oil War of 1976: How The Shah Won the World: The World as We Knew It Came to an End When the Shah Of Iran Decided to Restore The Glory of Ancient Persia with Western Arms".Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 61. In 1975, U.S. Vice President [Rockefeller](Nelson)(Nelson Rockefeller) declared in a speech: "We must take His Imperial Majesty to the United States for a couple of years so that he can teach us how to run a country."Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 3. In 1976, a pulp novel by [Williams](Alan)(Alan Williams (novelist)) was published in the United States under the title ''A Bullet for the Shah: All They Had To Do Was Kill the World's Most Powerful Man*, whose sub-title reveals much about how the American people viewed the Shah at the time (the original British title was the more prosaic *Shah-Mak'').
The great wealth generated by Iran's oil encouraged a sense of nationalism at the Imperial Court. The Empress Farah recalled of her days as a university student in 1950s France about being asked where she was from:When I told them Iran ... the Europeans would recoil in horror as if Iranians were barbarians and loathsome. But after Iran became wealthy under the Shah in the 1970s, Iranians were courted everywhere. Yes, Your Majesty. Of course, Your Majesty. If you please, Your Majesty. Fawning all over us. Greedy sycophants. Then they loved Iranians.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 221. Mohammad Reza shared the Empress's sentiments as Westerners came begging to his court looking for his largesse, leading him to remark in 1976:
Now we are the masters and our former masters are our slaves. Everyday they beat a track to our door begging for favors. How can they be of assistance? Do we want arms? Do we want nuclear power stations? We have only to answer, and they will fulfill our wishes. Because the House of Pahlavi were a parvenu house as Reza Khan had begun his career as a private in the Persian Army, rising up to the rank of general, taking power in a coup d'état in 1921, and making himself Shah in 1925, Mohammad Reza was keen to gain the approval of the older royal families of the world, and was prepared to spend large sums of money to gain that social acceptance.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 6.
Amongst the royalty that came to Tehran looking for the Shah's generosity were King Hussein of Jordan, the former [Constantine II](King)(Constantine II of Greece) of Greece, [Hassan II](King)(Hassan II of Morocco) of Morocco, the princes and princesses of the Dutch [of Orange](House)(House of Orange-Nassau), and the Italian [Maria Gabriella of Savoy](Princess)(Princess Maria Gabriella of Savoy), whom the Shah had once courted in the 1950s. He coveted the British [of the Garter](Order)(Order of the Garter), and had, prior to courting Maria Gabriella, inquired about marrying [Alexandra of Kent](Princess)(Princess Alexandra of Kent), granddaughter of King [V](George)(George V), but in both cases he was rebuffed in no uncertain terms.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 204. As an Iranian, Mohammad Reza greatly enjoyed supporting the Greek branch of the House of Glücksburg, knowing the Greeks still celebrated their victories over the Persians in the 5th and 4th centuries BC. He enjoyed close relations with Emperor [Selassie](Haile)(Haile Selassie) of Ethiopia, as demonstrated by the fact that he was the guest of honour at the [celebrations](Persepolis)(2500 year celebration of Iran Monarchy) in 1971. Ethiopia and Iran, along with Turkey and Israel, were envisioned as an "[of the periphery](alliance)(alliance of the periphery)" that would constrain Arab power in the greater Middle East.
In an era of high oil prices, Iran's economy boomed while the economies of the Western nations were trapped in [stagflation](stagflation) (economic stagnation and inflation) after the 1973–74 oil shocks, which seemed to prove the greatness of Mohammad Reza both to himself and to the rest of the world.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 66. In 1975, both the British Prime Minister [Wilson](Harold)(Harold Wilson) and the French President [Giscard d'Estaing](Valéry)(Valéry Giscard d'Estaing) made pleading phone calls to Mohammad Reza asking him for loans, which ultimately led the Shah to give a US$1 billion loan to the United Kingdom and another US$1 billion to France. In a televised speech in January 1975 explaining why he was lending Britain a sum equal to US$1 billion, Mohammad Reza declared in his usual grandiose style: "I have known the most dark hours when our country was obliged to pass under the tutelage of foreign powers, amongst them England. Now I find that England has not only become our friend, our equal, but also the nation to which, should we be able, we will render assistance with pleasure," going on to say that since he "belonged to this [European] world," he did not want Europe to collapse economically. As Britain had often dominated Iran in the past, the change in roles was greatly gratifying to Mohammad Reza.
Courtiers at the Imperial court were devoted to stroking the Shah's ego, competing to be the most sycophantic, with Mohammad Reza being regularly assured he was a greater leader than his much admired General de Gaulle, that democracy was doomed, and that based on Rockefeller's speech, that the American people wanted Mohammad Reza to be their leader, as well as doing such a great job as Shah of Iran. According to historian Abbas Milani, all of this praise boosted Mohammad Reza's ego, and he went from being a merely narcissistic man to a megalomaniac, believing himself a man chosen by Allah Himself to transform Iran and create the "Great Civilisation." When one of the Shah's courtiers suggested launching a campaign to award him the [Peace Prize](Nobel)(Nobel Peace Prize), he wrote on the margin: "If they beg us, we might accept. They give the Nobel to *kaka siah* [black face"]("any) these days. Why should we belittle ourselves with this?"Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 310. Befitting all this attention and praise, Mohammad Reza started to make increasingly outlandish claims for the "Great Civilisation", telling the Italian journalist [Fallaci](Oriana)(Oriana Fallaci) in a 1973 interview with ''[L'Europeo](L'Europeo)'':Halfway measures, compromises, are unfeasible. In other words, either one is a revolutionary or one demands law and order. One can't be a revolutionary with law and order. And even less with tolerance ... when Castro came to power, he killed at least 10,000 people ... in a sense, he was really capable, because he's still in power. So am I, however! And I intend to stay there, and to demonstrate that one can achieve a great many things by the use of force, show even that your old socialism is finished. Old, obsolete, finished ... I achieve more than the Swedes ... Huh! Swedish socialism! It didn't even nationalize forests and water. But I have ... my White Revolution ... is a new original kind of socialism and ... believe me, in Iran we're far more advanced than you and we really have nothing to learn from you.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 64. In an interview with *[Spiegel](Der)(Der Spiegel)* published on 3 February 1974, Mohammad Reza declared: "I would like you to know that in our case, our actions are not just to take vengeance on the West. As I said, we are going to be a member of your club".Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 222. In a press conference on 31 March 1974, Mohammad Reza predicted what Iran would be like in 1984, saying:In the cities, electric cars would replace the gas engines and mass transportation systems would be switched to electricity, monorail over the ground or electric buses. And, furthermore, in the great era of civilization that lies ahead of our people, there will be least two or three holidays a week.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 65. In 1976, Mohammad Reza told the Egyptian journalist [Hassanein Heikal](Mohamed)(Mohamed Hassanein Heikal) in an interview: "I want the standard of living in Iran in ten years' time to be exactly on a level with that in Europe today. In twenty years' time we shall be ahead of the United States".
[[File:TheShahNeilArmstrong.png|thumb|Lunar astronaut [Armstrong](Neil)(Neil Armstrong) meeting the Shah of Iran during visit of [11](Apollo)(Apollo 11) astronauts to Tehran on 28–31 October 1969]]
Reflecting his need to have Iran seen as "part of the world" (by which Mohammad Reza meant the western world), all through the 1970s he sponsored conferences in Iran at his expense, with for example in one week in September 1975 the International Literacy Symposium meeting in Persepolis, the International Congress of Philosophy meeting in Mashhad and the International Congress of Mithraic Studies meeting in Tehran.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, pp. 80–81. He also sought to hold the [Summer Olympics](1984)(1984 Summer Olympics) in Tehran. For most ordinary Iranians, struggling with inflation, poverty, air pollution (Iranian cities in the 1970s were amongst the most polluted in the world), having to pay extortion payments to the police who demanded money from even those performing legal jobs such as selling fruits on the street, and daily traffic jams, the Shah's sponsorship of international conferences were just a waste of money and time.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, pp. 80 & 221. Furthermore, conferences on pre-Islamic practices such as the cult of [Mithra](Mithra) fuelled religious anxieties.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 81. Though Mohammad Reza envisioned the "Great Civilisation" of a modernised Iran whose standard of living would be higher than those of the United States and at the forefront of modern technology, he did not envision any political change, making it clear that Iran would remain an autocracy.
## Achievements
[[File:Shahanshah historical pressconference.jpg|thumb|right|Mohammad Reza at a press conference in [Palace](Niavaran)(Niavaran Palace), 24 January 1971]]
In his "[Revolution](White)(White Revolution)" starting in the 1960s, Mohammad Reza made major changes to modernise Iran. He curbed the power of certain ancient elite factions by expropriating large and medium-sized estates for the benefit of more than four million small farmers. He took a number of other major measures, including extending [suffrage](suffrage) to women and the participation of workers in factories through shares and other measures. In the 1970s, the governmental programme of free-of-charge nourishment for children at school known as "Taghziye Rāyegan" ([Persian](Persian language): تغذیه رایگان lit. *free nourishment*) was implemented. Under the Shah's reign, the national Iranian income showed an unprecedented rise for an extended period.
[[women Iran.JPG|thumb|left|Iranian newspaper clip from 1968, reading: "A quarter of Iran's nuclear energy scientists are women", a marked change in women's rights.](File:Atomic)]
Improvement of the educational system was made through the creation of new elementary schools. In addition, literacy courses were set up in remote villages by the [Iranian Armed Forces](Imperial)(Imperial Iranian Armed Forces), this initiative being called "Sepāh-e Dānesh" ([Persian](Persian language): سپاه دانش) meaning "Army of Knowledge". The Armed Forces were also engaged in infrastructural and other educational projects throughout the country "Sepāh-e Tarvij va Ābādāni" ([Persian](Persian language): سپاه ترویج و آبادانی lit. *army for promotion and development*) as well as in health education and promotion "Sepāh-e Behdāsht" ([Persian](Persian language): سپاه بهداشت lit. "army for hygiene"). The Shah instituted exams for Islamic theologians to become established clerics. Many Iranian university students were sent to and supported in foreign, especially Western, countries and the Indian subcontinent.
Between 1967 and 1977, the number of universities increased in number from 7 to 22, the number of institutions of advanced learning rose from 47 to 200, and the number of students in higher education soared from 36,742 to 100,000. Iran's literacy programs were among the most innovative and effective anywhere in the world, so that by 1977 the number of Iranians able to read and write had climbed from just 27 percent to more than 80 percent.Amir Taheri, "New Frame for a New Picture," *Kayhan International*, 10 June 1978.
In the field of diplomacy, Iran realised and maintained friendly relations with Western and East European countries as well as the state of [Israel](Israel) and China and became, especially through its close friendship with the United States, more and more a hegemonial power in the [Gulf](Persian)(Persian Gulf) region and the Middle East. The suppression of the communist guerrilla movement in the region of [Dhofar](Dhofar) in Oman with the help of the Iranian army after a formal request by [Qaboos](Sultan)(Qaboos bin Said al Said) was widely regarded in this context.
As to infrastructural and technological progress, the Shah continued and developed further the policies introduced by his father. His programmes included projects in technologies such as steel, telecommunications, petrochemical facilities, power plants, dams and the automobile industry. The [University of Technology](Aryamehr)(Sharif University of Technology) was established as a major new academic institution.Robert Graham, Iran, St. Martins, January 1979Gholam Reza Afkhami, The Life and Times of the Shah, University of California Press, January 2009, , Abbas Milani, The Persian Sphinx: Amir Abbas Hoveyda and the Riddle of the Iranian Revolution, Mage Publishers, 1 October 2003; ,
International cultural cooperation was encouraged and organised, such as the [year celebration of the Persian Empire](2,500)(2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire) and [Arts Festival](Shiraz)(Shiraz Arts Festival). As part of his various financial support programmes in the fields of culture and arts, the Shah, along with King Hussein of Jordan made a donation to the [Muslim Association](Chinese)(Chinese Muslim Association) for the construction of the [Grand Mosque](Taipei)(Taipei Grand Mosque).
The Shah also led a massive military build-up and began the construction of many nuclear facilities. By 1977, Iran was considered the fifth strongest nation in the world according to a report by Georgetown University. The Shah announced the days of foreign exploitation in Iran were over and exclaimed statements such as
The Shah sought to protect Iran's interests through various means such as funding foreign rebellions in Iraq, military support in Oman, financial/military action, and diplomacy, promoting the CIA to conclude that,
}}
Despite criticism from western critics, the Shah was seen as a master statesman through his domestic reforms, popular base in Iran, successful opposition to radical Arab neighbors, and ambitions for regional stability and prosperity, particularly in the two superpowers and other European powers. The fall of the Pahlavi order in 1979 removed the Shah's stabilizing efforts, leading to the [invasion of Afghanistan](Soviet)(Soviet–Afghan War), the destabilization of Pakistani politics, the emergence of Saudi Arabia as a major oil power, the rise of Saddam Hussein and Ba'athists in regional conflicts, and the subsequent Wahhabi-Salafi militancy.
Under the Shah's leadership, Iran experienced an impressive transformation of the economy. From 1925 to 1976 Iran's economy had grown 700 times, per capita 200 times, and domestic capital formation 3,400 times most of which occurred during the reign of the second Pahlavi Monarch, Mohammadreza Pahlavi. Iran enjoyed an average annual industrial growth rate of over 20% from 1963 to 1976. From 1965 to 1976 Iranian per capita income rose 8 times from $195 to $1,600. By 1978 per capita income surpassed $2,400. Much of the growth was not due to oil income. Among the OPEC oil-producing nations experts agreed only Iran's growth was due to an intelligent development plan while the growth seen in nations such as Saudi Arabia and Libya was solely based upon oil revenues.
Iran's growth was expected to continue, with half of the Iranian families expected to own cars by 1985, per capita income reaching $4500, Iran would produce twenty million tons of steel annually, one million tons of aluminum, one million cars, three million television sets, one million tons of paper, and a large number of engineers.
During the Shah's rule, Iran's average income level was nearing that of Western European nations, and Iranians experienced an unprecedented amount of prosperity and opportunity with an emerging middle class. Iran's growing prosperity coupled with goals of independence allowed for increasing autonomy from Western nations like the US. From 1963 to 1977 Iran experienced an average annual growth rate of 10.5% making it one of the world's fastest-growing economies and Iran experienced its largest GDP growth ever. The economic growth was not simply based on oil, in fact, nonoil revenues grew at a faster rate of 11.5% annually.
During the 1960s and 1970s, Iran's society and the economy experienced a great transformation as a result of rapid industrialization. The state invested in infrastructure to develop industry and provided financial capital resulting in profitable conditions for private Iranian companies. As a result, Iran's development across the industrialization scale, technological advancement, economic growth, urbanization, and per capita income increase was extraordinary compared to other developing nations. World Bank data during this period reveals Iran had an annual real growth rate of 9.6% for middle-income categories which was the highest of any other country in the developing world. Investment, savings, consumption, employment, and per capita income also demonstrated exceptional growth. Gross domestic investment grew at an average yearly rate of 16% and reached 33% of the GDP by 1977-1978. Iranian consumption grew on average by 18% a year. Iran's middle class was far larger than any other developing country. Iran's economic growth was compared to that of rapidly industrializing Asian countries such as South Korea. Since the revolution, Iran's economic growth and rapid industrialization have plummeted.
During the early 1970s, with the success of the Shah's White Revolution, Iran had become a country of economic opportunity and its international status was rising. From 1959 and 1970 the Gross national product (GNP) approximately tripled rising from $3.8 to $10.6 billion and by the late 1960s Iran become one of the middle east's most flourishing spots for investment among foreign investors due to financial stability and rise in purchasing power. Many foreign powers struggled to compete for relations with Iran due to the rising potential of its growing marketplace. Iran Air also became one of the fastest growing airlines in the world and many Iranian construction companies some funded by the state had been involved in many construction projects such as Pre-Fab Inc. which created the precast concrete benches for the Āryāmehr Stadium.
## Revolution
### Spark
The overthrow of the Shah came as a surprise to almost all observers.Amuzegar, *The Dynamics of the Iranian Revolution* (1991), pp. 4, 9–12''Narrative of Awakening : A Look at Imam Khomeini's Ideal, Scientific and Political Biography from Birth to Ascension'' by Hamid Ansari, Institute for Compilation and Publication of the Works of Imam Khomeini, International Affairs Division, [date](no), p. 163 The first militant anti-Shah demonstrations of a few hundred started in October 1977, after the death of Khomeini's son Mostafa.Kurzman, *The Unthinkable Revolution in Iran*, HUP, 2004, p. 164 On 7 January 1978, an article *[and Red and Black Colonization](Iran)(Iran and Red and Black Colonization)* was published in the newspaper ''[Ettela'at](Ettela'at)'' attacking Ruhollah Khomeini, who was in exile in Iraq at the time; it referred to him as a homosexual, a drug addict, a British spy and claimed he was an Indian, not an Iranian.Milani, Abbas The Shah, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 389. Khomeini's supporters had brought in audio tapes of his sermons, and Mohammad Reza was angry with one sermon, alleging corruption on his part, and decided to hit back with the article, despite the feeling at the court, SAVAK and ''Ettela'at'' editors that the article was an unnecessary provocation that was going to cause trouble. The next day, protests against the article began in the holy city of Qom, a traditional centre of opposition to the House of Pahlavi.Milani, Abbas The Shah, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 390.
### Cancer patient
[[File:Jimmy Carter with King Hussein of Jordan the Shah of Iran and Shahbanou of Iran - NARA - 177332 04.jpg|thumb|Tehran on 31 December 1977: Mohammad Reza and Farah with New Year's guests [Hussein](King)(King Hussein) and [Carter](President)(President Carter)]]
[[File:Jimmy Carter meets Mohammad Reza Pahlavi for dinner in 1978.jpg|thumb|Mohammad Reza Shah toasting with U.S. President [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter) at the [Palace](Niavaran)(Niavaran Complex), 31 December 1977]]
Mohammad Reza was diagnosed with [lymphocytic leukemia](chronic)(chronic lymphocytic leukemia) in 1974.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 160 As it worsened, from the spring of 1978, he stopped appearing in public, with the official explanation being that he was suffering from a "persistent cold."Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 159 In May 1978, the Shah suddenly cancelled a long planned trip to Hungary and Bulgaria. He spent the entire summer of 1978 in [Palace](Ramsar)(Ramsar Palace) in the [Sea](Caspian)(Caspian Sea) resort, where two of France's most prominent doctors, [Bernard](Jean)(Jean Bernard (physician)) and Georges Flandrin, treated his cancer. To try to stop his cancer, Bernard and Flandrin had Mohammad Reza take [prednisone](prednisone), a drug that can cause depression and impair thinking.
As nationwide protests and strikes swept Iran, the court found it impossible to get decisions from Mohammad Reza, as he became utterly passive and indecisive, content to spend hours listlessly staring into space as he rested by the Caspian Sea while the revolution raged. The seclusion of the Shah, who normally loved the limelight, sparked all sorts of rumors about the state of his health and damaged the imperial mystique, as the man who had been presented as a god-like ruler was revealed to be fallible.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, pp. 159–160 A July 1978 attempt to deny the rumors of Mohammad Reza's declining health (by publishing a crudely doctored photograph in the newspapers of the Emperor and Empress walking on the beach) instead further damaged the imperial mystique, as most people realised that what appeared to be two beach clogs on either side of the Shah were merely substitutes inserted for his airbrushed aides, who were holding him up as he now had difficulty walking by himself.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 160.
In June 1978, Mohammad Reza's French doctors first revealed to the French government how serious his cancer was, and in September the French government informed the American government that the Shah was dying of cancer; until then, U.S. officials had no idea that Mohammad Reza had even been diagnosed with cancer four years earlier. The Shah had created a very centralised system in which he was the key decision-maker on all issues, and as historian Abbas Milani noted, he was mentally crippled in the summer of 1978 owing to his tendency to be indecisive when faced with a crisis which, combined with his cancer and the effects of the anti-cancer drugs, made his mood "increasingly volatile and unpredictable. One day, he was full of verve and optimism and the next day or hour he fell into a catatonic stupor," bringing the entire government to a halt.Milani, Abbas The Shah, London: Macmillan, 2011, pp. 408–409. Milani wrote that the Shah was in 1978 "beset with depression, indecision and paralysis, and his indecision led to the immobilisation of the entire system."Milani, Abbas The Shah, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 409. Empress Farah grew so frustrated with her husband that she suggested numerous times that he leave Iran for medical treatment and appoint her regent, saying she would handle the crisis and save the House of Pahlavi. The very masculine Mohammad Reza vetoed this idea, saying he did not want Farah to be "Joan of Arc," and it would be too humiliating for him as a man to flee Iran and leave a woman in charge.
### Black Friday
The Shah-centred command structure of the Iranian military, and the lack of training to confront civil unrest, was marked by disaster and bloodshed. There were several instances where army units had opened fire, the most significant being the events on 8 September 1978. The day, which later became known as "Black Friday", thousands of people had gathered in Tehran's Jaleh Square for a religious demonstration. With the population generally refusing to recognise martial law, the soldiers opened fire, killing and seriously injuring a large number of people. Black Friday played a crucial role in further radicalising the protest movement. The massacre so reduced the chance for reconciliation that is became known as "the point of no return" for the revolution.The Persian Sphinx: Amir Abbas Hoveyda and the Riddle of the Iranian Revolution, Abbas Milani, pp. 292–293Seven Events That Made America America, By [Schweikart](Larry)(Larry Schweikart), [p.](https://books.google.com/books?id=BMnUBQJBbgIC&dq=shah+was+finished+after+Black+Friday&pg=PT147)*The Iranian Revolution of 1978/1979 and How Western Newspapers Reported It* by Edgar Klüsener, p. 12*Cultural History After Foucault* by John Neubauer, p. 64*Islam in the World Today: A Handbook of Politics, Religion, Culture, and Society* by Werner Ende, Udo Steinbach, p. 264*The A to Z of Iran*, by John H. Lorentz, p. 63Islam and Politics, John L. Esposito, p. 212
### The regime falls apart
[[File:Statue of Shah Revolution.jpg|thumb|right|Supporters of the revolution remove a statue of the Shah in [University](Tehran)(Tehran University), 1978]]
Hoping to calm the situation, on 2 October 1978, the Shah granted a general amnesty to dissidents living abroad, including [Khomeini](Ayatollah)(Ayatollah Khomeini). But by then it was too late. October 1978 was characterized by extreme unrest and open opposition to the monarchy; strikes paralyzed the country, and in early December a "total of 6 to 9 million"—more than 10% of the country—marched against the Shah throughout Iran.Kurzman, *The Unthinkable Revolution in Iran* (2004), p. 122 In October 1978, after flying over a huge demonstration in Tehran in his helicopter, Mohammad Reza accused the British ambassador Sir [Parsons](Anthony)(Anthony Parsons) and the American ambassador [H. Sullivan](William)(William H. Sullivan) of organising the demonstrations, screaming that he was being "betrayed" by the United Kingdom and the United States. The fact that the BBC's journalists tended to be very sympathetic towards the revolution was viewed by most Iranians, including Mohammad Reza, as a sign that Britain was supporting the revolution. This impression turned out to be crucial, as the Iranian people had a very exaggerated idea about Britain's capacity to "direct events" in Iran.Milani, Abbas The Shah, London: Macmillan, 2011, pp. 391–392. In a subsequent internal inquiry, the BBC found many of its more left-wing journalists disliked Mohammad Reza as a "reactionary" force, and sympathised with a revolution seen as "progressive". Mohammad Reza spent much of his time working out various conspiracy theories about who was behind the revolution, with his favourite candidates being some combination of Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union. Milani wrote that Mohamad Reza's view of the revolution as a gigantic conspiracy organised by foreign powers suggested that there was nothing wrong with Iran, and the millions of people demonstrating against him were just dupes being used by foreigners, a viewpoint that did not encourage concessions and reforms until it was too late. For much of 1978, Mohammad Reza saw his enemies as "Marxist" revolutionaries rather than Islamists. The Shah had exaggerated ideas about the power of the KGB, which he thought of as omnipotent, and often expressed the view that all of the demonstrations against him had been organised in Moscow, saying only the KGB had the power to bring out thousands of ordinary people to demonstrate. In October 1978, the oil workers went on strike, shutting down the oil industry and with it, Mohammad Reza's principal source of revenue. The Iranian military had no plans in place to deal with such an event, and the strike pushed the regime to the economic brink.
The revolution had attracted support from a broad coalition ranging from secular, left-wing nationalists to Islamists on the right, and Khomeini, who was temporarily based in Paris after being expelled from Iraq, chose to present himself as a moderate able to bring together all the different factions leading the revolution. On 3 November, a SAVAK plan to arrest about 1,500 people considered to be leaders of the revolution was submitted to Mohammad Reza, who at first tentatively agreed, but then changed his mind, disregarding not only the plan, but also dismissing its author, [Sabeti](Parviz)(Parviz Sabeti). On 5 November 1978, Mohammad Reza went on Iranian television to say "I have heard the voice of your revolution" and promise major reforms. In a major concession to the opposition, on 7 November 1978, Mohammad Reza freed all political prisoners while ordering the arrest of the former prime minister [Hoveyda](Amir-Abbas)(Amir-Abbas Hoveyda) and several senior officials of his regime, a move that both emboldened his opponents and demoralised his supporters. On 21 November 1978, the Treasury Secretary of the United States Michael Blumenthal visited Tehran to meet Mohammad Reza and reported back to President [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter), "This man is a ghost", as by now the ravages of his cancer could not longer be concealed.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 161 In late December 1978, the Shah learned that many of his generals were making overtures to the revolutionary leaders and the loyalty of the military could not longer be counted upon. In a sign of desperation, the following month Mohammad Reza reached out to the National Front, asking if one of their leaders would be willing to become prime minister.
The Shah was especially interested in having the National Front's [Hossein Sadighi](Gholam)(Gholam Hossein Sadighi) as prime minister. Sadighi had served as interior minister under Mosaddegh, had been imprisoned after the 1953 coup, and pardoned by Mohammad Reza on the grounds that he was a "patriot". Sadighi remained active in the National Front and had often been harassed by SAVAK, but was willing to serve as prime minister under Mohammad Reza in order to "save" Iran, saying he feared what might come after if the Shah was overthrown. Despite the opposition of the other National Front leaders, Sadighi visited the Niavaran palace several times in December 1978 to discuss the terms under which he might become prime minister, with the main sticking point being that he wanted the Shah not to leave Iran, saying he needed to remain in order to ensure the loyalty of the military. On 7 December 1978, it was announced that President Carter of the U.S., President Giscard d'Estaing of France, Chancellor [Schmidt](Helmut)(Helmut Schmidt) of West Germany and Prime Minister [Callaghan](James)(James Callaghan) of the United Kingdom would meet in Guadeloupe on 5 January 1979 to discuss the crisis in Iran. For Mohammad Reza this announcement was the final blow, and he was convinced that the Western leaders were holding the meeting to discuss how best to abandon him.
### End of monarchy
[[File:Shah Farah Leave.jpg|thumb|left|Shah Mohammad Reza and Shahbanu Farah shortly before leaving Iran in [Airport](Mehrabad)(Mehrabad Airport), 1979.|alt=Shah Mohammad Reza and Shahbanun Farah shortly before leaving Iran in 1979 during the Iranian revolution]]
[[File:Shah's exit from Iran 04.jpg|right|thumb|''[Ettela'at](Ettela'at)* newspaper in the hand of a revolutionary when Mohammad Reza and his family left Iran on 16 January 1979: "[Shah is Gone](The)(The Shah is Gone)".]]
On 16 January 1979, Mohammad Reza made a contract with Farboud and left Iran at the behest of Prime Minister [Bakhtiar](Shapour)(Shapour Bakhtiar) (a longtime opposition leader himself), who sought to calm the situation. As Mohammad Reza boarded the plane to take him out of Iran, many of the Imperial Guardsmen wept while Bakhtiar did little to hide his disdain and dislike for the Shah.Brogan, Patrick *The Fighting Never Stopped: A Comprehensive Guide To World Conflicts Since 1945*, New York: Vintage Books, 1989, p. 248. Spontaneous attacks by members of the public on statues of the Pahlavis followed, and "within hours, almost every sign of the Pahlavi dynasty" was destroyed.Taheri, *Spirit'' (1985), p. 240. Bakhtiar dissolved [SAVAK](SAVAK), freed all political prisoners, and allowed Ayatollah Khomeini to return to Iran after years in exile. He asked Khomeini to create a [Vatican](Vatican City)-like state in [Qom](Qom), promised free elections, and called upon the opposition to help preserve the constitution, proposing a "national unity" government including Khomeini's followers. Khomeini rejected Bakhtiar's demands and appointed his own interim government, with [Bazargan](Mehdi)(Mehdi Bazargan) as prime minister, stating that "I will appoint a state. I will act against this government. With the nation's support, I will appoint a state." In February, pro-Khomeini revolutionary guerrilla and rebel soldiers gained the upper hand in street fighting, and the military announced its neutrality. On the evening of 11 February, the dissolution of the monarchy was complete.
## Criticism of reign and causes of his overthrow
[[Shah of Iran meets the clergy in the 1970s.](File:ShahVaRohanioon1.jpg|thumb|The)]
The US State Department drew criticism for doing little to communicate with Tehran or discourage protest and opposition to the Shah. The intelligence community within the US has also been subject due to criticism particularly for reporting to President Jimmy Carter “Iran is not in a revolutionary or even a ‘pre-revolutionary’ situation.” President Jimmy Carter was also blamed for his lack of support for the Shah while failing to deter opposition. Within Iran, the revolution is widely believed to have been a [plot](British)(1979 Iranian Revolution conspiracy theory) to overthrow the Shah. This theory would come to be known as the 1979 Iranian Revolution Conspiracy Theory. The theory was supported by the Shah of Iran who believed his increasing control over oil markets and his 1973 nationalization of Iranian oil prompted international oil companies to unseat him.
An [International](Amnesty)(Amnesty International) assessment on Iran for 1974–1975 stated:
}}
At the [of American Scientists](Federation)(Federation of American Scientists), John Pike writes:
}}
Explanations for the overthrow of Mohammad Reza include his status as a dictator put in place by a non-[Muslim](Muslim) Western power, the United States,Brumberg, *Reinventing Khomeini* (2001).Shirley, *Know Thine Enemy* (1997), p. 207. whose foreign culture was seen as influencing that of Iran. Additional contributing factors included reports of oppression, brutality,Harney, *The Priest* (1998), pp. 37, 47, 67, 128, 155, 167.*Iran Between Two Revolutions* by Ervand Abrahamian, p.437 corruption, and extravagance.Mackay, *Iranians* (1998), pp. 236, 260. Basic functional failures of the regime have also been blamed—economic bottlenecks, shortages and inflation; the regime's over-ambitious economic programme;Graham, *Iran* (1980), pp. 19, 96. the failure of its security forces to deal with protests and demonstrations;Graham, *Iran* (1980) p. 228. and the overly centralised royal power structure.Arjomand, *Turban* (1998), pp. 189–90.
International policies pursued by the Shah in order to increase national income by remarkable increases in the price of oil through his leading role in the Organization of the Oil Producing Countries ([OPEC](OPEC)) have been stressed as a major cause for a shift of Western interests and priorities, and for a reduction of their support for him reflected in a critical position of Western politicians and media, especially of the administration of U.S. President [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter) regarding the question of human rights in Iran, and in strengthened economic ties between the United States of America and Saudi Arabia in the 1970s.Andrew Scott Cooper. *The Oil Kings: How the US, Iran, and Saudi Arabia Changed the Balance of Power in the Middle East.* Simon & Schuster, 2011. .
[[File:Mohammad-Reza Shah Pahlavi and the Royal Family at Persian Senate, Tehran, 1975..jpg|thumb|left|The Shah addressing the [Senate](Iranian)(Iranian Senate), 1975]]
In October 1971, Mohammad Reza celebrated the twenty-five-hundredth anniversary of the Iranian monarchy; *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* reported that $100 million was spent on the celebration.*The New York Times*, 12 October 1971, 39:2 Next to the ancient ruins of [Persepolis](Persepolis), the Shah gave orders to build a [city](tent)(tent city) covering , studded with three huge royal tents and fifty-nine lesser ones arranged in a star-shaped design. French chefs from [Maxim's](Maxim's Paris) of Paris prepared breast of peacock for royalty and dignitaries from around the world, the buildings were decorated by [Jansen](Maison)(Maison Jansen) (the same firm that helped [Kennedy](Jacqueline)(Jacqueline Kennedy) redecorate the [House](White)(White House)), the guests ate off [porcelain](Limoges)(Limoges porcelain) and drank from [Baccarat](Baccarat (company)) crystal glasses. This became a major scandal, as the contrast between the dazzling elegance of the celebration and the misery of the nearby villages was so dramatic that no one could ignore it. Months before the festivities, university students went on strike in protest. Indeed, the cost was so sufficiently impressive that the Shah forbade his associates to discuss the actual figures. However, he and his supporters argued that the celebrations opened new investments in Iran, improved relationships with the other leaders and nations of the world, and provided greater recognition of Iran.(R.W Cottam, *Nationalism in Iran*, p. 329)Michael Ledeen & William Lewis, *Debacle: The American Failure in Iran*, Knopf, p. 22
[[File:Ghassem Rezai With Shah.jpg|thumb|The Shah and the cabinet of Prime Minister [Ali Mansur](Hassan)(Hassan Ali Mansur), [Palace](Niavaran)(Niavaran Palace), 1964]]
Other actions that are thought to have contributed to his downfall include antagonising formerly apolitical Iranians—especially merchants of the bazaars—with the creation in 1975 of a [single-party](One-party state) political monopoly (the *Rastakhiz* Party), with compulsory membership and dues, and general aggressive interference in the political, economic, and religious concerns of people's lives;Abrahamian, *Iran Between Two Revolutions* (1982) pp. 442–6. and the 1976 change from an [calendar](Islamic)(Islamic calendar) to an Imperial calendar, marking the conquest of [Babylon](Babylon) by [Cyrus](Cyrus the Great) as the first day, instead of the migration of [Muhammad](Muhammad) from [Mecca](Mecca) to [Medina](Medina). This supposed date was designed so that the year 2500 would fall on 1941, the year when his own reign started. Overnight, the year changed from 1355 to 2535.[Books.Google.com](https://books.google.com/books?id=Yxd3E-_AqSEC&dq=shah+calendar+change&pg=PA13), Persian pilgrimages, Afshin Molavi During the extravagant festivities to celebrate the 2500th anniversary, the Shah was quoted as saying at Cyrus's tomb: "Rest in peace, Cyrus, for we are awake".
It has been argued that the [Revolution](White)(White Revolution) was "shoddily planned and haphazardly carried out", upsetting the wealthy while not going far enough to provide for the poor or offer greater political freedom.Farmanfarmaian, Mannucher and Roxane. *Blood & Oil: Memoirs of a Persian Prince*. Random House, New York, 1997, , p. 366 In 1974, Mohammad Reza learned from his French doctors that he was suffering from the cancer that was to kill him six years later.Karsh, Effraim *Islamic Imperialism A History* New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, p. 200 Though this was such a carefully guarded secret that not even the Americans were aware of it (as late as 1977 the CIA submitted a report to President Carter describing the Shah as being in "robust health"), the knowledge of his impending death left Mohammad Reza depressed and passive in his last years, a man no longer capable of acting.
Some achievements of the Shah—such as broadened education—had unintended consequences. While school attendance rose (by 1966 the school attendance of urban seven- to fourteen-year-olds was estimated at 75.8%), Iran's labour market could not absorb a high number of educated youth. In 1966, high school graduates had "a higher rate of unemployment than did the illiterate", and the educated unemployed often supported the revolution.Fischer, Michael M.J., *Iran, From Religious Dispute to Revolution*, Harvard University Press, 1980, p. 59
## Exile
[[File:Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Henry Boniet in Cuernavaca, Mexico, 1979.jpg|thumb|The Shah and Henry Boniet in [Cuernavaca](Cuernavaca), [Mexico](Mexico), in 1979]]
During his second exile, Mohammad Reza traveled from country to country seeking what he hoped would be temporary residence. First he flew to [Aswan](Aswan), [Egypt](Egypt), where he received a warm and gracious welcome from President [El-Sadat](Anwar)(Anwar El-Sadat). He later lived in [Marrakesh](Marrakesh), [Morocco](Morocco) as a guest of King [II](Hassan)(Hassan II). Mohammad Reza loved to support royalty during his time as Shah and one of those who benefitted had been Hassan, who received an interest-free loan of US$110 million from his friend.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, pp. 4–5 Mohammad Reza expected Hassan to return the favour, but he soon learned Hassan had other motives. Richard Parker, the U.S. ambassador to Morocco reported "The Moroccans believed the Shah was worth about $2 billion, and they wanted to take their share of the loot".Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 5. After leaving Morocco, Mohammad Reza lived in [Island](Paradise)(Paradise Island), in [Bahamas](the)(the Bahamas), and in [Cuernavaca](Cuernavaca), [Mexico](Mexico City), near [City](Mexico)(Mexico City), as a guest of [López Portillo](José)(José López Portillo). [Nixon](Richard)(Richard Nixon), the former president, visited the Shah in summer 1979 in Mexico. A U.S. doctor, [Kean](Benjamin)(Ben Kean) who examined Mohammad Reza in Cuernavaca later wrote:There was no longer any doubt. The atmosphere had changed completely. The Shah's appearance was stunningly worse ... Clearly he had obstructive jaundice. The odds favored gallstones, since his fever, chills and abdominal distress suggested an infection of the biliary tract. Also he had a history of indigestion. Besides the probable obstruction – he now had been deeply jaundiced for six to eight weeks – he was emaciated and suffering from hard tumor nodes in the neck and a swollen spleen, signs that his cancer was worsening, and he had severe anemia and very low white blood counts.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 162 The Shah suffered from [gallstones](gallstones) that would require prompt surgery. He was offered treatment in [Switzerland](Switzerland), but insisted on treatment in the United States. President Carter did not wish to admit Mohammad Reza to the U.S. but came under pressure from many quarters, with Henry Kissinger phoning Carter to say he would not endorse the SALT II treaty that Carter had just signed with the Soviet Union unless the former Shah was allowed into the United States, reportedly prompting Carter more than once to hang up his phone in rage in the [Office](Oval)(Oval Office) and shout "Fuck the Shah!".Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 420 As many Republicans were attacking the [II treaty](SALT)(Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) as a U.S. give-away to the Soviet Union, Carter was anxious to have the endorsement of a Republican elder statesman like Kissinger to fend off this criticism. Mohammad Reza had decided not to tell his Mexican doctors he had cancer, and the Mexican doctors had misdiagnosed his illness as malaria, giving him a regime of anti-malarial drugs that did nothing to treat his cancer, which caused his health to go into rapid decline as he lost . In September 1979, a doctor sent by [Rockefeller](David)(David Rockefeller) reported to the State Department that Mohammad Reza needed to come to the United States for medical treatment, an assessment not shared by Kean, who stated that the proper medical equipment for treating Mohammad Reza's cancer could be found in Mexico and the only problem was the former Shah's unwillingness to tell the Mexicans he had cancer.Milani, Abbas The Shah, London: Macmillan, 2011, pp. 420–421. The State Department warned Carter not to admit the former Shah into the U.S., saying it was likely that the Iranian regime would seize the U.S. embassy in Tehran if that occurred.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 421. Milani suggested there was a possible conflict of interest on the part of Rockefeller, noting that his [Manhattan Bank](Chase)(Chase Bank) had given Iran a $500 million loan under questionable conditions in 1978 (several lawyers had refused to endorse the loan) which placed the money in an account with Chase Manhattan, that the new Islamic republic had been making "substantial withdrawals" from its account with Chase Manhattan, and that Rockefeller wanted Mohammad Reza in the US, knowing full well it was likely to cause the Iranians to storm the U.S. embassy, which in turn would cause the U.S. government to freeze Iranian financial assets in America—such as the Iranian account at Chase Manhattan.
On 22 October 1979, President [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter) reluctantly allowed the Shah into the United States to undergo surgical treatment at the [York Hospital–Cornell Medical Center](New)(NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital). While there, Mohammad Reza used the name of "[D. Newsom](David)(David D. Newsom)", Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs at that time, as his temporary code name, without Newsom's knowledge. The Shah was taken later by [Air Force](U.S.)(U.S. Air Force) jet to [Air Force Base](Kelly)(Kelly Air Force Base) in [Texas](Texas) and from there to [Hall Medical Center](Wilford)(Wilford Hall Medical Center) at [Air Force Base](Lackland)(Lackland Air Force Base). It was anticipated that his stay in the United States would be short; however, surgical complications ensued, which required six weeks of confinement in the hospital before he recovered. His prolonged stay in the United States was extremely unpopular with the revolutionary movement in Iran, which still resented the United States' overthrow of [Minister Mosaddegh](Prime)(Mosaddegh) and the years of support for the Shah's rule. The Iranian government demanded his return to Iran, but he stayed in the hospital.Darling, Dallas. [Ten Things the US needs to learn from Iran's Islamic Revolution](http://aljazeera.com/news/articles/39/Ten_Things_the_US_needs_to_learn_from_Irans_I.html). AlJazeera Magazine. 14 February 2009 Mohammad Reza's time in New York was highly uncomfortable; he was under a heavy security detail as every day, Iranian students studying in the United States gathered outside his hospital to shout "Death to the Shah!", a chorus that Mohammad Reza heard.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 424. The former Shah was obsessed with watching news from Iran, and was greatly upset at the new order being imposed by the Islamic Republic. Mohammad Reza could no longer walk by this time, and for security reasons had to be moved in his wheelchair under the cover of darkness when he went to the hospital while covered in a blanket, as the chances of his assassination were too great.
There are claims that Reza's admission to the United States resulted in the storming of the U.S. Embassy in Tehran and the kidnapping of U.S. diplomats, military personnel, and intelligence officers, which soon became known as the [hostage crisis](Iran)(Iran hostage crisis).Tim Weiner, *Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA*, , p. 274. In the Shah's memoir, *[to History](Answer)(Answer to History)*, he claimed that the United States never provided him any kind of health care and asked him to leave the country.Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. *Answer to History*. Stein & Day Pub, 1980. From the time of the storming of the U.S. embassy in Tehran and the taking of the embassy staff as hostages, Mohammad Reza's presence in the United States was viewed by the Carter administration as a stumbling block to the release of the hostages, and as Zonis noted "... he was, in effect, expelled from the country".Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 164. Mohammad Reza wanted to go back to Mexico, saying he had pleasant memories of Cuernavaca, but was refused.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 425. Mexico was a candidate to be a [member of the UN Security Council](rotating)(UN Security Council), but needed the vote of [Cuba](Cuba) to be admitted, and the Cuban leader [Castro](Fidel)(Fidel Castro) told President [López Portillo](José)(José López Portillo) that Cuba's vote was conditional on Mexico not accepting the Shah again.
He left the United States on 15 December 1979 and lived for a short time in the [Contadora](Isla)(Isla Contadora) in [Panama](Panama). This caused riots by Panamanians who objected to the Shah being in their country. General [Torrijos](Omar)(Omar Torrijos), the dictator of Panama kept Mohammad Reza as a virtual prisoner at the Paitilla Medical Center, a hospital condemned by the former Shah's U.S. doctors as "an inadequate and poorly staffed hospital", and in order to hasten his death allowed only Panamanian doctors to treat his cancer.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 164 General Torrijos, a populist left-winger had only taken in Mohammad Reza under heavy U.S. pressure, and he made no secret of his dislike of Mohammad Reza, whom he called after meeting him "the saddest man he had ever met".Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 427. When he first met Mohammad Reza, Torrijos taunted him by telling him "it must be hard to fall off the Peacock Throne into Contadora" and called him a "*chupon*", a [Spanish](Spanish language) term meaning an *orange* that has all the juice squeezed out of it, which is slang for someone who is finished.
Torrijos added to Mohammad Reza's misery by making his chief bodyguard a militantly Marxist sociology professor who spent much time lecturing Mohammad Reza on how he deserved his fate because he had been a tool of the "American imperialism" that was ostensibly oppressing the Third World, and charged Mohammad Reza a monthly rent of US$21,000, making him pay for all his food and the wages of the 200 National Guardsmen assigned as his bodyguards. The [government](new)(The Interim Government of Iran) in Iran still demanded his and [wife's](his)(Farah Pahlavi) immediate extradition to Tehran. A short time after Mohammad Reza's arrival in Panama, an Iranian ambassador was dispatched to the Central American nation carrying a 450 page long extradition request. That official appeal alarmed both the Shah and his advisors. Whether the Panamanian government would have complied is a matter of speculation amongst historians.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, pp. 428–429.
In January 1980, the Shah gave his last television interview to British journalist [Frost](David)(David Frost) on [Island](Contadora)(Contadora Island)["On Iran"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/breakfast_with_frost/4089823.stm), (*Breakfast with Frost*) BBC News, 12 December 2004 that was re-broadcast by [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) in the U.S. on 17 January.Gholam Reza Afkham [*The Life and Times of the Shah*](https://books.google.com/books?id=pTVSPmyvtkAC&pg=PA655), Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008, p. 655 n.17:7 The Shah talks about his wealth, his illness, the [SAVAK](SAVAK), the [torture](torture) during his reign, own political mistakes, [Khomeini](Khomeini) and his threat of extradition to Iran.{{cite web|url=https://www.paleycenter.org/collection/item/?q=see&p=56&item=T80:0356 |title=20/20 {DAVID FROST INTERVIEWS THE SHAH OF IRAN} (TV) |website=Paleycenter.org |date=17 January 1980 |access-date=20 February 2022}}
The only consolation for Mohammad Reza during his time in Panama were letters from [Soraya](Princess)(Soraya Esfandiary-Bakhtiary) saying that she still loved him and wanted to see him one last time before he died.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, pp. 430–431. Mohammad Reza, in the letters he sent to Paris, declared he wanted to see Soraya one last time as well but said that the Empress Farah could not be present, which presented some complications as Farah was continually by his deathbed.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, p. 431.
After that event, the Shah again sought the support of Egyptian president Anwar El-Sadat, who renewed his offer of permanent asylum in Egypt to the ailing monarch. He returned to Egypt in March 1980, where he received urgent medical treatment, including a [splenectomy](splenectomy) performed by [DeBakey](Michael)(Michael DeBakey). On 28 March 1980, Mohammad Reza's French and U.S. doctors finally performed an operation meant to have been performed in the fall of 1979.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 165 Kean recalled: The operation went beautifully. That night, however, was terrible. The medical team-U.S., Egyptian, French-was in the pathology lab. The focus was on the Shah's cancerous spleen, grotesquely swollen to 20 times normal. It was one-foot long, literally the size of a football. But I was drawn to the liver tissues that had also been removed. The liver was speckled with white. Malignancy. The cancer had hit the liver. The Shah would soon die ... The tragedy is that a man who should have had the best and easiest medical care had, in many respects, the worst.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 165. By that point, it was arranged by President Sadat that Soraya would quietly visit Mohammad Reza on his deathbed in Egypt without Farah present, but Milani noted the two were "star-crossed lovers" and Mohammad Reza died before Soraya could come to Egypt from her home in Paris.
## Illness and death
In 1974 the Shah's doctor, [Karim Ayadi](Abdol)(Abdol Karim Ayadi), diagnosed the Shah with [splenomegaly](splenomegaly) after he complained of a swollen abdomen. On 1 May 1974, French Professor Georges Flandrin flew into Tehran to treat the Shah. Upon the first visit, Georges was able to diagnose the Shah with [lymphocytic leukemia](chronic)(chronic lymphocytic leukemia). The Shah's diagnosis of cancer would not be revealed to him until 1978. Medical reports given to the Shah were falsified and altered in order to state that the Shah was in good health to conceal his cancer from him. In 1976, the Shah met with French physicians in [Zurich](Zurich) who were disturbed by his abnormal blood count. They discovered he was being treated with a wrong medication, worsening his condition.
In 1979, the Shah left Iran. First, the Shah found refuge in [Bahamas](the)(the Bahamas) but was later forced to leave. He then sought treatment in Mexico. Multiple recommendations urged the Shah to seek treatment in the United States. In response, the Shah stated:
After some initial denials, the Shah agreed to travel to the U.S. for treatment. He later left the U.S. for Panama. While the Shah was in Panama, one of [Khomeini](Ruhollah)(Ruhollah Khomeini)'s close advisors, [Ghotbzadeh](Sadegh)(Sadegh Ghotbzadeh) had a meeting with [Jordan](Hamilton)(Hamilton Jordan), [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter)'s Chief of Staff. Ghotbzadeh requested that the [CIA](CIA) kill the Shah while he was in Panama. Fearing for his life, the Shah left Panama delaying further surgery. He fled to [Morocco](Rabat,)(Rabat, Morocco), where he stayed with King [II](Hassan)(Hassan II) and then to Cairo, Egypt, with his condition worsening.
[DeBakey](Michael)(Michael DeBakey), an American heart surgeon, was called to perform a [splenectomy](splenectomy). Although DeBakey was world-renowned in his field, his experience performing this surgery was limited. When the splenectomy was being performed, the tail of the [pancreas](pancreas) was injured. This led to infection and the subsequent death of the Shah in the following days.
In his hospital bed, the Shah was asked to describe his feelings for Iran and its people and to define the country. The Shah, a fervent nationalist, responded "Iran is Iran." After pausing for minutes, he said "Its land, people, and history," and "Every Iranian has to love it." He continued on to repeat "Iran is Iran" over and over. Shortly after, the Shah slipped into a coma and died at 09:15 AM on 27 July 1980 at age 60. He kept a bag of Iranian soil under his death bed.
Egyptian President Sadat gave the Shah a state funeral.[Shah's Flight](https://web.archive.org/web/20081224060802/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,921924,00.html). *Time*. 31 March 1980 In addition to members of the [family](Pahlavi)(Pahlavi dynasty), [Sadat](Anwar)(Anwar Sadat), [Nixon](Richard)(Richard Nixon) and [II of Greece](Constantine)(Constantine II of Greece) attended the funeral ceremony in [Cairo](Cairo).
Mohammad Reza Shah is buried in the [Rifa'i Mosque](Al)(Al Rifa'i Mosque) in Cairo, a mosque of great symbolic importance. Also buried there is [of Egypt](Farouk)(Farouk of Egypt), Mohammad Reza Shah’s former brother-in-law. The tombs lie to the left of the entrance. Years earlier, his father and predecessor, [Shah](Reza)(Reza Shah), had also initially been buried at the Al Rifa'i Mosque.
## Legacy
[[File:Tomb of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi 2.jpg|thumb|left|The interior of Mohammad Reza's tomb in Cairo's [Rifa'i Mosque](Al)(Al Rifa'i Mosque)]]
In 1969, Mohammad Reza sent one of 73 [11 Goodwill Messages](Apollo)(Apollo 11 Goodwill Messages) to [NASA](NASA) for the historic first lunar landing.Rahman, Tahir (2007). We Came in Peace for all Mankind- the Untold Story of the Apollo 11 Silicon Disc. Leathers Publishing. The message still rests on the lunar surface today. He stated in part, "we pray the Almighty God to guide mankind towards ever increasing success in the establishment of culture, knowledge and human civilisation". The [11](Apollo)(Apollo 11) crew visited Mohammad Reza during a world tour.
Shortly after his overthrow, Mohammad Reza wrote an autobiographical memoir ''Réponse à l'histoire* (*[to History](Answer)(Answer to History)*). It was translated from the original French into English, [Persian](Farsi) (*Pasokh be Tarikh''), and other languages. However, by the time of its publication, the Shah had already died. The book is his personal account of his reign and accomplishments, as well as his perspective on issues related to the [Revolution](Iranian)(Iranian Revolution) and Western foreign policy toward Iran. He places some of the blame for the wrongdoings of SAVAK, and the failures of various democratic and social reforms (particularly through the [Revolution](White)(White Revolution)), upon [Abbas Hoveyda](Amir)(Amir Abbas Hoveyda) and his administration.
[Montazeri](Hussein-Ali)(Hussein-Ali Montazeri), who was once the designated successor to [Khomeini](Ruhollah)(Ruhollah Khomeini), said that the Shah did not kill even 10 per cent of what Ruhollah Khomeini's regime had killed.
Recently, the Shah's reputation has experienced something of a revival in Iran, with some people looking back on his era as a time when Iran was more prosperousMolavi, Afshin, *The Soul of Iran*, Norton (2005), p. 74 and the government less oppressive.Sciolino, Elaine, *Persian Mirrors*, Touchstone (2000), p.239, 244 Journalist [Molavi](Afshin)(Afshin Molavi) reported that some members of the uneducated poor—traditionally core supporters of the revolution that overthrew the Shah—were making remarks such as, "God bless the Shah's soul, the economy was better then", and found that "books about the former Shah (even censored ones) sell briskly", while "books of the Rightly Guided Path sit idle".Molavi, Afshin, *The Soul of Iran*, Norton (2005), pp. 74, 10 On 28 October 2016, thousands of people in Iran celebrating Cyrus Day at the [of Cyrus](Tomb)(Tomb of Cyrus), chanted slogans in support of him, and against the current Islamic regime of Iran and Arabs, and many were subsequently arrested.
### Women's rights
Under Mohammad Reza's father, the government supported advancements by women against [marriage](child)(child marriage), [polygamy](polygamy), exclusion from public society, and education [segregation](sex segregation). However, independent feminist political groups were shut down and forcibly integrated into one state-created institution, which maintained many [paternalistic](paternalistic) views. Despite substantial opposition from Shiite religious jurists, the [feminist movement](Iranian)(Women's rights movement in Iran), led by activists such as Fatemah Sayyeh, achieved further advancement under Mohammad Reza. His regime's changes focused on the civil sphere, and private-oriented family law remained restrictive, although the 1967 and 1975 Family Protection Laws attempted to reform this trend. During the reign of the Shah, women gained the right to freely choose any profession, for example first female Iranian ministers such as [Parsa](Farrokhroo)(Farrokhroo Parsa) and judges such as [Ebadi](Shirin)(Shirin Ebadi), while [Dowlatshahi](Mehrangiz)(Mehrangiz Dowlatshahi) became the first female cabinet member and ambassador of Iran. These activities alienated Islamic traditionalists and hastened the fall of the Shah.
## Religious beliefs
[[File:Shah-zahedi-haj.jpg|thumb|Mohammad Reza during his [Hajj](Hajj) pilgrimage in the 1970s]]
From his mother, Mohammad Reza inherited an almost messianic belief in his own greatness and that God was working in his favour, which explained the often passive and fatalistic attitudes that he displayed as an adult.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan, 2011, pp. 23–24. In 1973, Mohammad Reza told the Italian journalist [Fallaci](Oriana)(Oriana Fallaci):A king who does not need to account to anyone for what he says and does is unavoidably doomed to loneliness. However, I am not entirely alone, because a force others can't perceive accompanies me. My mystical force. Moreover, I receive messages. I have lived with God besides me since I was 5 years old. Since, that is, God sent me those visions.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 150.
Mohamed Reza often spoke in public and in private from childhood onward of his belief that God had chosen him for a "divine mission" to transform Iran, as he believed that dreams he had as a child of the Twelve Imams of Shia Islam were all messages from God.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, pp. 21 & 150–151. In his 1961 book *Mission for My Country*, Mohammad Reza wrote: From the time I was six or seven, I have felt that perhaps there is a supreme being, who is guiding me. I don't know. Sometimes the thought disturbs me because then, I ask myself, what is my own personality, and am I possessed of free will? Still, I often reflect, if I am driven-or perhaps I should say supported-by another force, there must be a reason.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 152. In his biography of the Shah, [Zonis](Marvin)(Marvin Zonis) has argued that Mohammad Reza really believed in these claims of divine support. Shia Islam has no tradition of describing Shahs being favoured with messages from all, very few Shahs had ever claimed that their dreams were divine messages, and most people in the West laughed at Mohammad Reza's claim that his dreams were messages from God.Zonis, Marvin. *Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 151. Reza Khan, who was less religious, dismissed these visions as nonsense, and told his son to have more common sense.Milani, Abbas. *The Shah*, London: Macmillan 2011, pp. 22–23.
[Hoveyda](Fereydoon)(Fereydoon Hoveyda), a veteran diplomat who served as the Iranian ambassador to the United Nations (1971–1979), and the brother of [Hoveyda](Amir-Abbas)(Amir-Abbas Hoveyda), the Prime Minister under the Shah (1965–1977) executed after the Islamic revolution, and himself a critic of the régime who died in exile, says that "when it comes to religion and spirituality, many passages of the monarch's and Khomeini's publications are interchangeable", which he perceives as the continuity of the Iranian civilization, where the religion changes but the spirit remains.Fereydoun Hoveyda, *The Shah and the Ayatollah: Iranian Mythology and Islamic Revolution*, ABC-CLIO (2003), p. 31
## Wealth
[[File:Coronation39b.jpg|thumb|The newly crowned Shah with his [Crown](Pahlavi)(Pahlavi Crown)]]
Mohammad Reza inherited the wealth built by his father [Shah](Reza)(Reza Shah) who preceded him as king of Iran and became known as the richest person in Iran during his reign, with his wealth estimated to be higher than 600 million rials[[Mazandaran|]] and including vast amounts of land and numerous large estates especially in the province of [[Mazandaran|Mazandaran]] obtained usually at a fraction of their real price. Reza Shah, facing criticism for his wealth, decided to pass on all of his land and wealth to his eldest son Mohammad Reza in exchange for a sugar cube, known in Iran as *habbe kardan*. However, shortly after obtaining the wealth Mohammad Reza was ordered by his father and then king to transfer a million toman ($500,000) to each of his siblings.Fardust, Memoirs Vol 1, p. 109 By 1958, it was estimated that the companies possessed by Mohammad Reza had a value of $157 million (in 1958 USD) with an estimated additional $100 million saved outside Iran. Rumours of his and his family's corruption began to surface which greatly damaged his reputation. This formed one of the reasons for the creation of the [Foundation](Pahlavi)(Mostazafan Foundation#Pahlavi Foundation) and the distribution of additional land to the people of some 2,000 villages inherited by his father, often at very low and discounted prices. In 1958, using funds from inherited [estates](crown)(crown land), Mohammad Reza established the Pahlavi Foundation which functioned as a tax-exempt charity and held all his assets, including 830 villages spanning a total area of 2.5 million hectares. According to *[Insider](Business)(Business Insider)*, Mohammad Reza had set up the organisation "to pursue Iran's charitable interests in the U.S." At its height, the organisation was estimated to be worth $3 billion; however, on numerous occasions, the Pahlavi Foundation was accused of corruption.Abrahamian, Ervand. *A History of Modern Iran*. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008 Despite these charges, in his book *[to History](Answer)(Answer to History)*, Pahlavi affirms that he "never made the slightest profit" out of the Foundation.
In a 1974 interview which was shown in a documentary titled *Crisis in Iran*, Mohammad Reza told [Wallace](Mike)(Mike Wallace) that the rumours of corruption were "the most unjust thing that I have heard," calling them a "cheap accusation" whilst arguing the allegations were not as serious as those regarding other governments, including that of the United States. In November 1978, after Pahlavi dismissed Prime Minister [Sharif-Emami](Jafar)(Jafar Sharif-Emami) and appointed a military government, he pledged in a televised address "not to repeat the past mistakes and illegalities, the cruelty and corruption." Despite this, the royal family's wealth can be seen as one of the factors behind the [revolution](Iranian)(Iranian revolution). This was due to the [crises](oil)(1973 oil crisis) of the 1970s which increased inflation resulting in economic austerity measures which made lower class workers more inclined to protest.
Mohammad Reza's wealth remained considerable during his time in exile. While staying in [Bahamas](the)(the Bahamas) he offered to purchase the island that he was staying on for $425 million (in 1979 USD); however, his offer was rejected by the Bahamas which claimed that the island was worth far more. On 17 October 1979, again in exile and perhaps knowing the gravity of his illness, he split up his wealth amongst his family members, giving 20% to Farah, 20% to his eldest son Reza, 15% to Farahnaz, 15% to Leila, 20% to his younger son, in addition to giving 8% to Shahnaz and 2% to his granddaughter Mahnaz Zahedi.
[[File:Maserati 5000GT.jpg|thumb|left|*The Shah of Persia*, body by [Touring](Carrozzeria)(Carrozzeria Touring)]]
On 14 January 1979, an article titled "Little pain expected in exile for Shah" by The Spokesman Review newspaper found that the Pahlavi dynasty had amassed one of the largest private fortunes in the world; estimated then at well over $1 billion. It also stated that a document submitted to the ministry of justice, in protest of the royal family's activity in many sectors of the nation's economy, detailed the Pahlavis dominating role in the economy of Iran. The list showed that the Pahlavi dynasty had interests in, amongst other things, 17 banks and insurance companies, including a 90 per cent ownership in the nation's third-largest insurance company, 25 metal enterprises, 8 mining companies, 10 building materials companies, including 25 per cent of the largest cement company, 45 construction companies, 43 food companies, and 26 enterprises in trade or commerce, including a share of ownership in almost every major hotel in Iran; the Pahlavis also had major interests in real estate. Mohammad Reza was also known for his interest in cars and had a personal collection of 140 classic and [car](sports)(sports car)s including a [500K](Mercedes-Benz)(Mercedes-Benz 500K) Autobahn cruiser, one of only six ever made. The first [5000 GT](Maserati)(Maserati 5000 GT) was named the *Shah of Persia*, it was built for Mohammad Reza, who had been impressed by the Maserati 3500 and requested [Alfieri](Giulio)(Giulio Alfieri), Maserati's chief engineer, to use a modified 5-litre engine from the [450S](Maserati)(Maserati 450S) on the [3500GT](Maserati 3500 GT)'s chassis.
## Titles, styles, honours, and emblems
[[File:ShahanshahRoyalFamily2.jpg|thumb|250px|The Imperial family at the [Palace](Niavaran)(Niavaran Palace) yard, 1970s]]
### Titles, styles and honours
Mohammad Reza was Sovereign of many orders in Iran, and received honours and decorations from around the world. Mohammad Reza used the style *His Majesty* until his imperial coronation in 1967, ascending to the title of Shahanshah, when he adopted the style *His Imperial Majesty*. Mohammad Reza also held many supplementary titles such as [Artestaran](Bozorg)(Commander-in-Chief of the Iranian Armed Forces), a military rank superseding his prior position as captain. On 15 September 1965, Mohammad Reza was granted the title of *Aryamehr* ('Light of the Aryans') by an extraordinary session of the joint Houses of Parliament.
### Arms
From 24 April 1926 until his accession, Mohammad Reza's arms notably consisted of two [Shahbaz](Shahbaz (bird)) birds in the centre, a common symbol during the Achaemenid period, with the [Crown](Pahlavi)(Pahlavi Crown) placed above them. Upon his accession, he adopted his father's coat of arms which included a shield composed of the Lion and the Sun symbol in first quarter, the Faravahar in the second quarter, the two-pointed sword of Ali (Zulfiqar) in third quarter and the Simurgh in the fourth quarter. Overall in the centre is a circle depicting Mount Damavand with a rising sun, the symbol of the Pahlavi dynasty. The shield is crowned by the Pahlavi crown and surrounded by the chain of the Order of Pahlavi. Two lions rampant regardant, holding scimitars supports the coat of arms on either side. Under the whole device is the motto: "Mara dad farmud va Khod Davar Ast" ("Justice He bids me do, as He will judge me" or, alternatively, "He gave me power to command, and He is the judge").
### Imperial symbols
The Pahlavi imperial family employed rich heraldry to symbolise their reign and ancient Persian heritage. An image of the imperial crown was included in every official state document and symbol, from the badges of the armed forces to paper money and coinage. The image of the crown was the centerpiece of the imperial standard of the Shah.
The personal standards consisted of a field of pale blue, the traditional colour of the Iranian imperial family, at the centre of which was placed the heraldic motif of the individual. The Imperial Iranian national flag was placed in the top left quadrant of each standard. The appropriate imperial standard was flown beside the national flag when the individual was present. In 1971, new designs were adopted.
## Bibliography
Mohammad Reza published several books in the course of his kingship and two later works after his downfall. Amongst others, these include:
* *Mission for My Country* (1960)
* *The White Revolution* (1967)
* *Toward the Great Civilisation* (Persian version: Imperial 2536 = 1977 CE; English version: 1994)
* *[to History](Answer)(Answer to History)* (1980)
* ''The Shah's Story* (1980)
## See also
*[Conference](Guadeloupe)(Guadeloupe Conference)
*[of Iran](History)(History of Iran)
*[rights in the Imperial State of Iran](Human)(Human rights in the Imperial State of Iran)
*[and Middle East theatre of World War II](Mediterranean)(Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II)
*[in Iran](Monarchism)(Monarchism in Iran)
*[Car Museum of Iran](National)(National Car Museum of Iran), showcases the cars of Mohammad Reza
*[program of Iran](Nuclear)(Nuclear program of Iran)
*[Railway](Trans-Iranian)(Trans-Iranian Railway)
*[Revolution](White)(White Revolution)
*[Iranian Revolution conspiracy theory](1979)(1979 Iranian Revolution conspiracy theory)
## References
### Sources
* Alvandi, Roham. *Nixon, Kissinger, and the Shah: The United States and Iran in the Cold War* (Oxford University Press, 2016).
* Amini, Parvin. "A Single Party State in Iran, 1975–78: The Rastakhiz Party-the Final Attempt by the Shah to Consolidate his Political Base." *Middle Eastern Studies'' 38.1 (2002): 131–168.
*
*
*
*
* Cooper, Andrew Scott. *[Oil Kings: How the U.S., Iran, and Saudi Arabia Changed the Balance of Power in the Middle East](The)(The Oil Kings: How the U.S., Iran, and Saudi Arabia Changed the Balance of Power in the Middle East)*, 2011, .
* Cooper, Andrew Scott. *The Fall of Heaven: The Pahlavis and the Final Days of Imperial Iran*, 2016 .
* Cottam, Richard W. "Human rights in Iran under the Shah." *Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law* 12 (1980): 121+ [online](http://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1913&context=jil).
* Devos, Bianca, and Christoph Werner, eds. *Culture and cultural politics under Reza Shah: the Pahlavi State, new bourgeoisie and the creation of a modern society in Iran* (Routledge, 2013).
* Ghazvinian, John. *America and Iran: A History, 1720 to the Present* (2021), a major scholarly history [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/America-Iran-History-1720-Present/dp/0307271811)
* [David](Harris,)(David Harris (protester)), *The Crisis: the President, the Prophet, and the Shah—1979 and the Coming of Militant Islam*, New York: Little, Brown & Co., 2004. .
*
* Johns, Andrew L. "The Johnson Administration, the Shah of Iran, and the Changing Pattern of US-Iranian Relations, 1965–1967: 'Tired of Being Treated like a Schoolboy'." *Journal of Cold War Studies* 9.2 (2007): 64–94. [online](http://h-diplo.org/reviews/PDF/Heiss-Johns.pdf)
* [Ryszard](Kapuściński,)(Ryszard Kapuściński) (1982). *[of Shahs](Shah)(Shah of Shahs (book))*. [Vinage](Vintage (publisher)). .
* [Stephen](Kinzer,)(Stephen Kinzer), ''[the Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror](All)(All the Shah's Men)*, John Wiley & Sons, 2003, .
* Kurzman, Charles. *The unthinkable revolution in Iran* (Harvard University Press, 2005).
*
*
*
*
*
* Offiler, Ben. *US Foreign Policy and the Modernization of Iran: Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon and the Shah* (Springer, 2015).
* Quinn, Sholeh. *Shah Abbas: The King who Refashioned Iran'' (Simon and Schuster, 2015).
*
* Richards, Helmut. "America's Shah Shahanshah's Iran." *Merip Reports* 40 (1975): 3–26. [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3011479)
*
* Saikal, Amin. *The Rise and Fall of the Shah 1941–1979*, (Princeton University Press, 1980) [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/Rise-Fall-Shah-1941-1979/dp/B000OP68KM).
* Summitt, April R. "For a white revolution: John F. Kennedy and the Shah of Iran." *Middle East Journal* 58.4 (2004): 560–575. [online](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/April-Summitt/publication/233506979_For_a_White_Revolution_John_F_Kennedy_and_the_Shah_of_Iran/links/54590cdb0cf2bccc4912b427/For-a-White-Revolution-John-F-Kennedy-and-the-Shah-of-Iran.pdf)
* Takeyh, Ray. "What really Happened in Iran: The CIA, the Ouster of Mosaddeq, and the Restoration of the Shah." *Foreign Affairs* 93.4 (2014): 2–12. [online](http://www.sppm.tsinghua.edu.cn/eWebEditor/UploadFile/20140904013429801.doc)
* [Gerard de](Villiers,)(Gerard de Villiers). *The Imperial Shah: An Informal Biography* (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1976).
* [IranChamber.com *History of Iran, a short account of the 1953 coup*](http://www.iranchamber.com/history/coup53/coup53p1.php)
### Primary sources
* Ahmad Ali Massoud Ansari, *Me and the Pahlavis*, 1992.
* Farmanfarmaian, Manucher, and Roxane Farmanfarmaian. ''Blood & Oil: A Prince's Memoir of Iran, from the Shah to the Ayatollah* (Random House, 2007).
* [Pahlavi](Farah)(Farah Pahlavi), *[Enduring Love: My Life with the Shah](An)(An Enduring Love: My Life with the Shah)*. A Memoir, Miramax Books, 2004, .
* [Zahedi](Ardeshir)(Ardeshir Zahedi), *The Memoirs of Ardeshir Zahedi *, IBEX, 2005, .
### Historiography
* Shannon, Matthew K. "Reading Iran: American academics and the last shah." *Iranian Studies* 51.2 (2018): 289–316.
## External links
* [*Decadence and Downfall: The Shah of Iran's Ultimate Party*](https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b07176xr) – *[Storyville](Storyville (TV series))*, 2015–2016
* , a motion picture about the Shah of Iran
* [IranNegah.com](http://irannegah.com/video_browse.aspx?keyword=shah), video archive of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
*
*
* [ISNA interview with Dr. Mahmood Kashani](http://www.iranian.com/Opinion/2003/November/Kashani/index.html), *[Iranian](The)(The Iranian)*
* [*Mosaddeq saved the Shah*](http://www.iranian.com/FereydounHoveyda/2003/September/Mosaddeq/index.html), by Fereydoun Hoveyda, on *Iranian.com*
* James Risen: [*Secrets of History: The C.I.A. in Iran – A special report; How a Plot Convulsed Iran in '53 (and in '79)*](https://www.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/041600iran-cia-index.html), *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, 16 April 2000
* Stephen Fleischman. [*Shah knew what he was talking about: Oil is too valuable to burn*](https://web.archive.org/web/20051202034750/http://www.commondreams.org/views05/1129-32.htm), on *CommonDreams.org*, 29 November 2005
* Roger Scruton: [*In Memory of Iran''](http://www.fortfreedom.org/l14.htm), from 'Untimely tracts' (NY: [Martin's Press](St.)(St. Martin's Press), 1987), pp. 190–1
* [''Brzezinski's role in overthrow of the Shah*](http://www.payvand.com/news/06/mar/1090.html), *Payvand News*, 10 March 2006
* Fereydoun Hoveyda: [*Free elections in 1979, my last audience with the Shah*](http://www.iranian.com/FereydounHoveyda/2000/August/Shah/index.html), *[Iranian](The)(The Iranian)''
*
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Oscar Levant
|
oscar_levant
|
# Oscar Levant
*Revision ID: 1159902637 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T07:30:57Z*
---
| birth_place = [Pittsburgh](Pittsburgh), Pennsylvania, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = [Hills, California](Beverly)(Beverly Hills, California), U.S.
| occupation =
| yearsactive = 1923–1965
| spouse =
| children = 3
}}
**Oscar Levant** (December 27, 1906August 14, 1972) was an American [pianist](concert)(concert pianist), composer, [conductor](conductor (music)), author, radio game show panelist, television talk show host, comedian, and actor. He was known for his performances in the films *[in Blue](Rhapsody)(Rhapsody in Blue (film))* (1945), *[Barkleys of Broadway](The)(The Barkleys of Broadway)* (1949), *[American in Paris](An)(An American in Paris (film))* (1951), and *[Band Wagon](The)(The Band Wagon)* (1953). He was awarded a star on the [Walk of Fame](Hollywood)(Hollywood Walk of Fame) in 1960 for recordings featuring his piano performances. He was equally famous for his mordant character and witticisms, on the radio and later in movies and television, as for his music. He was portrayed by [Hayes](Sean)(Sean Hayes) in the [Broadway](Broadway (theatre)) play *[Night, Oscar](Good)(Good Night, Oscar)*, written by [Wright](Doug)(Doug Wright).
## Early life
Levant was born in [Pittsburgh](Pittsburgh), Pennsylvania, United States, in 1906, to [Jewish](Orthodox)(Orthodox Judaism) parents who had emigrated from Russia. His father, Max, was a watchmaker who wanted his four sons to become either dentists or doctors. His mother, Annie, was a highly religious woman whose father was a rabbi who presided over his daughter's wedding to Max Levant.
Oscar Levant moved to [ New York](New York City ) in 1922, following the death of his father. He began studying under [Stojowski](Zygmunt)(Zygmunt Stojowski), a well-established piano pedagogue. In 1925, aged 18, Levant appeared with [Bernie](Ben)(Ben Bernie) in a short sound film, *[Bernie and All the Lads](Ben)(Ben Bernie and All the Lads)*, made in New York City with the De Forest [Phonofilm](Phonofilm) [sound-on-film](sound-on-film) system. In the mid-1920s Levant recorded extensively for Brunswick with the Ben Bernie Orchestra.
## Career
Levant traveled to Hollywood in 1928, where his career took a turn for the better. During his stay, he met and became friends with [Gershwin](George)(George Gershwin). From 1929 to 1948, Levant composed the music for more than twenty movies. During this period, he also wrote or co-wrote numerous popular songs that made the [parade](hit)(hit parade), the most noteworthy being "[It on My Youth](Blame)(Blame It on My Youth)" (1934), now considered a standard.
[[File:Oscar Levant.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Levant in *[American in Paris](An)(An American in Paris (film))* (1951)]]
Levant began composing seriously around 1932. He studied under [Schoenberg](Arnold)(Arnold Schoenberg) and impressed Schoenberg sufficiently to be offered an assistantship (which he turned down, considering himself unqualified).Levant, Oscar *[Unimportance of Being Oscar](The)(The Unimportance of Being Oscar)*, Pocket Books 1969 (reprint of G.P. Putnam 1968), p. 113. . These formal studies led to a request by [Copland](Aaron)(Aaron Copland) to play at the [Yaddo](Yaddo) Festival of contemporary American music on April 30 of that year. Successful, Levant began composing a new orchestral work, a [sinfonietta](Sinfonietta (symphony)).
Levant made his debut as a [conductor](music)(conductor (music)) in 1938 on [Broadway](Broadway (theater)), filling in for his brother Harry in sixty-five performances of [Kaufman](George S.)(George S. Kaufman) and [Hart](Moss)(Moss Hart)’s *[Fabulous Invalid](The)(The Fabulous Invalid)*. In 1939, he was again working on Broadway as composer and conductor of *[American Way](The)(The American Way (play))*, another Kaufman and Hart production. He was a talented pianist and was well known for his recorded works of Gershwin, and numerous classical composers. During a time in the 1940s, he was the highest paid concert pianist in the United States.
Also, at this time, Levant was becoming known to American audiences as one of the regular panelists on the radio quiz show *[Please](Information)(Information Please)*. Originally scheduled as a guest panelist, Levant proved so quick-witted and popular that he became a regular fixture on the show in the late-1930s and 1940s, along with fellow panelists [P. Adams](Franklin)(Franklin Pierce Adams) and [Kieran](John)(John Kieran) and moderator [Fadiman](Clifton)(Clifton Fadiman). "Mr. Levant," as he was always called, was often challenged with musical questions, and he impressed audiences with his depth of knowledge and facility with a joke. Kieran praised Levant as having a "positive genius for making offhand cutting remarks that couldn't have been sharper if he'd honed them a week in his mind. Oscar was always good for a bright response edged with acid." Examples include "I knew Doris Day before she was a virgin," "I think a lot of [Leonard](conductor/composer) [Bernstein](Leonard Bernstein)—but not as much as he does," and (after Marilyn converted to Judaism when she married playwright [Miller](Arthur)(Arthur Miller)), "Now that [Monroe](Marilyn)(Marilyn Monroe) is kosher, Arthur Miller can eat her.”
[[File:An American in Paris (1951) trailer 3.jpg|thumb|left|[Guétary](Georges)(Georges Guétary), Levant, and [Kelly](Gene)(Gene Kelly) in *[American in Paris](An)(An American in Paris (film))* (1951)]]
Levant appeared in feature films, starting from the 1920s until the mid-50s, often playing a pianist or composer. He had supporting roles in the [Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer](Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer) musicals *[Barkleys of Broadway](The)(The Barkleys of Broadway)* (1949), starring [Astaire](Fred)(Fred Astaire) and [Rogers](Ginger)(Ginger Rogers); *[American in Paris](An)(An American in Paris (film))* (1951), starring [Kelly](Gene)(Gene Kelly); and *[Band Wagon](The)(The Band Wagon)* (1953), starring Astaire and [Charisse](Cyd)(Cyd Charisse). Oscar Levant regularly appeared on [NBC](NBC) radio's *[Music Hall](Kraft)(Kraft Music Hall)*, starring singer [Jolson](Al)(Al Jolson). He not only accompanied Jolson on the piano with classical and popular songs, but often joked and ad-libbed with Jolson and his guests. This included comedy sketches. Their individual ties to [Gershwin](George)(George Gershwin)—Jolson introduced Gershwin's "[Swanee](Swanee (song))"—undoubtedly had much to do with their rapport. Both Levant and Jolson appeared as themselves in the Gershwin biopic *[in Blue](Rhapsody)(Rhapsody in Blue (film))* (1945).
In the early 1950s, Levant was an occasional panelist on the NBC radio and television game show *[Said That?](Who)(Who Said That?)*. Levant hosted a talk show on [KCOP-TV](KCOP-TV) in Los Angeles from 1958 -1960, *The Oscar Levant Show*, which was later [syndicated](television syndication). It featured his piano playing along with monologues and interviews with guests such as [Astaire](Fred)(Fred Astaire) and [Pauling](Linus)(Linus Pauling). Full recordings of only two shows are known to have survived, one with Astaire, who paid to have a kinescope recording of the broadcast made so that he could assess his performance.
## Personal life
Levant married actress [Woodell](Barbara)(Barbara Woodell) in 1932 but they divorced in 1933.Sam Kashner and Nancy Schoenberger, *A Talent For Genius: the Life and Times of Oscar Levant* (Villard/Random House, 1994; Silman-James Press, 1998) In 1939, Levant married his second wife, singer and actress [Gale](June)(June Gale) (née Doris Gilmartin), one of the [Sisters](Gale)(Jean Gale). They were married for 33 years, until he died in 1972; the couple had three daughters: Marcia, Lorna, and Amanda.
Levant talked openly on television about his [neuroses](neuroses) and [hypochondria](hypochondria). Years before Levant's first television appearance, [Woollcott](Alexander)(Alexander Woollcott) said of him, "There isn't anything the matter with Levant that a few miracles wouldn't cure."Teichman, Howard, *Smark Aleck, the Wit World and Life of Alexander Woollcott* (William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1976), p. 170 Despite his afflictions, Levant was considered a multifaceted genius by some. He himself wisecracked, "There's a fine line between genius and insanity. I have erased this line." In later life Levant became addicted to prescription drugs, was frequently committed to psychiatric hospitals by his wife, and increasingly withdrew from the limelight.https://www.npr.org/2006/12/24/6669958/oscar-levant-hollywoods-first-celebrity-meltdown
## Death
[[Levant Grave.jpg|thumb|200px|Crypt of Oscar Levant at Westwood Memorial Park](File:Oscar)]
Levant, a lifelong heavy smoker and longtime pharmaceutical drug user, died at home in [Hills, California](Beverly)(Beverly Hills, California), of a heart attack in 1972 at age 65. He was discovered by his wife June when she called him from their bedroom to meet for an interview with [Bergen](Candice)(Candice Bergen), who was then a photojournalist. According to Bergen's memoir titled *Knock Wood*, she had visited Levant on the previous day and *Knock Wood* includes one of her photographs from that occasion. In the book, Bergen reveals that Levant had asked her to return the next day to take more photographs, and she agreed. She drove over with her camera on the following day, not realizing he had died.
Levant is interred in the [Brothers Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery](Pierce)(Pierce Brothers Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery) in Los Angeles. An apocryphal story about Levant is the old joke that his epitaph reads, "I *told* them I was ill." In reality, the plaque on his crypt states his name, dates of birth and death, and nothing else.
## Legacy
Actor [Garfield](John)(John Garfield) used Levant as a model when creating the character of troubled genius Mickey Borden in the highly acclaimed 1938 film *[Daughters](Four)(Four Daughters)*. Levant was the inspiration for the neurotic, womanizing pianist Henry Orient in [Johnson](Nora)(Nora Johnson)'s novel and subsequent Hollywood film *[World of Henry Orient](The)(The World of Henry Orient)* (1964).
In April 2023, the play *[Night, Oscar](Good)(Good Night, Oscar)* written by [Prize](Pulitzer)(Pulitzer Prize) winner [Wright](Doug)(Doug Wright) premiered on Broadway at the [Theatre](Belasco)(Belasco Theatre), starring [Hayes](Sean)(Sean Hayes). A fictionalized and composited version of true events, it takes place in 1958 when Levant is given a four-hour furlough from a psychiatric hospital, allowing him to appear on *[Tonight Show](The)(The Tonight Show).*. At the [Tony Awards](2023)(76th Tony Awards) Hayes took home the trophy for *Best Actor in a Play* for his performance in the production.https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/11/theater/sean-hayes-tony-good-night-oscar.html
## Acting credits
### Filmography
* *[Bernie and All the Lads](Ben)(Ben Bernie and All the Lads)* (1925) as himself (a De Forest [phonofilm](phonofilm))
* *[Dance of Life](The)(The Dance of Life)* (1929) as Jerry Evans
* *[Parade](Night)(Night Parade)* (1929) as [Pennington](Ann)(Ann Pennington (actress))'s piano accompanist (uncredited)
* *[Person](In)(In Person (film))* (1935)
* *[Chan at the Opera](Charlie)(Charlie Chan at the Opera)* (1936) (composed music for film's opera)
* *[on the River](Rhythm)(Rhythm on the River)* (1940) as Billy Starbuck
* *[the Boys Goodbye](Kiss)(Kiss the Boys Goodbye)* (1941) as Dick Rayburn aka Oscar
* *[in Blue](Rhapsody)(Rhapsody in Blue (film))* (1945) as himself
* *[Humoresque](Humoresque (1946 film))* (1946) as Sid Jeffers
* *[Were Meant for Me](You)(You Were Meant for Me (film))* (1948) as Oscar Hoffman
* *[on the High Seas](Romance)(Romance on the High Seas)* (1948) as Oscar Farrar (first [Day](Doris)(Doris Day) film)
* *[Barkleys of Broadway](The)(The Barkleys of Broadway)* (1949) as Ezra Millar
* *[American in Paris](An)(An American in Paris (film))* (1951) as Adam Cook, [bohemian](Bohemianism) pianist
* ''[Henry's Full House](O.)(O. Henry's Full House)* (1952) as Bill Peoria (*The Ransom of Red Chief*)
* *[I Don't Care Girl](The)(The I Don't Care Girl)* (1953) as Charles Bennett
* *[Band Wagon](The)(The Band Wagon)* (1953) as Lester Marton, based on [Green](Adolph)(Adolph Green)
* *[Cobweb](The)(The Cobweb (1955 film))* (1955) as Mr. Capp
### Television
* *The Oscar Levant Show* (1958–1960, TV series)
* *[Benny Program](Jack)(Jack Benny Program)* (1958, TV Series) as himself
* *[Tonight Show](The)(The Tonight Show)'' hosted by Jack Paar (early 1960's)
* *[Joey Bishop Show](The)(The Joey Bishop Show (TV series))* (1964, TV series) as himself
* *[Griffin Show](Merv)(Merv Griffin Show)* (1965, TV series) as himself
### Theatre
**Burlesque* (1927) – musical play – performer
**[Ripples](Ripples (musical))* (1930) – [musical](Musical theater) – co-composer
**[and Low](Sweet)(Sweet and Low (musical))* (1930) – [revue](musical)(musical revue) – songwriter
**The Fabulous Invalid* (1938) – musical play – replacement conductor
**[American Way](The)(The American Way (play))* (1939) – musical play – conductor and composer
## Quotations
Another example of his repartée:
*"It's not what you are; it's what you don't become that hurts."
## Bibliography
* *A Smattering of Ignorance*, New York: Doubleday, 1940
* *[Memoirs of an Amnesiac](The)(The Memoirs of an Amnesiac)*, New York: Putnam's, 1965
* *[Unimportance of Being Oscar](The)(The Unimportance of Being Oscar)*, New York: Putnam's, 1968
## Notes
## References
* Sam Kashner and Nancy Schoenberger, *A Talent For Genius: the Life and Times of Oscar Levant* (Villard/Random House, 1994; Silman-James Press, 1998)
* [Dr. Charles Barber.](http://www.classical.net/music/composer/works/levant/index.php) "The Concert Music of Oscar Levant". Department of Music, Stanford University, 1998–2000
* Caleb T. Boyd. [*Oscar Levant: Pianist, Gershwinite, Middlebrow Media Star*](https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3211&context=art_sci_etds). PhD diss., Washington University in St. Louis, 2020.
## External links
*
*
* [Oscar Levant recordings](https://adp.library.ucsb.edu/names/108664) at the [of American Historical Recordings](Discography)(Discography of American Historical Recordings).
* [June Gale IMDb profile](https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0301865/?ref_=nmbio_mbio); accessed January 8, 2014.
* [Levant at Classical Net](http://www.classical.net/music/comp.lst/acc/levant.html)
* [*Ben Bernie and All the Lads* (1924)](https://web.archive.org/web/20121016234118/http://redhotjazz.com/berniephonofilm.html), a film featuring Levant as pianist, made in [Phonofilm](Phonofilm) process by [de Forest](Lee)(Lee de Forest) in New York City
* [Web biography](http://www.touchoftonga.com/DavidMulliss/oscar-levant.html)
* featuring [Astaire](Fred)(Fred Astaire)
* [1926 performance of La Cinquantaine](https://archive.org/details/78_la-cinquantaine_rudy-wiedoft-oscar-levant-marie-r.-wiedoft_gbia0002810b) with Levant on piano
* [Levant conducts, and applauds, himself](https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=wePBkW6WMM8) – in a clip from [American in Paris*](*An)(An American in Paris (film)) performing [Gershwin's](George Gershwin) [in F](Concerto)(Concerto in F)
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Quran
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quran
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# Quran
*Revision ID: 1159677220 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T21:04:28Z*
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The **Quran** (, ;, , , ;dictionary.reference.com: [koran](http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Koran) especially with the spelling *quran* , ;dictionary.reference.com: [quran](http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Quran) especially in British English .Cambridge dictionary: [koran](http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/the-koran)Cambridge dictionary: [quran](http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/the-qur-an?q=qur%27an)|group=lower-roman}} [Arabic](vocalized)(tashkil): }}, [Arabic](Quranic)(Classical Arabic): }} }},. The actual pronunciation in [Arabic](Literary)(Modern Standard Arabic) varies regionally. The first vowel varies from to , while the second vowel varies from to to . For example, the pronunciation in Egypt is and in Central East Arabia . |group=lower-roman}} 'the recitation'), also romanized '''Qur'an** or **Koran**, The form **Koran** was most predominant from the second half of the 18th century till the 1980s, when it has been superseded by either **Qur'an** or **Quran'*. Other transliterations include *al-Coran*, *Coran*, *Kuran* and *al-Qur'an*. The adjectives vary as well and include *Koranic*, *Quranic* and *Qur'anic'' (sometimes in lowercase).
|group=lower-roman}} is the central [text](religious)(religious text) of [Islam](Islam), believed by [Muslim](Muslim)s to be a [revelation](revelation in Islam) from [God](God in Islam). It is organized in 114 [chapters](surah) (pl.: , sing.: ), which consist of [verses](āyah) (pl.: , sing.: , [cons.](construct case): ). In addition to its religious significance, it is widely regarded as the finest work in [literature](Arabic)(Arabic literature), and has significantly influenced the [language](Arabic)(Arabic language).
Muslims believe that the Quran was orally revealed by God to the [prophet](final)(Khatam an-Nabiyyin), [Muhammad](Muhammad in Islam), through the archangel [Gabriel](Gabriel) incrementally over a period of some 23 years, beginning on [Al Qadr](Laylat)(Night of Power),[Quran 97:1-5](https://quran.com/97) when Muhammad was 40; and concluding in 632, the year of his death. Muslims regard the Quran as Muhammad's most important [miracle](miracle), a proof of his [prophethood](prophethood); and the culmination of a series of divine messages starting with those revealed to [Adam](Adam in Islam), including the [Tawrat](Tawrat), the [Zabur](Zabur) ([Psalms](Psalms)) and the [Injil](Injil) (Gospel). The word *Quran* occurs some 70 times in the text itself, and other names and words are also said to refer to the Quran.
The Quran is believed by Muslims to be not simply divinely inspired, but the literal [of God](word)(Biblical inspiration). Muhammad did not write it as he did not know how to write. In Muslim theology, the Qur'an is considered to be either "[created](Quranic createdness)" or "uncreated".[*Ibn Ḥanbal and the Miḥna*, 1897](Patton,)(#WMP1897): p.54 According to tradition, several of Muhammad's [companions](Companions of the Prophet) served as scribes, recording the revelations. Shortly after the prophet's death, the Quran was compiled by the companions, who had written down or memorized parts of it. Caliph [Uthman](Uthman) established a standard version, now known as the [codex](Uthmanic)(Uthmanic codex), which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, [readings](variant)(Qiraʼat), with mostly minor differences in meaning.
The Quran assumes [with major narratives](familiarity)(Biblical and Quranic narratives) recounted in the [Biblical](Books of the Bible) and [scriptures](apocryphal)(Apocrypha). It summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance for humankind ( ). It sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence. Supplementing the Quran with explanations for some cryptic Quranic narratives, and rulings that also provide the basis for Islamic law in most denominations of Islam, are *[hadith](hadith)s*—oral and written traditions believed to describe words and actions of Muhammad. During prayers, the Quran is recited only in [Arabic](Arabic).
Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a *[hafiz](Hafiz (Quran))*. Ideally, verses are recited with a special kind of [prosody](Prosody (linguistics)) reserved for this purpose, called *[tajwid](tajwid)*. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during *[tarawih](tarawih)* prayers. In order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, Muslims rely on [exegesis](exegesis), or commentary rather than a direct translation of the text.
## Etymology and meaning
The word appears about 70 times in the Quran itself, assuming various meanings. It is a [noun](verbal)(verbal noun) ([[verbs#Verbal noun (maṣdar)|](Arabic)]) of the [Arabic](Arabic language) verb () meaning 'he read' or 'he recited'. The [Syriac](Syriac language) equivalent is (), which refers to 'scripture reading' or 'lesson'. While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is itself. Regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad's lifetime. An important meaning of the word is the 'act of reciting', as reflected in an early Quranic passage: "It is for Us to collect it and to recite it ()."
In other verses, the word refers to 'an individual passage recited [Muhammad](by)'. Its [liturgical](liturgy) context is seen in a number of passages, for example: *"So when is recited, listen to it and keep silent."* The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the [Torah](Tawrat) and [Gospel](Injil).See "Ķur'an, al-", *Encyclopedia of Islam Online* and
The term also has closely related [synonym](synonym)s that are employed throughout the Quran. Each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of in certain contexts. Such terms include ('book'), ('sign'), and ('scripture'); the latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with a [article](definite)(definite article) (*al-*), the word is referred to as the *[waḥy](wahy)* ('revelation'), that which has been "sent down" (*[tanzīl](tanzil)*) at intervals. cf. cf. Other related words include: ('remembrance'), used to refer to the Quran in the sense of a reminder and warning; and ('wisdom'), sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it.
The Quran describes itself as 'the discernment' (), 'the mother book' (), 'the guide' (), 'the wisdom' (), 'the remembrance' (), and 'the revelation' (; 'something sent down', signifying the descent of an object from a higher place to lower place). Another term is ('The Book'), though it is also used in the Arabic language for other scriptures, such as the Torah and the Gospels. The term ''[mus'haf](mus'haf)'' ('written work') is often used to refer to particular Quranic manuscripts but is also used in the Quran to identify earlier revealed books.
## History
### Prophetic era
Islamic tradition relates that [Muhammad](Muhammad in Islam) received [first revelation](his)(Muhammad's first revelation) in the [of Hira](Cave)(Jabal al-Nour) during one of his isolated retreats to the mountains. Thereafter, he received revelations over a period of 23 years. According to *[hadith](hadith)* and [history](Muslim)(History of Islam), after Muhammad [to Medina](immigrated)(Hijra (Islam)) and formed an independent Muslim community, he ordered many of his [companions](sahabah) to recite the Quran and to learn and teach the laws, which were revealed daily. It is related that some of the [Quraysh](Quraysh) who were taken prisoners at the [of Badr](Battle)(Battle of Badr) regained their freedom after they had taught some of the Muslims the simple writing of the time. Thus a group of Muslims gradually became literate. As it was initially spoken, the Quran was recorded on tablets, bones, and the wide, flat ends of date palm fronds. Most suras were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in numerous sayings by both [Sunni](Sunni) and [Shia](Shia) sources, relating Muhammad's use of the Quran as a call to Islam, the making of prayer and the manner of recitation. However, the Quran did not exist in book form at the time of Muhammad's death in 632. There is agreement among scholars that Muhammad himself did not write down the revelation.
*[al-Bukhari](Sahih)(Sahih al-Bukhari)* narrates Muhammad describing the revelations as, "Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell" and [Aisha](Aisha) reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)."|group=lower-roman}} Muhammad's first revelation, according to the Quran, was accompanied with a vision. The agent of revelation is mentioned as the "one mighty in power," the one who "grew clear to view when he was on the uppermost horizon. Then he drew nigh and came down till he was (distant) two bows' length or even nearer." The Islamic studies scholar Welch states in the *[of Islam](Encyclopaedia)(Encyclopaedia of Islam)* that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine, because he was severely disturbed after these revelations. According to Welch, these seizures would have been seen by those around him as convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad's inspirations. However, Muhammad's critics accused him of being a possessed man, a [soothsayer](Clairvoyant) or a [magician](magician (paranormal)) since his experiences were similar to those claimed by such figures well known in [Arabia](ancient)(Pre-Islamic Arabia). Welch additionally states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad's initial claim of prophethood.
[[File:Iqra.jpg|thumb|200px|[Muhammad](Muhammad)'s first revelation, [Al-Alaq](Surah)(Al-Alaq), later placed 96th in the Qur'anic regulations, in current writing style]]
The Quran describes Muhammad as "," which is traditionally interpreted as 'illiterate', but the meaning is rather more complex. Medieval commentators such as [Al-Tabari](Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari) maintained that the term induced two meanings: first, the inability to read or write in general; second, the inexperience or ignorance of the previous books or scriptures (but they gave priority to the first meaning). Muhammad's illiteracy was taken as a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood. For example, according to [al-Din al-Razi](Fakhr)(Fakhr al-Din al-Razi), if Muhammad had mastered writing and reading he possibly would have been suspected of having studied the books of the ancestors. Some scholars such as [Watt](William Montgomery Watt) prefer the second meaning of —they take it to indicate unfamiliarity with earlier sacred texts.
The final verse of the Quran was revealed on the 18th of the Islamic month of [al-Hijjah](Dhu)(Dhu al-Hijjah) in the year 10 [A.H.](Hijri year), a date that roughly corresponds to February or March 632. The verse was revealed after [Prophet finished delivering his sermon at Ghadir Khumm](the)(Event of Ghadir Khumm).
### Compilation and preservation
[[File:Birmingham_mushaf_Bismillah.png|thumb|290x290px|The basmala as written on the [mus'haf manuscript](Birmingham)(Birmingham Quran manuscript), the oldest surviving copy of the Qur'an. [Rasm](Rasm): "ٮسم الله الرحمں الرحىم".]]
Following Muhammad's death in 632, a number of his companions who knew the Quran by heart were killed in the [of Yamama](Battle)(Battle of Yamama) by [Musaylimah](Musaylimah). The first caliph, [Bakr](Abu)(Abu Bakr) (d. 634), subsequently decided to collect the book in one volume so that it could be preserved. [ibn Thabit](Zayd)(Zayd ibn Thabit) (d. 655) was the person to collect the Quran since "he used to write the Divine Inspiration for Allah's Apostle". Thus, a group of scribes, most importantly Zayd, collected the verses and produced a hand-written manuscript of the complete book. The manuscript according to Zayd remained with Abu Bakr until he died. Zayd's reaction to the task and the difficulties in collecting the Quranic material from parchments, palm-leaf stalks, thin stones (collectively known as ) and from men who knew it by heart is recorded in earlier narratives. In 644, Muhammad's widow [bint Umar](Hafsa)(Hafsa bint Umar) was entrusted with the manuscript until the third caliph, [ibn Affan](Uthman)(Uthman ibn Affan), requested the standard copy from her.
In about 650, Uthman (d. 656) began noticing slight differences in pronunciation of the Quran as Islam expanded beyond the [Peninsula](Arabian)(Arabian Peninsula) into [Persia](Persia), the [Levant](Levant), and North Africa. In order to preserve the sanctity of the text, he ordered a committee headed by Zayd to use Abu Bakr's copy and prepare a standard text of the Quran.: from amongst the companions, (one of them being Zayd ibn Thābit who had compiled the first volume), produce other copies from the first volume which had been prepared on the orders of the first caliph and which had been kept with Ḥafṣah, the wife of the Prophet and daughter of the second caliph.
The other copies, already in the hands of Muslims in other areas, were collected and sent to Medina where, on orders of the Caliph, they were burnt (or, according to some histtorians, were destroyed by boiling). Thus several copies were made, one being kept in Medina, one in Mecca, and one each sent to Sham (a territory now divided into Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan), Kufa and Basra.
It is said that beside these five, one copy was also sent to Yemen and one to Bahrein. These copies were called the Imam copies and served as original for all future copies. The only difference of order between these copies and the first volume was that the chapters "Spirits of War" and "Immunity" were written in one place between "The Heights" and "Jonah."}} Thus, within 20 years of Muhammad's death, the Quran was committed to written form. That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world, and other versions are believed to have been destroyed.:
* "Poetry and Language," by [Kermani](Navid)(Navid Kermani), pp. 107–20.
* For the history of compilation see "Introduction," by [Sonn](Tamara)(Tamara Sonn), pp. 5–6
* For eschatology, see "Discovering (final destination)," by Christopher Buck, p. 30.
* For literary structure, see "Language," by Mustansir Mir, p. 93.
* For writing and printing, see "Written Transmission," by [Déroche](François)(François Déroche), pp. 172–87.
* For recitation, see "Recitation," by [M. Gade](Anna)(Anna M. Gade) pp. 481–93[*The Koran*, 2000](Cook,)(#MCKVSI2000): pp.117–24 The present form of the Quran text is accepted by Muslim scholars to be the original version compiled by Abu Bakr.|group=lower-roman}}
[[File:Quran by Imam ali.JPG|thumb|Quran − in [Mashhad](Mashhad), Iran − said to be written by [Ali](Ali)]]
According to [Shia](Shia Islam), [ibn Abi Talib](Ali)(Ali) (d. 661) compiled a complete version of the Quran shortly after Muhammad's death. The order of this text differed from that gathered later during Uthman's era in that this version had been collected in chronological order. Despite this, he made no objection against the standardized Quran and accepted the Quran in circulation. Other personal copies of the Quran might have existed including [Mas'ud](Ibn)(Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud)'s and [ibn Ka'b](Ubay)(Ubay ibn Ka'b)'s codex, none of which exist today.
* For God in the Quran (Allah), see "Allah," by Zeki Saritoprak, pp. 33–40.
* For eschatology, see "Eschatology," by Zeki Saritoprak, pp. 194–99.
* For searching the Arabic text on the internet and writing, see "Cyberspace and the Qur'an," by [Rippin](Andrew)(Andrew Rippin), pp. 159–63.
* For calligraphy, see by "Calligraphy and the Qur'an" by [Leaman](Oliver)(Oliver Leaman), pp. 130–35.
* For translation, see "Translation and the Qur'an," by Afnan Fatani, pp. 657–69.
* For recitation, see "Art and the Qur'an" by [Sonn](Tamara)(Tamara Sonn), pp. 71–81; and "Reading," by Stefan Wild, pp. 532–35.
The Quran most likely existed in scattered written form during Muhammad's lifetime. Several sources indicate that during Muhammad's lifetime a large number of his companions had memorized the revelations. Early commentaries and Islamic historical sources support the above-mentioned understanding of the Quran's early development. [of Chicago](University)(University of Chicago) professor [Donner](Fred)(Fred Donner) states that:[T]here was a very early attempt to establish a uniform consonantal text of the Qurʾān from what was probably a wider and more varied group of related texts in early transmission.… After the creation of this standardized canonical text, earlier authoritative texts were suppressed, and all extant manuscripts—despite their numerous variants—seem to date to a time after this standard consonantal text was established.Although most variant readings of the text of the Quran have ceased to be transmitted, some still are.Ibn Warraq, *Which Koran? Variants, Manuscript, Linguistics*, p. 45. Prometheus Books, 2011. There has been no [text](critical)(critical text) produced on which a scholarly reconstruction of the Quranic text could be based.|group=lower-roman}} Historically, controversy over the Quran's content has rarely become an issue, although debates continue on the subject.
[[File:Sana'a1 Stanford '07 recto.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The right page of the ['07 binary manuscript](Stanford)(Sana'a manuscript). The upper layer is verses 265–271 of the surah [Bakara](Bakara). The double-layer reveals the additions made on the first text of the Qur'an and the differences with today's Qur'an.]]
In 1972, in a mosque in the city of [Sana'a](Sana'a), [Yemen](Yemen), manuscripts were discovered that were later proved to be the most ancient Quranic text known to exist at the time. The [manuscript](Sana'a)(Sana'a manuscript)s contain [palimpsest](palimpsest)s, a manuscript page from which the text has been washed off to make the parchment reusable again—a practice which was common in ancient times due to the scarcity of writing material. However, the faint washed-off underlying text () is still barely visible and believed to be "pre-Uthmanic" Quranic content, while the text written on top () is believed to belong to Uthmanic times. Studies using [dating](radiocarbon)(radiocarbon dating) indicate that the parchments are dated to the period before 671 CE with a 99 percent probability. The German scholar [R. Puin](Gerd)(Gerd R. Puin) has been investigating these Quran fragments for years. His research team made 35,000 microfilm photographs of the manuscripts, which he dated to the early part of the 8th century. Puin has not published the entirety of his work, but noted unconventional verse orderings, minor textual variations, and rare styles of orthography. He also suggested that some of the parchments were palimpsests which had been reused. Puin believed that this implied an evolving text as opposed to a fixed one.
In 2015, [of a very early Quran](fragments)(Birmingham Quran manuscript), dating back to 1370 years earlier, were discovered in the library of the [of Birmingham](University)(University of Birmingham), England. According to the tests carried out by the Oxford University Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, "with a probability of more than 95%, the parchment was from between 568 and 645". The manuscript is written in [script](Hijazi)(Hijazi script), an early form of written Arabic. This is possibly the earliest extant exemplar of the Quran, but as the tests allow a range of possible dates, it cannot be said with certainty which of the existing versions is the oldest. Saudi scholar Saud al-Sarhan has expressed doubt over the age of the fragments as they contain dots and chapter separators that are believed to have originated later. However [E. B. Lumbard](Joseph)(Joseph E. B. Lumbard) of [University](Brandeis)(Brandeis University) has written in the *[Post](Huffington)(Huffington Post)* in support of the dates proposed by the Birmingham scholars. Lumbard notes that the discovery of a Quranic text that may be confirmed by radiocarbon dating as having been written in the first decades of the Islamic era, while presenting a text substantially in conformity with that traditionally accepted, reinforces a growing academic consensus that many Western skeptical and 'revisionist' theories of Quranic origins are now untenable in the light of empirical findings—whereas, on the other hand, counterpart accounts of Quranic origins within classical Islamic traditions stand up well in the light of ongoing scientific discoveries.
## Significance in Islam
Muslims believe the Quran to be God's final revelation to humanity, a work of divine guidance revealed to [Muhammad](Muhammad in Islam) through the [Gabriel](angel)(Holy Spirit (Islam)).Watton, Victor (1993), ''A student's approach to world religions: Islam*, Hodder & Stoughton, p. 1.
Revered by pious Muslims as "the holy of holies,"[*Islam'', 1954](Guillaume,)(#AGI1954): p.74 whose sound moves some to "tears and ecstasy", it is the physical symbol of the faith, the text often used as a charm on occasions of birth, death, marriage. Consequently,
It must never rest beneath other books, but always on top of them, one must never drink or smoke when it is being read aloud, and it must be listened to in silence. It is a talisman against disease and disaster.[Warraq, ''Why I'm Not a Muslim'', 1995](Ibn)(#iWWINaM1995): p.105
Traditionally great emphasis was put on children memorizing the 6,200+ verses of the Quran, those succeeding being honored with the title [Hafiz](Hafiz (Quran)). "Millions and millions" of Muslims "refer to the Koran daily to explain their actions and to justify their aspirations," |group=lower-roman}} and in recent years many consider it the source of scientific knowledge.
[Revelation](Wahy) in Islamic and Quranic contexts means the act of God addressing an individual, conveying a message for a greater number of recipients. The process by which the divine message comes to the heart of a messenger of God is *[tanzil](tanzil)* ('to send down') or ('to come down'). As the Quran says, "With the truth we (God) have sent it down and with the truth it has come down."See:
*
*
* ,
The Quran frequently asserts in its text that it is divinely ordained. Some verses in the Quran seem to imply that even those who do not speak Arabic would understand the Quran if it were recited to them. The Quran refers to a written pre-text, "the preserved tablet," that records God's speech even before it was sent down.
Muslims believe that the present wording of the Quran corresponds to that revealed to Muhammad, and according to their interpretation of Quran , it is protected from corruption ("Indeed, it is We who sent down the Quran and indeed, We will be its guardian."). Muslims consider the Quran to be a guide, a sign of the prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion.
The [believe that the Quran](Shīa)(Shia view of the Quran) was gathered and compiled by Muhammad during his lifetime, rather than being compiled by [ibn Affan](Uthman)(Uthman ibn Affan). There are other differences in the way Shias interpret the text. Muslims do not agree over whether the Quran was created by God or is eternal and "uncreated." Sunnis (who make up about 85–90% of Muslims) hold that the Quran is uncreated—a doctrine that has been unchallenged among them for many centuries. [Shia](Shia) [Twelver](Twelver)s and [Zaydi](Zaydi), and the [Kharijite](Kharijite)s—believe the Quran was created. [Sufi](Sufi) philosophers view the question as artificial or wrongly framed.
### Inimitability
Inimitability of the Quran (or "") is the belief that no human speech can match the Quran in its content and form. The Quran is considered an inimitable miracle by Muslims, effective until the [of Resurrection](Day)(Day of Resurrection)—and, thereby, the central proof granted to [Muhammad](Muhammad) in authentication of his prophetic status. The concept of inimitability originates in the Quran where in five different verses opponents are [to produce something like the Quran](challenged)(Challenge of the Quran): "If men and [jinn](jinn) banded together to produce the like of this Quran they would never produce its like not though they backed one another." From the ninth century, numerous works appeared which studied the Quran and examined its style and content. Medieval Muslim scholars including [al-Jurjani](Abd al-Qahir al-Jurjani) (d. 1078) and [al-Baqillani](al-Baqillani) (d. 1013) have written treatises on the subject, discussed its various aspects, and used linguistic approaches to study the Quran. Others argue that the Quran contains noble ideas, has inner meanings, maintained its freshness through the ages and has caused great transformations at the individual level and in history. Some scholars state that the Quran contains scientific information that agrees with modern science. The doctrine of the miraculousness of the Quran is further emphasized by Muhammad's illiteracy since the unlettered prophet could not have been suspected of composing the Quran.
### In worship
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Moslimmannen tijdens het gebed op vrijdag in de moskee Tulehu TMnr 20017952.jpg|thumb|While standing in prayers, worshipers recite the first chapter of the Quran, [al-Fatiha](al-Fatiha), followed by any other section.]]
The [surah](first)(Al-Fatiha) of the Quran is repeated in daily prayers and on other occasions. This surah, which consists of seven verses, is the most often recited surah of the Quran:
|In the Name of Allah the Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful.
[All] praise is [due] to Allah, Lord of the worlds —
The Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful,
Sovereign of the Day of Recompense.
It is You we worship and You we ask for help
Guide us to the straight path—
The path of those upon whom You have bestowed favor, not of those who have evoked [Your] anger or of those who are astray.|attr1=|attr2=*[International](Sahih)(Sahih International)* English translation
}}
Other sections of the Quran of choice are also read in daily prayers.
Respect for the written text of the Quran is an important element of religious faith by many Muslims, and the Quran is treated with reverence. Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of Quran ("none shall touch but those who are clean"), some Muslims believe that they must perform a ritual cleansing with water ([wudu](wudu) or [ghusl](ghusl)) before touching a copy of the Quran, although this view is not universal. Worn-out copies of the Quran are wrapped in a cloth and stored indefinitely in a safe place, buried in a mosque or a Muslim cemetery, or burned and the ashes buried or scattered over water.
In Islam, most intellectual disciplines, including Islamic theology, [philosophy](Islamic philosophy), [mysticism](Sufism) and [jurisprudence](Fiqh), have been concerned with the Quran or have their foundation in its teachings. Muslims believe that the preaching or reading of the Quran is rewarded with divine rewards variously called , *[thawab](thawab)*, or .
### In Islamic art
The Quran also inspired [art](Islamic)(Islamic art)s and specifically the so-called Quranic arts of [calligraphy](Islamic calligraphy) and [illumination](Ottoman illumination). The Quran is never decorated with figurative images, but many Qurans have been highly decorated with decorative patterns in the margins of the page, or between the lines or at the start of suras. Islamic verses appear in many other media, on buildings and on objects of all sizes, such as [lamp](mosque)(mosque lamp)s, metal work, [pottery](Islamic pottery) and single pages of calligraphy for [muraqqa](muraqqa)s or albums.
File:Brooklyn Museum - Calligraphy - 3.jpg|[Calligraphy](Calligraphy), 18th century. [Museum](Brooklyn)(Brooklyn Museum).
File:Quran inscriptions on wall, Lodhi Gardens, Delhi.jpg|Quranic inscriptions, [Gumbad mosque](Bara)(Bara Gumbad mosque), Delhi, India.
File:Mosque lamp Met 91.1.1534.jpg|Typical [lamp](mosque)(mosque lamp), of [glass](enamelled)(enamelled glass), with the *[an-Nur](Ayat)(Ayat an-Nur)* or "Verse of Light" (24:35).
File:Mausolées du groupe nord (Shah-i-Zinda, Samarcande) (6016470147).jpg|Quranic verses, Shahizinda mausoleum, Samarkand, Uzbekistan.
File:Muhammad ibn Mustafa Izmiri - Right Side of an Illuminated Double-page Incipit - Walters W5771B - Full Page.jpg|Quran page decoration art, Ottoman period.
File:4.8-17-1990-Guld-koranside-recto-og-verso.jpg|The leaves from this Quran written in gold and contoured with brown ink have a horizontal format. This is admirably suited to [Kufic calligraphy](classical)(Kufic calligraphy), which became common under the early [caliphs](Abbasid)(Abbasid caliphs).
File:Brooklyn Museum - Manuscript of the Qur'an.jpg|Manuscript of the Quran at the [Museum](Brooklyn)(Brooklyn Museum)
## Text and arrangement
[[File:FirstSurahKoran (fragment).jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|First sura of the Quran, *[Al-Fatiha](Al-Fatiha)*, consisting of seven verses.]]
The Quran consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths, each known as a *[sūrah](sūrah)*. Chapters are classified as [Meccan](Meccan sura) or [Medinan](Medinan sura), depending on whether the verses were revealed before or after the [migration](Hijra (Islam)) of Muhammad to the city of Medina. However, a sūrah classified as Medinan may contain Meccan verses in it and vice versa. Sūrah titles are derived from a name or quality discussed in the text, or from the first letters or words of the sūrah. Chapters are not arranged in chronological order, rather the chapters appear to be arranged roughly in order of decreasing size. Some scholars argue the sūrahs are arranged according to a certain pattern.see Each sūrah except the ninth starts with the *[Bismillah](Basmala)* (}}), an Arabic phrase meaning 'In the name of God.' There are, however, still 114 occurrences of the *Bismillah* in the Quran, due to its presence in Quran as the opening of [Solomon](Solomon in Islam)'s letter to the [of Sheba](Queen)(Queen of Sheba).See:
* "Kur`an, al-", *Encyclopaedia of Islam Online*
* Allen (2000) p. 53
Each sūrah consists of several verses, known as *[āyāt](āyāt)*, which originally means a 'sign' or 'evidence' sent by God. The number of verses differs from sūrah to sūrah. An individual verse may be just a few letters or several lines. The total number of verses in the most popular [Quran](Hafs)(Hafs Quran) is 6,236; however, the number varies if the *bismillahs* are counted separately.
In addition to and independent of the division into chapters, there are various ways of dividing the Quran into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in reading. The 30 ''[juz'](juz')'' (plural ) can be used to read through the entire Quran in a month. Some of these parts are known by names—which are the first few words by which the begins. A is sometimes further divided into two *[ḥizb](hizb)* (plural ), and each subdivided into four . The Quran is also divided into seven approximately equal parts, *[manzil](manzil)* (plural ), for it to be recited in a week.
A different structure is provided by semantic units resembling paragraphs and comprising roughly ten each. Such a section is called a [*rukū`*](ruku).
The *[Muqattaʿat](Muqattaʿat)* ( , 'disjoined letters, disconnected letters'; is the plural of a participle from , 'to cut, break'. also 'mysterious letters') are combinations of between one and five [letters](Arabic)(Arabic alphabet) figuring at the beginning of 29 out of the 114 chapters of the Quran just after the basmala. The letters are also known as *[fawātih](Fawatih)* (), or 'openers', as they form the opening verse of their respective suras. Four surahs are named for their : [*Ṭāʾ-Hāʾ*](Ta-Ha), [*Yāʾ-Sīn*](Ya Sin), [*Ṣād*](Sad (sura)), and [Qāf*](*)(Qaf (sura)). The original significance of the letters is unknown. *[Tafsir](Tafsir)* ([exegesis](exegesis)) has interpreted them as abbreviations for either [or qualities of God](names)(names of God in Islam) or for the names or content of the respective surahs. According to [Khalifa](Rashad)(Rashad Khalifa), those letters are Quranic initials for a hypothetical mathematical code in the Quran, namely the [code](Quran)(Quran code) or known as Code 19.
According to one estimate the Quran consists of 77,430 words, 18,994 unique words, 12,183 [stems](Word stem), 3,382 [lemmas](Lemma (morphology)) and 1,685 [roots](Root (linguistics)).
## Contents
The Quranic content is concerned with basic Islamic beliefs including the existence of [God](God in Islam) and the [resurrection](Islamic eschatology). Narratives of the early [prophets](Prophets in Islam), ethical and legal subjects, historical events of Muhammad's time, charity and [prayer](Salat) also appear in the Quran. The Quranic verses contain general exhortations regarding right and wrong and historical events are related to outline general moral lessons. Verses pertaining to natural phenomena have been interpreted by Muslims as an indication of the authenticity of the Quranic message. The style of the Quran has been called "allusive," with commentaries needed to explain what is being referred to—"events are referred to, but not narrated; disagreements are debated without being explained; people and places are mentioned, but rarely named."
### Monotheism
The central theme of the Quran is [monotheism](monotheism). God is depicted as living, eternal, omniscient and omnipotent (see, e.g., Quran , , ). God's omnipotence appears above all in his power to create. He is the creator of everything, of the heavens and the earth and what is between them (see, e.g., Quran , , , etc.). All human beings are equal in their utter dependence upon God, and their well-being depends upon their acknowledging that fact and living accordingly.
[[File:Quran rzabasi4.JPG|thumb|A 12th-century Quran manuscript at [Abbasi Museum](Reza)(Reza Abbasi Museum).]]
The Quran uses [cosmological](Cosmological argument) and contingency arguments in various verses without referring to the terms to prove the [of God](existence)(existence of God). Therefore, the universe is originated and needs an originator, and whatever exists must have a sufficient cause for its existence. Besides, the design of the universe is frequently referred to as a point of contemplation: "It is He who has created seven heavens in harmony. You cannot see any fault in God's creation; then look again: Can you see any flaw?"
### Eschatology
The doctrine of the last day and [eschatology](eschatology) (the final fate of the universe) may be considered the second great doctrine of the Quran. It is estimated that approximately one-third of the Quran is eschatological, dealing with the afterlife in the next world and with the day of judgment at the end of time. There is a reference to the afterlife on most pages of the Quran and belief in the afterlife is often referred to in conjunction with belief in God as in the common expression: "Believe in God and the last day." A number of [sura](sura)s such as 44, 56, 75, 78, 81 and 101 are directly related to the afterlife and its preparations. Some suras indicate the closeness of the event and warn people to be prepared for the imminent day. For instance, the first verses of Sura 22, which deal with the mighty earthquake and the situations of people on that day, represent this style of divine address: "O People! Be respectful to your Lord. The earthquake of the Hour is a mighty thing."
The Quran is often vivid in its depiction of what will happen at the end time. Watt describes the Quranic view of End Time:The climax of history, when the present world comes to an end, is referred to in various ways. It is 'the Day of Judgment,' 'the Last Day,' 'the Day of Resurrection,' or simply 'the Hour.' Less frequently it is 'the Day of Distinction' (when the good are separated from the evil), 'the Day of the Gathering' (of men to the presence of God) or 'the Day of the Meeting' (of men with God). The Hour comes suddenly. It is heralded by a shout, by a thunderclap, or by the blast of a trumpet. A cosmic upheaval then takes place. The mountains dissolve into dust, the seas boil up, the sun is darkened, the stars fall and the sky is rolled up. God appears as Judge, but his presence is hinted at rather than described.… The central interest, of course, is in the gathering of all mankind before the Judge. Human beings of all ages, restored to life, join the throng. To the scoffing objection of the unbelievers that former generations had been dead a long time and were now dust and mouldering bones, the reply is that God is nevertheless able to restore them to life.The Quran does not assert a natural [immortality](immortality) of the human [soul](soul), since man's existence is dependent on the will of God: when he wills, he causes man to die; and when he wills, he raises him to life again in a bodily [resurrection](resurrection).
### Prophets
According to the Quran, God communicated with man and made his will known through signs and revelations. [Prophets](Prophets in Islam), or 'Messengers of God', received revelations and delivered them to humanity. The message has been identical and for all humankind. "Nothing is said to you that was not said to the messengers before you, that your lord has at his Command forgiveness as well as a most Grievous Penalty." The revelation does not come directly from God to the prophets. Angels acting as God's messengers deliver the divine revelation to them. This comes out in Quran , in which it is stated: "It is not for any mortal that God should speak to them, except by revelation, or from behind a veil, or by sending a messenger to reveal by his permission whatsoever He will."
### Ethico-religious concepts
[[File:Second Sura from the Qur'an.jpg|thumb|alt=Verse about the month of Ramadan, second sura, verse 185. from a Quran manuscript dated to [1510](1510)|Verse about the month of Ramadan, second sura, verse 185. from a Quran manuscript dated to [1510](1510)]]
Belief is a fundamental aspect of morality in the Quran, and scholars have tried to determine the semantic contents of "belief" and "believer" in the Quran. The ethico-legal concepts and exhortations dealing with righteous conduct are linked to a profound awareness of God, thereby emphasizing the importance of faith, accountability, and the belief in each human's ultimate encounter with God. People are invited to perform acts of charity, especially for the needy. Believers who "spend of their wealth by night and by day, in secret and in public" are promised that they "shall have their reward with their Lord; on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve." It also affirms family life by legislating on matters of marriage, divorce, and inheritance. A number of practices, such as usury and gambling, are prohibited. The Quran is one of the fundamental sources of Islamic law (*[sharia](sharia)*). Some formal religious practices receive significant attention in the Quran including the formal prayers (*[salat](salat)*) and fasting in the month of [Ramadan](Ramadan). As for the manner in which the prayer is to be conducted, the Quran refers to prostration. The term for charity, *[zakat](zakat)*, literally means purification. Charity, according to the Quran, is a means of self-purification.
### Encouragement for the sciences
The astrophysicist [Guessoum](Nidhal)(Nidhal Guessoum), while being highly critical of pseudo-scientific claims made about the Quran, has highlighted the encouragement for sciences that the Quran provides by developing "the concept of knowledge." He writes:The Qur'an draws attention to the danger of conjecturing without evidence (*And follow not that of which you have not the (certain) knowledge of...* 17:36) and in several different verses asks Muslims to require proofs (*Say: Bring your proof if you are truthful* 2:111), both in matters of theological belief and in natural science.Guessoum cites Ghaleb Hasan on the definition of "proof" according to the Quran being "clear and strong... convincing evidence or argument." Also, such a proof cannot rely on an [from authority](argument)(argument from authority), citing verse 5:104. Lastly, both assertions and rejections require a proof, according to verse 4:174. [al-Faruqi](Ismail)(Ismail al-Faruqi) and [Jabir Alalwani](Taha)(Taha Jabir Alalwani) are of the view that any reawakening of the Muslim civilization must start with the Quran; however, the biggest obstacle on this route is the "centuries old heritage of tafseer (exegesis) and other classical disciplines" which inhibit a "universal, epidemiological and systematic conception" of the Quran's message. The philosopher [Iqbal](Muhammad)(Muhammad Iqbal), considered the Quran's methodology and epistemology to be empirical and rational.
There are around 750 verses in the Quran dealing with natural phenomena. In many of these verses the study of nature is *"encouraged and highly recommended"*, and historical Islamic scientists like [Al-Biruni](Al-Biruni) and [Al-Battani](Al-Battani) derived their inspiration from verses of the Quran. [Hashim Kamali](Mohammad)(Mohammad Hashim Kamali) has stated that "scientific observation, experimental knowledge and rationality" are the primary tools with which humanity can achieve the goals laid out for it in the Quran. [Sardar](Ziauddin)(Ziauddin Sardar) built a case for Muslims having developed the foundations of modern science, by highlighting the repeated calls of the Quran to observe and reflect upon natural phenomenon.
The physicist [Salam](Abdus)(Abdus Salam), in his Nobel Prize banquet address, quoted a well known verse from the Quran (67:3–4) and then stated: "This in effect is the faith of all physicists: the deeper we seek, the more is our wonder excited, the more is the dazzlement of our gaze." One of Salam's core beliefs was that there is no contradiction between Islam and the discoveries that science allows humanity to make about nature and the universe. Salam also held the opinion that the Quran and the Islamic spirit of study and rational reflection was the source of extraordinary civilizational development. Salam highlights, in particular, the work of [al-Haytham](Ibn)(Alhazen) and [Al-Biruni](Al-Biruni) as the pioneers of empiricism who introduced the experimental approach, breaking with Aristotle's influence and thus giving birth to modern science. Salam was also careful to differentiate between metaphysics and physics, and advised against empirically probing certain matters on which "physics is silent and will remain so," such as the doctrine of "creation from nothing" which in Salam's view is outside the limits of science and thus "gives way" to religious considerations.
## Literary style
[[File:Touba3.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Boys studying the Quran in [Senegal](Touba,)(Touba, Senegal)]]
The Quran's message is conveyed with various literary structures and devices. In the original Arabic, the suras and verses employ [phonetic](phonetics) and [thematic](theme (literature)) structures that assist the audience's efforts to recall the message of the text. Muslims assert (according to the Quran itself) that the Quranic content and style is inimitable.
The language of the Quran has been described as "rhymed prose" as it partakes of both poetry and prose; however, this description runs the risk of failing to convey the rhythmic quality of Quranic language, which is more poetic in some parts and more prose-like in others. Rhyme, while found throughout the Quran, is conspicuous in many of the earlier Meccan suras, in which relatively short verses throw the rhyming words into prominence. The effectiveness of such a form is evident for instance in Sura 81, and there can be no doubt that these passages impressed the conscience of the hearers. Frequently a change of rhyme from one set of verses to another signals a change in the subject of discussion. Later sections also preserve this form but the style is more expository.
The Quranic text seems to have no beginning, middle, or end, its nonlinear structure being akin to a web or net. The textual arrangement is sometimes considered to exhibit lack of continuity, absence of any chronological or thematic order and repetitiousness. principle: God's words must not in any way be distorted or sullied by human intervention. For this reason, no serious attempt, apparently, was made to edit the numerous revelations, organize them into thematic units, or present them in chronological order... This has given rise in the past to a great deal of criticism by European and American scholars of Islam, who find the Quran disorganized, repetitive and very difficult to read."*Approaches to the Asian Classics*, Irene Blomm, William Theodore De Bary, Columbia University Press, 1990, p. 65|group=lower-roman}}|group=lower-roman}} [Sells](Michael)(Michael Sells), citing the work of the critic [O. Brown](Norman)(Norman O. Brown), acknowledges Brown's observation that the seeming disorganization of Quranic literary expression—its scattered or fragmented mode of composition in Sells's phrase—is in fact a literary device capable of delivering profound effects as if the intensity of the prophetic message were shattering the vehicle of human language in which it was being communicated. Sells also addresses the much-discussed repetitiveness of the Quran, seeing this, too, as a literary device.
A text is [self-referential](Self-reference) when it speaks about itself and makes reference to itself. According to Stefan Wild, the Quran demonstrates this [metatextuality](metatextuality) by explaining, classifying, interpreting and justifying the words to be transmitted. Self-referentiality is evident in those passages where the Quran refers to itself as revelation (), remembrance (*[dhikr](dhikr)*), news (), criterion () in a self-designating manner (explicitly asserting its Divinity, "And this is a blessed Remembrance that We have sent down; so are you now denying it?"), or in the frequent appearance of the "Say" tags, when Muhammad is commanded to speak (e.g., "Say: 'God's guidance is the true guidance'," "Say: 'Would you then dispute with us concerning God?'"). According to Wild the Quran is highly self-referential. The feature is more evident in early Meccan suras.
## Interpretation
[[Qur'an (Al-Kusar).PNG|thumb|upright=1.25|An early interpretation of Sura 108 of the Quran](File:Tapurian)]
The Quran has sparked much commentary and explication (), aimed at explaining the "meanings of the Quranic verses, clarifying their import and finding out their significance."
Tafsir is one of the earliest academic activities of Muslims. According to the Quran, Muhammad was the first person who described the meanings of verses for early Muslims. Other early exegetes included a few [of Muhammad](Companions)(Companions of Muhammad), such as [Bakr](Abu)(Abu Bakr), [ibn al-Khattab]('Umar)(Umar), [ibn 'Affan]('Uthman)(Uthman), ʻ[ibn Abi Talib](Ali)(Ali ibn Abi Talib), [ibn Mas'ood]('Abdullah)(Abdullah ibn Masud), ʻ[ibn Abbas](Abdullah)(Abdullah ibn Abbas), [ibn Kaʻb](Ubayy)(Ubayy ibn Kab), [ibn Thaabit](Zayd)(Zayd ibn Thabit), [Moosaa al-Ash’ari](Abu)(Abu Musa al-Ash'ari), and [ibn al-Zubayr](‘Abdullah)(Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr). Exegesis in those days was confined to the explanation of literary aspects of the verse, the background of its revelation and, occasionally, interpretation of one verse with the help of the other. If the verse was about a historical event, then sometimes a few traditions (*[hadith](hadith)*) of Muhammad were narrated to make its meaning clear.
Because the Quran is spoken in [Arabic](classical)(classical Arabic), many of the later converts to Islam (mostly non-Arabs) did not always understand the Quranic Arabic, they did not catch allusions that were clear to early Muslims fluent in Arabic and they were concerned with reconciling apparent conflict of themes in the Quran. Commentators erudite in Arabic explained the allusions, and perhaps most importantly, explained which Quranic verses had been revealed early in Muhammad's prophetic career, as being appropriate to the very earliest Muslim community, and which had been revealed later, canceling out or "[abrogating](naskh (exegesis))" () the earlier text (). Other scholars, however, maintain that no abrogation has taken place in the Quran.
There have been several commentaries of the Quran by scholars of all denominations, popular ones include Tafsir [Kathir](ibn)(ibn Kathir), [al-Jalalayn](Tafsir)(Tafsir al-Jalalayn), [Al Kabir](Tafsir)(Tafsir Al Kabir), [al-Tabari](Tafsir)(Tafsir al-Tabari). More modern works of Tafsir include [Qur'an](Ma'ariful)(Ma'ariful Qur'an) written by [Muhammad Shafi](Mufti)(Mufti Muhammad Shafi) and [Nur](Risale-i)(Risale-i Nur) by [Said Nursi](Bediüzzaman)(Bediüzzaman Said Nursi).
### Esoteric interpretation
Esoteric or [Sufi](sufism) interpretation attempts to unveil the inner meanings of the Quran. Sufism moves beyond the apparent () point of the verses and instead relates Quranic verses to the inner or esoteric (*[batin](Batin (Islam))*) and metaphysical dimensions of consciousness and existence. According to Sands, esoteric interpretations are more suggestive than declarative, they are allusions () rather than explanations (*[tafsir](tafsir)*). They indicate possibilities as much as they demonstrate the insights of each writer.
Sufi interpretation, according to Annabel Keeler, also exemplifies the use of the theme of love, as for instance can be seen in Qushayri's interpretation of the Quran:
}}
Moses, in 7:143, comes the way of those who are in love, he asks for a vision but his desire is denied, he is made to suffer by being commanded to look at other than the Beloved while the mountain is able to see God. The mountain crumbles and Moses faints at the sight of God's manifestation upon the mountain. In Qushayri's words, Moses came like thousands of men who traveled great distances, and there was nothing left to Moses of Moses. In that state of annihilation from himself, Moses was granted the unveiling of the realities. From the Sufi point of view, God is the always the beloved and the wayfarer's longing and suffering lead to realization of the truths.
[[File:Men reading the Koran in Umayyad Mosque, Damascus, Syria.jpg|thumb|left|Men reading the Quran at the Umayyad Mosque, [Syria](Damascus,)(Damascus, Syria)]]
[Husayn Tabatabaei](Muhammad)(Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei) says that according to the popular explanation among the later exegetes, indicates the particular meaning a verse is directed towards. The meaning of revelation (*[tanzil](tanzil)*), as opposed to , is clear in its accordance to the obvious meaning of the words as they were revealed. But this explanation has become so widespread that, at present, it has become the primary meaning of , which originally meant 'to return' or 'the returning place'. In Tabatabaei's view, what has been rightly called , or [hermeneutic](Hermeneutics) interpretation of the Quran, is not concerned simply with the denotation of words. Rather, it is concerned with certain truths and realities that transcend the comprehension of the common run of men; yet it is from these truths and realities that the principles of doctrine and the practical injunctions of the Quran issue forth. Interpretation is not the meaning of the verse—rather it transpires through that meaning, in a special sort of transpiration. There is a spiritual reality—which is the main objective of ordaining a law, or the basic aim in describing a divine attribute—and then there is an actual significance that a Quranic story refers to.
[[File:عکس های مراسم ترتیل خوانی یا جزء خوانی یا قرائت قرآن در ایام ماه رمضان در حرم فاطمه معصومه در شهر قم 20.jpg|thumb|250px|[Shia](Shia) Muslim girls reciting the Quran placed atop folding [lectern](lectern)s ([*rehal*](Rehal (book rest))) during [Ramadan](Ramadan) in [Qom](Qom), [Iran](Iran)]]
According to Shia beliefs, those who are firmly rooted in knowledge like Muhammad and the imams know the secrets of the Quran. According to Tabatabaei, the statement "none knows its interpretation except God" remains valid, without any opposing or qualifying clause. Therefore, so far as this verse is concerned, the knowledge of the Quran's interpretation is reserved for God. But Tabatabaei uses other verses and concludes that those who are purified by God know the interpretation of the Quran to a certain extent.
According to [Tabatabaei](Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai), there are acceptable and unacceptable esoteric interpretations. Acceptable ''[ta'wil](ta'wil)'' refers to the meaning of a verse beyond its literal meaning; rather the implicit meaning, which ultimately is known only to [God](God) and can't be comprehended directly through human thought alone. The verses in question here refer to the human qualities of coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger and sorrow, which are apparently attributed to [God](God in Islam). Unacceptable is where one "transfers" the apparent meaning of a verse to a different meaning by means of a proof; this method is not without obvious inconsistencies. Although this unacceptable has gained considerable acceptance, it is incorrect and cannot be applied to the Quranic verses. The correct interpretation is that reality a verse refers to. It is found in all verses, the decisive and the ambiguous alike; it is not a sort of a meaning of the word; it is a fact that is too sublime for words. God has dressed them with words to bring them a bit nearer to our minds; in this respect they are like proverbs that are used to create a picture in the mind, and thus help the hearer to clearly grasp the intended idea.
#### History of Sufi commentaries
One of the notable authors of esoteric interpretation prior to the 12th century is Sulami (d. 1021) without whose work the majority of very early Sufi commentaries would not have been preserved. Sulami's major commentary is a book named ('Truths of Exegesis') which is a compilation of commentaries of earlier Sufis. From the 11th century onwards several other works appear, including commentaries by Qushayri (d. 1074), Daylami (d. 1193), Shirazi (d. 1209) and Suhrawardi (d. 1234). These works include material from Sulami's books plus the author's contributions. Many works are written in Persian such as the works of Maybudi (d. 1135) ('the unveiling of the secrets'). [Rumi](Rumi) (d. 1273) wrote a vast amount of mystical poetry in his book *[Mathnawi](Masnavi)*. Rumi makes heavy use of the Quran in his poetry, a feature that is sometimes omitted in translations of Rumi's work. A large number of Quranic passages can be found in , which some consider a kind of Sufi interpretation of the Quran. Rumi's book is not exceptional for containing citations from and elaboration on the Quran, however, Rumi does mention Quran more frequently. Simnani (d. 1336) wrote two influential works of esoteric exegesis on the Quran. He reconciled notions of God's manifestation through and in the physical world with the sentiments of Sunni Islam. Comprehensive Sufi commentaries appear in the 18th century such as the work of Ismail Hakki Bursevi (d. 1725). His work ('the Spirit of Elucidation') is a voluminous exegesis. Written in Arabic, it combines the author's own ideas with those of his predecessors (notably Ibn Arabi and [Ghazali](Al-Ghazali)).
### Levels of meaning
[[File:Quran rzabasi1.JPG|thumb|9th-century Quran in [Abbasi Museum](Reza)(Reza Abbasi Museum)]] [[File:IslamicGalleryBritishMuseum3.jpg|thumb| An 11th-century North African Quran at the [Museum](British)(British Museum) ]]
Unlike the Salafis and Zahiri, Shias and Sufis as well as some other [philosophers](Muslim)(Islamic philosophy) believe the meaning of the Quran is not restricted to the literal aspect. For them, it is an essential idea that the Quran also has inward aspects. [Corbin](Henry)(Henry Corbin) narrates a *[hadith](hadith)* that goes back to [Muhammad](Muhammad):
The Quran possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning (this depth possesses a depth, after the image of the celestial Spheres, which are enclosed within each other). So it goes on for seven esoteric meanings (seven depths of hidden depth).
According to this view, it has also become evident that the inner meaning of the Quran does not eradicate or invalidate its outward meaning. Rather, it is like the soul, which gives life to the body. Corbin considers the Quran to play a part in [philosophy](Islamic)(Islamic philosophy), because [gnosiology](gnosiology) itself goes hand in hand with [prophetology](prophet#Islam).
Commentaries dealing with the *[zahir](Zahir (Islam))* ('outward aspects') of the text are called , and hermeneutic and esoteric commentaries dealing with the *[batin](Batin (Islam))* are called ''[ta'wil](Esoteric interpretation of the Quran)'' ('interpretation' or 'explanation'), which involves taking the text back to its beginning. Commentators with an esoteric slant believe that the ultimate meaning of the Quran is known only to God. In contrast, [literalism](Quranic)(Bi-la kaifa), followed by [Salafis](Salafis) and [Zahiri](Zahiri)s, is the belief that the Quran should only be taken at its apparent meaning.
### Reappropriation
Reappropriation is the name of the [hermeneutical](hermeneutical) style of some ex-Muslims who have converted to Christianity. Their style or reinterpretation can sometimes be geared towards [apologetics](apologetics), with less reference to the Islamic scholarly tradition that contextualizes and systematizes the reading (e.g., by identifying some verses as abrogated). This tradition of interpretation draws on the following practices: grammatical renegotiation, renegotiation of textual preference, retrieval, and concession.
## Translations
Translating the Quran has always been problematic and difficult. Many argue that the Quranic text cannot be reproduced in another language or form. Furthermore, an Arabic word may have a [of meanings](range)(Polysemy) depending on the context, making an accurate translation even more difficult.
Nevertheless, the Quran has been [translated](translation) into most [Africa](Africa)n, [Asia](Asia)n, and [Europe](Europe)an languages. The first translator of the Quran was [the Persian](Salman)(Salman the Persian), who translated surat *[al-Fatiha](al-Fatiha)* into [Persian](Persian language) during the seventh century.[An-Nawawi](Al-Nawawi), ''Al-Majmu',* (Cairo: Matba‘at at-Tadamun n.d.), 380. Another translation of the Quran was completed in 884 in [Alwar](Alwar) ([Sindh](Sindh), [India](India), now [Pakistan](Pakistan)) by the orders of Abdullah bin Umar bin Abdul Aziz on the request of the Hindu Raja Mehruk.
The first fully attested complete translations of the Quran were done between the 10th and 12th centuries in [Persian](Persian language). The [Samanid](Samanid Empire) king, [I](Mansur)(Mansur I) (961–976), ordered a group of scholars from [Khorasan](Greater Khorasan) to translate the [al-Tabari](Tafsir)(Tafsir al-Tabari), originally in Arabic, into Persian. Later in the 11th century, one of the students of [Mansur Abdullah al-Ansari](Abu)(Khwaja Abdullah Ansari) wrote a complete *[tafsir](tafsir)'' of the Quran in Persian. In the 12th century, [al-Din Abu Hafs al-Nasafi](Najm)(Abu Hafs Omar al-Nasafi) translated the Quran into Persian.C.E. Bosworth. Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed, Brill. "Al-Tabari, Abu Djafar Muhammad b. Djarir b. Yazid", Vol. 10, p. 14. The manuscripts of all three books have survived and have been published several times.
Islamic tradition also holds that translations were made for Emperor Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor [Heraclius](Heraclius), as both [letters by Muhammad](received)(Muhammad's letters to the Heads-of-State) containing verses from the Quran. In early centuries, the permissibility of translations was not an issue, but whether one could use translations in prayer.
In 1936, translations in 102 languages were known. In 2010, the *[Daily News and Economic Review](Hürriyet)(Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review)* reported that the Quran was presented in 112 languages at the 18th International Quran Exhibition in Tehran.
[of Ketton](Robert)(Robert of Ketton)'s 1143 translation of the Quran for [the Venerable](Peter)(Peter the Venerable), *[Mahumet pseudoprophete](Lex)(Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete)*, was the first into a Western language ([Latin](Latin)).
[Ross](Alexander)(Alexander Ross (writer)) offered the first English version in 1649, from the French translation of (1647) by [du Ryer](Andre)(Andre du Ryer). In 1734, [Sale](George)(George Sale) produced the first scholarly translation of the Quran into English; another was produced by [Bell](Richard)(Richard Bell (Arabist)) in 1937, and yet another by [John Arberry](Arthur)(Arthur John Arberry) in 1955. All these translators were non-Muslims. There have been numerous translations by Muslims. Popular modern English translations by Muslims include The Oxford World Classic's translation by [Abdel Haleem](Muhammad)(Muhammad Abdel Haleem), The Clear Quran by Mustafa Khattab, [International](Sahih)(Sahih International)'s translation, among various others.
As with translations of the Bible, the English translators have sometimes favored archaic English words and constructions over their more modern or conventional equivalents; for example, two widely read translators, [Yusuf Ali](Abdullah)(Abdullah Yusuf Ali) and [Pickthall](Marmaduke)(Marmaduke Pickthall), use the plural and singular *ye* and *thou* instead of the more common *[you](you)*.
The oldest [Gurmukhi](Gurmukhi) translation of the Quran Sharif has been found in village [Lande](Lande, Punjab) of [district](Moga)(Moga district) of Punjab which was printed in 1911.
Page from the Qur'an of Sultan Ibrahim (TKS EH 209).jpg|1091 Quranic text in bold script with Persian translation and commentary in a lighter script.
File:Ilkhanid Quran.jpg|Arabic Quran with interlinear Persian translation from the [Ilkhanid](Ilkhanate) Era.
File:Alcoran de Mahomet 1647.jpg|The first printed Quran in a European vernacular language: , [du Ryer](André)(André du Ryer), 1647.
File:Koran by Megerlein 1772.jpg|Title page of the first German translation (1772) of the Quran.
File:Chinese quran.jpg|Verses 33 and 34 of surat [Sīn](Yā)(Ya Sin) in this Chinese translation of the Quran.
## Recitation
### Rules of recitation
The proper recitation of the Quran is the subject of a separate discipline named *[tajwid](tajwid)* which determines in detail how the Quran should be recited, how each individual syllable is to be pronounced, the need to pay attention to the places where there should be a pause, to [elision](elision)s, where the pronunciation should be long or short, where letters should be sounded together and where they should be kept separate, etc. It may be said that this discipline studies the laws and methods of the proper recitation of the Quran and covers three main areas: the proper pronunciation of [consonant](consonant)s and [vowel](vowel)s (the articulation of the Quranic [phoneme](phoneme)s), the rules of pause in recitation and of resumption of recitation, and the musical and melodious features of recitation.:
In order to avoid incorrect pronunciation, reciters follow a program of training with a qualified teacher. The two most popular texts used as references for rules are Matn al-Jazariyyah by [al-Jazari](Ibn)(Ibn al-Jazari) and Tuhfat al-Atfal by Sulayman al-Jamzuri.
The recitations of a few Egyptian reciters, like [Minshawy](El)(El Minshawy), [Al-Hussary](Al-Hussary), [Basit](Abdul)(Abdul Basit), [Ismail](Mustafa)(Mustafa Ismail), were highly influential in the development of current styles of recitation. Southeast Asia is well known for world-class recitation, evidenced in the popularity of the woman reciters such as [Ulfah](Maria)(Maria Ulfah) of [Jakarta](Jakarta). Today, crowds fill auditoriums for public [recitation competition](Quran)(International Quran Recital Competition)s.
There are two types of recitation:
# is at a slower pace, used for study and practice.
# *[Mujawwad](Mujawwad)* refers to a slow recitation that deploys heightened technical artistry and melodic modulation, as in public performances by trained experts. It is directed to and dependent upon an audience for the reciter seeks to involve the listeners.
### Variant readings
[[folio 11th century kufic.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Page of the Quran with vocalization marks](File:Qur'an)]
Vocalization markers indicating specific vowel sounds ([*tashkeel*](Arabic diacritics)) were introduced into the text of the Qur'an during the lifetimes of the last [Sahabah](Companions of the Prophet). The first Quranic manuscripts lacked these marks, enabling multiple possible recitations to be conveyed by the same written text. The 10th-century Muslim scholar from [Baghdad](Baghdad), [Mujāhid](Ibn)(Abu Bakr Ibn Mujāhid), is famous for establishing seven acceptable textual readings of the Quran. He studied various readings and their trustworthiness and chose seven 8th-century readers from the cities of [Mecca](Mecca), [Medina](Medina), [Kufa](Kufa), [Basra](Basra) and [Damascus](Damascus). Ibn Mujahid did not explain why he chose [readers](seven)(seven readers), rather than six or ten, but this may be related to a prophetic tradition (Muhammad's saying) reporting that the Quran had been revealed in seven *[ahruf](ahruf)* (meaning seven letters or modes). Today, the most popular readings are those transmitted by [Ḥafṣ](Hafs) (d. 796) and [Warsh](Warsh) (d. 812) which are according to two of Ibn Mujahid's reciters, [ibn Abi al-Najud](Aasim)(Aasim ibn Abi al-Najud) (Kufa, d. 745) and [al-Madani](Nafi‘)(Nafi‘ al-Madani) (Medina, d. 785), respectively. The influential standard [of Cairo](Quran)(History of the Quran#1924 Cairo edition) uses an elaborate system of modified vowel-signs and a set of additional symbols for minute details and is based on ʻAsim's recitation, the 8th-century recitation of Kufa. This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran.
The variant readings of the Quran are one type of textual variant.: According to Melchert (2008), the majority of disagreements have to do with vowels to supply, most of them in turn not conceivably reflecting dialectal differences and about one in eight disagreements has to do with whether to place dots above or below the line.
Nasser categorizes variant readings into various subtypes, including internal vowels, long vowels, [gemination](gemination) (*[shaddah](shaddah)*), [assimilation](Assimilation (linguistics)) and [alternation](Alternation (linguistics)).
Occasionally, an early Quran shows compatibility with a particular reading. A Syrian manuscript from the 8th century is shown to have been written according to the reading of [Amir ad-Dimashqi](Ibn)(Ibn Amir ad-Dimashqi). Another study suggests that this manuscript bears the vocalization of [himsi](homs) region.
## Writing and printing
### Writing
Before printing was widely adopted in the 19th century, the Quran was transmitted in manuscripts made by [calligraphers](Islamic calligraphy) and copyists. The earliest manuscripts were written in *[Ḥijāzī](Hijazi script)*-typescript. The *Hijazi* style manuscripts nevertheless confirm that transmission of the Quran in writing began at an early stage. Probably in the ninth century, scripts began to feature thicker strokes, which are traditionally known as *[Kufic](Kufic)* scripts. Toward the end of the ninth century, new scripts began to appear in copies of the Quran and replace earlier scripts. The reason for discontinuation in the use of the earlier style was that it took too long to produce and the demand for copies was increasing. Copyists would therefore choose simpler writing styles. Beginning in the 11th century, the styles of writing employed were primarily the *[naskh](Naskh (script))*, *[muhaqqaq](muhaqqaq)*, *[rayḥānī](rayḥānī)* and, on rarer occasions, the *[thuluth](thuluth)* script. *Naskh* was in very widespread use. In North Africa and Iberia, the *[Maghribī](Maghrebi script)* style was popular. More distinct is the *Bihari* script which was used solely in the north of India. *[Nastaʻlīq](Nastaʿlīq script)* style was also rarely used in Persian world.
In the beginning, the Quran was not written with dots or [tashkeel](Arabic diacritics). These features were added to the text during the lifetimes of the last of the [Sahabah](Companions of the Prophet). Since it would have been too costly for most Muslims to purchase a manuscript, copies of the Quran were held in mosques in order to make them accessible to people. These copies frequently took the form of a series of 30 parts or *juzʼ*. In terms of productivity, the Ottoman copyists provide the best example. This was in response to widespread demand, unpopularity of printing methods and for aesthetic reasons.
Whilst the majority of Islamic scribes were men, some women also worked as scholars and copyists; one such woman who made a copy of this text was the Moroccan jurist, [bint al-Hajj ʿAbd al-Latif](Amina,)(Amina, bint al-Hajj ʿAbd al-Latif).
File:Brooklyn Museum - Folio from the "Blue" Qur'an.jpg|Folio from the "Blue" Quran. [Museum](Brooklyn)(Brooklyn Museum).
File:Folio from a Koran (8th-9th century).jpg|*kufic* script, Eighth or ninth century.
File:Qur'anic Manuscript - Maghribi script.jpg|[script](*maghribi*)(Maghrebi script), 13th–14th centuries.
File:Muhaqqaq script.gif|*muhaqqaq* script, 14th–15th centuries.
File:Shikastah script.jpg|*shikasta nastaliq* script, 18th–19th centuries.
### Printing
[[divided into 6 books.jpg|thumb|Quran divided into 6 books. Published by Dar Ibn Kathir, Damascus-Beirut](File:Quran)]
[printing](Wood-block)(Woodcut) of extracts from the Quran is on record as early as the 10th century.
Arabic [type](movable)(movable type) printing was ordered by [Julius II](Pope)(Pope Julius II) (r. 1503–1512) for distribution among [Eastern Christians](Middle)(Middle Eastern Christians). The first complete Quran printed with movable type was produced in [Venice](Venice) in 1537–1538 for the [Ottoman](Ottoman Empire) market by [Paganini](Paganino)(Paganino Paganini) and Alessandro Paganini. But this Quran was not used as it contained a large number of errors. Two more editions include those published by the pastor [Hinckelmann](Abraham)(Abraham Hinckelmann) in [Hamburg](Hamburg) in 1694, and by Italian priest [Maracci](Ludovico)(Louis Maracci) in [Padua](Padua) in 1698 with Latin translation and commentary.
Printed copies of the Quran during this period met with strong opposition from [legal scholars](Muslim)(Ulama): printing anything in Arabic was prohibited in the [empire](Ottoman)(Ottoman empire) between 1483 and 1726—initially, even on penalty of death.; The Ottoman ban on printing in Arabic script was lifted in 1726 for non-religious texts only upon the request of [Muteferrika](Ibrahim)(Ibrahim Muteferrika), who printed his first book in 1729. Except for books in Hebrew and European languages, which were unrestricted, very few books, and no religious texts, were printed in the Ottoman Empire for another century.|group=lower-roman}}
In 1786, [the Great](Catherine)(Catherine the Great) of Russia, sponsored a printing press for "Tatar and Turkish orthography" in [Petersburg](Saint)(Saint Petersburg), with one Mullah Osman Ismail responsible for producing the Arabic types. A Quran was printed with this press in 1787, reprinted in 1790 and 1793 in Saint Petersburg, and in 1803 in [Kazan](Kazan Governorate).
For the 1803 Kazan edition:
Chauvin, V.C. Bib. des ouvrages arabes, vol. X, 95;
Schnurrer, C.F. von. Bibliotheca Arabica, 385.
Original held by Bayerische Staatsbibliothek – Munich, Germany, [shelfmark](shelfmark) BSB A.or.554.|group=lower-roman}} The first edition printed in Iran appeared in [Tehran](Qajar Iran) (1828), a translation in Turkish was printed in Cairo in 1842, and the first officially sanctioned Ottoman edition was finally printed in Constantinople between 1875 and 1877 as a two-volume set, during the [Constitutional Era](First)(First Constitutional Era).
[Flügel](Gustav)(Gustav Leberecht Flügel) published an edition of the Quran in 1834 in [Leipzig](Leipzig), which remained authoritative in Europe for close to a century, until Cairo's [University](Al-Azhar)(Al-Azhar University) published an [of the Quran in 1924](edition)(1924 Cairo edition). This edition was the result of a long preparation, as it standardized Quranic orthography, and it remains the basis of later editions.
## Criticism
Regarding the claim of divine origin, critics refer to preexisting sources, not only taken from the Bible, supposed to be older revelations of God, but also from [heretic](Heresy in Christianity), [apocryphic](Apocryphia) and [talmud](talmud)ic sources, such as The [Infancy Gospel](Syriac)(Syriac Infancy Gospel) and [of James](Gospel)(Gospel of James). However the Bible was not translated into Arabic until after the completion of the Quran with other Judeo-Christian sources being translated even later. Due to rejection of [of Jesus](Crucifixion)(Crucifixion of Jesus) in the Quran, some scholars also suspect [Manichaean](Manichaean), a dualistic religion believing in two eternal forces, influences on the Quran.
The believe the Quran predicts scientific knowledge, relating the author to non-human origin. Critics argue, verses which allegedly explain modern scientific facts, about subjects such as biology, evolution of the earth, and human life, contain fallacies and are unscientific.[*The Koran*, 2000](Cook,)(#MCKVSI2000): p.30see also: Most claims of predictions rely on the ambiguity of the Arabic language, another point of criticism. Despite calling itself a clear book, the Quranic language lacks clarity.}}
Other criticisms point at the moral attitude asserted by the Quran. Examples include the [Verse](Sword)(Sword Verse), which some interpret as promoting violence against "pagans", and [34](An-Nisa,)(An-Nisa, 34), which some view as excusing domestic violence.
## Relationship with other literature
[[File:Large Koran.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|Page from a Quran (). [Iran](Iran), [Afghanistan](Afghanistan), [dynasty](Timurid)(Timurid dynasty), . Opaque [watercolor](watercolor), ink and gold on paper in the script. . Historical region: [Uzbekistan](Uzbekistan).]]
Some non-Muslim groups such as the [Faith](Baháʼí)(Baháʼí Faith) and [Druze](Druze) view the Quran as holy. In the [Baháʼí](Baháʼí Faith) Faith, the Quran is accepted as authentic revelation from God along with the revelations of the other world religions, Islam being a stage within the divine process of [revelation](progressive)(Progressive revelation (Baháʼí)). [Bahá’u’lláh](Baháʼu'lláh), the Prophet-Founder of the [Baháʼí](Baháʼí Faith) Faith, testified to the validity of the Quran, writing, "Say: Perused ye not the Qur’án? Read it, that haply ye may find the Truth, for this Book is verily the Straight Path. This is the Way of God unto all who are in the heavens and all who are on the earth." [Universalists](Unitarian)(Unitarian Universalism) may also seek inspiration from the Quran. It has been suggested that the Quran has some narrative similarities to the [Diatessaron](Diatessaron), [of James](Protoevangelium)(Protoevangelium of James), [Gospel of Thomas](Infancy)(Infancy Gospel of Thomas), [of Pseudo-Matthew](Gospel)(Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew) and the [Infancy Gospel](Arabic)(Arabic Infancy Gospel). One scholar has suggested that the Diatessaron, as a [harmony](gospel)(gospel harmony), may have led to the conception that the Christian Gospel is one text.
### The Bible
}}
The Quran attributes its relationship with former books (the [Torah](Torah) and the [Gospel](Gospel)s) to their unique origin, saying all of them have been revealed by the one God.
According to [Luxenberg](Christoph)(Christoph Luxenberg) (in *[Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran](The)(The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran)*) the Quran's language was similar to the [language](Syriac)(Syriac language). The Quran recounts stories of many of the people and events recounted in [Jewish](Judaism) and [Christian](Christianity) sacred books ([Tanakh](Tanakh), [Bible](Bible)) and devotional literature ([Apocrypha](Apocrypha), [Midrash](Midrash)), although it differs in many details. [Adam](Adam), [Enoch](Enoch (ancestor of Noah)), [Noah](Noah), [Eber](Hud (prophet)), [Shelah](Shelah (son of Judah)), [Abraham](Abraham), [Lot](Lot (biblical figure)), [Ishmael](Ishmael), [Isaac](Isaac), [Jacob](Jacob), [Joseph](Joseph (patriarch)), [Job](Job (biblical figure)), [Jethro](Jethro (Bible)), [David](David), [Solomon](Solomon), [Elijah](Elijah), [Elisha](Elisha), [Jonah](Jonah), [Aaron](Aaron), [Moses](Moses), [Zechariah](Zechariah (priest)), [the Baptist](John)(John the Baptist) and [Jesus](Jesus) are mentioned in the Quran as prophets of God (see [of Islam](Prophets)(Prophets of Islam)). In fact, [Moses](Moses in Islam) is mentioned more in the Quran than any other individual. Jesus is mentioned more often in the Quran than Muhammad (by name—Muhammad is often alluded to as "The Prophet" or "The Apostle"), while [Mary](Mary in Islam) is mentioned in the Quran more than in the [Testament](New)(New Testament).
### Arab writing
After the Quran, and the general rise of Islam, the [alphabet](Arabic)(Arabic alphabet) developed rapidly into an art form. The Arabic grammarian [Sibawayh](Sibawayh) wrote one of the earliest books on Arabic grammar, referred to as "Al-Kitab", which relied heavily on the language in the Quran. [Kadi](Wadad)(Wadad Kadi), Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at [of Chicago](University)(University of Chicago), and Mustansir Mir, Professor of Islamic studies at [State University](Youngstown)(Youngstown State University), state that the Quran exerted a particular influence on Arabic literature's diction, themes, metaphors, motifs and symbols and added new expressions and new meanings to old, pre-Islamic words that would become ubiquitous.
## See also
* [of the Quran](Criticism)(Criticism of the Quran)
* [Quran](Digital)(Digital Quran)
* [al-Thaqalayn](Hadith)(Hadith al-Thaqalayn)
* [reliability of the Quran](Historical)(Historical reliability of the Quran)
* [schools and branches](Islamic)(Islamic schools and branches)
* [of chapters in the Quran](List)(List of chapters in the Quran)
* [of translations of the Quran](List)(List of translations of the Quran)
* [and miracles](Quran)(Quran and miracles)
* [code](Quran)(Quran code)
* [translations](Quran)(Quran translations)
* [of Islamic theology](Schools)(Schools of Islamic theology)
* [in the Quran](Violence)(Violence in the Quran)
* [in the Quran](Women)(Women in the Quran)
* *[True Furqan](The)(The True Furqan)*
## References
### Notes
### Citations
### Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
## Further reading
### Introductory texts
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
### Traditional Quranic commentaries (tafsir)
*
*
### Topical studies
*
*
*
### Literary criticism
*
* .
*
*
*
*
### Encyclopedias
*
*
*
### Academic journals
* ''[of Qur'anic Studies](Journal)(Journal of Qur'anic Studies)* (), published by the [of Oriental and African Studies](School)(School of Oriental and African Studies)
* *[Journal of Qur'anic Research and Studies](http://jqrs.qurancomplex.gov.sa/en/)'', published by King Fahd Qur'an Printing Complex
## External links
### Reference material
* [The British Library: Discovering Sacred Texts – Islam](https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/themes/islam)
### Manuscripts
* [Several digitised Qurans in the Cambridge University Digital Library](http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/islamic)
* [2017-232-1 al-Qurʼān. / القرآن at OPenn](http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0031/html/2017_232_1.html)
### Quran browsers and translation
* [Al-Quran.info](http://al-quran.info/)
* [Quran Archive – Texts and Studies on the Quran](https://quran-archive.org/)
* [Quran text and translation](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2002.02.0006) at [University](Tufts)(Tufts University)
* [Tanzil – Online Quran Navigator](http://tanzil.net/)
* [Quran.com](http://quran.com/)
* [Multilingual Quran (Arabic, English, French, German, Dutch, Spanish, Italian)](http://www.yabiladi.com/coran/)
* [Latin script transliterated Qur'an. Hans Zirker. University of Frankfurt.](https://www.uni-frankfurt.de/44967176/Koran-Transliteration.pdf)
[ ](Category:Quran)
[books](Category:7th-century)(Category:7th-century books)
[theology](Category:Islamic)(Category:Islamic theology)
[texts](Category:Islamic)(Category:Islamic texts)
[literature](Category:Medieval)(Category:Medieval literature)
[texts](Category:Religious)(Category:Religious texts)
[terminology](Category:Islamic)(Category:Islamic terminology)
[attributed to Muhammad](Category:Miracles)(Category:Miracles attributed to Muhammad)
[Arabic books](Category:7th-century)(Category:7th-century Arabic books)
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Resident Evil _film series
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resident_evil__film_series
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# Resident Evil (film series)
*Revision ID: 1158636919 | Timestamp: 2023-06-05T08:44:47Z*
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| language = English
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***Resident Evil*** is an [horror](action)(action horror) [series](film)(film series) based on the [video game franchise](Japanese)(Resident Evil) by [Capcom](Capcom).
The German studio [Film](Constantin)(Constantin Film) bought the rights to adapt the series in January 1997. In 2000, [W. S. Anderson](Paul)(Paul W. S. Anderson) was announced as writer and director for *[Evil](Resident)(Resident Evil (film))* (2002). Anderson continued as writer and producer for *[Evil: Apocalypse](Resident)(Resident Evil: Apocalypse)* (2004) and *[Evil: Extinction](Resident)(Resident Evil: Extinction)* (2007), and returned as the director for *[Evil: Afterlife](Resident)(Resident Evil: Afterlife)* (2010), *[Evil: Retribution](Resident)(Resident Evil: Retribution)* (2012) and *[Evil: The Final Chapter](Resident)(Resident Evil: The Final Chapter)* (2016). These first six films follow [Alice](Alice (Resident Evil)) ([Jovovich](Milla)(Milla Jovovich)), a character created for the films. Alice is a former security specialist and covert operative who battles the [Corporation](Umbrella)(Umbrella Corporation), whose [bioweapons](Biological warfare) have triggered a [apocalypse](zombie)(zombie apocalypse). [from the games](Characters)(List of Resident Evil characters) appear, including [Redfield](Claire)(Claire Redfield), [Valentine](Jill)(Jill Valentine), [Wong](Ada)(Ada Wong), [Olivera](Carlos)(List of Resident Evil characters#Carlos Oliveira), [Redfield](Chris)(Chris Redfield), [S. Kennedy](Leon)(Leon S. Kennedy), [Burton](Barry)(List of Resident Evil characters#Barry Burton) and the antagonists [Wesker](Albert)(Albert Wesker) and [Marcus](James)(List of Resident Evil characters#James Marcus). In 2021, a [reboot](reboot (fiction)) film, *[Evil: Welcome to Raccoon City](Resident)(Resident Evil: Welcome to Raccoon City)*, was released.
Though the films have received generally negative reviews from critics, the *Resident Evil* series has grossed over $1.2 billion. It was once the highest-grossing [series based on a video game](film)(List of films based on video games), the highest-grossing [film](zombie)(zombie film) series, and the [horror film series](highest-grossing)(List of highest-grossing horror films), although it has since been surpassed in all of these categories. The series retains the record for the most live-action film adaptations of a video game.
## Films
### Original series
#### *Resident Evil* (2002)
[[File:WonderCon2010 - Milla Jovovitch 2336.jpg|thumb|[Jovovich](Milla)(Milla Jovovich) portrayed Alice in the original six films.]]
[[Evil (real film series) – Production locations.png|thumb|Countries in which the original *Resident Evil* film series was filmed](File:Resident)]
In January 1997, [Film](Constantin)(Constantin Film) acquired the film rights to the *Resident Evil* franchise with [B. McElroy](Alan)(Alan B. McElroy) possibly writing the script. [A. Romero](George)(George A. Romero) was hired by [Pictures](Sony)(Sony Pictures) and [Capcom](Capcom) to direct and write *Resident Evil*. His script was later rejected and he was ultimately dropped. While Romero's script was supported by a number of people from Capcom and Constantin, it was rejected by Constantin producer [Eichinger](Bernd)(Bernd Eichinger), as well as Capcom producer [Okamoto](Yoshiki)(Yoshiki Okamoto). In late 2000, [W. S. Anderson](Paul)(Paul W. S. Anderson) was announced as director and writer. Anderson stated the film would not include any [tie-in](tie-in)s with the video game series as "under-performing movie tie-ins are too common and *Resident Evil*, of all games, deserved a good celluloid representation". In 2001, [Jovovich](Milla)(Milla Jovovich) was cast as [Alice](Alice (Resident Evil)), the protagonist of the film. By May 2001, [TriStar](Columbia)(Sony Pictures Motion Picture Group) was in final negotiations to acquire North American distribution rights to the film and budgeted it at $40 million.
In the film, the [Corporation](Umbrella)(Umbrella Corporation) operates a secret genetic research facility named the Hive. Located beneath [City](Raccoon)(Raccoon City), the Hive has been sealed by its [AI](artificial intelligence), the Red Queen, after the release of the T-virus into the facility. The Red Queen kills everyone in the facility to ensure that the T-virus doesn't reach the surface, but the T-virus reanimates them, transforming the humans and animals into aggressive [zombie](zombie)s and mutants. [Alice](Alice (Resident Evil)) was once a security operative working for the corporation until her memory was wiped by the Red Queen's nerve gas. As her team investigates the Hive, a monstrous Umbrella test subject called a Licker pursues them onto a train. Alice survives along with teammate Matt Addison, but they are separated and taken by an Umbrella [hazmat](Dangerous goods) unit, where Matt begins to genetically transform. Alice awakens from a coma to a ravaged Raccoon City after a T-virus outbreak.
#### *Resident Evil: Apocalypse* (2004)
A [sequel](sequel) began production in 2003 after the success of the first film. Anderson returned as the writer but, due to his work on [vs. Predator*](*Alien)(Alien vs. Predator (film)), [Witt](Alexander)(Alexander Witt) took over the director's role. The film released on September 10, 2004.
In the film, the viral outbreak reaches the surface and to contain the infection, Major Timothy Cain seals all exits to and from [City](Raccoon)(Raccoon City). Among the people trapped in the city are [Valentine](Jill)(Jill Valentine) and her partner Peyton Wells. After Alice awakens from her coma, she rescues Jill and Peyton from a group of Licker monsters. They are contacted by Dr. Charles Ashford, who directs them to an evacuation point in exchange for the rescue of his daughter Angela, trapped elsewhere in the city. Weapon [Nemesis](Nemesis (Resident Evil)) attacks the team after Cain commands it to kill all [STARS](S.T.A.R.S. (fictional organization)) (Special Tactics And Rescue Service) members. The team rescues Angela and makes its way to the evacuation helicopter guided by Umbrella mercenary [Olivera](Carlos)(Carlos Oliveira (Resident Evil)). After Alice's confrontation with Cain and Nemesis leaves them dead, she and the team fly away from Raccoon City as it is destroyed by a nuclear missile. The helicopter crashes in the Arklay Mountains, and Alice is found by an Umbrella search team and taken to a research station. When Alice awakens, she displays extraordinary powers, and escapes with help from Jill and Carlos. As they drive away, Dr. Alexander Isaacs, a top-ranking Umbrella employee, reveals that Alice's escape is part of Umbrella's plan.
#### *Resident Evil: Extinction* (2007)
In November 2005, [Gems](Screen)(Screen Gems) gained the rights for the third installment in the franchise, which was then subtitled *Extinction*. Anderson returned as a writer and filming took place in [Mexico](Mexico). [Mulcahy](Russell)(Russell Mulcahy) was the director. The film was released on September 21, 2007.
The world has been consumed by the T-virus and Umbrella Corporation develops clones of Alice to find one who displays her powers. Elsewhere, [Redfield](Claire)(Claire Redfield) leads a convoy of survivors across the Nevada desert, including Raccoon City survivors Carlos Olivera and L.J. Wayne. Alice roams the country alone, staying off the grid. After accidentally destroying her motorcycle, she joins Redfield's convoy, rescuing them from a mob of attacking crows using her [telekinetic](telekinesis) powers. Alice and the convoy head to [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas Valley) to gather supplies so that they can reach [Alaska](Alaska) to find "Arcadia", thought to be a safe haven. In Las Vegas, they are ambushed by a group of Umbrella Corporation's new super zombies created by Dr. Alexander Isaacs, which kills most of the convoy. L.J., who had been bitten earlier and hiding the progress of the infection, now completely transforms and bites Olivera. Dr. Isaacs himself is bitten and retreats to the Umbrella base where he injects himself with large doses of the anti-virus as a cure. He transforms into a Tyrant, a towering creature with regenerative and psionic powers. Alice, Claire and Carlos locate a helicopter in Umbrella base and plan to use it to extract the survivors to Alaska. Olivera makes his [stand](last)(last stand) by sacrificing himself and plowing his truck into a horde of zombies, giving the rest time to load the survivors. Claire and the survivors head towards Alaska, while Alice stays behind to confront Isaacs, and discovers her clones in the facility. After she defeats Isaacs, Alice contacts Umbrella and warns them that she is coming for them with an army of her clones.
#### *Resident Evil: Afterlife* (2010)
Before the third installment had been released, Constantin prepared to release a fourth entry. The film was set in Japan and filmed in [3D](3-D film) with the [Camera System](Fusion)(Fusion Camera System) developed by [Cameron](James)(James Cameron) and Vince Pace for the 2009 film *[Avatar](Avatar (2009 film))*. It was written and directed by Paul W. S. Anderson and released on September 10, 2010.
After the events of *Extinction*, Alice and her clones attack the Umbrella Headquarters in Tokyo. Wesker escapes and destroys the facility, killing the clones. He is confronted by Alice aboard his helicopter, and injects her with a serum that removes her super-human abilities. The helicopter crashes, and only Alice is seen emerging from the rubble. After six months of a failed aerial search for other survivors, Alice heads toward the supposed location of Arcadia. She lands on an airfield in Alaska, and finds Claire with an Umbrella controlling device attached to her chest and a wiped memory. Claire and Alice fly to [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), where they stumble on a prison wherein they meet Luther West and [Redfield](Chris)(Chris Redfield), Claire's brother. The survivors explain that Arcadia is really a tanker off the coast that has been broadcasting a looped message and is picking up survivors. During an attempted escape, Alice, Claire and Chris are the only ones to emerge and they reach the tanker only to find it abandoned. Claire's memory begins to return and she remembers Umbrella workers attacking her group of survivors and moving them to the tanker. They learn that the ship is an Umbrella research facility, which is conducting experiments on the survivors. The three meet Albert Wesker, who has been granted super-human abilities from the T-virus. After the fight, Alice transmits a message to survivors calling them to create a new and true safe haven. As the film closes, a fleet of Umbrella Corporation gunships led by Valentine prepares to lead an assault on the survivors.
#### *Resident Evil: Retribution* (2012)
Written and directed by Anderson, *Retribution* was planned to be [back to back](filmed)(Back to back film production) with the sixth installment, but Anderson decided to focus on the fifth film. Filming took place in [Toronto](Toronto), [Ontario](Ontario) from mid-October to December 23, 2011. [Salmon](Colin)(Colin Salmon) who played One and [Rodriguez](Michelle)(Michelle Rodriguez) who played Rain Ocampo in the first film returned. [Fehr](Oded)(Oded Fehr), who portrayed [Olivera](Carlos)(Carlos Oliveira (Resident Evil)) in the second and third film, also returned. Three characters from the video games made their debut in the film series, [Urb](Johann)(Johann Urb) as [S. Kennedy](Leon)(Leon S. Kennedy), [Durand](Kevin)(Kevin Durand) as [Burton](Barry)(Barry Burton), and [Bingbing](Li)(Li Bingbing) as [Wong](Ada)(Ada Wong). It was released internationally on September 14, 2012.
Alice awakens in an Umbrella base where she is interrogated by Valentine. During a power failure orchestrated by Ada Wong, Alice escapes from her cell and encounters her. Wong explains that Wesker plans to aid Alice's escape and battle the base's supercomputer Red Queen, to save what's left of mankind. Wesker has organized a team of freelance operatives to infiltrate the base and help Alice and Ada escape, including Leon S. Kennedy, Barry Burton and Luther West. Along the way, Alice finds a clone of a girl named Becky. They also face clone versions of Carlos Olivera, One and Rain Ocampo, all under the direction of Valentine. After Alice meets with the rescue team, Valentine's soldiers catch up to them, resulting in a shootout that kills Burton, Olivera and One. Alice, West, Kennedy and Becky reach the surface and are met by a submarine, from which Valentine, the clone Rain, and a captured Ada emerge. Valentine battles Alice while Rain fights Kennedy and West. Alice manages to remove the scarab device from Valentine, returning her back to normal, and joins Kennedy in defeating Rain. Alice, Ada, Becky, Leon and Valentine travel to Wesker's base. Wesker injects Alice with the T-virus, returning her superhuman powers, then tells her that she is responsible for saving the remaining humans from extinction.
#### *Resident Evil: The Final Chapter* (2016)
Anderson wrote and directed the sixth and final film in the series, subtitled *The Final Chapter*, which was filmed in 2D and was post-converted to stereoscopic 3D. [Jovovich](Milla)(Milla Jovovich) reprised her role as Alice, with only [Roberts](Shawn)(Shawn Roberts), [Glen](Iain)(Iain Glen) and [Larter](Ali)(Ali Larter) returning from previous entries as Albert Wesker, Dr. Isaacs and Claire Redfield, respectively. Continuing from the last film, Anderson expressed his desire for the final film to "come full circle", bringing back characters, themes and the environment of the Hive from the first movie. Filming was set to begin in South Africa in August 2014 but was delayed to the summer of 2015 due to Jovovich's pregnancy. Principal photography commenced on September 18, 2015, in South Africa. It was released on December 23, 2016, in Tokyo and on January 27, 2017, in North America.
Three weeks after the events in *Retribution*, humanity is on its last legs after Alice is betrayed by Wesker in Washington D.C. Alice encounters the Red Queen, who tells her that she must return to Raccoon City, where the Umbrella Corporation has developed an airborne anti-virus which will kill every organism infected by the T-virus. In a race against time, Alice is captured by Dr. Isaacs, who reveals his previous incarnation was a clone. Alice escapes and arrives in Raccoon City, where she joins forces with Claire Redfield. After holding off Dr. Isaacs' undead army, Alice, Claire and a team of survivors make their way towards the Hive. They encounter the Red Queen, who tells them the T-virus was created by James Marcus, the founder of the Umbrella Corporation to save his daughter, Alicia, from an ailment that caused her to age rapidly. James was betrayed by his business partner, Dr. Isaacs, and killed by Albert Wesker. Dr. Isaacs and the board of the Umbrella Corporation then intended to release the T-virus to cleanse the world, save the rich and powerful with cryogenics in the Hive, and later rebuild it as they desire. After confronting Wesker and the real Dr. Isaacs at the bottom of the Hive, Alice learns she is a clone of the still-living Alicia Marcus. Alice releases the anti-virus, eliminating all infected by the T-virus. She survives, and gains the memories of Alicia Marcus as a reward to reclaim the childhood she never had. The series ends with Alice riding a motorcycle, stating that her job isn't finished yet and that it will take several years for the anti-virus to circle the globe.
### Reboot
#### *Resident Evil: Welcome to Raccoon City* (2021)
In May 2017, Constantin chairman [Moszkowicz](Martin)(Martin Moszkowicz) stated that a reboot of the series was in development. In the same month, it was announced that [Wan](James)(James Wan) would produce the reboot with a script by Greg Russo, with both later leaving the project. In December 2018, [Roberts](Johannes)(Johannes Roberts) was hired as writer and director. Roberts stated that his film will be separate from the previous films in the series, with the story being based on *[Evil](Resident)(Resident Evil (1996 video game))* and *[Evil 2](Resident)(Resident Evil 2)*. By October 2020, the principal cast was reported with [Scodelario](Kaya)(Kaya Scodelario) cast as Claire Redfield, [John-Kamen](Hannah)(Hannah John-Kamen) as Jill Valentine, [Amell](Robbie)(Robbie Amell) as Chris Redfield, [McDonough](Neal)(Neal McDonough) as William Birkin, [Hopper](Tom)(Tom Hopper) as Albert Wesker, and [Jogia](Avan)(Avan Jogia) as Leon S. Kennedy. Other cast members, [Logue](Donal)(Donal Logue), Chad Rook, [Gao](Lily)(Lily Gao), and [Mazepa](Marina)(Marina Mazepa) were cast as Chief [Irons](Brian)(List of Resident Evil characters#Brian Irons), [Aiken](Richard)(List of Resident Evil characters#Richard Aiken), and [Wong](Ada)(Ada Wong), and [Trevor](Lisa)(Lisa Trevor) respectively. Filming began on October 17, 2020, in [Sudbury](Greater Sudbury), [Ontario](Ontario), [Canada](Canada), with reshoots in May 2021. The film was released on November 24, 2021, by [Pictures Releasing](Sony)(Sony Pictures Releasing) in the United States.
Claire Redfield uncovers secrets about the Umbrella Corporation's experiments and accidents and travels back to her hometown of Raccoon City to warn her brother Chris Redfield. Meanwhile, a zombie outbreak begins after residents are poisoned in the water supply. Chris, along with fellow STARS members Jill Valentine and Albert Wesker, travel to the Spencer Mansion to recover bravo team and find out what is happening in the town. Claire travels with rookie police officer Leon S. Kennedy to the Raccoon City Orphanage to flee the city before it is destroyed, where they encounter a Licker and Claire's old friend Lisa Trevor. Wesker betrays Jill and attempts to steal the virus produced by Dr. William Birkin, a scientist working for the Umbrella Corporation. On the verge of death, Birkin injects himself with the G-Virus, saving his life and mutating him into the Tyrant. The survivors flee on an underground train with Birkin's daughter Sherry and destroy the tyrant with a rocket launcher. In a mid-credits scene, Albert Wesker is saved from death by Ada Wong and is given his trademark sunglasses.
## Cancelled projects
### *Underworld* crossover
In 2016, producer David Kern revealed that a crossover film with the *[Underworld](Underworld (film series))* film series had been considered.
### Spin-off TV series
In January 2019, [Netflix](Netflix) was in development of a series based upon the *Resident Evil* franchise. At the time, *[Hollywood](Deadline)(Deadline Hollywood)* reported that the series was set in the universe of the [W. S. Anderson](Paul)(Paul W. S. Anderson)'s film series, but when the series was ordered in 2020, [Dabb](Andrew)(Andrew Dabb) was hired and confirmed that [series](the)(Resident Evil (TV series)) will not be linked to the film series.
## Cast and crew
### Principal cast
* This table shows the major characters that were featured in the films, sorted according to the actors' billing order, those adapted from the video games.
* A dark grey cell indicates that the character was not in the film.
* A indicates the character was adapted from the video games.
* An indicates an original character that was later adapted by the video games.
* A indicates a role as a younger version of the character.
* A indicates an uncredited role.
* A indicates a cameo role.
* A indicates a voice-only role.
* An indicates an appearance through archival footage or stills.
### Additional crew
## Reception
### Box office performance
*[Apocalypse](Resident Evil: Apocalypse)*, *[Extinction](Resident Evil: Extinction)*, *[Afterlife](Resident Evil: Afterlife)*, and *[Retribution](Resident Evil: Retribution)* all opened at number one at the North American box office. *Resident Evil* is also the highest-grossing, live-action film series to be based on a video game.
### Critical and public response
The first six films, all written and produced by Anderson, generally received mixed to negative reviews from critics. However, they have gained a cult following among a distinct subset of reviewers. The *[Tribune](Chicago)(Chicago Tribune)* declared the first film as "one of the few video game movies to truly re-create the gaming experience". *[Austin Chronicle](The)(The Austin Chronicle)* called it "an absolute wreck. But what an ambitiously mind-blowing wreck it is, bursting with dazzlingly sordid cinematography". *[Seattle Times](The)(The Seattle Times)* marked the second film an improvement from the original, saying the film "makes up for the wretched mess that was 2002's *Resident Evil*". *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* gave the third film a positive review stating "Fast-paced and filled with brisk action sequences—the film should reasonably satisfy the devotees." Michael Ordoña of the *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* gave the fourth film a positive review, claiming that "the action is easier to read than in most films of the genre, and therefore more enjoyable. Anderson makes particular use of sets and locations to wring out more bang for the stereoscopic buck."
Several retrospective reviews have praised aspects of Anderson's films, particularly in relation to the reboot. Calum Marsh of the *[Post](National)(National Post)* admired the Anderson-directed entries, saying: "The first is classical, close-quarters horror ... Part four, *Afterlife*, is a riot of ludicrous action and superhero brawn ... but it’s a mere [bouche](amuse)(amuse bouche) next to the five-star spread of part five, *Retribution*—a glorious, practically experimental sci-fi action wonder." [Vishnevetsky](Ignatiy)(Ignatiy Vishnevetsky) of *[A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club)* called them "lean and lively and fun and totally unpretentious", and commended Anderson's style, "focused on organizing action and orientating the viewer"; Charles Bramesco reviewed the reboot as "totally bereft of the visual distinction or creative personality that often made its predecessors intriguing diamonds in the rough."
## Home media
[Pictures Home Entertainment](Sony)(Sony Pictures Home Entertainment) has released all seven films on [DVD](DVD-Video), [Blu-ray](Blu-ray) and [download](digital)(Digital copy). The films were also released in DVD, Blu-ray and 4K [set](box)(box set)s:
## Other media
### Novelizations
The [novelization](novelization)s for the first three *Resident Evil* films were written by [R. A. DeCandido](Keith)(Keith R. A. DeCandido). The novelization for the fifth film was written by [Shirley](John)(John Shirley), and the sixth by [Waggoner](Tim)(Tim Waggoner). The fourth film did not receive a novelization.
The novel for the first film, titled *Resident Evil: Genesis*, was published over two years after that film's release, while the *Extinction* novel was released in late July 2007, two months before the film's release. There was also a Japanese novelization of the first film, unrelated to DeCandido's version, written by Osamu Makino. Makino also wrote two novels based on the game *[Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles](Resident)(Resident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles)*.
## See also
* [of highest-grossing horror films](List)(List of highest-grossing horror films)
* [Evil* (video game series)](*Resident)(Resident Evil)
## Notes
## References
[ ](Category:Resident Evil (film series))
[film series](Category:Action)(Category:Action film series)
[franchises](Category:Capcom)(Category:Capcom franchises)
[series introduced in 2002](Category:Film)(Category:Film series introduced in 2002)
[fiction horror film series](Category:Science)(Category:Science fiction horror film series)
[about rebellions](Category:Films)(Category:Films about rebellions)
[Gems franchises](Category:Screen)(Category:Screen Gems franchises)
[film series](Category:German)(Category:German film series)
[scientist films](Category:Mad)(Category:Mad scientist films)
|
Canada men's national soccer team
|
canada_men's_national_soccer_team
|
# Canada men's national soccer team
*Revision ID: 1159990218 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T20:21:12Z*
---
| Confederation = [CONCACAF](CONCACAF)
| Sub-confederation = [NAFU](North American Football Union)
| Coach = [Herdman](John)(John Herdman)
| Captain = [Hutchinson](Atiba)(Atiba Hutchinson)
| Most caps = [Hutchinson](Atiba)(Atiba Hutchinson) (103)
| Top scorer = [Larin](Cyle)(Cyle Larin) (28)
| FIFA Trigramme = CAN
| Home Stadium = [Various](Canada men's national soccer team#Stadiums)
| FIFA Rank =
| FIFA max = 33
| FIFA max date = February 2022
| FIFA min = 122
| FIFA min date = August 2014, October 2014
| Elo Rank =
| Elo max = 21
| Elo max date = February 2022
| Elo min = 92
| Elo min date = May 1975, June 2014
| pattern_la1 = _ nikestrike3ur
| pattern_b1 = _ nikestrike3ur
| pattern_ra1 = _ nikestrike3ur
| pattern_sh1 =
| pattern_so1 =
| leftarm1 = FF0000
| body1 = FF0000
| rightarm1 = FF0000
| shorts1 = FF0000
| socks1 = FF0000
| pattern_la2 =
| pattern_b2 = _kashima13a
| pattern_ra2 =
| pattern_sh2 =
| pattern_so2 =
| leftarm2 = FFF
| body2 = FFFFFF
| rightarm2 = FFF
| shorts2 = FFF
| socks2 = FFF
| pattern_la3 =
| pattern_b3 = _nikepark7b
| pattern_ra3 =
| pattern_sh3 = _
| pattern_so3 = _
| leftarm3 = 000000
| body3 = 000000
| rightarm3 = 000000
| shorts3 = 000000
| socks3 = 000000
| First game = 3–2 ([Brisbane](Brisbane), Australia; June 7, 1924)
| Largest win = 0–11 ([Bradenton](Bradenton, Florida), United States; March 29, 2021)
| Largest loss = 8–0 ([City](Mexico)(Mexico City), Mexico; July 18, 1993)
| World cup apps = 2 (first in [1986](1986 FIFA World Cup))
| World cup best = Group stage ([1986](1986 FIFA World Cup), [2022](2022 FIFA World Cup))
| Regional name = [Championship](CONCACAF)(CONCACAF Championship) / [Cup](Gold)(CONCACAF Gold Cup)
| Regional cup apps = 19
| Regional cup first = [1977](1977 CONCACAF Championship)
| Regional cup best = **Champions** ([1985](1985 CONCACAF Championship), [2000](2000 CONCACAF Gold Cup))
| website =
| medaltemplates =
| [Team](Football at the 1904 Summer Olympics – Men's team squads#Galt F.C.)}}}}
The '''Canada men's national soccer team''' () represents [Canada](Canada) in international [soccer](Association football) competitions since 1924. They are overseen by the [Soccer Association](Canadian)(Canadian Soccer Association), the governing body for [in Canada](soccer)(soccer in Canada). They have been a member of [FIFA](FIFA) since 1948 and a member of [CONCACAF](CONCACAF) since 1961. Canada Soccer|website=Canadasoccer.com|access-date=February 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204174844/http://www.canadasoccer.com/about-s14644|archive-date=February 4, 2017|url-status=live}}
Their most significant achievements are winning the [CONCACAF Championship](1985)(1985 CONCACAF Championship) to qualify for the [FIFA World Cup](1986)(1986 FIFA World Cup) Canada Soccer|website=Canadasoccer.com|access-date=February 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126202022/http://www.canadasoccer.com/canadian-soccer-timeline-from-1983-to-1986-p150670|archive-date=January 26, 2017|url-status=live}} and winning the [CONCACAF Gold Cup](2000)(2000 CONCACAF Gold Cup) to qualify for the [FIFA Confederations Cup](2001)(2001 FIFA Confederations Cup). Canada Soccer|website=Canadasoccer.com|access-date=February 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820162302/http://www.canadasoccer.com/canadian-soccer-timeline-from-1999-to-2002-p150674|archive-date=August 20, 2016|url-status=live}} Canada is the only national team to win a Gold Cup aside from fellow regional powerhouses Mexico and the United States. Canada also won a gold medal in the [Summer Olympics](1904)(Football at the 1904 Summer Olympics). Canada participated in its second World Cup in [2022](2022 FIFA World Cup), and will co-host, along with the United States and Mexico, the [FIFA World Cup](2026)(2026 FIFA World Cup).
## History
### Early years
Soccer was being played in Canada with the Dominion Football Association (1877) and [Football Association](Western)(Western Football Association) (1880) acting as precursors to the modern-day Canadian Soccer Association with jam. Canada Soccer|website=Canadasoccer.com|access-date=February 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820162217/http://www.canadasoccer.com/canadian-soccer-timeline-from-1876-to-1912-p150609|archive-date=August 20, 2016|url-status=live}} In 1885, the WFA sent a team to [Jersey](New)(New Jersey) to take on a side put forth by the [Football Association](American)(American Football Association (1884–1924)), the then-unofficial governing body of the sport in the United States. In an unofficial friendly, Canada defeated the [States](United)(United States men's national soccer team) 1–0 in [Newark](East)(East Newark, New Jersey), New Jersey. The American team won 3–2 in a return match one year later. In 1888, a team represented the WFA in a tour of the British Isles, earning a record of nine wins, five draws, and nine losses. The squad comprised 16 Canadian-born players with the only exception being tour organizer [Forsyth](David)(David Forsyth (soccer)), who had immigrated to Canada one year after his birth.
In 1904 [F.C.](Galt)(Galt F.C.) represented the WFA at the [Games](Olympic)(Football at the 1904 Summer Olympics) in [Louis](St)(St. Louis, Missouri), [Missouri](Missouri). As just one of three teams competing, Galt defeated two American clubs, [Brothers College](Christian)(Christian Brothers College High School) (7–0) and [Rose](St.)(St. Rose Parish) (4–0) to win the tournament. The *[Mail and Empire](Toronto)(Toronto Mail and Empire)* of November 18, 1904, reports that "Immediately after the game, the Galt aggregation, numbering about 50 persons, retired to the office of James W. Sullivan, chief of the Department of Physical Culture, where they received their prize. After a short talk by Mr. James E. Conlon of the Physical Culture Department, Mayor Mundy, of the City of Galt, presented each player on the winning team with a beautiful gold medal." The medals are clearly engraved with the name of the company in St. Louis that made them.
In 1905, a British team of touring amateurs nicknamed the "Pilgrims" toured Canada, with their match against Galt billed as the "championship of the world". The Cambridge Citizen|website=cambridgecitizen.ca|access-date=February 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170213100454/http://cambridgecitizen.ca/galt-wins-olympic-gold/|archive-date=February 13, 2017|url-status=dead}} The match was played in front of 3500 fans in [Galt](Galt, Ontario), now part of [Cambridge](Cambridge, Ontario), [Ontario](Ontario), and ended in a 3–3 draw. Earlier the Pilgrims had been beaten 2–1 by Berlin Rangers, in the city now known as Kitchener.
The Canadian national team toured Australia in 1924, playing a series of "test" friendlies against their hosts, including their first official match, a 3–2 friendly defeat to the [national team](Australian)(Australia national association football team) in [Brisbane](Brisbane), [Queensland](Queensland) on June 7, 1924. Canada also played Australia at the Jubilee Oval, Adelaide on Saturday July 12, 1924, and defeated them by 4 goals to 1. In 1925, Canada played their old rivals, the [States](United)(United States men's national soccer team), in [Montreal](Montreal), winning 1–0 on [McLaine](Ed)(Ed McLaine)'s goal. In a return match in November 1925 in [Brooklyn](Brooklyn), [York](New)(New York (state)), Canada was defeated 1–6. One year later, Canada lost 2–6 to the Americans in the same city before playing four internationals in a 1927 tour of New Zealand.
The New Zealand tour included a total of 22 games, of which Canada won 19 with only 2 defeats. Most of the games were against local combined teams although Canada also played [Zealand](New)(New Zealand national association football team) in four occasions (scores: 2–2, 2–1, 0–1, 4–1).
### 1957 to 1987
[[men's national soccer team exiting plane in Mexico City on July 5, 1957](File:CanadianNTinMexico.png|thumb|225px|Canada)]
Following the lead of British soccer associations, Canada withdrew from [FIFA](FIFA) in 1928 over a dispute regarding broken time payments to amateur players. They rejoined the confederation in 1946 and took part in World Cup qualifying in the [American Football Confederation](North)(North American Football Confederation) (NAFC) (a precursor to CONCACAF) for the first time in 1957, the first time they had played as a national team in 30 years. Under the guidance of head coach [Petrie](Don)(Don Petrie), Canada defeated the United States in [Toronto](Toronto) 5–1 in their opening game, but lost two games in Mexico (failing to play a home game due to financial reasons) 0–2 and 0–3 before defeating the U.S. 3–2 in [Louis](St.)(St. Louis). [Mexico](Mexico national football team) advanced as group winners, meaning that Canada missed out on the [Cup](World)(World Cup 1958) in 1958 in Sweden.
Canada withdrew from World Cup qualifying for [1962](1962 FIFA World Cup) and did not enter a team for [1966](1966 FIFA World Cup). Canada Soccer|website=Canadasoccer.com|access-date=February 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820162234/http://www.canadasoccer.com/canadian-soccer-timeline-from-1959-to-1970-p150666|archive-date=August 20, 2016|url-status=live}} They did compete in soccer however at the [Pan American Games](1967)(Football at the 1967 Pan American Games), their first time to do so in the sixth edition of the games, which they hosted in [Winnipeg](Winnipeg). Canada finished fourth place, helped somewhat by defending champion [Brazil](Brazil national football team)'s absence.
A 0–0 draw away to [Bermuda](Bermuda national football team) meant the Canadians, under coach [Dinsdale](Peter)(Peter Dinsdale), could not advance out of the first round of [for the 1970 World Cup](qualifying)(1970 FIFA World Cup qualification). Dinsdale was replaced by [Pike](Frank)(Frank Pike (soccer)). In their [participation in soccer at the Pan Am games](second)(Football at the 1971 Pan American Games), held in [Cali](Cali), Canada finished second in their opening round group (to hosts [Colombia](Colombia national football team)). In the final group round however, they managed only one win (over Colombia) and finished next to last.
Canada again failed at the first hurdle in qualifying for the [World Cup](1974)(1974 World Cup). Under German head coach [Krautzun](Eckhard)(Eckhard Krautzun), they finished second in a home and away qualifying group for the [CONCACAF Championship](1973)(1973 CONCACAF Championship) (to Mexico). For the [Pan Am Games](1975)(Football at the 1975 Pan American Games), Canada, along with most of the larger Pan Am countries, sent their Olympic team, which was amateur (and senior aged), to compete. After narrowly qualifying out of the first round, the Canucks were soundly defeated by [Rica](Costa)(Costa Rica national football team), [Cuba](Cuba national football team), and Mexico, conceding a total of 14 goals while scoring none. At the [Olympics](Summer)(Football at the 1976 Summer Olympics) at home the following year, under head coach [Morris](Colin)(Colin Morris (Canadian soccer)), the amateur Canadian side failed to get out of the first round, losing both of their games. This despite the brilliant play of [Douglas](Jimmy)(Jimmy Douglas (Canadian soccer)), who scored a goal against a [Kyiv](Dynamo)(FC Dynamo Kyiv)-dominated [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union national football team) side and another goal against [Korea](North)(North Korea national football team), Canada's only two goals in the tournament.
In their North American qualifying group for the [CONCACAF Championship](1977)(1977 CONCACAF Championship), with both group winners and runners-up now advancing, Canada, again under head coach Krautzun, qualified as runners-up after defeating the Americans 3–0 in a neutral site one-match play-off, played in [Port-au-Prince](Port-au-Prince). In the championship, played in [Monterrey](Monterrey) and [City](Mexico)(Mexico City), Mexico won all five of their matches with a plus 15 goals difference to win the tournament handily. Canada finished fourth.
Matters were different however at the next [championship](CONCACAF)(1981 CONCACAF Championship), in 1981, played in [Tegucigalpa](Tegucigalpa). Canada entered the tournament raising eyebrows by winning their qualifying group over Mexico and the United States, even achieving a 1–1 draw against Mexico at the [Stadium](Azteca)(Azteca Stadium) with [Gray](Gerry)(Gerry Gray (soccer)) scoring from a direct free kick in the 88th-minute. In the final round, the Canadians opened strongly with a 1–0 win over [Salvador](El)(El Salvador national football team), with [Stojanovic](Mike)(Mike Stojanovic) the goal-scorer, and a 1–1 draw with [Haiti](Haiti national football team), with Stojanovic scoring again. They next lost to the hosts [Honduras](Honduras national football team) 1–2 and then drew Mexico 1–1 with [Bridge](Ian)(Ian Bridge) scoring the equalizer via a corner kick. A win in their final game against Cuba would have put them through to Spain, but they were held to a 2–2 draw, allowing El Salvador to qualify as tournament runners-up.
1981 through 1985 saw Canada continue to develop under the guidance of English coach [Waiters](Tony)(Tony Waiters). After a strong performance at the [Summer Olympics](1984)(Football at the 1984 Summer Olympics), Waiters would see the Maple Leafs through to their first World Cup finals appearance in 1985. A 1–1 away draw to [Guatemala](Guatemala national football team) was key in allowing them to eliminate *Los Chapines* in the first round group. The second round was also closely contested, in part as this Canadian squad was strong defensively but had limited ability to score goals. The Canucks managed to eke out a 1–0 away win over Honduras, thanks to a [Pakos](George)(George Pakos) winner, hold Costa Rica scoreless in [José](San)(San José, Costa Rica), and then in their final game, one they needed to draw to qualify, beat *Los Catrachos* a second time, 2–1 in [John's](St.)(St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador), [Newfoundland](Newfoundland and Labrador), with Pakos and [Vrablic](Igor)(Igor Vrablic) the goal scorers. The victory not only secured their first World Cup finals berth, but also the crown of CONCACAF champions for the first time, although Mexico did not compete, having already qualified automatically for the World Cup as hosts.
At the [FIFA World Cup](1986)(1986 FIFA World Cup), Canada impressed defensively in their first game against [France](French national football team), only conceding a late [Papin](Jean-Pierre)(Jean-Pierre Papin) goal after Papin had missed several earlier chances.
However, Canada could not build on their stubborn performance against France, losing their next two matches to both [Hungary](Hungarian national football team) and the Soviet Union 0–2, finishing the group in last place with zero points.
Four Canadian players ([Chueden](Chris)(Chris Chueden), [Marinaro](Hector)(Hector Marinaro), [Norman](David)(David Norman (soccer)) and Vrablic) were involved in a match fixing betting scandal at the [Cup](Merlion)(Merlion Cup) tournament in Singapore two months after the World Cup. The four players were suspended by the Canadian Soccer Association for "bringing the game into disrepute". Norman was reinstated in 1992 after admitting his involvement in the scandal. Vrablic never played for Canada again.
### 1990s
Qualification for [1990](1990 FIFA World Cup) lasted all of two matches for Canada, a home-and-away series with Guatemala, played in October 1988. The Central Americans won the first game 1–0 in [City](Guatemala)(Guatemala City) while Canada prevailed in [Vancouver](Vancouver) 3–2. Tied on goal difference, *Los Chapines* advanced on away goal rule. Canada Soccer|website=Canadasoccer.com|access-date=February 26, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423122447/http://www.canadasoccer.com/canadian-soccer-timeline-from-1987-to-1990-p150671|archive-date=April 23, 2017|url-status=live}}
1990 saw Canada take part in the first [American Nations Cup](North)(North American Nations Cup), hosting the three-team tournament. Mexico and Canada sent their full squads, but the [States](United)(United States men's national soccer team) sent a 'B' team. Canada won the [tournament](1990 North American Nations Cup) after a 1–0 win over the United States on May 6 and a 2–1 win over Mexico on May 13. All three Canadian goals were scored by [Catliff](John)(John Catliff), the tournament's top scorer.
Canada came close to qualifying for the World Cup again in [1994](1994 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)) under the guidance of a defender on the 1986 team, [Lenarduzzi](Bob)(Bob Lenarduzzi). They entered the tournament at the second round stage and advanced as group runners-up. Canada Soccer|website=Canadasoccer.com|access-date=February 26, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820162254/http://www.canadasoccer.com/canadian-soccer-timeline-from-1991-to-1994-p150672|archive-date=August 20, 2016|url-status=live}} Canada competed strongly in the final qualifying round, drawing their first match in Tegucigalpa after a controversial penalty allowed the Hondurans to draw even, winning their next two, over El Salvador and Honduras in Vancouver, losing convincingly at Azteca Stadium, and winning 2–1 in San Salvador. They went into their final group match against Mexico, in Toronto, needing a win to win the group and thus qualify directly for the World Cup. Canada went up 1–0 on a goal credited to [Bunbury](Alex)(Alex Bunbury) off a free kick, but Mexico scored twice to win, 2–1. The loss meant Canada finished second and advanced to an intercontinental play-off series where they needed to win two rounds to qualify for the [FIFA World Cup](1994)(1994 FIFA World Cup). The Reds went up against [Football Confederation](Oceania)(Oceania Football Confederation)'s champions Australia. Canada won the first leg 2–1 in Edmonton. Australia led the second leg 2–1 at the end of 90 minutes, sending the tie to [time](extra)(extra time). There was no score in the extra 30 minutes, meaning the series was decided by a [shootout](penalty)(penalty shootout (association football)) which Australia won 4–1 to eliminate Canada from contention. Australia went on to lose 2–1 on aggregate to [Argentina](Argentina national football team), who advanced to the World Cup.
With the World Cup to be played in the United States, Canada had the opportunity to play a number of high-profile squads in tune-up matches. The highlight of this set of matches—played against [Morocco](Morocco national football team), Brazil, [Germany](Germany national football team), [Spain](Spain national football team), and the [Netherlands](Netherlands national football team) all within 13 days—was Canada holding eventual World Cup champions Brazil to a 1–1 draw at [Stadium](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth Stadium (Edmonton)), on a 69th-minute equalizer by [Berdusco](Eddy)(Eddy Berdusco), on Canada's only real scoring chance in the game.
With three countries set to qualify out of CONCACAF for the [World Cup](1998)(1998 FIFA World Cup), and with Canada handily winning their second round group over El Salvador, [Panama](Panama national football team), and Cuba, expectations were high for a second qualification in 12 years in the spring of 1997. The aging Canadians, however, fared miserably, losing their opening game to Mexico 0–4 and the following one to the U.S. 0–3. In their next two matches, against El Salvador and [Jamaica](Jamaica national football team), they could only manage two 0–0 draws in Vancouver. A 1–0 win over Costa Rica in Edmonton in their next match thanks to a goal by Berdusco gave Canada some hope at the halfway point but losses to both Jamaica and El Salvador away ended any aspirations as they finished bottom of the group with 6 points from 10 games and a −15 goal difference. Having overseen two consecutive World Cup campaigns ending in the side failing to qualify, Lenarduzzi stepped down in 1997 and was replaced by interim head coach [Twamley](Bruce)(Bruce Twamley).
### 2000s
The Canadian Soccer Association turned to another German to lead the senior national team in 1998 with the signing of [Osieck](Holger)(Holger Osieck). Success came quickly with Canada winning the [Gold Cup](CONCACAF)(2000 CONCACAF Gold Cup) in February 2000. After emerging from the first round on a coin-toss tiebreaker with invited side [of Korea](Republic)(South Korean national football team), the Canucks scored a quarter-final upset win over Mexico. The win set the stage for an unprecedented run to the final, where Canada defeated [Colombia](Colombian national football team) 2–0 at [Angeles Memorial Coliseum](Los)(Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum). Canada swept the awards ceremony, with goalkeeper [Forrest](Craig)(Craig Forrest) winning MVP honours, [Corazzin](Carlo)(Carlo Corazzin) securing the Golden Boot, and [Hastings](Richard)(Richard Hastings) named Rookie of the Tournament.
Expectations were again high following the winter's result, but the campaign sputtered. A positive 1–0 away result in [Havana](Havana) in June was followed by a listless 0–0 home draw against Cuba. For the semi-final round two out of four teams advanced. Canada was eliminated from World Cup contention after finishing third in the semi-final round. Canada managed just one goal in 6 games while conceding 8 to finish third in the standings, well adrift of advancing sides [and Tobago](Trinidad)(Trinidad and Tobago national football team) and Mexico.
Winning the Gold Cup earned Canada a place in the [Confederations Cup](2001)(2001 FIFA Confederations Cup), where the highlight was holding Brazil to a 0–0 draw. The Gold Cup victory also won them an invitation to compete in the [América 2001](Copa)(Copa América 2001). When security concerns prompted the cancellation of the tournament, Canada disbanded their training camp. The tournament was then reinstated and held on schedule. The Canadian Soccer Association announced they would not be able to participate in the reinstated tournament.
Canada had another strong showing in the [CONCACAF Gold Cup](2002)(2002 CONCACAF Gold Cup), losing to the United States in the semi-finals in penalties, and then defeating South Korea in the third-place game, 2–1. There was a Gold Cup held [following year](the)(2003 CONCACAF Gold Cup) so as to hold the event in years between the World Cup and the Olympics, and Canada was eliminated in the first round on goal difference. Head coach Osieck had seen the side progress. The coach resigned in September 2003 and former player [Miller](Colin)(Colin Miller (soccer, born 1964)) was put in charge as an interim.
2004 marked the beginning of [World Cup qualification](2006)(2006 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)) and a new era under the guidance of former Canadian skipper [Yallop](Frank)(Frank Yallop). Things began brightly, with the Canadians dispatching of [Belize](Belize national football team) handily in the Premilinary Round, 8–0 on aggregate, in a home-and-home series. Matters turned, however, with Canada finishing bottom in a group featuring Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Honduras. They got only 5 points from 6 matches and a −4 goal difference. Hard times continued under Yallop as the Canucks again went out at the first barrier in the [Cup](Gold)(2005 CONCACAF Gold Cup), losing to both the U.S. and Costa Rica, while defeating Cuba. The coach stayed on through 2005 into the following summer, overseeing a series a friendlies against European sides. He resigned on June 7, 2006, finishing with a win-lose record of 8–9–3.
Things turned around under interim coach [Hart](Stephen)(Stephen Hart (footballer))'s guidance. Canada opened their [CONCACAF Gold Cup](2007)(2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup) campaign with a 2–1 win over Costa Rica. A 1–2 upset loss to upstarts [Guadeloupe](Guadeloupe national football team) was followed by a 2–0 victory over Haiti, securing Canada first-place in their group. They next beat Guatemala 3–0 in their quarter-final match setting up a semi-final showdown with the host Americans. Substitute [Hume](Iain)(Iain Hume) scored for Canada in the 76th minute to cut the United States' lead to 2–1. After the United States were reduced to ten men, Canada pressed for the equalizer but were denied when [Hutchinson](Atiba)(Atiba Hutchinson)'s stoppage-time goal was incorrectly flagged offside by linesman Ricardo Louisville and Canada was eliminated.
The team faced criticism for its poor handling of goalkeeper [Sutton](Greg)(Greg Sutton (soccer)), who suffered a concussion during a practice prior to the start of the Gold Cup. Without a doctor accompanying the team, Sutton instead saw a local physician who cleared him to practice, resulting in Sutton suffering post-concussion syndrome. Sutton was lost to his professional club [FC](Toronto)(Toronto FC) for nearly a year.
Prior to the Gold Cup on May 18, 2007, the Canadian Soccer Association announced that former national team player [Mitchell](Dale)(Dale Mitchell (soccer)) would take over as head coach of the senior team after the [FIFA U-20 World Cup](2007)(2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup). Mitchell had previously served as an assistant coach under Coach Frank Yallop. Under Mitchell, Canada drew friendlies with [Iceland](Iceland national football team) and against Costa Rica, lost 0–2 to [Africa](South)(South Africa national football team), had a 1–0 win over [Martinique](Martinique national football team), and a 0–2 defeat to [Estonia](Estonia national football team). Optimism grew, however, as Canada played well in a 2–3 loss to Brazil.
Despite defeating [Vincent and the Grenadines](Saint)(Saint Vincent and the Grenadines national football team) 7–1 on aggregate in a second-round series—they had had a [bye](bye (sport)) in the first—Canada did not play at the level they had at the Gold Cup and were eliminated from [for the 2010 World Cup](qualifying)(2010 FIFA World Cup qualification). They conceded an equalizer shortly after scoring the opening goal in a 1–1 draw to Jamaica at [Field](BMO)(BMO Field), conceded two second-half goals in quick succession in a 1–2 home loss to Honduras at [Stadium](Saputo)(Saputo Stadium), and then lost away to Mexico and Honduras. They finished last in the four-team group with just 2 points from 6 matches. On March 27, 2009, head coach Dale Mitchell was fired. The president of the Canadian Soccer Association, Dominic Maestracci, said that "the Canadian Soccer Association is committed to the future of our men's national team program. We have made this decision to move the program in a new direction." Technical director Stephen Hart was renamed as interim head coach. On December 9, 2009, Hart was named as head coach.
### 2010s
Stephen Hart's first competitive action as the full-time head coach was a poor showing at the [CONCACAF Gold Cup](2011)(2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup), not managing to get out of the group stage. However, during the early stages [for the 2014 World Cup](qualifying)(2014 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)), Canada topped their group in the second round but were eliminated in the [round of CONCACAF qualifying](third)(2014 FIFA World Cup qualification – CONCACAF third round#Group C), finishing one point behind Honduras and Panama after losing 8–1 in Honduras on the final match day.
After a series of interim coaching changes following Stephen Hart's dismissal on October 12, 2012 [Floro](Benito)(Benito Floro) replaced Colin Miller as Canada's coach on August 1, 2013. Being a coach with top-flight management experience in [Liga](La)(La Liga), he was expected to help Canada raise its competitiveness prior to [FIFA World Cup qualification](2018)(2018 FIFA World Cup qualification). In the midst of Floro's player identification and restructuring phase, the team experienced many difficulties including a 958-minute goal-scoring drought, which was finally broken by Atiba Hutchinson in a 1–1 draw with [Bulgaria](Bulgaria national football team) on May 23, 2014. Despite showing improvement with two draws in Europe, Canada continued to shed FIFA points having gone winless for nearly two years, and sank to their lowest ever FIFA ranking of 122 in August 2014. Canada ended a 16-match winless streak on September 10, 2014, defeating Jamaica 3–1 in Toronto.
Canada was drawn into the [FIFA World Cup](2018)(2018 FIFA World Cup) second round of qualifying against [Dominica](Dominica national football team) in June 2015. Canada entered the [round of 2018 World Cup qualifying](second)(2018 FIFA World Cup qualification – CONCACAF second round) against Dominica with a game at Windsor Park in Dominica which they won 2–0 with goals from [Larin](Cyle)(Cyle Larin) and a penalty converted by [Teibert](Russell)(Russell Teibert). In the return leg at BMO Field in front of 9,749 fans they defeated Dominica 4–0 with two goals from [Ricketts](Tosaint)(Tosaint Ricketts) and one each from [Akindele](Tesho)(Tesho Akindele) and Cyle Larin.
The team did not score a single goal and finished last in their group in the [CONCACAF Gold Cup](2015)(2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup) after two 0–0 draws to El Salvador and Costa Rica, while also suffering a 1–0 loss against Jamaica.
Canada then advanced to the [round of 2018 World Cup qualifying](third)(2018 FIFA World Cup qualification – CONCACAF third round) against Belize, winning 4–1 on aggregate and advancing to the [round of 2018 World Cup qualifying](fourth)(2018 FIFA World Cup qualification – CONCACAF fourth round). Canada was drawn into a group against Honduras, El Salvador and Mexico. They played their first pair of matches in the fourth round on November 13 and 17, 2015. The first match was played in Vancouver at [Place](BC)(BC Place) against Honduras, resulting in a 1–0 win for Canada thanks to a deflected goal by Cyle Larin. The crowd of 20,108 set a new record for the Canadian men's team in the province of [Columbia](British)(British Columbia). In their next game on November 17, away at El Salvador, Canada drew with El Salvador 0-0 as [De Guzman](Julian)(Julian De Guzman) broke Canada's record for most caps for the national team with his 85th cap, passing [Stalteri](Paul)(Paul Stalteri)'s record of 84 caps. With this result in Canada's last game of 2015, they ended off the year conceding just three goals in their final 12 games and in 14 games overall, they ended off with a record of 6 wins, 6 draws, and 2 losses.
On March 25, 2016, in a World Cup qualifier against Mexico at BC Place Stadium in Vancouver, 54,798 people were recorded in the stadium which set a new attendance record for a Canadian national team of any sport. Ultimately, however, Canada lost the game 3–0, but remained in second place in the group, keeping them in contention for World Cup qualification. On September 6, 2016, after not being able to qualify for the fifth round of the 2018 World Cup qualifying despite a 3–1 win over El Salvador, head coach Benito Floro was sacked on September 14, ending his reign as coach of the national team.
[[File:Canada vs. USA atmosphere in 2019 re-upload (by Djuradj Vujcic).ogg|right|thumb|Canada recorded a historic 2–0 win against the [States](United)(United States men's national soccer team) at [Field](BMO)(BMO Field) on October 15, 2019.]]
Canada announced [Zambrano](Octavio)(Octavio Zambrano) as the new coach of the national team on May 16, 2017, replacing [Findlay](Michael)(Michael Findlay (soccer)) who was the interim coach after Floro's departure. He guided Canada to a quarterfinal finish at the [CONCACAF Gold Cup](2017)(2017 CONCACAF Gold Cup), with the team getting out of the group stage for the first time since [2009](2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup). However, on January 8, 2018, Zambrano was let go and was replaced with [Herdman](John)(John Herdman), who previously was the head coach of the [women's national team](Canadian)(Canada women's national soccer team).
Under Herdman, Canada qualified for the top division in the [season](inaugural)(2019–20 CONCACAF Nations League) of the [Nations League](CONCACAF)(CONCACAF Nations League) following an undefeated [campaign](qualifying)(2019–20 CONCACAF Nations League qualifying). Competing in [Nations League A](CONCACAF)(2019–20 CONCACAF Nations League A), Canada earned a 2–0 victory over the United States at BMO Field, Canada's first win against their American rivals since 1985. However, Canada would fall to a 4–1 defeat against the United States in the away leg and failed to qualify for the [League Finals](Nations)(2021 CONCACAF Nations League Finals).
### 2020s
Canada's national team was marked by the arrival of a generation of new young players, led by the first Canadian [Champions League](UEFA)(UEFA Champions League) winner [Davies](Alphonso)(Alphonso Davies) of [Munich](Bayern)(FC Bayern Munich), the most expensive Canadian soccer player in history, [David](Jonathan)(Jonathan David) who joined [Lille](Lille OSC) for a €30-million fee in 2020 and the establishment of the [Premier League](Canadian)(Canadian Premier League), the first fully professional soccer league in the country. In the [round of World Cup qualifying](first)(2022 FIFA World Cup qualification – CONCACAF first round), Canada finished with a 4–0–0 record to win Group B and progress to the [round](second)(2022 FIFA World Cup qualification – CONCACAF second round). The second round was two leg home-and-away tie against [Haiti](Haiti national football team) which Canada won 4–0 on aggregate with a 1–0 win in the away leg and a 3–0 win in the home leg, the latter being played at [Stadium](SeatGeek)(SeatGeek Stadium) in Chicago due to [COVID-19](COVID-19) restrictions in Canada. Globalnews.ca|url=https://globalnews.ca/news/7956274/canada-soccer-world-cup-qualifying-final-round/|access-date=August 31, 2021|website=Global News|language=en-CA}} The victory over Haiti led to Canada qualifying for the [and final round](third)(2022 FIFA World Cup qualification – CONCACAF third round) of World Cup qualifying for the first time since 1997.
Canada began the [round of World Cup qualifying](third)(2022 FIFA World Cup qualification – CONCACAF third round) unbeaten in its first eleven matches, finishing 2021 with its [win over Mexico in over 20 years](first)(Canada v Mexico (2022 FIFA World Cup qualification)) to finish the year at the top of the table. It also ended the year 40th in the [World Rankings](FIFA)(FIFA World Rankings), its highest-ever position to date, earning the team the honour of "Most Improved Side" after having started the year ranked 72nd.
On March 27, 2022, Canada defeated Jamaica [4–0](2022 FIFA World Cup qualification – CONCACAF third round#Matches#Matchday_13) on Matchday 13 to qualify for the [FIFA World Cup](2022)(2022 FIFA World Cup) in [Qatar](Qatar). This ended a 36-year drought since the first and only time Canada played in the [World Cup](FIFA)(FIFA World Cup), in [1986](1986 FIFA World Cup). The speed of the team's ascent was such that it was subsequently revealed that neither the federation nor [kit](Kit (association football)) supplier [Nike](Nike, Inc.) had anticipated them qualifying, and as a result they would be the only team in Qatar to not receive a special kit for the occasion. Defender [Adekugbe](Sam)(Sam Adekugbe) remarked "I think that just shows that no one really believed in us. I don't think Canada believed."
[[national football team WC2022.jpg|thumb|Canada men's national soccer team at the 2022 World Cup](File:Canada)]In Canada's first match of the tournament against [Belgium](Belgium national football team) on November 23, Davies failed to score an early penalty in an eventual 1–0 loss, despite Canada dictating most of the play, and failing to convert any of their 22 shots. Four days later, Davies scored Canada's first ever goal at the FIFA World Cup, in a game against [Croatia](Croatia national football team). Still, Croatia came back to win 4–1, eliminating Canada from the tournament after two matches. Canada were defeated 2–1 by [Morocco](Morocco national football team) in their final group match on December 1, finishing in last place with zero points, though Canada made history by scoring two goals in the FIFA World Cup for the first time in their history. Despite elimination, Canada's participation was considered a major success as it helped foster the rebirth of Canadian soccer and served as preparation for the [World Cup](2026)(2026 FIFA World Cup), where Canada will serve as co-hosts, along with the United States and Mexico.
## Rivalries
### United States
Canada has a longstanding rivalry with the [States](United)(United States men's national soccer team). This stems from a generally [rivalry](friendly)(Canada–United States relations) between the two nations. The two teams frequently face each other in the [Cup](Gold)(CONCACAF Gold Cup). The United States currently leads the series 16-10-12 (W-L-T). Historically, the United States has been the stronger side, having [for 11 World Cups](qualified)(United States at the FIFA World Cup) while Canada [for two](qualified)(Canada at the FIFA World Cup). Despite the fact that games between the two teams tends to be tightly-contested, until recently, Canada was not seen as a competitive rival by a number of American fans as it had not beaten the United States in a 34-year stretch. That streak was snapped on October 15, 2019, when Canada defeated the United States 2–0 at [Field](BMO)(BMO Field) in [Toronto](Toronto). The following month, on November 15, the United States beat Canada 4–1 in [Orlando](Orlando). Since then, matches between the two have been very competitive. The United States defeated Canada 1–0 in a [Gold Cup](2021)(2021 Gold Cup) matchup in [City](Kansas)(Kansas City, Kansas). In [World Cup qualifying](2022)(2022 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF)), Canada earned a 1–1 draw in [Nashville](Nashville) and defeated the United States 2–0 in [Hamilton](Hamilton, Ontario).
## Stadiums
During [FIFA World Cup qualifying](2022)(2022 FIFA World Cup qualification – CONCACAF third round), Canada used [Field](BMO)(BMO Field) in Toronto, [Stadium](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth Stadium) in Edmonton, and [Hortons Field](Tim)(Tim Hortons Field) in Hamilton. Due to travel restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic, Canada played their home games for the first and second rounds of 2022 World Cup qualifying in stadiums in the United States. BMO Field is Canada's largest natural turf stadium, followed by [Stadium](Saputo)(Saputo Stadium), in Montreal. Canada played their [FIFA World Cup qualifiers](2018)(2018 FIFA World Cup qualification – CONCACAF fourth round) at [Place](BC)(BC Place) in Vancouver.
## Results and fixtures
The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.
### 2022
|team1 =
|score = 2–0
|team2 =
|goals1 =
*[Larin](Cyle Larin)
*[David](Jonathan David)
|goals2 =
|location = [Vienna](Vienna), Austria
|stadium = [Horr Stadium](Franz)(Franz Horr Stadium)
|attendance = 150
|referee = [Schüttengruber](Manuel)(Manuel Schüttengruber) ([Austria](Austrian Football Association))
|report = https://canadasoccer.com/national-team-match-past/?matchId=3260
|result = W
}}
|team1 =
|score = 0–2
|team2 =
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
*[la Cruz](De)(Nicolás de la Cruz)
*[Núñez](Darwin Núñez)
|location = [Bratislava](Bratislava), Slovakia
|stadium = [Pole](Tehelné)(Tehelné Pole)
|attendance = 4,500
|referee = Peter Kráľovič ([Slovakia](Slovak Football Association))
|report = https://canadasoccer.com/national-team-match-past/?matchId=3261
|result = L
}}
|team1 =
|score = 2–2
|team2 =
|goals1 =
*[Al-Humaidan](Mahdi Al-Humaidan)
*[Helal](Abdulla Yusuf Helal)
|goals2 =
*[Koné](Ismaël Koné (soccer, born 2002))
*[Haram](Ali Haram)
|stadium = [Sports City Stadium](Khalifa)(Khalifa Sports City Stadium)
|location = [Town](Isa)(Isa Town), Bahrain
|attendance = 1,000
|referee = Abdullah Jamali ([Kuwait](Kuwait Football Association))
|report = https://canadasoccer.com/national-team-match-past/?matchId=3345
|result = D
}}
|team1 =
|score = 2–1
|team2 =
|goals1 =
*[Vitória](Steven Vitória)
*[Cavallini](Lucas Cavallini)
|goals2 =
*[Soma](Yuki Soma)
|location = [Dubai](Dubai), United Arab Emirates
|stadium = [Maktoum Stadium](Al)(Al Maktoum Stadium)
|attendance = 2,971
|referee = Omar Mohamed Al Ali ([Arab Emirates](United)(United Arab Emirates Football Association))
|report = https://canadasoccer.com/national-team-match-past/?matchId=3302
|result = W
}}
|score = 1–0
|team2 =
|goals1 =
*[Batshuayi](Michy Batshuayi)
|goals2 =
|location = [Rayyan](Al)(Al Rayyan), Qatar
|stadium = [bin Ali Stadium](Ahmad)(Ahmad bin Ali Stadium)
|attendance = 40,432
|referee = [Sikazwe](Janny)(Janny Sikazwe) ([Zambia](Football Association of Zambia))
|report = https://www.fifa.com/fifaplus/en/match-centre/match/17/255711/285063/400235477
|result = L
}}
|score = 4–1
|team2 =
|goals1 =
*[Kramarić](Andrej Kramarić)
*[Livaja](Marko Livaja)
*[Majer](Lovro Majer)
|goals2 =
*[Davies](Alphonso Davies)
|location = [Rayyan](Al)(Al Rayyan), Qatar
|stadium = [International Stadium](Khalifa)(Khalifa International Stadium)
|attendance = 44,374
|referee = [Matonte](Andrés)(Andrés Matonte) ([Uruguay](Uruguayan Football Association))
|report = https://www.fifa.com/fifaplus/en/match-centre/match/17/255711/285063/400235482
|result = L
}}
|score = 1–2
|team2 =
|goals1 =
*[Aguerd](Nayef Aguerd)
|goals2 =
*[Ziyech](Hakim Ziyech)
*[En-Nesyri](Youssef En-Nesyri)
|location = [Doha](Doha), Qatar
|stadium = [Thumama Stadium](Al)(Al Thumama Stadium)
|attendance = 43,102
|referee = [Claus](Raphael)(Raphael Claus) ([Brazil](Brazilian Football Confederation))
|report = https://www.fifa.com/fifaplus/en/match-centre/match/17/255711/285063/400235479
|result = L
}}
### 2023
|score = 0–2
|team2 =
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
*[David](Jonathan David)
*[Larin](Cyle Larin)
|location = [Willemstad](Willemstad), Curaçao
|stadium = [Hato Stadium](Ergilio)(Ergilio Hato Stadium)
|attendance =
|referee = Juan Gabriel Calderón ([Rica](Costa)(Costa Rican Football Federation))
|report = https://www.concacaf.com/en/nations-league/game-details?matchid=626362
|result = W
}}
|score = 4–1
|team2 =
|goals1 =
*[Larin](Cyle Larin)
*[David](Jonathan David)
*[Osorio](Jonathan Osorio)
|goals2 = [Benguche](Jorge Benguche)
|location = [Toronto](Toronto), Ontario
|stadium = [Field](BMO)(BMO Field)
|attendance = 13,626
|referee = [Barton](Iván)(Iván Barton) ([Salvador](El)(Salvadoran Football Federation))
|report = https://www.concacaf.com/en/nations-league/game-details?matchid=626379
|result = W
}}
|score =
|team2 =
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
|location = [Paradise](Paradise, Nevada), United States
|stadium = [Stadium](Allegiant)(Allegiant Stadium)
|attendance =
|referee =
|report =
|result =
}}
|score =
|team2 = or }}
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
|location = [Paradise](Paradise, Nevada), United States
|stadium = [Stadium](Allegiant)(Allegiant Stadium)
|attendance =
|referee =
|report =
|result =
}}
|score =
|team2 = TBD
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
|location = [Toronto](Toronto), Ontario
|stadium = [Field](BMO)(BMO Field)
|attendance =
|referee =
|report =
|result =
}}
|score =
|team2 =
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
|location = [Houston](Houston, Texas), United States
|stadium = [Energy Stadium](Shell)(Shell Energy Stadium)
|attendance =
|referee =
|report =
|result =
}}
|score =
|team2 =
|goals1 =
|goals2 =
|location = [Houston](Houston, Texas), United States
|stadium = [Energy Stadium](Shell)(Shell Energy Stadium)
|attendance =
|referee =
|report =
|result =
}}
## Coaching staff
}}
### Coaching history
:[manager](Caretaker)(Caretaker manager)s are listed in *italics*.
* [Petrie](Don)(Don Petrie) (1957)
* [Dinsdale](Peter)(Peter Dinsdale) (1968–1970)
* [Pike](Frank)(Frank Pike (soccer)) (1970–1973)
* [Krautzun](Eckhard)(Eckhard Krautzun) (1973–1977)
* [Clarke](Barrie)(Barrie Clarke) (1979–1981)
* [Waiters](Tony)(Tony Waiters) (1981–1985, 1985–1986, 1990–1991)
* *[Wilson](Bruce)(Bruce Wilson (soccer))* (1985)
* [Bearpark](Bob)(Bob Bearpark) (1986–1987)
* [Taylor](Tony)(Tony Taylor (footballer, born 1946)) (1988–1989)
* [Lenarduzzi](Bob)(Bob Lenarduzzi) (1989–1990, 1992–1997)
* *[Twamley](Bruce)(Bruce Twamley)* (1998)
* [Osieck](Holger)(Holger Osieck) (1999–2003)
* *[Miller](Colin)(Colin Miller (soccer, born 1964))* (2003, 2013)
* [Yallop](Frank)(Frank Yallop) (2004–2006)
* *[Hart](Stephen)(Stephen Hart (footballer))* (2006–2007, 2009)
* [Mitchell](Dale)(Dale Mitchell (soccer)) (2007–2009)
* [Hart](Stephen)(Stephen Hart (footballer)) (2009–2012)
* *[Fonseca](Tony)(Tony Fonseca)* (2013)
* [Floro](Benito)(Benito Floro) (2013–2016)
* *[Findlay](Michael)(Michael Findlay (soccer))* (2016–2017)
* [Zambrano](Octavio)(Octavio Zambrano) (2017–2018)
* [Herdman](John)(John Herdman) (2018–*present*)
## Players
### Current squad
The following 23 players were named to the squad for the [CONCACAF Nations League Finals](2023)(2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals).
*Caps and goals as of March 28, 2023, after the match against [Honduras](Honduras national football team).*
|caps=2|goals=0|club=[United](Minnesota)(Minnesota United FC)|clubnat=USA}}
|caps=0|goals=0|club=[& Hove Albion](Brighton)(Brighton & Hove Albion F.C.)|clubnat=ENG}}
|caps=72|goals=0|club=[Star Belgrade](Red)(Red Star Belgrade)|clubnat=SRB}}
|caps=34|goals=1|club=[Celtic](Celtic F.C.)|clubnat=SCO}}
|caps=39|goals=1|club=[Galatasaray](Galatasaray S.K. (football))|clubnat=TUR}}
|caps=32|goals=0|club=[Miami](Inter)(Inter Miami CF)|clubnat=USA}}
|caps=39|goals=4|club=[Chaves](G.D. Chaves)|clubnat=POR}}
|caps=0|goals=0|club=[Kielce](Korona)(Korona Kielce)|clubnat=POL}}
|caps=0|goals=0|club=[Rapids](Colorado)(Colorado Rapids)|clubnat=USA}}
|caps=39|goals=1|club=[FC](Toronto)(Toronto FC)|clubnat=CAN}}
|caps=10|goals=0|club=[Regensburg](Jahn)(SSV Jahn Regensburg)|clubnat=GER}}
|caps=30|goals=3|club=[Porto](FC Porto)|clubnat=POR}}
|caps=11|goals=1|club=[Johnstone](St)(St Johnstone F.C.)|clubnat=SCO}}
|caps=0|goals=0|club=[County](Ross)(Ross County F.C.)|clubnat=SCO}}
|caps=103|goals=9|club=[Beşiktaş](Beşiktaş J.K.)|clubnat=TUR}}
|caps=11|goals=1|club=[Watford](Watford F.C.)|clubnat=ENG}}
|caps=62|goals=8|club=[FC](Toronto)(Toronto FC)|clubnat=CAN}}
|caps=35|goals=18|club=[Tijuana](Club Tijuana)|clubnat=MEX}}
|caps=53|goals=14|club=[Reading](Reading F.C.)|clubnat=ENG}}
|caps=31|goals=4|club=[Brugge](Club)(Club Brugge KV)|clubnat=BEL}}
|caps=60|goals=28|club=[Valladolid](Real Valladolid)|clubnat=ESP}}
|caps=39|goals=13|club=[Munich](Bayern)(FC Bayern Munich)|clubnat=GER}}
|caps=40|goals=24|club=[Lille](Lille OSC)|clubnat=FRA}}
### Recent call-ups
The following players have been called up within the last 12 months.
|caps=0|goals=0|club=[Montréal](CF)(CF Montréal)|clubnat=CAN|latest=[FIFA World Cup](2022)(2022 FIFA World Cup)}}
|caps=0|goals=0|club=[Whitecaps FC](Vancouver)(Vancouver Whitecaps FC)|clubnat=CAN|latest=v. , November 11, 2022}}
|caps=15|goals=0|club=[Angeles FC](Los)(Los Angeles FC)|clubnat=USA|latest=v. ; November 11, 2022INJ}}
|caps=16|goals=0|club=[FF](Malmö)(Malmö FF)|clubnat=SWE|latest=[CONCACAF Nations League Finals](2023)(2023 CONCACAF Nations League Finals)}}INJ
|caps=1|goals=0|club=[Louis City](St.)(St. Louis City SC)|clubnat=USA|latest=v. , March 28, 2023}}
|caps=2|goals=0|club=[Montréal](CF)(CF Montréal)|clubnat=CAN|latest=[FIFA World Cup](2022)(2022 FIFA World Cup)}}
|caps=1|goals=0|club=[SC](Nashville)(Nashville SC)|clubnat=USA|latest=v. , November 17, 2022}}
|caps=7|goals=1|club=[Montréal](CF)(CF Montréal)|clubnat=CAN|latest=v. , November 11, 2022}}
|caps=5|goals=0|club=[Galaxy](LA)(LA Galaxy)|clubnat=USA|latest=v. , November 11, 2022}}
|caps=44|goals=1|club=Unattached|clubnat=|latest=v. , November 11, 2022INJ}}
|caps=40|goals=2|club=[FC](Toronto)(Toronto FC)|clubnat=CAN|latest=v. , March 28, 2023}}
|caps=66|goals=0|club=[Montréal](CF)(CF Montréal)|clubnat=CAN|latest=[FIFA World Cup](2022)(2022 FIFA World Cup)}}
|caps=15|goals=0|club=[Deinze](K.M.S.K. Deinze)|clubnat=BEL|latest=[FIFA World Cup](2022)(2022 FIFA World Cup)}}
|caps=0|goals=0|club=[Montréal](CF)(CF Montréal)|clubnat=CAN|latest=v. , November 11, 2022}}
|caps=8|goals=1|club=[Eindhoven](FC)(FC Eindhoven)|clubnat=NED|latest=v. , March 28, 2023}}
|caps=4|goals=0|club=[FC](Toronto)(Toronto FC)|clubnat=CAN|latest=v. , March 28, 2023}}
|caps=17|goals=0|club=[Basel](FC Basel)|clubnat=SUI|latest=[FIFA World Cup](2022)(2022 FIFA World Cup)}}
|caps=8|goals=0|club=[Troyes](ES Troyes AC)|clubnat=FRA|latest=[FIFA World Cup](2022)(2022 FIFA World Cup)}}
|caps=4|goals=1|club=[Rosenborg](Rosenborg BK)|clubnat=NOR|latest=v. , November 11, 2022}}
|caps=4|goals=0|club=[SC](Nashville)(Nashville SC)|clubnat=USA|latest=v. , November 11, 2022}}
|caps=7|goals=2|club=[Bielefeld](Arminia)(Arminia Bielefeld)|clubnat=GER|latest=v. ; September 27, 2022}}
|caps=0|goals=0|club=[Espanyol](RCD Espanyol)|clubnat=ESP|latest=v. ; September 27, 2022}}
* = Withdrew due to injury
* = No longer eligible due to nationality switch or other reason
* = Preliminary squad
* = Retired from the national team
* = Withdrew for non-injury reason
## Individual records
:*Players in **bold** are still active with Canada.*
### Most appearances
[[File:Atiba Hutchinson WC2022 (cropped).jpg|200px|thumb|right|[Hutchinson](Atiba)(Atiba Hutchinson) is Canada's most capped player with 103 appearances.]]
### Top goalscorers
[[File:Cyle_Larin_2015_Gold_Cup.jpg|190px|thumb|right|[Larin](Cyle)(Cyle Larin) is Canada's all time top scorer with 28 goals.]]
## Competitive record
**Champions** **Runners-up** **Third place** Tournament played fully or partially on home soil
### FIFA World Cup
### CONCACAF Gold Cup
### CONCACAF Nations League
### FIFA Confederations Cup
:**Denotes draws include knockout matches decided via [shoot-out](penalty)(Penalty shoot-out (association football)).*
### Summer Olympics
After 1988, Olympic soccer was contested by the [team](U–23)(Canada men's national under-23 soccer team).
### NAFC / NAFU Championship
## Head-to-head record
;Key
The following table shows Canada's all-time official international record per opponent:
}}
## Honours
**Major competitions**
* **[Championship](CONCACAF)(CONCACAF Championship) / [Cup](Gold)(CONCACAF Gold Cup)**
** **Champions (2)**: [1985](1985 CONCACAF Championship), [2000](2000 CONCACAF Gold Cup)
** Third place: [2002](2002 CONCACAF Gold Cup), [2007](2007 CONCACAF Gold Cup)
**Other competitions**
* **[American Nations Cup](North)(North American Nations Cup)**
** **Winners**: [1990](1990 North American Nations Cup)
* **[Olympics](Summer)(Football at the Summer Olympics)**
** **Winners**: [1904](Football at the 1904 Summer Olympics)
* '''[Olympic Qualifying Tournament](CONCACAF)(CONCACAF Men's Olympic Qualifying Championship)'''
** Runners-up: [1984](1984 CONCACAF Pre-Olympic Tournament)
## Kits
|}
|}
|}
|}
|}
|}
### Kit makers
## See also
* [men's national under-23 soccer team](Canada)(Canada men's national under-23 soccer team)
* [men's national under-20 soccer team](Canada)(Canada men's national under-20 soccer team)
* [men's national under-17 soccer team](Canada)(Canada men's national under-17 soccer team)
* [men's national futsal team](Canada)(Canada national futsal team)
* [in Canada](Soccer)(Soccer in Canada)
* [women's national soccer team](Canada)(Canada women's national soccer team)
* [Soccer in Canada](Women's)(Women's soccer in Canada)
* [Voyageurs](The)(The Voyageurs)
* [FIFA World Cup squad](1986)(1986 FIFA World Cup squads#Canada)
* [FIFA World Cup squad](2022)(2022 FIFA World Cup squads#Canada)
## Notes
## References
## Further reading
*
## External links
* [Canadian Soccer Association](http://www.canadasoccer.com/)
* [FIFA profile](https://www.fifa.com/about-fifa/associations/CAN)
* [Canada Soccer records and results 2023](https://issuu.com/canadasoccer/docs/20221231_issuu_canada_records_results)
* [RSSSF archive of most capped players and highest goalscorers](https://www.rsssf.org/miscellaneous/can-recintlp.html)
* [International Results until 1999](https://www.rsssf.org/tablesc/can-intres.html)
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
| title = [Champions](CONCACAF)(CONCACAF Championship)
| years = [1985](1985 CONCACAF Championship) (first title)
| after = [1989](1989 CONCACAF Championship)
}}
| title = [Champions](CONCACAF)(CONCACAF Gold Cup)
| years = [2000](2000 CONCACAF Gold Cup) (second title)
| after = [2002](2002 CONCACAF Gold Cup)
}}
| title = [Champions](NAFU)(North American Nations Cup)
| years = [1990](North American Nations Cup 1990) (first title)
| after = [1991](North American Nations Cup 1991)
}}
}}
}}
[ ](Category:Canada men's national soccer team)
[American national association football teams](Category:North)(Category:North American national association football teams)
[in Canada](Category:Soccer)(Category:Soccer in Canada)
[Soccer Association](Category:Canadian)(Category:Canadian Soccer Association)
|
Sanskrit
|
sanskrit
|
# Sanskrit
*Revision ID: 1160321761 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T19:02:19Z*
---
, ,
| pronunciation =
| region = [Asia](South)(South Asia) (ancient and medieval), parts of [Asia](Southeast)(Southeast Asia) (medieval)
| revived = There are no known native speakers of Sanskrit.
| era = [c.](Wiktionary:circa) 1500 – 600 BCE (Vedic Sanskrit); 700 BCE – 1350 CE (Classical Sanskrit): "Thus Classical Sanskrit, fixed by Panini’s grammar in probably the fourth century BC on the basis of a class dialect (and preceding grammatical tradition) of probably the seventh century BC, had its greatest literary flowering in the first millennium AD and even later, much of it therefore a full thousand years after the stage of the language it ostensibly represents."
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [Indo-Iranian](Indo-Iranian languages)
| fam3 = [Indo-Aryan](Indo-Aryan languages)
| ancestor = [Sanskrit](Vedic)(Vedic Sanskrit)
| script = [script](Devanagari)(Devanagari script) (present day). Originally orally transmitted. Not attested in writing until the 1st century BCE, when it was written in the [script](Brahmi)(Brahmi script), and later in various [scripts](Brahmic)(Brahmic scripts). }}
| nation = [India](India) (state-additional official)
*[Pradesh](Himachal)(Himachal Pradesh)
*[Uttarakhand](Uttarakhand)
| iso1 = sa
| iso2 = san
| iso3 = san
| image = composed 200 BCE}}. (bottom) The 175th-anniversary stamp of the third-oldest Sanskrit college, [College, Calcutta](Sanskrit)(Sanskrit College and University). The oldest was founded as [Sanskrit College](Benares)(Sampurnanand Sanskrit Vishwavidyalaya) in 1791.
}}
| imagesize =
| imagecaption =
| glotto = sans1269
| glottorefname = Sanskrit
| notice = IPA
| notice2 = IPA
| minority = [Africa](South)(South Africa)}}
}}
**Sanskrit** (; attributively , ; [nominally](nominalization) , , }}) is a [language](classical)(classical language) belonging to the [Indo-Aryan](Indo-Aryan languages) branch of the [languages](Indo-European)(Indo-European languages).. The date makes Sanskrit one of the three earliest of the well-documented languages of the Indo-European family – the other two being Old Hittite and Myceanaean Greek – and, in keeping with its early appearance, Sanskrit has been a cornerstone in the reconstruction of the parent language of the Indo-European family – Proto-Indo-European. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC}} It arose in [Asia](South)(South Asia) after its predecessor languages had [diffused](Trans-cultural diffusion) there from the northwest in the late [Age](Bronze)(Bronze Age#South Asia).) and mixed with the peoples of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC); this group then proceeded to South Asia, arriving . The second wave arrived in northern South Asia and mixed with the formerly arrived group, producing the Mitanni Aryans (), a precursor to the peoples of the *Ṛgveda*. [Witzel](Michael)(Michael Witzel) has assigned an approximate chronology to the strata of Vedic languages, arguing that the language of the *Ṛgveda* changed through the beginning of the Iron Age in South Asia, which started in the Northwest (Punjab) . On the basis of comparative philological evidence, Witzel has suggested a five-stage periodization of Vedic civilization, beginning with the *Ṛgveda*. On the basis of internal evidence, the *Ṛgveda* is dated as a late Bronze Age text composed by pastoral migrants with limited settlements, probably between 1350 and 1150 BCE in the Punjab region. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e7qbBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38}} Sanskrit is the [language](sacred)(sacred language) of [Hinduism](Hinduism), the language of classical [philosophy](Hindu)(Hindu philosophy), and of historical texts of [Buddhism](Buddhism) and [Jainism](Jainism). It was a [language](link)(lingua franca) in ancient and medieval South Asia, and upon transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to [Asia](Southeast)(Southeast Asia), [Asia](East)(East Asia) and [Asia](Central)(Central Asia) in the early medieval era, it became a language of religion and [culture](high)(high culture), and of the political elites in some of these regions. As a result, Sanskrit had a lasting impact on the languages of South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, especially in their formal and learned vocabularies.
Sanskrit generally connotes several [Indo-Aryan](Old)(Indo-Aryan languages#Old Indo-Aryan) language varieties. The most archaic of these is the [Sanskrit](Vedic)(Vedic Sanskrit) found in the [Rigveda](Rigveda), a collection of 1,028 hymns composed between 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE by Indo-Aryan tribes migrating east from what is today Afghanistan across northern [Pakistan](Pakistan) and into northwestern [India](India). Vedic Sanskrit interacted with the preexisting ancient languages of the subcontinent, absorbing names of newly encountered plants and animals; in addition, the [Dravidian languages](ancient)(Proto-Dravidian language) influenced Sanskrit's phonology and syntax. *Sanskrit* can also more narrowly refer to [Sanskrit](Classical)(Classical Sanskrit), a refined and standardized grammatical form that emerged in the mid-1st millennium BCE and was codified in the most comprehensive of ancient grammars,}} the *[Aṣṭādhyāyī](Aṣṭādhyāyī)* ('Eight chapters') of [Pāṇini](Pāṇini). The greatest dramatist in Sanskrit, [Kālidāsa](Kālidāsa), wrote in classical Sanskrit, and the foundations of modern arithmetic were first described in classical Sanskrit. The two major Sanskrit epics, the [Mahābhārata](Mahābhārata) and the [Rāmāyaṇa](Rāmāyaṇa), however, were composed in a range of oral storytelling registers called [Sanskrit](Epic)(Epic Sanskrit) which was used in northern India between 400 BCE and 300 CE, and roughly contemporary with classical Sanskrit. In the following centuries, Sanskrit became tradition-bound, stopped being learned as a first language, and ultimately stopped developing as a living language.
The hymns of the Rigveda are notably similar to the most archaic poems of the Iranian and Greek language families, the *[Gathas](Gatha (Zoroaster))* of old [Avestan](Avestan) and *[Iliad](Iliad)* of [Homer](Homer). As the Rigveda was [transmitted](orally)(Oral tradition) by [of memorisation](methods)(Indian mathematics#Styles of memorisation) of exceptional complexity, rigour and fidelity, as a single text without variant readings, its preserved archaic syntax and morphology are of vital importance in the reconstruction of the common ancestor language [Proto-Indo-European](Proto-Indo-European). Sanskrit does not have an attested native script: from around the turn of the 1st-millennium CE, it has been written in various [scripts](Brahmic)(Brahmic scripts), and in the modern era most commonly in [Devanagari](Devanagari).
Sanskrit's status, function, and place in India's cultural heritage are recognized by its inclusion in the [of India](Constitution)(Constitution of India)'s [Schedule languages](Eighth)(Languages with official status in India#Eighth Schedule to the Constitution). However, despite attempts at revival, there are no first language speakers of Sanskrit in India. In each of India's recent decennial censuses, several thousand citizens have reported Sanskrit to be their mother tongue, but the numbers are thought to signify a wish to be aligned with the prestige of the language. Quote: "What this data tells us is that it is very difficult to believe the notion that Jhiri is a “Sanskrit village” where everyone only speaks fluent Sanskrit at a mother tongue level. It is also difficult to accept that the lingua franca of the rural masses is Sanskrit, when most the majority of L1, L2 and L3 Sanskrit tokens are linked to urban areas. The predominance of Sanskrit across the Hindi belt also shows a particular cultural/geographic affection that does not spread equally across the rest of the country. In addition, the clustering with Hindi and English, in the majority of variations possible, also suggests that a certain class element is involved. Essentially, people who identify as speakers of Sanskrit appear to be urban and educated, which possibly implies that the affiliation with Sanskrit is related in some way to at least some sort of Indian, if not, Hindu, nationalism." Quote: "Consider the example of this faith-based development narrative that has evolved over the past decade in the state of Uttarakhand. In 2010, Sanskrit became the state's second official language. ... Recently, an updated policy has increased this top-down imposition of language shift, toward Sanskrit. The new policy aims to create a Sanskrit village in every “block” (administrative division) of Uttarakhand. The state of Uttarakhand consists of two divisions, 13 districts, 79 sub-districts and 97 blocks. ... There is hardly a Sanskrit village in even one block in Uttarakhand. The curious thing is that, while 70% of the state's total population live in rural areas, 100pc of the total 246 L1-Sanskrit tokens returned at the 2011 census are from Urban areas. No L1-Sanskrit token comes from any villager who identifies as an L1-Sanskrit speaker in Uttarakhand." Sanskrit has been taught in traditional [gurukulas](gurukulas) since ancient times; it is widely taught today at the secondary school level. The oldest Sanskrit college is the [Sanskrit College](Benares)(Benares Sanskrit College) founded in 1791 during [India Company rule](East)(Company rule in India). Sanskrit continues to be widely used as a ceremonial and ritual language in Hindu and Buddhist [hymns](stotra) and [chants](mantra).
## Etymology and nomenclature
In Sanskrit, the [adjective](verbal)(Attributive verb#English) ** is a compound word consisting of ('together, good, well, perfected') and *-* ('made, formed, work'). It connotes a work that has been "well prepared, pure and perfect, polished, sacred". According to Biderman, the perfection contextually being referred to in the etymological origins of the word is its tonal—rather than semantic—qualities. Sound and oral transmission were highly valued qualities in ancient India, and its sages refined the alphabet, the structure of words and its exacting grammar into a "collection of sounds, a kind of sublime musical mold", states Biderman, as an integral language they called *Sanskrit*. From the late [period](Vedic)(Vedic period) onwards, state Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus, resonating sound and its musical foundations attracted an "exceptionally large amount of linguistic, philosophical and religious literature" in India. Sound was visualized as "pervading all creation", another representation of the world itself; the "mysterious magnum" of Hindu thought. The search for perfection in thought and the goal of liberation were among the dimensions of sacred sound, and the common thread that wove all ideas and inspirations together became the quest for what the ancient Indians believed to be a perfect language, the "phonocentric episteme" of Sanskrit.
Sanskrit as a language competed with numerous, less exact vernacular Indian languages called *Prakritic languages* (**). The term literally means "original, natural, normal, artless", states [Southworth](Franklin)(Franklin Southworth). The relationship between Prakrit and Sanskrit is found in Indian texts dated to the 1st millennium CE. Patañjali acknowledged that Prakrit is the first language, one instinctively adopted by every child with all its imperfections and later leads to the problems of interpretation and misunderstanding. The purifying structure of the Sanskrit language removes these imperfections. The early Sanskrit grammarian [Daṇḍin](Daṇḍin) states, for example, that much in the Prakrit languages is etymologically rooted in Sanskrit, but involves "loss of sounds" and corruptions that result from a "disregard of the grammar". Daṇḍin acknowledged that there are words and confusing structures in Prakrit that thrive independent of Sanskrit. This view is found in the writing of [Muni](Bharata)(Bharata Muni), the author of the ancient *[Shastra](Natya)(Natya Shastra)* text. The early Jain scholar Namisādhu acknowledged the difference, but disagreed that the Prakrit language was a corruption of Sanskrit. Namisādhu stated that the Prakrit language was the ('came before, origin') and that it came naturally to children, while Sanskrit was a refinement of Prakrit through "purification by grammar".
## History
### Origin and development
Sanskrit belongs to the [family of languages](Indo-European)(Indo-European languages). It is one of the three earliest ancient documented languages that arose from a common root language now referred to as [language](Proto-Indo-European)(Proto-Indo-European language):
* [Sanskrit](Vedic)(Vedic Sanskrit) ( 1500–500 BCE).
* [Greek](Mycenaean)(Mycenaean Greek) ( 1450 BCE) and [Greek](Ancient)(Ancient Greek) ( 750–400 BCE).
* [Hittite](Hittite language) ( 1750–1200 BCE).
Other Indo-European languages distantly related to Sanskrit include [archaic](Old Latin) and [Latin](Classical)(Classical Latin) ( 600 BCE–100 CE, [languages](Italic)(Italic languages)), [Gothic](Gothic language) (archaic [language](Germanic)(Germanic language), c. 350 CE), [Norse](Old)(Old Norse) ( 200 CE and after), [Avestan](Old)(Old Avestan) (c. late 2nd millennium BCE) and [Avestan](Younger)(Avestan language) ( 900 BCE). For detailed comparison of the languages, see pp. 90–126. The closest ancient relatives of Vedic Sanskrit in the Indo-European languages are the [language](Nuristani)(Nuristani language)s found in the remote [Kush](Hindu)(Hindu Kush) region of northeastern Afghanistan and northwestern Himalayas, as well as the extinct [Avestan](Avestan) and [Persian](Old)(Old Persian) – both are [languages](Iranian)(Iranian languages). Sanskrit belongs to the [satem](Centum and satem languages) group of the Indo-European languages.
Colonial era scholars familiar with Latin and Greek were struck by the resemblance of the Sanskrit language, both in its vocabulary and grammar, to the classical languages of Europe.
In *The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World*, Mallory and Adams illustrate the resemblance with the following examples of [cognate](cognate) forms (with the addition of Old English for further comparison):
The correspondences suggest some common root, and historical links between some of the distant major ancient languages of the world. "The Sanscrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from *some common source*, which perhaps no longer exists. There is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothick and the Celtick , though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanscrit; and the Old Persian might be added to the same family.}}
The [migrations](Indo-Aryan)(Indo-Aryan migrations) theory explains the common features shared by Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages by proposing that the original speakers of what became Sanskrit arrived in South Asia from a region of common origin, somewhere north-west of the [region](Indus)(Indus River), during the early 2nd millennium BCE. Evidence for such a theory includes the close relationship between the Indo-Iranian tongues and the [Baltic](Baltic languages) and [languages](Slavic)(Slavic languages), vocabulary exchange with the non-Indo-European [languages](Uralic)(Uralic languages), and the nature of the attested Indo-European words for flora and fauna.
The pre-history of Indo-Aryan languages which preceded Vedic Sanskrit is unclear and various hypotheses place it over a fairly wide limit. According to Thomas Burrow, based on the relationship between various Indo-European languages, the origin of all these languages may possibly be in what is now Central or Eastern Europe, while the Indo-Iranian group possibly arose in Central Russia. The Iranian and Indo-Aryan branches separated quite early. It is the Indo-Aryan branch that moved into eastern Iran and then south into South Asia in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Once in ancient India, the Indo-Aryan language underwent rapid linguistic change and morphed into the Vedic Sanskrit language.
### Vedic Sanskrit
[[File:Rigveda MS2097.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|*Rigveda* ([padapatha](Vedic chant)) manuscript in [Devanagari](Devanagari), early 19th century. The red horizontal and vertical lines mark low and high pitch changes for chanting.]]
The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as *[Sanskrit](Vedic)(Vedic Sanskrit)*. The earliest attested Sanskrit text is the [Rigveda](Rigveda), a Hindu scripture from the mid- to late-second millennium BCE. No written records from such an early period survive, if any ever existed, but scholars are generally confident that the oral transmission of the texts is reliable: they are ceremonial literature, where the exact phonetic expression and its preservation were a part of the historic tradition.
However some scholars have suggested that the original Ṛg-veda differed in some fundamental ways in phonology compared to the sole surviving version available to us. In particular that retroflex consonants did not exist as a natural part of the earliest Vedic language, and that these developed in the centuries after the composition had been completed, and as a gradual unconscious process during the oral transmission by generations of reciters.
The primary source for this argument is internal evidence of the text which betrays an instability of the phenomenon of retroflexion, with the same phrases having sandhi-induced retroflexion in some parts but not other. This is taken along with evidence of controversy, for example, in passages of the Aitareya-Āraṇyaka (700 BCE), which features a discussion on whether retroflexion is valid in particular cases.
The Ṛg-veda is a collection of books, created by multiple authors from distant parts of ancient India. These authors represented different generations, and the mandalas 2 to 7 are the oldest while the mandalas 1 and 10 are relatively the youngest. Yet, the Vedic Sanskrit in these books of the Ṛg-veda "hardly presents any dialectical diversity", states [Renou](Louis)(Louis Renou) – an Indologist known for his scholarship of the Sanskrit literature and the Ṛg-veda in particular. According to Renou, this implies that the Vedic Sanskrit language had a "set linguistic pattern" by the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Beyond the Ṛg-veda, the ancient literature in Vedic Sanskrit that has survived into the modern age include the *Samaveda*, *Yajurveda*, *Atharvaveda*, along with the embedded and layered Vedic texts such as the [Brahmana](Brahmana)s, [Aranyaka](Aranyaka)s, and the early [Upanishad](Upanishad)s. These Vedic documents reflect the dialects of Sanskrit found in the various parts of the northwestern, northern, and eastern Indian subcontinent.
Vedic Sanskrit was both a spoken and literary language of ancient India. According to Michael Witzel, Vedic Sanskrit was a spoken language of the semi-nomadic Aryans who temporarily settled in one place, maintained cattle herds, practiced limited agriculture, and after some time moved by wagon trains they called . The Vedic Sanskrit language or a closely related Indo-European variant was recognized beyond ancient India as evidenced by the "[Mitanni](Mitanni) Treaty" between the ancient Hittite and Mitanni people, carved into a rock, in a region that now includes parts of Syria and Turkey.
}} Parts of this treaty, such as the names of the Mitanni princes and technical terms related to horse training, for reasons not understood, are in early forms of Vedic Sanskrit. The treaty also invokes the gods Varuna, Mitra, Indra, and [Nasatya](Ashvins) found in the earliest layers of the Vedic literature.
}}
The Vedic Sanskrit found in the Ṛg-veda is distinctly more archaic than other Vedic texts, and in many respects, the Rigvedic language is notably more similar to those found in the archaic texts of Old Avestan [Zoroastrian](Zoroastrianism) *Gathas* and Homer's *Iliad* and *Odyssey*.
According to Stephanie W. Jamison and Joel P. Brereton – Indologists known for their translation of the Ṛg-veda – the Vedic Sanskrit literature "clearly inherited" from Indo-Iranian and Indo-European times the social structures such as the role of the poet and the priests, the patronage economy, the phrasal equations, and some of the poetic metres.}} While there are similarities, state Jamison and Brereton, there are also differences between Vedic Sanskrit, the Old Avestan, and the Mycenaean Greek literature. For example, unlike the Sanskrit [simile](simile)s in the Ṛg-veda, the Old Avestan *Gathas* lack simile entirely, and it is rare in the later version of the language. The Homerian Greek, like Ṛg-vedic Sanskrit, deploys simile extensively, but they are structurally very different.
### Classical Sanskrit
[[bark MS from Kashmir of the Rupavatra Wellcome L0032691.jpg|thumb|260px|A 17th-century birch bark manuscript of Pāṇini's grammar treatise from Kashmir](File:Birch)]
The early Vedic form of the Sanskrit language was far less homogenous compared to the Classical Sanskrit as defined by grammarians by about the mid-1st millennium BCE. According to Richard Gombrich—an Indologist and a scholar of Sanskrit, Pāli and Buddhist Studies—the archaic Vedic Sanskrit found in the *Rigveda* had already evolved in the Vedic period, as evidenced in the later Vedic literature. Gombrich posits that the language in the early Upanishads of Hinduism and the late Vedic literature approaches Classical Sanskrit, while the archaic Vedic Sanskrit had by the [Buddha](Buddha)'s time become unintelligible to all except ancient Indian sages.
The formalization of the Sanskrit language is credited to , along with Patanjali's and Katyayana's commentary that preceded Patañjali's work. Panini composed ** ('Eight-Chapter Grammar'). The century in which he lived is unclear and debated, but his work is generally accepted to be from sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE.
The was not the first description of Sanskrit grammar, but it is the earliest that has survived in full, and the culmination of a long grammatical tradition that Fortson says, is "one of the intellectual wonders of the ancient world."Fortson, §10.26. Pāṇini cites ten scholars on the phonological and grammatical aspects of the Sanskrit language before him, as well as the variants in the usage of Sanskrit in different regions of India. The ten Vedic scholars he quotes are Āpiśali, [Kaśyapa](Kashyapa), Gārgya, Gālava, Cakravarmaṇa, [Bhāradvāja](Bharadvaja), Śākaṭāyana, Śākalya, Senaka and Sphoṭāyana. The of Panini became the foundation of Vyākaraṇa, a [Vedānga](Vedanga).
In the , language is observed in a manner that has no parallel among Greek or Latin grammarians. Pāṇini's grammar, according to Renou and Filliozat, is a classic that defines the linguistic expression and sets the standard for the Sanskrit language.Louis Renou & Jean Filliozat. ''L'Inde Classique, manuel des etudes indiennes'', vol.II pp. 86–90, [française d'Extrême-Orient](École)(École française d'Extrême-Orient), 1953, reprinted 2000. . Pāṇini made use of a technical metalanguage consisting of a syntax, morphology and lexicon. This metalanguage is organised according to a series of meta-rules, some of which are explicitly stated while others can be deduced.Angot, Michel. ''L'Inde Classique'', pp. 213–215. Les Belles Lettres, Paris, 2001. Despite differences in the analysis from that of modern linguistics, Pāṇini's work has been found valuable and the most advanced analysis of linguistics until the twentieth century.
Pāṇini's comprehensive and scientific theory of grammar is conventionally taken to mark the start of Classical Sanskrit. His systematic treatise inspired and made Sanskrit the preeminent Indian language of learning and literature for two millennia. It is unclear whether Pāṇini himself wrote his treatise or he orally created the detailed and sophisticated treatise then transmitted it through his students. Modern scholarship generally accepts that he knew of a form of writing, based on references to words such as *[Lipi](Lipi (script))* ('script') and ('scribe') in section 3.2 of the . In his 1995 review, Salomon questions Falk's arguments and writes it is "speculative at best and hardly constitutes firm grounds for a late date for Kharoṣṭhī. The stronger argument for this position is that we have no specimen of the script before the time of Ashoka, nor any direct evidence of intermediate stages in its development; but of course this does not mean that such earlier forms did not exist, only that, if they did exist, they have not survived, presumably because they were not employed for monumental purposes before Ashoka". According to Hartmut Scharfe, *lipi* of Pāṇini may be borrowed from the Old Persian *dipi*, in turn derived from Sumerian *dup*. Scharfe adds that the best evidence, at the time of his review, is that no script was used in India, aside from the Northwest Indian subcontinent, before because Indian tradition "at every occasion stresses the orality of the cultural and literary heritage." Kenneth Norman states writing scripts in ancient India evolved over the long period of time like other cultures, that it is unlikely that ancient Indians developed a single complete writing system at one and the same time in the Maurya era. It is even less likely, states Norman, that a writing script was invented during Ashoka's rule, starting from nothing, for the specific purpose of writing his inscriptions and then it was understood all over South Asia where the Ashoka pillars are found. Goody (1987) states that ancient India likely had a "very old culture of writing" along with its oral tradition of composing and transmitting knowledge, because the Vedic literature is too vast, consistent and complex to have been entirely created, memorized, accurately preserved and spread without a written system. Falk disagrees with Goody, and suggests that it is a Western presumption and inability to imagine that remarkably early scientific achievements such as Pāṇini's grammar (5th to 4th century BCE), and the creation, preservation and wide distribution of the large corpus of the Brahmanic Vedic literature and the Buddhist canonical literature, without any writing scripts. Bronkhorst (2002) disagrees with Falk, and states, "Falk goes too far. It is fair to expect that we believe that Vedic memorisation—though without parallel in any other human society—has been able to preserve very long texts for many centuries without losing a syllable. [...] However, the oral composition of a work as complex as Pāṇini's grammar is not only without parallel in other human cultures, it is without parallel in India itself. [...] It just will not do to state that our difficulty in conceiving any such thing is our problem".}}
The Classical Sanskrit language formalized by Pāṇini, states Renou, is "not an impoverished language", rather it is "a controlled and a restrained language from which archaisms and unnecessary formal alternatives were excluded". The Classical form of the language simplified the *sandhi* rules but retained various aspects of the Vedic language, while adding rigor and flexibilities, so that it had sufficient means to express thoughts as well as being "capable of responding to the future increasing demands of an infinitely diversified literature", according to Renou. Pāṇini included numerous "optional rules" beyond the Vedic Sanskrit's framework, to respect liberty and creativity so that individual writers separated by geography or time would have the choice to express facts and their views in their own way, where tradition followed competitive forms of the Sanskrit language.
The phonetic differences between Vedic Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit, as discerned from the current state of the surviving literature, are negligible when compared to the intense change that must have occurred in the pre-Vedic period between the Proto-Indo-Aryan language and Vedic Sanskrit. The noticeable differences between the Vedic and the Classical Sanskrit include the much-expanded grammar and grammatical categories as well as the differences in the accent, the semantics and the syntax. There are also some differences between how some of the nouns and verbs end, as well as the *sandhi* rules, both internal and external. Quite many words found in the early Vedic Sanskrit language are never found in late Vedic Sanskrit or Classical Sanskrit literature, while some words have different and new meanings in Classical Sanskrit when contextually compared to the early Vedic Sanskrit literature.
[Macdonell](Arthur)(Arthur Macdonell) was among the early colonial era scholars who summarized some of the differences between the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit. Louis Renou published in 1956, in French, a more extensive discussion of the similarities, the differences and the evolution of the Vedic Sanskrit within the Vedic period and then to the Classical Sanskrit along with his views on the history. This work has been translated by Jagbans Balbir.
### Sanskrit and Prakrit languages
[[File:Word for Sanskrit Samskrita in the Mandsaur stone inscription of Yashodharman-Vishnuvardhana 532 CE.jpg|thumb|An early use of the word for "Sanskrit" in Late [script](Brahmi)(Brahmi script) (also called [script](Gupta)(Gupta script)):[stone inscription of Yashodharman-Vishnuvardhana](Mandsaur)(Mandsaur stone inscription of Yashodharman-Vishnuvardhana), 532 CE.]]
The earliest known use of the word (Sanskrit), in the context of a speech or language, is found in verses 5.28.17–19 of the *Ramayana*. Outside the learned sphere of written Classical Sanskrit, vernacular colloquial dialects ([Prakrit](Prakrit)s) continued to evolve. Sanskrit co-existed with numerous other Prakrit languages of ancient India. The Prakrit languages of India also have ancient roots and some Sanskrit scholars have called these , literally 'spoiled'. The Vedic literature includes words whose phonetic equivalent are not found in other [languages](Indo-European)(Indo-European languages) but which are found in the regional Prakrit languages, which makes it likely that the interaction, the sharing of words and ideas began early in the Indian history. As the Indian thought diversified and challenged earlier beliefs of Hinduism, particularly in the form of [Buddhism](Buddhism) and [Jainism](Jainism), the Prakrit languages such as [Pali](Pali) in [Theravada](Theravada) Buddhism and Ardhamagadhi in Jainism competed with Sanskrit in the ancient times. However, states [Dundas](Paul)(Paul Dundas), a scholar of Jainism, these ancient Prakrit languages had "roughly the same relationship to Sanskrit as medieval Italian does to Latin." The Indian tradition states that the [Buddha](Buddha) and the [Mahavira](Mahavira) preferred the Prakrit language so that everyone could understand it. However, scholars such as Dundas have questioned this hypothesis. They state that there is no evidence for this and whatever evidence is available suggests that by the start of the common era, hardly anybody other than learned monks had the capacity to understand the old Prakrit languages such as [Ardhamagadhi](Ardhamagadhi).}}
Colonial era scholars questioned whether Sanskrit was ever a spoken language, or just a literary language. Scholars disagree in their answers. A section of Western scholars state that Sanskrit was never a spoken language, while others and particularly most Indian scholars state the opposite. Those who affirm Sanskrit to have been a vernacular language point to the necessity of Sanskrit being a spoken language for the [tradition](oral)(oral tradition) that preserved the vast number of Sanskrit manuscripts from ancient India. Secondly, they state that the textual evidence in the works of Yaksa, Panini and Patanajali affirms that the Classical Sanskrit in their era was a language that is spoken () by the cultured and educated. Some *[sutra](sutra)s* expound upon the variant forms of spoken Sanskrit versus written Sanskrit. The 7th-century Chinese Buddhist pilgrim [Xuanzang](Xuanzang) mentioned in his memoir that official philosophical debates in India were held in Sanskrit, not in the vernacular language of that region.
[[|Sanskrit's link to the Prakrit languages and other Indo-European languages](File:IndoEuropeanTree.svg|thumb|600px)]
According to Sanskrit linguist professor Madhav Deshpande, Sanskrit was a spoken language in a colloquial form by the mid-1st millennium BCE which coexisted with a more formal, grammatically correct form of literary Sanskrit. This, states Deshpande, is true for modern languages where colloquial incorrect approximations and dialects of a language are spoken and understood, along with more "refined, sophisticated and grammatically accurate" forms of the same language being found in the literary works. The Indian tradition, states [Winternitz](Moriz Winternitz) (1996), has favored the learning and the usage of multiple languages from the ancient times. Sanskrit was a spoken language in the educated and the elite classes, but it was also a language that must have been understood in a wider circle of society because the widely popular folk epics and stories such as the *[Ramayana](Ramayana)*, the *[Mahabharata](Mahabharata)*, the *[Purana](Bhagavata)(Bhagavata Purana)*, the *[Panchatantra](Panchatantra)* and many other texts are all in the Sanskrit language. The Classical Sanskrit with its exacting grammar was thus the language of the Indian scholars and the educated classes, while others communicated with approximate or ungrammatical variants of it as well as other natural Indian languages. Sanskrit, as the learned language of Ancient India, thus existed alongside the vernacular Prakrits. Many [drama](Sanskrit)(Sanskrit drama)s indicate that the language coexisted with the vernacular Prakrits. The cities of [Varanasi](Varanasi), [Paithan](Paithan), [Pune](Pune) and [Kanchipuram](Kanchipuram) were centers of classical Sanskrit learning and public debates until the arrival of the colonial era.
According to [Lamotte](Étienne Lamotte) (1976), an Indologist and Buddhism scholar, Sanskrit became the dominant literary and inscriptional language because of its precision in communication. It was, states Lamotte, an ideal instrument for presenting ideas, and as knowledge in Sanskrit multiplied, so did its spread and influence. Sanskrit was adopted voluntarily as a vehicle of high culture, arts, and profound ideas. Pollock disagrees with Lamotte, but concurs that Sanskrit's influence grew into what he terms a "Sanskrit Cosmopolis" over a region that included all of South Asia and much of southeast Asia. The Sanskrit language cosmopolis thrived beyond India between 300 and 1300 CE.
### Dravidian influence on Sanskrit
Reinöhl mentions that not only have the Dravidian languages borrowed from Sanskrit vocabulary, but they have also impacted Sanskrit on deeper levels of structure, "for instance in the domain of phonology where Indo-Aryan retroflexes have been attributed to Dravidian influence". Hock et al. quoting George Hart state that there was influence of [Tamil](Old)(Old Tamil) on Sanskrit. Hart compared Old Tamil and Classical Sanskrit to arrive at a conclusion that there was a common language from which these features both derived – "that both Tamil and Sanskrit derived their shared conventions, metres, and techniques from a common source, for it is clear that neither borrowed directly from the other."
Reinöhl further states that there is a symmetric relationship between Dravidian languages like Kannada or Tamil, with Indo-Aryan languages like Bengali or Hindi, whereas the same relationship is not found for non-Indo-Aryan languages, for example, Persian or English:
Shulman mentions that "Dravidian nonfinite verbal forms (called in Tamil) shaped the usage of the Sanskrit nonfinite verbs (originally derived from inflected forms of action nouns in Vedic). This particularly salient case of the possible influence of Dravidian on Sanskrit is only one of many items of syntactic assimilation, not least among them the large repertoire of morphological modality and aspect that, once one knows to look for it, can be found everywhere in classical and postclassical Sanskrit".
The main influence of Dravidian on Sanskrit is found to have been concentrated in the timespan between the late Vedic period and the crystallization of Classical Sanskrit. As in this period the [Indo-Aryan](Indo-Aryan peoples) tribes had not yet made contact with the inhabitants of the South of the subcontinent, this suggests a significant presence of Dravidian speakers in North India (the central Gangetic plain and the classical Madhyadeśa) who were instrumental in this substratal influence on Sanskrit.
## Influence
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Sanskrit has been the predominant language of [texts](Hindu)(Hindu texts) encompassing a rich tradition of [philosophical](Hindu philosophy) and [religious](dharma) texts, as well as poetry, music, [drama](Sanskrit drama), [scientific](Scientific literature), technical and others. It is the predominant language of one of the largest collection of historic manuscripts. The earliest known inscriptions in Sanskrit are from the 1st century BCE, such as the [Inscription of Dhana](Ayodhya)(Ayodhya Inscription of Dhana) and [(Chittorgarh)](Ghosundi-Hathibada)(Hathibada Ghosundi inscriptions).
Though developed and nurtured by scholars of orthodox schools of Hinduism, Sanskrit has been the language for some of the key literary works and theology of heterodox schools of Indian philosophies such as Buddhism and Jainism. The structure and capabilities of the Classical Sanskrit language launched ancient Indian speculations about "the nature and function of language", what is the relationship between words and their meanings in the context of a community of speakers, whether this relationship is objective or subjective, discovered or is created, how individuals learn and relate to the world around them through language, and about the limits of language? They speculated on the role of language, the ontological status of painting word-images through sound, and the need for rules so that it can serve as a means for a community of speakers, separated by geography or time, to share and understand profound ideas from each other.Madhav Deshpande (2010), *Language and Testimony in Classical Indian Philosophy*, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, [Source Link](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/language-india/)}} These speculations became particularly important to the [Mīmāṃsā](Mīmāṃsā) and the [Nyaya](Nyaya) schools of Hindu philosophy, and later to Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism, states [Staal](Frits)(Frits Staal)—a scholar of Linguistics with a focus on Indian philosophies and Sanskrit. Though written in a number of different scripts, the dominant language of Hindu texts has been Sanskrit. It or a hybrid form of Sanskrit became the preferred language of Mahayana Buddhism scholarship; for example, one of the early and influential Buddhist philosophers, [Nagarjuna](Nagarjuna) (~200 CE), used Classical Sanskrit as the language for his texts. According to Renou, Sanskrit had a limited role in the Theravada tradition (formerly known as the Hinayana) but the Prakrit works that have survived are of doubtful authenticity. Some of the canonical fragments of the early Buddhist traditions, discovered in the 20th century, suggest the early Buddhist traditions used an imperfect and reasonably good Sanskrit, sometimes with a Pali syntax, states Renou. The [Mahāsāṃghika](Mahāsāṃghika) and Mahavastu, in their late Hinayana forms, used hybrid Sanskrit for their literature. Sanskrit was also the language of some of the oldest surviving, authoritative and much followed philosophical works of Jainism such as the *Tattvartha Sutra* by [Umaswati](Umaswati). }}
[[File:2nd-century CE Sanskrit, Kizil China, Spitzer Manuscript folio 383 fragment recto and verso.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25 |left| The [Manuscript](Spitzer)(Spitzer Manuscript) is dated to about the 2nd century CE (above: folio 383 fragment). Discovered in the [Caves](Kizil)(Kizil Caves), near the northern branch of the Central Asian [Route](Silk)(Silk Route) in northwest [China](China), it is the oldest Sanskrit philosophical manuscript known so far.Eli Franco (2004), *The Spitzer Manuscript: The Oldest Philosophical Manuscript in Sanskrit*, Volume 1 & 2, Verlag Der Österreichischen Akademie Der Wissenschaften (Austrian Academy of Sciences Press), , pp. 461–465]]
The Sanskrit language has been one of the major means for the transmission of knowledge and ideas in Asian history. Indian texts in Sanskrit were already in China by 402 CE, carried by the influential Buddhist pilgrim [Faxian](Faxian) who translated them into Chinese by 418 CE. [Xuanzang](Xuanzang), another Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, learnt Sanskrit in India and carried 657 Sanskrit texts to China in the 7th century where he established a major center of learning and language translation under the patronage of Emperor Taizong. By the early 1st millennium CE, Sanskrit had spread Buddhist and Hindu ideas to [Asia](Southeast)(Southeast Asia), parts of the [Asia](East)(East Asia) and the [Asia](Central)(Central Asia). It was accepted as a language of high culture and the preferred language by some of the local ruling elites in these regions. According to the [Lama](Dalai)(Dalai Lama), the Sanskrit language is a parent language that is at the foundation of many modern languages of India and the one that promoted Indian thought to other distant countries. In Tibetan Buddhism, states the Dalai Lama, Sanskrit language has been a revered one and called *legjar lhai-ka* or "elegant language of the gods". It has been the means of transmitting the "profound wisdom of Buddhist philosophy" to Tibet.
[[File:One of earliest Sanskrit inscriptions in Java Indonesia.jpg|upright=1.4|thumb|A 5th-century [inscription](Sanskrit)(Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world) discovered in [Java](Java), [Indonesia](Indonesia)—one of the earliest in southeast Asia after the [inscription](Mulavarman)(Yūpa#Yūpa inscription in Indonesia) discovered in [Kutai](Kutai), eastern [Borneo](Borneo). The [inscription](Ciaruteun)(Ciaruteun inscription) combines two writing scripts and compares the king to the Hindu god [Vishnu](Vishnu). It provides a *[ad quem](terminus)(terminus ad quem)* to the presence of Hinduism in the Indonesian islands. The oldest southeast Asian Sanskrit inscription—called the [Canh inscription](Vo)(Võ Cạnh inscription)—so far discovered is near [Trang](Nha)(Nha Trang), [Vietnam](Vietnam), and it is dated to the late 4th century to early 5th century CE.]]
The Sanskrit language created a pan-Indo-Aryan accessibility to information and knowledge in the ancient and medieval times, in contrast to the Prakrit languages which were understood just regionally. It created a cultural bond across the subcontinent. As local languages and dialects evolved and diversified, Sanskrit served as the common language. It connected scholars from distant parts of South Asia such as Tamil Nadu and Kashmir, states Deshpande, as well as those from different fields of studies, though there must have been differences in its pronunciation given the first language of the respective speakers. The Sanskrit language brought Indo-Aryan speaking people together, particularly its elite scholars. Some of these scholars of Indian history regionally produced vernacularized Sanskrit to reach wider audiences, as evidenced by texts discovered in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. Once the audience became familiar with the easier to understand vernacularized version of Sanskrit, those interested could graduate from colloquial Sanskrit to the more advanced Classical Sanskrit. Rituals and the rites-of-passage ceremonies have been and continue to be the other occasions where a wide spectrum of people hear Sanskrit, and occasionally join in to speak some Sanskrit words such as .
Classical Sanskrit is the standard [register](Register (sociolinguistics)) as laid out in the grammar of , around the fourth century BCE. Its position in the cultures of [India](Greater)(Greater India) is akin to that of [Latin](Latin) and [Greek](Ancient)(Ancient Greek) in Europe. Sanskrit has significantly influenced most modern languages of the [subcontinent](Indian)(Indian subcontinent), particularly the languages of the northern, western, central and eastern Indian subcontinent.
### Decline
Sanskrit declined starting about and after the 13th century. This coincides with the beginning of Islamic invasions of South Asia to create, and thereafter expand the Muslim rule in the form of Sultanates, and later the [Empire](Mughal)(Mughal Empire). Sheldon Pollock characterises the decline of Sanskrit as a long-term "cultural, social, and political change". He dismisses the idea that Sanskrit declined due to "struggle with barbarous invaders", and emphasises factors such as the increasing attractiveness of vernacular language for literary expression.
With the fall of Kashmir around the 13th century, a premier center of Sanskrit literary creativity, Sanskrit literature there disappeared, perhaps in the "fires that periodically engulfed the capital of Kashmir" or the "Mongol invasion of 1320" states Pollock. The Sanskrit literature which was once widely disseminated out of the northwest regions of the subcontinent, stopped after the 12th century. As Hindu kingdoms fell in the eastern and the South India, such as the great [Empire](Vijayanagara)(Vijayanagara Empire), so did Sanskrit. There were exceptions and short periods of imperial support for Sanskrit, mostly concentrated during the reign of the tolerant Mughal emperor [Akbar](Akbar). Muslim rulers patronized the Middle Eastern language and scripts found in Persia and Arabia, and the Indians linguistically adapted to this Persianization to gain employment with the Muslim rulers. Hindu rulers such as Shivaji of the [Empire](Maratha)(Maratha Empire), reversed the process, by re-adopting Sanskrit and re-asserting their socio-linguistic identity. After Islamic rule disintegrated in South Asia and the colonial rule era began, Sanskrit re-emerged but in the form of a "ghostly existence" in regions such as Bengal. This decline was the result of "political institutions and civic ethos" that did not support the historic Sanskrit literary culture.
Scholars are divided on whether or when Sanskrit died. Western authors such as John Snelling state that Sanskrit and Pali are both dead Indian languages. Indian authors such as M Ramakrishnan Nair state that Sanskrit was a dead language by the 1st millennium BCE. [Pollock](Sheldon)(Sheldon Pollock) states that in some crucial way, "Sanskrit is [dead](language death)". After the 12th century, the Sanskrit literary works were reduced to "reinscription and restatements" of ideas already explored, and any creativity was restricted to hymns and verses. This contrasted with the previous 1,500 years when "great experiments in moral and aesthetic imagination" marked the Indian scholarship using Classical Sanskrit, states Pollock.
Other scholars state that the Sanskrit language did not die, only declined. Hanneder disagrees with Pollock, finding his arguments elegant but "often arbitrary". According to Hanneder, a decline or regional absence of creative and innovative literature constitutes a negative evidence to Pollock's hypothesis, but it is not positive evidence. A closer look at Sanskrit in the Indian history after the 12th century suggests that Sanskrit survived despite the odds. According to Hanneder,
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The Sanskrit language scholar [Winternitz](Moriz)(Moriz Winternitz) states, Sanskrit was never a dead language and it is still alive though its prevalence is lesser than ancient and medieval times. Sanskrit remains an integral part of Hindu journals, festivals, Ramlila plays, drama, rituals and the rites-of-passage. Similarly, Brian Hatcher states that the "metaphors of historical rupture" by Pollock are not valid, that there is ample proof that Sanskrit was very much alive in the narrow confines of surviving Hindu kingdoms between the 13th and 18th centuries, and its reverence and tradition continues.
Hanneder states that modern works in Sanskrit are either ignored or their "modernity" contested.
According to Robert Goldman and Sally Sutherland, Sanskrit is neither "dead" nor "living" in the conventional sense. It is a special, timeless language that lives in the numerous manuscripts, daily chants, and ceremonial recitations, a *heritage language* that Indians contextually prize, and which some practice.
When the British introduced English to India in the 19th century, knowledge of Sanskrit and ancient literature continued to flourish as the study of Sanskrit changed from a more traditional style into a form of analytical and comparative scholarship mirroring that of Europe.
### Modern Indo-Aryan languages
The relationship of Sanskrit to the Prakrit languages, particularly the modern form of Indian languages, is complex and spans about 3,500 years, states [Masica](Colin)(Colin Masica)—a linguist specializing in South Asian languages. A part of the difficulty is the lack of sufficient textual, archaeological and epigraphical evidence for the ancient Prakrit languages with rare exceptions such as Pali, leading to a tendency of [anachronistic](anachronism) errors. Sanskrit and Prakrit languages may be divided into Old Indo-Aryan (1500 BCE–600 BCE), Middle Indo-Aryan (600 BCE–1000 CE) and New Indo-Aryan (1000 CE–present), each can further be subdivided into early, middle or second, and late evolutionary substages.
Vedic Sanskrit belongs to the early Old Indo-Aryan stage, while Classical Sanskrit to the later Old Indo-Aryan stage. The evidence for Prakrits such as Pali (Theravada Buddhism) and Ardhamagadhi (Jainism), along with Magadhi, Maharashtri, Sinhala, Sauraseni and Niya (Gandhari), emerge in the Middle Indo-Aryan stage in two versions—archaic and more formalized—that may be placed in early and middle substages of the 600 BCE–1000 CE period. Two literary Indo-Aryan languages can be traced to the late Middle Indo-Aryan stage and these are *Apabhramsa* and *Elu* (a literary form of [Sinhalese](Sinhala language)). Numerous North, Central, Eastern and Western Indian languages, such as Hindi, Gujarati, Sindhi, Punjabi, Kashmiri, Nepali, Braj, Awadhi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Marathi, and others belong to the New Indo-Aryan stage.
There is an extensive overlap in the vocabulary, phonetics and other aspects of these New Indo-Aryan languages with Sanskrit, but it is neither universal nor identical across the languages. They likely emerged from a synthesis of the ancient Sanskrit language traditions and an admixture of various regional dialects. Each language has some unique and regionally creative aspects, with unclear origins. Prakrit languages do have a grammatical structure, but like Vedic Sanskrit, it is far less rigorous than Classical Sanskrit. While the roots of all Prakrit languages may be in Vedic Sanskrit and ultimately the Proto-Indo-Aryan language, their structural details vary from Classical Sanskrit. It is generally accepted by scholars and widely believed in India that the modern [languages](Indo-Aryan)(Indo-Aryan languages) – such as Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, and Punjabi – are descendants of the Sanskrit language. Sanskrit, states Burjor Avari, can be described as "the mother language of almost all the languages of north India".
## Geographic distribution
[[distribution of Sanskrit language presence, texts and inscriptions dated between 300 and 1800 CE.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Sanskrit language's historical presence has been attested in many countries. The evidence includes manuscript pages and inscriptions discovered in South Asia, Southeast Asia and Central Asia. These have been dated between 300 and 1800 CE.](File:Global)]
The Sanskrit language's historic presence is attested across a wide geography beyond South Asia. Inscriptions and literary evidence suggests that Sanskrit language was already being adopted in Southeast Asia and Central Asia in the 1st millennium CE, through monks, religious pilgrims and merchants.
South Asia has been the geographic range of the largest collection of the ancient and pre-18th-century Sanskrit manuscripts and inscriptions. Beyond ancient India, significant collections of Sanskrit manuscripts and inscriptions have been found in China (particularly the Tibetan monasteries), [Myanmar](Myanmar), [Indonesia](Indonesia), [Cambodia](Cambodia), [Laos](Laos), [Vietnam](Vietnam), [Thailand](Thailand), and [Malaysia](Malaysia). Sanskrit inscriptions, manuscripts or its remnants, including some of the oldest known Sanskrit written texts, have been discovered in dry high deserts and mountainous terrains such as in Nepal, Tibet, Afghanistan, Mongolia, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Kazakhstan. Some Sanskrit texts and inscriptions have also been discovered in Korea and Japan.
### Official status
In [India](India), Sanskrit is among the 22 official languages of India in [Eighth Schedule to the Constitution](the)(Languages with official status in India#Eighth Schedule to the Constitution). In 2010, [Uttarakhand](Uttarakhand) became the first state in India to make Sanskrit its second official language. In 2019, [Pradesh](Himachal)(Himachal Pradesh) made Sanskrit its second official language, becoming the second state in India to do so.
## Phonology
Sanskrit shares many Proto-Indo-European phonological features, although it features a larger inventory of distinct phonemes. The consonantal system is the same, though it systematically enlarged the inventory of distinct sounds. For example, Sanskrit added a voiceless aspirated "tʰ", to the voiceless "t", voiced "d" and voiced aspirated "dʰ" found in PIE languages.
The most significant and distinctive phonological development in Sanskrit is vowel merger. The short **e*, **o* and **a*, all merge as *a* (अ) in Sanskrit, while long **ē*, **ō* and **ā*, all merge as long *ā* (आ). Compare Sanskrit *nāman* to Latin *nōmen*. These mergers occurred very early and significantly impacted Sanskrit's morphological system. Some phonological developments in it mirror those in other PIE languages. For example, the labiovelars merged with the plain velars as in other satem languages. The secondary palatalization of the resulting segments is more thorough and systematic within Sanskrit. A series of retroflex dental stops were innovated in Sanskrit to more thoroughly articulate sounds for clarity. For example, unlike the loss of the morphological clarity from vowel contraction that is found in early Greek and related southeast European languages, Sanskrit deployed **y*, **w*, and **s* intervocalically to provide morphological clarity.
### Vowels
The cardinal vowels (*svaras*) *i* (इ), *u* (उ), *a* (अ) distinguish length in Sanskrit. The short *a* (अ) in Sanskrit is a closer vowel than ā, equivalent to schwa. The mid vowels ē (ए) and ō (ओ) in Sanskrit are monophthongizations of the Indo-Iranian diphthongs **ai* and **au*. The Old Iranian language preserved **ai* and **au*. The Sanskrit vowels are inherently long, though often transcribed *e* and *o* without the diacritic. The vocalic liquid *r̥* in Sanskrit is a merger of PIE **r̥* and **l̥*. The long *r̥* is an innovation and it is used in a few analogically generated morphological categories.
According to Masica, Sanskrit has four traditional semivowels, with which were classed, "for morphophonemic reasons, the liquids: y, r, l, and v; that is, as y and v were the non-syllabics corresponding to i, u, so were r, l in relation to r̥ and l̥". The northwestern, the central and the eastern Sanskrit dialects have had a historic confusion between "r" and "l". The Paninian system that followed the central dialect preserved the distinction, likely out of reverence for the Vedic Sanskrit that distinguished the "r" and "l". However, the northwestern dialect only had "r", while the eastern dialect probably only had "l", states Masica. Thus literary works from different parts of ancient India appear inconsistent in their use of "r" and "l", resulting in doublets that are occasionally semantically differentiated.
### Consonants
Sanskrit possesses a symmetric consonantal phoneme structure based on how the sound is articulated, though the actual usage of these sounds conceals the lack of parallelism in the apparent symmetry possibly from historical changes within the language.
Sanskrit had a series of retroflex stops originating as conditioned alternants of dentals, albeit by Sanskrit they had become phonemic.
Regarding the palatal plosives, the pronunciation is a matter of debate. In contemporary attestation, the palatal plosives are a regular series of palatal stops, supported by most Sanskrit sandhi rules. However, the reflexes in descendant languages, as well as a few of the sandhi rules regarding *ch*, could suggest an affricate pronunciation.
*jh* was a marginal phoneme in Sanskrit, hence its phonology is more difficult to reconstruct; it was more commonly employed in the Middle Indo-Aryan languages as a result of phonological processes resulting in the phoneme.
The palatal nasal is a conditioned variant of n occurring next to palatal obstruents. The *anusvara* that Sanskrit deploys is a conditioned alternant of postvocalic nasals, under certain sandhi conditions. Its *visarga* is a word-final or morpheme-final conditioned alternant of s and r under certain sandhi conditions.
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The voiceless aspirated series is also an innovation in Sanskrit but is significantly rarer than the other three series.
While the Sanskrit language organizes sounds for expression beyond those found in the PIE language, it retained many features found in the Iranian and Balto-Slavic languages. An example of a similar process in all three is the retroflex sibilant ʂ being the automatic product of dental s [i, u, r, and k](following)(Ruki sound law).
### Phonological alternations, sandhi rules
Sanskrit deploys extensive phonological alternations on different linguistic levels through *sandhi* rules (literally, the rules of "putting together, union, connection, alliance"), similar to the English alteration of "going to" as *gonna*. The Sanskrit language accepts such alterations within it, but offers formal rules for the *sandhi* of any two words next to each other in the same sentence or linking two sentences. The external *sandhi* rules state that similar short vowels coalesce into a single long vowel, while dissimilar vowels form glides or undergo diphthongization. Among the consonants, most external *sandhi* rules recommend regressive assimilation for clarity when they are voiced. These rules ordinarily apply at compound seams and morpheme boundaries. In Vedic Sanskrit, the external *sandhi* rules are more variable than in Classical Sanskrit.
The internal *sandhi* rules are more intricate and account for the root and the canonical structure of the Sanskrit word. These rules anticipate what are now known as the [law](Bartholomae's)(Bartholomae's law) and [law](Grassmann's)(Grassmann's law). For example, states Jamison, the "voiceless, voiced, and voiced aspirated obstruents of a positional series regularly alternate with each other (*p* ≈ *b* ≈ *bh*; *t* ≈ *d* ≈ *dh*, etc.; note, however, *c* ≈ *j* ≈ ***h***), such that, for example, a morpheme with an underlying voiced aspirate final may show alternants with all three stops under differing internal sandhi conditions". The velar series (k, g, gʰ) alternate with the palatal series (c, j, h), while the structural position of the palatal series is modified into a retroflex cluster when followed by dental. This rule creates two morphophonemically distinct series from a single palatal series.
Vocalic alternations in the Sanskrit morphological system is termed "strengthening", and called *guṇa* and in the preconsonantal versions. There is an equivalence to terms deployed in Indo-European descriptive grammars, wherein Sanskrit's unstrengthened state is same as the zero-grade, *guṇa* corresponds to normal-grade, while is same as the lengthened-state. The qualitative ablaut is not found in Sanskrit just like it is absent in Iranian, but Sanskrit retains quantitative ablaut through vowel strengthening. The transformations between unstrengthened to *guṇa* is prominent in the morphological system, states Jamison, while is a particularly significant rule when adjectives of origin and appurtenance are derived. The manner in which this is done slightly differs between the Vedic and the Classical Sanskrit.
Sanskrit grants a very flexible syllable structure, where they may begin or end with vowels, be single consonants or clusters. Similarly, the syllable may have an internal vowel of any weight. Vedic Sanskrit shows traces of following the [law](Sievers–Edgerton)(Sievers' law), but Classical Sanskrit does not. Vedic Sanskrit has a pitch accent system (inherited from Proto-Indo-European) which was acknowledged by Pāṇini, states Jamison; but in his Classical Sanskrit the accents disappear. Most Vedic Sanskrit words have one accent. However, this accent is not phonologically predictable, states Jamison. It can fall anywhere in the word and its position often conveys morphological and syntactic information. The presence of an accent system in Vedic Sanskrit is evidenced from the markings in the Vedic texts. This is important because of Sanskrit's connection to the PIE languages and comparative Indo-European linguistics.
Sanskrit, like most early Indo-European languages, lost the so-called "laryngeal consonants (cover-symbol **H*) present in the Proto-Indo-European", states Jamison. This significantly impacted the evolutionary path of the Sanskrit phonology and morphology, particularly in the variant forms of roots.
### Pronunciation
Because Sanskrit is not anyone's native language, it does not have a fixed pronunciation. People tend to pronounce it as they do their native language. The articles on [Hindustani](Hindustani phonology), [Marathi](Marathi phonology), [Nepali](Nepali phonology), [Oriya](Oriya phonology) and [phonology](Bengali)(Bengali phonology) will give some indication of the variation that is encountered. When Sanskrit was a spoken language, its pronunciation varied regionally and also over time. Nonetheless, Panini described the sound system of Sanskrit well enough that people have a fairly good idea of what he intended.
## Morphology
The basis of Sanskrit morphology is the root, states Jamison, "a morpheme bearing lexical meaning". The verbal and nominal stems of Sanskrit words are derived from this root through the phonological vowel-gradation processes, the addition of affixes, verbal and nominal stems. It then adds an ending to establish the grammatical and syntactic identity of the stem. According to Jamison, the "three major formal elements of the morphology are (i) root, (ii) affix, and (iii) ending; and they are roughly responsible for (i) lexical meaning, (ii) derivation, and (iii) inflection respectively".
A Sanskrit word has the following canonical structure:
:*Root* + *Affix* + *Ending*
The root structure has certain phonological constraints. Two of the most important constraints of a "root" is that it does not end in a short "a" (अ) and that it is monosyllabic. In contrast, the affixes and endings commonly do. The affixes in Sanskrit are almost always suffixes, with exceptions such as the augment "a-" added as prefix to past tense verb forms and the "-na/n-" infix in single verbal present class, states Jamison.
[verbs](Sanskrit)(Sanskrit verbs) have the following canonical structure:
:*Root* + *Suffix* + *Suffix* + *Ending*
According to Ruppel, verbs in Sanskrit express the same information as other Indo-European languages such as English. Sanskrit verbs describe an action or occurrence or state, its embedded morphology informs as to "who is doing it" (person or persons), "when it is done" (tense) and "how it is done" (mood, voice). The Indo-European languages differ in the detail. For example, the Sanskrit language attaches the affixes and ending to the verb root, while the English language adds small independent words before the verb. In Sanskrit, these elements co-exist within the word.}}
Both verbs and nouns in Sanskrit are either thematic or athematic, states Jamison. *Guna* (strengthened) forms in the active singular regularly alternate in athematic verbs. The finite verbs of Classical Sanskrit have the following grammatical categories: person, number, voice, tense-aspect, and mood. According to Jamison, a portmanteau morpheme generally expresses the person-number-voice in Sanskrit, and sometimes also the ending or only the ending. The mood of the word is embedded in the affix.
These elements of word architecture are the typical building blocks in Classical Sanskrit, but in Vedic Sanskrit these elements fluctuate and are unclear. For example, in the *Rigveda* [preverb](preverb)s regularly occur in [tmesis](tmesis), states Jamison, which means they are "separated from the finite verb". This indecisiveness is likely linked to Vedic Sanskrit's attempt to incorporate accent. With nonfinite forms of the verb and with nominal derivatives thereof, states Jamison, "preverbs show much clearer univerbation in Vedic, both by position and by accent, and by Classical Sanskrit, tmesis is no longer possible even with finite forms".
While roots are typical in Sanskrit, some words do not follow the canonical structure. A few forms lack both inflection and root. Many words are inflected (and can enter into derivation) but lack a recognizable root. Examples from the basic vocabulary include kinship terms such as *mātar-* (mother), *nas-* (nose), *śvan-* (dog). According to Jamison, pronouns and some words outside the semantic categories also lack roots, as do the numerals. Similarly, the Sanskrit language is flexible enough to not mandate inflection.
The Sanskrit words can contain more than one affix that interact with each other. Affixes in Sanskrit can be athematic as well as thematic, according to Jamison. Athematic affixes can be alternating. Sanskrit deploys eight cases, namely nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative, vocative.
Stems, that is "root + affix", appear in two categories in Sanskrit: vowel stems and consonant stems. Unlike some Indo-European languages such as Latin or Greek, according to Jamison, "Sanskrit has no closed set of conventionally denoted noun declensions". Sanskrit includes a fairly large set of stem-types. The linguistic interaction of the roots, the phonological segments, lexical items and the grammar for the Classical Sanskrit consist of four Paninian components. These, states Paul Kiparsky, are the *Astadhyaayi*, a comprehensive system of 4,000 grammatical rules, of which a small set are frequently used; *Sivasutras*, an inventory of *anubandhas* (markers) that partition phonological segments for efficient abbreviations through the *pratyharas* technique; *Dhatupatha*, a list of 2,000 verbal roots classified by their morphology and syntactic properties using diacritic markers, a structure that guides its writing systems; and, the *Ganapatha*, an inventory of word groups, classes of lexical systems. There are peripheral adjuncts to these four, such as the *Unadisutras*, which focus on irregularly formed derivatives from the roots.
Sanskrit morphology is generally studied in two broad fundamental categories: the nominal forms and the verbal forms. These differ in the types of endings and what these endings mark in the grammatical context. Pronouns and nouns share the same grammatical categories, though they may differ in inflection. Verb-based adjectives and participles are not formally distinct from nouns. Adverbs are typically frozen case forms of adjectives, states Jamison, and "nonfinite verbal forms such as infinitives and gerunds also clearly show frozen nominal case endings".
### Tense and voice
The Sanskrit language includes five tenses: present, future, past imperfect, past [aorist](aorist) and past perfect. It outlines three types of voices: active, passive and the middle. The middle is also referred to as the mediopassive, or more formally in Sanskrit as (word for another) and (word for oneself).
The paradigm for the tense-aspect system in Sanskrit is the three-way contrast between the "present", the "aorist" and the "perfect" architecture. Vedic Sanskrit is more elaborate and had several additional tenses. For example, the *Rigveda* includes perfect and a marginal pluperfect. Classical Sanskrit simplifies the "present" system down to two tenses, the perfect and the imperfect, while the "aorist" stems retain the aorist tense and the "perfect" stems retain the perfect and marginal pluperfect. The classical version of the language has elaborate rules for both voice and the tense-aspect system to emphasize clarity, and this is more elaborate than in other Indo-European languages. The evolution of these systems can be seen from the earliest layers of the Vedic literature to the late Vedic literature.
### Number, person
Sanskrit recognizes three numbers—singular, dual, and plural. The dual is a fully functioning category, used beyond naturally paired objects such as hands or eyes, extending to any collection of two. The elliptical dual is notable in the Vedic Sanskrit, according to Jamison, where a noun in the dual signals a paired opposition. Illustrations include *dyāvā* (literally, "the two heavens" for heaven-and-earth), *mātarā* (literally, "the two mothers" for mother-and-father). A verb may be singular, dual or plural, while the person recognized in the language are forms of "I", "you", "he/she/it", "we" and "they".
There are three persons in Sanskrit: first, second and third. Sanskrit uses the 3×3 grid formed by the three numbers and the three persons parameters as the paradigm and the basic building block of its verbal system.
### Gender, mood
The Sanskrit language incorporates three genders: feminine, masculine and neuter. All nouns have inherent gender. With some exceptions, personal pronouns have no gender. Exceptions include demonstrative and anaphoric pronouns. Derivation of a word is used to express the feminine. Two most common derivations come from feminine-forming suffixes, the *-ā-* (आ, Rādhā) and *-ī-* (ई, Rukmīnī). The masculine and neuter are much simpler, and the difference between them is primarily inflectional. Similar affixes for the feminine are found in many Indo-European languages, states Burrow, suggesting links of the Sanskrit to its PIE heritage.
Pronouns in Sanskrit include the personal pronouns of the first and second persons, unmarked for gender, and a larger number of gender-distinguishing pronouns and adjectives. Examples of the former include *ahám* (first singular), *vayám* (first plural) and *yūyám* (second plural). The latter can be demonstrative, deictic or anaphoric. Both the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit share the *sá/tám* pronominal stem, and this is the closest element to a third person pronoun and an article in the Sanskrit language, states Jamison.
Indicative, potential and imperative are the three mood forms in Sanskrit.
### Prosody, metre
The Sanskrit language formally incorporates [metres](poetic)(Metre (poetry)). By the late Vedic era, this developed into a field of study; it was central to the composition of the Hindu literature, including the later Vedic texts. This study of Sanskrit prosody is called *[chandas](Sanskrit prosody)*, and is considered one of the six [Vedanga](Vedanga)s, or limbs of Vedic studies.James Lochtefeld (2002), "Chandas" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing, , p. 140
Sanskrit prosody includes linear and non-linear systems. The system started off with seven major metres, according to Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus, called the "seven birds" or "seven mouths of Brihaspati", and each had its own rhythm, movements and aesthetics wherein a non-linear structure (aperiodicity) was mapped into a four verse polymorphic linear sequence. A syllable in Sanskrit is classified as either *laghu* (light) or *guru* (heavy). This classification is based on a *matra* (literally, "count, measure, duration"), and typically a syllable that ends in a short vowel is a light syllable, while those that end in consonant, *anusvara* or *visarga* are heavy. The classical Sanskrit found in Hindu scriptures such as the *[Gita](Bhagavad)(Bhagavad Gita)* and many texts are so arranged that the light and heavy syllables in them follow a rhythm, though not necessarily a rhyme.}}
Sanskrit metres include those based on a fixed number of syllables per verse, and those based on fixed number of [morae](morae) per verse. The Vedic Sanskrit employs fifteen metres, of which seven are common, and the most frequent are three (8-, 11- and 12-syllable lines). The Classical Sanskrit deploys both linear and non-linear metres, many of which are based on syllables and others based on diligently crafted verses based on repeating numbers of morae (matra per foot).
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Metre and rhythm is an important part of the Sanskrit language. It may have played a role in helping preserve the integrity of the message and Sanskrit texts. The verse perfection in the Vedic texts such as the verse [Upanishads](Upanishads) and post-Vedic *[Smṛti](Smṛti)* texts are rich in prosody. This feature of the Sanskrit language led some Indologists from the 19th century onwards to identify suspected portions of texts where a line or sections are off the expected metre.}}
The metre-feature of the Sanskrit language embeds another layer of communication to the listener or reader. A change in metres has been a tool of literary architecture and an embedded code to inform the reciter and audience that it marks the end of a section or chapter. Each section or chapter of these texts uses identical metres, rhythmically presenting their ideas and making it easier to remember, recall and check for accuracy. Authors coded a hymn's end by frequently using a verse of a metre different from that used in the hymn's body. However, Hindu tradition does not use the [metre](Gayatri)(Vedic metre) to end a hymn or composition, possibly because it has enjoyed a special level of reverence in Hinduism.
## Writing system
[[File:828 CE Sanskrit manuscript page, Gupta script, Nepal, Pārameśvaratantra (MS Add.1049.1).jpg|thumb|One of the oldest surviving Sanskrit manuscript pages in Gupta script (), discovered in [Nepal](Nepal)]]
The early history of writing Sanskrit and other languages in ancient India is a problematic topic despite a century of scholarship, states [Salomon](Richard)(Richard G. Salomon (professor of Asian studies)) – an epigraphist and Indologist specializing in Sanskrit and Pali literature. The earliest possible script from South Asia is from the [Valley civilization](Indus)(Indus Valley civilization) (3rd/2nd millennium BCE), but this script – if it is a script – remains undeciphered. If any scripts existed in the Vedic period, they have not survived. Scholars generally accept that Sanskrit was spoken in an oral society, and that an [tradition](oral)(oral tradition) preserved the extensive Vedic and Classical Sanskrit literature. Other scholars such as Jack Goody argue that the Vedic Sanskrit texts are not the product of an oral society, basing this view by comparing inconsistencies in the transmitted versions of literature from various oral societies such as the Greek, Serbian, and other cultures. This minority of scholars argue that the Vedic literature is too consistent and vast to have been composed and transmitted orally across generations, without being written down.
*[Lipi](Lipi (script))* is the term in Sanskrit which means "writing, letters, alphabet". It contextually refers to scripts, the art or any manner of writing or drawing. The term, in the sense of a writing system, appears in some of the earliest Buddhist, Hindu, and Jaina texts. [Pāṇini](Pāṇini)'s *Astadhyayi*, composed sometime around the 5th or 4th century BCE, for example, mentions *lipi* in the context of a writing script and education system in his times, but he does not name the script.; Several early Buddhist and Jaina texts, such as the *[Sūtra](Lalitavistara)(Lalitavistara Sūtra)* and *Pannavana Sutta* include lists of numerous writing scripts in ancient India.}} The Buddhist texts list the sixty four *lipi* that the Buddha knew as a child, with the Brahmi script topping the list. "The historical value of this list is however limited by several factors", states Salomon. The list may be a later interpolation.}} The [Jain](Jainism) canonical texts such as the *Pannavana Sutta* – probably older than the Buddhist texts – list eighteen writing systems, with the Brahmi topping the list and Kharotthi (Kharoshthi) listed as fourth. The Jaina text elsewhere states that the "Brahmi is written in 18 different forms", but the details are lacking. However, the reliability of these lists has been questioned and the empirical evidence of writing systems in the form of Sanskrit or Prakrit inscriptions dated prior to the 3rd century BCE has not been found. If the ancient surface for writing Sanskrit was palm leaves, tree bark and cloth—the same as those in later times, these have not survived.}} According to Salomon, many find it difficult to explain the "evidently high level of political organization and cultural complexity" of ancient India without a writing system for Sanskrit and other languages. }}
The oldest datable writing systems for Sanskrit are the [script](Brāhmī)(Brahmi script), the related [script](Kharoṣṭhī)(Kharosthi) and the Brahmi derivatives. The Kharosthi was used in the northwestern part of South Asia and it became extinct, while the Brahmi was used all over the subcontinent along with regional scripts such as Old Tamil. Of these, the earliest records in the Sanskrit language are in Brahmi, a script that later evolved into numerous related Indic scripts for Sanskrit, along with Southeast Asian scripts (Burmese, Thai, Lao, Khmer, others) and many extinct Central Asian scripts such as those discovered along with the Kharosthi in the Tarim Basin of western China and in [Uzbekistan](Uzbekistan). The most extensive inscriptions that have survived into the modern era are the rock edicts and pillar inscriptions of the 3rd century BCE Mauryan emperor [Ashoka](Ashoka), but these are not in Sanskrit.}}
### Scripts
Over the centuries, and across countries, a number of scripts have been used to write Sanskrit.
#### Brahmi script
[[File:Hathibada Brahmi Inscription at Nagari, Hinduism Sanskrit India.jpg|thumb|260px|upright=1.28|One of the oldest Hindu Sanskrit}} inscriptions, the broken pieces of this early-1st-century BCE [Brahmi Inscription](Hathibada)(Hathibada Ghosundi Inscriptions) were discovered in Rajasthan. It is a dedication to deities [Vāsudeva](Vāsudeva)-[Samkarshana](Samkarshana) ([Krishna](Krishna)-[Balarama](Balarama)) and mentions a stone temple.]]
The Brahmi script for writing Sanskrit is a "modified consonant-syllabic" script. The graphic syllable is its basic unit, and this consists of a consonant with or without diacritic modifications. Since the vowel is an integral part of the consonants, and given the efficiently compacted, fused consonant cluster morphology for Sanskrit words and grammar, the Brahmi and its derivative writing systems deploy ligatures, diacritics and relative positioning of the vowel to inform the reader how the vowel is related to the consonant and how it is expected to be pronounced for clarity.}} This feature of Brahmi and its modern Indic script derivatives makes it difficult to classify it under the main script types used for the writing systems for most of the world's languages, namely logographic, syllabic and alphabetic.
The Brahmi script evolved into "a vast number of forms and derivatives", states Richard Salomon, and in theory, Sanskrit "can be represented in virtually any of the main Brahmi-based scripts and in practice it often is". From the ancient times, it has been written in numerous regional scripts in South and Southeast Asia. Most of these are descendants of the Brahmi script. }} The earliest datable *varnamala* Brahmi alphabet system, found in later Sanskrit texts, is from the 2nd century BCE, [the form of a terracotta plaque](in)(:File:Child learning Brahmi Alphabets, Shunga era 2nd Century BCE, National Museum, New Delhi.jpg) found in [Sughana](Sughana), [Haryana](Haryana). It shows a "schoolboy's writing lessons", states Salomon.
#### Nagari script
Many modern era manuscripts are written and available in the Nagari script, whose form is attestable to the 1st millennium CE. The Nagari script is the ancestor of [Devanagari](Devanagari) (north India), [Nandinagari](Nandinagari) (south India) and other variants. The Nāgarī script was in regular use by 7th century CE, and had fully evolved into Devanagari and Nandinagari scripts by about the end of the first millennium of the common era. The Devanagari script, states Banerji, became more popular for Sanskrit in India since about the 18th century. However, Sanskrit does have special historical connection to the Nagari script as attested by the epigraphical evidence.
The Nagari script has been thought of as a northern Indic script for Sanskrit as well as the regional languages such as Hindi, Marathi, and Nepali. However, it has had a "supra-local" status as evidenced by 1st-millennium CE epigraphy and manuscripts discovered all over India and as far as Sri Lanka, Burma, Indonesia, and in its parent form, called the Siddhamatrka script, found in manuscripts of East Asia. The Sanskrit and Balinese languages [Sanur](Sanur, Bali) inscription on [pillar](Belanjong)(Belanjong pillar) of Bali (Indonesia), dated to about 914 CE, is in part in the Nagari script.
The Nagari script used for Classical Sanskrit has the fullest repertoire of characters consisting of fourteen vowels and thirty three consonants. For Vedic Sanskrit, it has two more allophonic consonantal characters (the intervocalic ळ *ḷa*, and ळ्ह *ḷha*). To communicate phonetic accuracy, it also includes several modifiers such as the *anusvara* dot and the *visarga* double dot, punctuation symbols and others such as the *halanta* sign.
#### Other writing systems
[[File:Phrase sanskrit.svg|thumb|260px|upright=1.35|Sanskrit in modern Indian and other Brahmi scripts: *May [Śiva](Shiva) bless those who take delight in the language of the gods.* ([Kālidāsa](Kālidāsa))]]
Other scripts such as [Gujarati](Gujarati alphabet), [Bangla](Bengali alphabet), [Odia](Odia alphabet) and major south Indian scripts, states Salomon, "have been and often still are used in their proper territories for writing Sanskrit". These and many Indian scripts look different to the untrained eye, but the differences between Indic scripts is "mostly superficial and they share the same phonetic repertoire and systemic features", states Salomon. They all have essentially the same set of eleven to fourteen vowels and thirty-three consonants as established by the Sanskrit language and attestable in the Brahmi script. Further, a closer examination reveals that they all have the similar basic graphic principles, the same *varnamala* (literally, "garland of letters") alphabetic ordering following the same logical phonetic order, easing the work of historic skilled scribes writing or reproducing Sanskrit works across South Asia. }} The Sanskrit language written in some Indic scripts exaggerate angles or round shapes, but this serves only to mask the underlying similarities. Nagari script favours symmetry set with squared outlines and right angles. In contrast, Sanskrit written in the Bangla script emphasizes the acute angles while the neighbouring Odia script emphasizes rounded shapes and uses cosmetically appealing "umbrella-like curves" above the script symbols.
[[File:Mandakapattu Inscription.jpg|thumb|260px|left|One of the earliest known Sanskrit inscriptions in Tamil Grantha script at a rock-cut Hindu Trimurti temple ([Mandakapattu](Mandagapattu Temple), c. 615 CE)]]
In the south, where [languages](Dravidian)(Dravidian languages) predominate, scripts used for Sanskrit include the [Kannada](Kannada alphabet), [Telugu](Telugu script), [Malayalam](Malayalam script) and [alphabet](Grantha)(Grantha alphabet)s.
### Transliteration schemes, Romanisation
Since the late 18th century, Sanskrit has been [transliterated](transliteration) using the [alphabet](Latin)(Latin alphabet). The system most commonly used today is the IAST ([Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration](International)(International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration)), which has been the academic standard since 1888. [ASCII](ASCII)-based transliteration schemes have also evolved because of difficulties representing Sanskrit characters in computer systems. These include [Harvard-Kyoto](Harvard-Kyoto) and [ITRANS](ITRANS), a transliteration scheme that is used widely on the Internet, especially in Usenet and in email, for considerations of speed of entry as well as rendering issues. With the wide availability of [Unicode](Unicode)-aware web browsers, IAST has become common online. It is also possible to type using an [keyboard](alphanumeric)(alphanumeric keyboard) and transliterate to Devanagari using software like Mac OS X's international support.
European scholars in the 19th century generally preferred Devanagari for the transcription and reproduction of whole texts and lengthy excerpts. However, references to individual words and names in texts composed in European Languages were usually represented with Roman transliteration. From the 20th century onwards, because of production costs, textual editions edited by Western scholars have mostly been in [Romanised](Romanised) transliteration.
### Epigraphy
The earliest known stone inscriptions in Sanskrit are in the Brahmi script from the first century BCE.}} }} These include the [Ayodhyā](Ayodhya Inscription of Dhana) (Uttar Pradesh) and [Hāthībādā-Ghosuṇḍī](Hathibada Ghosundi Inscriptions) (near [Chittorgarh](Chittorgarh), Rajasthan) inscriptions. Both of these, states Salomon, are "essentially standard" and "correct Sanskrit", with a few exceptions reflecting an "informal Sanskrit usage". Other important Hindu inscriptions dated to the 1st century BCE, in relatively accurate classical Sanskrit and Brahmi script are the [inscription](Yavanarajya)(Yavanarajya inscription) on a red sandstone slab and the long [inscription](Naneghat)(Naneghat#Nanaghat inscriptions) on the wall of a cave rest stop in the Western Ghats.
Besides these few examples from the 1st century BCE, the earliest Sanskrit and hybrid dialect inscriptions are found in Mathura ([Pradesh](Uttar)(Uttar Pradesh)). These date to the 1st and 2nd century CE, states Salomon, from the time of the [Indo-Scythian](Indo-Scythian) [Satraps](Northern)(Northern Satraps) and the subsequent [Empire](Kushan)(Kushan Empire). }} These are also in the [script](Brahmi)(Brahmi script). The earliest of these, states Salomon, are attributed to Ksatrapa [Sodasa](Sodasa) from the early years of 1st century CE. Of the Mathura inscriptions, the most significant is the [Well Inscription](Mora)(Mora Well Inscription). In a manner similar to the Hathibada inscription, the Mora well inscription is a dedicatory inscription and is linked to the cult of the [heroes](Vrishni)(Vrishni heroes): it mentions a stone shrine (temple), pratima ([murti](murti), images) and calls the five Vrishnis as *bhagavatam*. There are many other Mathura Sanskrit inscriptions in Brahmi script overlapping the era of Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps and early Kushanas. Other significant 1st-century inscriptions in reasonably good classical Sanskrit in the Brahmi script include the [Doorjamb Inscription](Vasu)(Vasu Doorjamb Inscription) and the [Temple inscription](Mountain)(Mountain Temple inscription). The early ones are related to the Brahmanical, except for the inscription from [Tila](Kankali)(Kankali Tila) which may be Jaina, but none are Buddhist.Inscription No 21 in A few of the later inscriptions from the 2nd century CE include Buddhist Sanskrit, while others are in "more or less" standard Sanskrit and related to the Brahmanical tradition.
In [Maharashtra](Maharashtra) and [Gujarat](Gujarat), Brahmi script Sanskrit inscriptions from the early centuries of the common era exist at the [Caves](Nasik)(Nasik Caves) site, near the Girnar mountain of Junagadh and elsewhere such as at [Kanakhera](Kanakerha inscription), [Kanheri](Kanheri Caves), and Gunda. The [inscription](Nasik)(Nasik inscription of Ushavadata) dates to the mid-1st century CE, is a fair approximation of standard Sanskrit and has hybrid features. The [rock inscription](Junagadh)(Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman) of [Satraps](Western)(Western Satraps) ruler [I](Rudradaman)(Rudradaman I) (, Gujarat) is the first long poetic-style inscription in "more or less" standard Sanskrit that has survived into the modern era. It represents a turning point in the history of Sanskrit epigraphy, states Salomon. }} Though no similar inscriptions are found for about two hundred years after the Rudradaman reign, it is important because its style is the prototype of the [eulogy-style](Prashasti) Sanskrit inscriptions found in the [Empire](Gupta)(Gupta Empire) era. These inscriptions are also in the Brahmi script.
The [Nagarjunakonda](Nagarjunakonda) inscriptions are the earliest known substantial South Indian Sanskrit inscriptions, probably from the late 3rd century or early 4th century CE, or both. These inscriptions are related to Buddhism and the [Shaivism](Shaivism) tradition of Hinduism. A few of these inscriptions from both traditions are verse-style in the classical Sanskrit language, while some such as the pillar inscription is written in prose and a hybridized Sanskrit language. An earlier hybrid Sanskrit inscription found on Amaravati slab is dated to the late 2nd century, while a few later ones include Sanskrit inscriptions along with Prakrit inscriptions related to Hinduism and Buddhism. After the 3rd century CE, Sanskrit inscriptions dominate and many have survived. Between the 4th and 7th centuries CE, south Indian inscriptions are exclusively in the Sanskrit language. }} In the eastern regions of South Asia, scholars report minor Sanskrit inscriptions from the 2nd century, these being fragments and scattered. The earliest substantial true Sanskrit language inscription of Susuniya ([Bengal](West)(West Bengal)) is dated to the 4th century. Elsewhere, such as Dehradun ([Uttarakhand](Uttarakhand)), inscriptions in more or less correct classical Sanskrit inscriptions are dated to the 3rd century.
According to Salomon, the 4th-century reign of [Samudragupta](Samudragupta) was the turning point when the classical Sanskrit language became established as the "epigraphic language par excellence" of the Indian world. These Sanskrit language inscriptions are either "donative" or "panegyric" records. Generally in accurate classical Sanskrit, they deploy a wide range of regional Indic writing systems extant at the time. They record the donation of a temple or stupa, images, land, monasteries, pilgrim's travel record, public infrastructure such as water reservoir and irrigation measures to prevent famine. Others praise the king or the donor in lofty poetic terms. The Sanskrit language of these inscriptions is written on stone, various metals, terracotta, wood, crystal, ivory, shell, and cloth. The Sanskrit language, particularly in bilingual form, re-emerged in the epigraphy of Hindu kingdoms such as the Vijayanagara, Yadavas, Hoysalas, Pandyas, and others that re-established themselves. Some Muslim rulers such as Adil Shah also issued Sanskrit language inscriptions recording the donation of a mosque. }}
The evidence of the use of the Sanskrit language in Indic writing systems appears in southeast Asia in the first half of the 1st millennium CE. A few of these in Vietnam are bilingual where both the Sanskrit and the local language is written in the Indian alphabet. Early Sanskrit language inscriptions in Indic writing systems are dated to the 4th century in Malaysia, 5th to 6th centuries in Thailand near [Thep](Si)(Si Thep (ancient city)) and the Sak River, early 5th century in [Kutai](Kutai) (known as the [inscription](Mulavarman)(Yūpa#Yūpa inscription in Indonesia) discovered in [Borneo](eastern)(East Kalimantan)), and mid-5th century in west [Java](Java) (Indonesia). Both major writing systems for Sanskrit, the North Indian and South Indian scripts, have been discovered in southeast Asia, but the Southern variety with its rounded shapes are far more common. The Indic scripts, particularly the [script](Pallava)(Pallava script) prototype, spread and ultimately evolved into Mon-Burmese, Khmer, Thai, Lao, Sumatran, Celebes, Javanese and Balinese scripts. From about the 5th century, Sanskrit inscriptions become common in many parts of South Asia and Southeast Asia, with significant discoveries in Nepal, Vietnam and Cambodia.
## Literature
Literature in Sanskrit can be broadly divided into texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit and the later Classical Sanskrit.Fortson, §10.23. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the extensive liturgical works of the Vedic religion, which aside from the four Vedas, include the Brāhmaṇas and the Sūtras.Keith, §1.Macdonnell, §1.Burrow, §2.9.
The Vedic literature that survives is entirely of a religious form, whereas works in Classical Sanskrit exist in a wide variety of fields including epics, lyric, drama, romance, fairytale, fables, grammar, civil and religious law, the science of politics and practical life, the science of love and sex, philosophy, medicine, astronomy, astrology and mathematics, and is largely secular in subject-matter.Iyengar, pp. xxx-xxxiii, p. 5.Macdonell, p. ix., §1
While Vedic literature is essentially optimistic in spirit, portraying man as strong and powerful capable of finding fulfilment both here and in the afterworld, the later literature is pessimistic, portraying humans as controlled by the forces of fate with worldly pleasures deemed the cause of misery. These fundamental differences in psychology are attributed to the absence of the doctrines of Karma and reincarnation in the Vedic period, notions which are very prevalent in later times.Iyengar, p. 5.
### Works
Sanskrit has been written in various scripts on a variety of media such as palm leaves, cloth, paper, rock and metal sheets, from ancient times.
## Lexicon
As an Indo-European language, Sanskrit's core [lexicon](lexicon) is inherited from Proto-Indo-European. Over time however, the language exhibits a tendency to shed many of these inherited words and borrow others in their place from other sources.
In the oldest Vedic literature, there are few such non-Indo-European words, but these progressively grow in volume.
The following are some of the old Indo-European words that eventually fade out of use in Sanskrit:
:
### Dravidian lexical influence
The sources of these new loanwords are many, and vary across the different regions of the [subcontinent](Indian)(Indian subcontinent). But of all influences on the lexicon of Sanskrit, the most important is Dravidian.
The following is a list of Dravidian entrants into Sanskrit lexicon, although some may have been contested:
:
### Nominal-form preference
While Vedic and epic form of speech is largely cognate to that of other [languages](Indo-European)(Indo-European languages) such as Greek and Latin, later Sanskrit shows a tendency to move away from using verbal forms to nominal ones. Examples of nominal forms taking the place of conventional conjugation are:
:
However the most notable development is the prolific use of word-compounding to express ideas normally conveyed by verbal forms and subclauses introduced by conjunctions.
Classical Sanskrit's pre-eminent playwright [Kālidāsa](Kālidāsa) uses:
:
## Influence on other languages
For nearly 2,000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across [Asia](South)(South Asia), [Asia](Inner)(Inner Asia), [Asia](Southeast)(Southeast Asia), and to a certain extent [Asia](East)(East Asia). A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of [epic poetry](Indian)(Indian epic poetry)—the *[Ramayana](Ramayana)* and *[Mahabharata](Mahabharata)*. The deviations from in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from [Prakrit](Prakrit)s, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations *ārṣa* (आर्ष), meaning 'of the [ṛṣis](rishi)', the traditional title for the ancient authors. In some contexts, there are also more "prakritisms" (borrowings from common speech) than in Classical Sanskrit proper. [Hybrid Sanskrit](Buddhist)(Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit) is a literary language heavily influenced by the [Indo-Aryan languages](Middle)(Middle Indo-Aryan languages), based on early Buddhist Prakrit texts which subsequently assimilated to the Classical Sanskrit standard in varying degrees.
### Indian subcontinent
Sanskrit has greatly influenced the languages of India that grew from its vocabulary and grammatical base; for instance, [Hindi](Standard Hindi) is a "Sanskritised register" of [Hindustani](Hindustani language). All modern [languages](Indo-Aryan)(Indo-Aryan languages), as well as [Munda](Munda languages) and [languages](Dravidian)(Dravidian languages) have borrowed many words either directly from Sanskrit (*[tatsama](tatsama)* words), or indirectly via middle Indo-Aryan languages (*[tadbhava](tadbhava)* words). Words originating in Sanskrit are estimated at roughly fifty percent of the vocabulary of modern Indo-Aryan languages, as well as the literary forms of [Malayalam](Malayalam) and [Kannada](Kannada). Literary texts in [Telugu](Telugu language) are [lexically](Lexicon) Sanskrit or Sanskritised to an enormous extent, perhaps seventy percent or more. [Marathi](Marathi language) is another prominent language in Western India, that derives most of its words and [grammar](Marathi)(Marathi grammar) from Sanskrit.Sugam Marathi Vyakaran & Lekhana. 2007. Nitin publications. Author: M. R. Walimbe. Sanskrit words are often preferred in the literary texts in Marathi over corresponding colloquial Marathi word.Carey, William (1805). *A Grammar of the Marathi Language*. Serampur [*[sic](sic)*]: Serampore Mission Press. .
There has been a profound influence of Sanskrit on the lexical and grammatical systems of Dravidian languages. As per Dalby, India has been a single cultural area for about two millennia which has helped Sanskrit influence on all the Indic languages. Emeneau and Burrow mention the tendency "for all four of the Dravidian literary languages in South to make literary use of total Sanskrit lexicon indiscriminately". There are a large number of loanwords found in the vocabulary of the three major Dravidian languages Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu. Tamil also has significant loanwords from Sanskrit. Krishnamurthi mentions that although it is not clear when the Sanskrit influence happened on the Dravidian languages, it might have been around the 5th century BCE at the time of separation of Tamil and Kannada from a [ancestral stage](common)(Tamil–Kannada languages). The borrowed words are classified into two types based on phonological integration – *tadbhava* – those words derived from Prakrit and *tatsama* – unassimilated loanwords from Sanskrit.
Strazny mentions that "so massive has been the influence that it is hard to utter Sanskrit words have influenced Kannada from the early times". The first document in Kannada, the Halmidi inscription has a large number of Sanskrit words. As per Kachru, the influence has not only been on single lexical items in Kannada but also on "long nominal compounds and complicated syntactic expressions". New words have been created in Kannada using Sanskrit derivational prefixes and suffixes like *vike:ndri:karaṇa, anili:karaṇa, bahi:skruTa*. Similar stratification is found in verb morphology. Sanskrit words readily undergo verbalization in Kannada, verbalizing suffixes as in: *cha:pisu, dowDa:yisu, rava:nisu.*
George mentions that "No other Dravidian language has been so deeply influenced by Sanskrit as Malayalam". According to Lambert, Malayalam is so immensely Sanskritised that every Sanskrit word can be used in Malayalam by integrating "prosodic phonological" changes as per Grant. Loanwords have been integrated into Malayalam by "prosodic phonological" changes as per Grant. These phonological changes are either by replacement of a vowel as in *sant-*am coming from Sanskrit *santa*, *sāgar*-am from *sāgara*, or addition of prothetic vowel as in *aracan* from *rājā-*, *uruvam* from *rūpa*, *codyam* from *sodhya*.
Hans Henrich et al. note that, the language of the pre-modern Telugu literature was also highly influenced by Sanskrit and was standardized between 11th and 14th centuries. Aiyar has shown that in a class of *tadbhavas* in Telugu the first and second letters are often replaced by the third and fourth letters and fourth again replaced often by h. Examples of the same are: Sanskrit *artha* becomes *ardhama*, *vīthi* becomes *vidhi*, *putra* becomes *bidda*, *mukham* becomes *muhamu*.
[Tamil](Tamil language) also has been influenced from Sanskrit. Hans Henrich et al. mention that propagation of Jainism and Buddhism into south India had its influence. Shulman mentions that although contrary to the views held by Tamil purists, modern Tamil has been significantly influenced from Sanskrit, further states that "Indeed there may well be more Sanskrit in Tamil than in the Sanskrit derived north-Indian vernaculars". Sanskrit words have been Tamilized through the "Tamil phonematic grid".
### Beyond the Indian subcontinent
Sanskrit was a language for religious purposes and for the political elite in parts of medieval era Southeast Asia, Central Asia and East Asia, having been introduced in these regions mainly along with the spread of Buddhism. In some cases, it has competed with Pāli for prominence.
#### East Asia
[Sanskrit](Buddhist)(Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit) has had a considerable influence on [languages](Sino-Tibetan)(Sino-Tibetan languages) such as Chinese, state William Wang and Chaofen Sun. Many words have been adopted from Sanskrit into the Chinese, both in its historic religious discourse and everyday use. This process likely started about 200 CE and continued through about 1400 CE, with the efforts of monks such as Yuezhi, Anxi, Kangju, Tianzhu, Yan Fodiao, Faxian, Xuanzang and [Yijing](Yijing (monk)).
Further, as the Chinese languages and culture influenced the rest of East Asia, the ideas in Sanskrit texts and some of its linguistic elements migrated further.
Many terms were transliterated directly and added to the Chinese vocabulary. Chinese words like *chànà* ([Devanagari](Devanagari): क्षण ** 'instantaneous period') were borrowed from Sanskrit. Many Sanskrit texts survive only in Tibetan collections of commentaries to the Buddhist teachings, the [Tengyur](Tengyur).
Sanskrit has also influenced the religious register of Japanese mostly through transliterations. These were borrowed from Chinese transliterations. In particular, the [Shingon](Shingon) () sect of esoteric Buddhism has been relying on Sanskrit and original Sanskrit [mantra](mantra)s and writings, as a means of realizing Buddhahood.
#### Southeast Asia
A large number of inscriptions in Sanskrit across Southeast Asia testify the influence the language held in these regions.
Languages such as [Indonesian](Indonesia language), [Thai](Thai language) and [Lao](Lao language) contain many [loanword](loanword)s from Sanskrit, as does [Khmer](Khmer language). Many Sanskrit loanwords are also found in [languages](Austronesian)(Austronesian languages), such as [Javanese](Javanese language), particularly the [form](older)(Old Javanese) in which nearly half the vocabulary is borrowed.
Other Austronesian languages, such as [Malay](Malay language) (descended into modern [Malaysian](Malaysian language) and [Indonesian](Indonesian language) standards) also derive [of their vocabulary](much)(List of loanwords in Indonesian#From Sanskrit) from Sanskrit. Similarly, [languages](Philippine)(Philippine languages) such as [Tagalog](Tagalog language) have [Sanskrit loanwords](some)(List of loanwords in Tagalog#Sanskrit), although more are derived from [Spanish](Spanish language).
A Sanskrit loanword encountered in many Southeast Asian languages is the word *[bhāṣā](Bahasa)*, or spoken language, which is used to refer to the names of many languages.
To this day, Southeast Asian languages such as Thai are known to draw upon Sanskrit for technical vocabulary.
##### *Indonesia*
[[Image:kutai Prasasti of Mulawarman.JPG|frame|right|The ancient [Yūpa](Yūpa#Yūpa inscription in Indonesia) inscription (one of the earliest and oldest Sanskrit texts written in ancient Indonesia) dating back to the [century CE](4th)(4th century CE) written by [Brahmin](Brahmin)s under the rule of King [Mulavarman](Mulavarman) of the [Martadipura Kingdom](Kutai)(Kutai#History) located in [Borneo](eastern)(East Kalimantan)]]
The earliest Sanskrit text which was founded in the [archipelago](Indonesian)(Malay archipelago) was at [Borneo](Eastern)(East Kalimantan) dating back to 400 CE known as the [inscription](Mulavarman)(Yūpa#Yūpa inscription in Indonesia). This is one of the reason of strong influence of Indian culture that entered the Malay archipelago during the [era](Indianization)(Greater India), and since then, Indian culture has been absorbed towards Indonesian culture and language. Thus, the Sanskrit culture in Indonesia exists not as a religious aspect but more towards a cultural aspect that has been present for generations, resulting in a more cultural rather than Hinduistic value of the [people](Indonesian)(Indonesian people). As a result, it is common to find Muslim or Christian Indonesians with names that have Indian or Sanskrit nuances. Unlike names derived from Sanskrit in [Thai](Thai language) and [Khmer](Khmer language), the pronunciation of Sanskrit names in Indonesia is more similar to the original Indian pronunciation, except that "v" is changed to "w", for example, "Vishnu" in India will be spelled "Wisnu" in Indonesia.
Sanskrit has influenced [Indonesian](Indonesian language) to a great extent. Many words in Indonesian are taken from Sanskrit, for example from the word "language" (bhāṣa) itself comes from Sanskrit which means: "talking accent". In fact, names of cities such as [Jayapura](Jayapura) (the capital city of [province](Papua)(Papua province)), including terms and mottoes of government, educational and military institutions use Sanskrit, such as the rank of general for example in the [Navy](Indonesian)(Indonesian Navy) is "Laksamana" (taken from the [Ramayana](Ramayana)). The name of the environmental award given to cities throughout Indonesia by the central government is also taken from Sanskrit known as the "Adipura" award, namely from the words "Adi" (which means "role model") and "[Pura](Pur (placename element)#Indonesia)" (which means "city") literally "A role model city" or "a city worthy of being an example". Sanskrit terms are also widely used in numerous government institutions such as the [forces](armed)(Indonesian National Armed Forces) and [police](national)(Indonesian National Police), for example, the motto of the Indonesian National Police which reads *"Rashtra Sevakottama"*, the motto of the Indonesian Military Academy which reads "*Adhitakarya Mahatvavirya Nagarabhakti*" (अधिकाऱ्या विर्य नगरभक्ति) and the motto of the Indonesian Naval Academy which reads "*Hree Dharma Shanti*" are one of the small examples. Other Sanskrit terms such as: "*Adhi Makayasa*", "*Chandradimuka*", "*Tri Dharma Eka Karma*", "*Taruna*", etc are also used intensively in the Indonesian security and defence forces.
#### Rest of the world
In ancient and medieval times, several Sanskrit words in the field of food and spices made their way into European languages including Greek, Latin and later English. Some of these are *pepper*, *ginger* and *sugar*. English today has several [of Sanskrit origin](words)(List of English words of Sanskrit origin), most of them borrowed during the [Raj](British)(British Raj) or later. Some of these words have in turn been borrowed by other European or world languages.
## Modern era
### Liturgy, ceremonies and meditation
Sanskrit is the sacred language of various Hindu, Buddhist, and [Jain](Jain) traditions. It is used during worship in [temple](Hindu)(Hindu temple)s. In [Buddhism](Newar)(Newar Buddhism), it is used in all monasteries, while [Mahayana](Mahayana) and [Buddhist](Tibetan)(Tibetan Buddhist) religious texts and sutras are in Sanskrit as well as vernacular languages. Some of the revered texts of Jainism including the [sutra](Tattvartha)(Tattvartha sutra), [śrāvakācāra](Ratnakaranda)(Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra), the [Stotra](Bhaktamara)(Bhaktamara Stotra) and later versions of the [Agamas](Jain Agamas (Śvētāmbara)) are in Sanskrit. Further, states [Dundas](Paul)(Paul Dundas), Sanskrit mantras and Sanskrit as a ritual language was commonplace among Jains throughout their medieval history.
Many Hindu rituals and rites-of-passage such as the "giving away the bride" and mutual vows at weddings, a baby's naming or first solid food ceremony and the goodbye during a cremation invoke and chant Sanskrit hymns. Major festivals such as the *[Puja](Durga)(Durga Puja)* ritually recite entire Sanskrit texts such as the *[Mahatmya](Devi)(Devi Mahatmya)* every year particularly amongst the numerous communities of eastern India. In the south, Sanskrit texts are recited at many major Hindu temples such as the [Temple](Meenakshi)(Meenakshi Temple). According to Richard H. Davis, a scholar of Religion and South Asian studies, the breadth and variety of oral recitations of the Sanskrit text *[Gita](Bhagavad)(Bhagavad Gita)* is remarkable. In India and beyond, its recitations include "simple private household readings, to family and neighborhood recitation sessions, to holy men reciting in temples or at pilgrimage places for passersby, to public Gita discourses held almost nightly at halls and auditoriums in every Indian city".
### Literature and arts
More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since India's independence in 1947. Much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages.
The [Akademi](Sahitya)(Sahitya Akademi) has given an [award](List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Sanskrit) for the best creative work in Sanskrit every year since 1967. In 2009, [Vrat Shastri](Satya)(Satya Vrat Shastri) became the first Sanskrit author to win the [Award](Jnanpith)(Jnanpith Award), India's highest literary award.
Sanskrit is used extensively in the [Carnatic](Carnatic music) and [Hindustani](Hindustani classical music) branches of classical music. [Kirtan](Kirtan)as, [bhajan](bhajan)s, [stotra](stotra)s, and [shloka](shloka)s of Sanskrit are popular throughout India. The [Samaveda](Samaveda) uses musical notations in several of its recessions.
In [China](Mainland)(Mainland China), musicians such as [Dingding](Sa)(Sa Dingding) have written [songs](pop)(popular music) in Sanskrit.
Numerous loan Sanskrit words are found in other major Asian languages. For example, [Filipino](List of loanwords in Tagalog#Sanskrit), [Cebuano](Cebuano language), [Lao](Lao language), [Khmer](Khmer language)Sak- [Thai](List of loanwords in Thai) and its [alphabets](Thai alphabet#Sanskrit and Pali), [Malay](List of loanwords in Malay) (including [Malaysian](Malaysian language) and [Indonesian](List of loanwords in Indonesian#From Sanskrit)), [Javanese](Javanese language) (old Javanese-English dictionary by [Zoetmulder](P.J.)(P.J. Zoetmulder) contains over 25,500 entries), and even in [English](List of English words of Sanskrit origin).
### Media
Since 1974, there has been a short daily news broadcast on state-run [India Radio](All)(All India Radio). These broadcasts are also made available on the internet on AIR's website. Sanskrit news is broadcast on TV and on the internet through the DD National channel at 6:55 AM IST.
Over 90 weeklies, fortnightlies and quarterlies are published in Sanskrit. *[Sudharma](Sudharma)*, a daily printed newspaper in Sanskrit, has been published out of [Mysore](Mysore), India, since 1970. It was started by K.N. Varadaraja Iyengar, a Sanskrit scholar from [Mysore](Mysore). Sanskrit Vartman Patram and Vishwasya Vrittantam started in Gujarat during the last five years.
### Schools and contemporary status
[[File:Sanskrit festival at Pramati School, Mysore.jpg|thumb|Sanskrit festival at [Hillview Academy](Pramati)(Pramati Hillview Academy), [Mysore](Mysore), India]]
Sanskrit has been taught in schools from time immemorial in India. In modern times, the first Sanskrit University was [Sanskrit University](Sampurnanand)(Sampurnanand Sanskrit University), established in 1791 in the Indian city of [Varanasi](Varanasi). Sanskrit is taught in 5,000 traditional schools (Pathashalas), and 14,000 schools in India, where there are also 22 colleges and universities dedicated to the exclusive study of the language. Sanskrit is one of the 22 [languages of India](scheduled)(Languages with official status in India#Scheduled languages of the Indian Constitution). Despite it being a studied school subject in contemporary India, Sanskrit has not been spoken as a native language in centuries.
The [Board of Secondary Education](Central)(Central Board of Secondary Education) of India (CBSE), along with several other state education boards, has made Sanskrit an alternative option to the state's own official language as a second or third language choice in the schools it governs. In such schools, learning Sanskrit is an option for grades 5 to 8 (Classes V to VIII). This is true of most schools affiliated with the [Certificate of Secondary Education](Indian)(Indian Certificate of Secondary Education) (ICSE) board, especially in states where the official language is [Hindi](Hindi). Sanskrit is also taught in traditional [gurukula](gurukula)s throughout India.
A number of [and universities](colleges)(List of Sanskrit universities in India) in India have dedicated departments for Sanskrit studies. In March 2020, the [Parliament](Indian)(Indian Parliament) passed the *Central Sanskrit Universities Act, 2020* which upgraded three universities, [Sanskrit University](National)(National Sanskrit University), [Sanskrit University](Central)(Central Sanskrit University) and [Lal Bahadur Shastri National Sanskrit University](Shri)(Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri National Sanskrit University), from the [to be university](deemed)(deemed to be university) status to a [university](central)(Central university (India)) status.
Dmitri Mendeleev used the Sanskrit numbers of one, two and three ( eka-, dvi- or dwi-, and tri- respectively) to give provisional names to his predicted elements, like eka-boron being [Gallium](Gallium) or eka-[Radium](Radium) being [Ununennium](Ununennium).
In the province of [Bali](Bali) in [Indonesia](Indonesia), a number of educational and scholarly institutions have also been conducting Sanskrit lessons for Hindu locals.
#### In the West
[James Junior School](St)(St James Independent Schools) and [Schools Trust](Avanti)(Avanti Schools Trust) in [London](London), England, offer Sanskrit as part of the curriculum. Since September 2009, US high school students have been able to receive credits as Independent Study or toward Foreign Language requirements by studying Sanskrit as part of the "SAFL: Samskritam as a Foreign Language" program coordinated by [Bharati](Samskrita)(Samskrita Bharati). In Australia, the private boys' high school [Grammar School](Sydney)(Sydney Grammar School) offers Sanskrit from years 7 through to 12, including for the [School Certificate](Higher)(Higher School Certificate (New South Wales)). Other schools that offer Sanskrit include the Ficino School in Auckland, New Zealand; St James Preparatory Schools in Cape Town, Durban and Johannesburg, South Africa; John Colet School, Sydney, Australia; Erasmus School, Melbourne, Australia.
### European studies and discourse
European scholarship in Sanskrit, begun by [Roth](Heinrich)(Heinrich Roth) (1620–1668) and [Ernst Hanxleden](Johann)(Johann Ernst Hanxleden) (1681–1731), is considered responsible for the discovery of an Indo-European language family by [William Jones](Sir)(William Jones (philologist)) (1746–1794). This research played an important role in the development of Western [philology](philology), or historical linguistics.
The 18th- and 19th-century speculations about the possible links of Sanskrit to ancient Egyptian language were later proven to be wrong, but it fed an orientalist discourse both in the form Indophobia and Indophilia, states Trautmann. Sanskrit writings, when first discovered, were imagined by Indophiles to potentially be "repositories of the primitive experiences and religion of the human race, and as such confirmatory of the truth of Christian scripture", as well as a key to "universal ethnological narrative". The Indophobes imagined the opposite, making the counterclaim that there is little of any value in Sanskrit, portraying it as "a language fabricated by artful [Brahmin] priests", with little original thought, possibly copied from the Greeks who came with Alexander or perhaps the Persians.
Scholars such as William Jones and his colleagues felt the need for systematic studies of Sanskrit language and literature. This launched [Asiatic Society](the)(the Asiatic Society), an idea that was soon transplanted to Europe starting with the efforts of [Thomas Colebrooke](Henry)(Henry Thomas Colebrooke) in Britain, then [Hamilton](Alexander)(Alexander Hamilton (linguist)) who helped expand its studies to Paris and thereafter his student Friedrich Schlegel who introduced Sanskrit to the universities of Germany. Schlegel nurtured his own students into influential European Sanskrit scholars, particularly through [Bopp](Franz)(Franz Bopp) and [Max Müller](Friedrich)(Max Müller). As these scholars translated the Sanskrit manuscripts, the enthusiasm for Sanskrit grew rapidly among European scholars, states Trautmann, and chairs for Sanskrit "were established in the universities of nearly every German statelet" creating a competition for Sanskrit experts.
### Symbolic usage
In India, [Indonesia](Indonesia), Nepal, [Bangladesh](Bangladesh), [Lanka](Sri)(Sri Lanka), and [Asia](Southeast)(Southeast Asia), Sanskrit phrases are widely used as [motto](motto)es for various national, educational and social organisations:
* [India](India): *[Jayate](Satyameva)(Satyameva Jayate)* (सत्यमेव जयते), meaning 'truth alone triumphs'.
* [Nepal](Nepal): *[Janmabhūmischa Swargādapi Garīyasī](Janani)(Janani Janmabhumishcha Swargadapi Gariyasi)* (जननी जन्मभूमिश्च स्वर्गादपि गरीयसी), meaning 'mother and motherland are superior to heaven'.
* [Indonesia](Indonesia): In Indonesia, Sanskrit is widely used as terms and mottoes of the armed forces and other national organizations *(See: [Armed Forces mottoes](Indonesian)(List of military unit mottoes by country#Indonesia))*. *Rastra Sewakottama* (राष्ट्र सेवकोत्तम, ) is the official motto of the [National Police](Indonesian)(Indonesian National Police), *Tri Dharma Eka Karma* (त्रिधर्म एक कर्म) is the official motto of the [Military](Indonesian)(Indonesian Military), *Kartika Eka Paksi* (कार्तिक एक पक्षी, ) is the official motto of the [Army](Indonesian)(Indonesian Army),[*TNI Angkatan Darat*](https://tniad.mil.id/2012/07/kartika-eka-paksi/). Official website of the Indonesian Army. *Adhitakarya Mahatvavirya Nagarabhakti* (अधीतकार्य महत्ववीर्य नगरभक्ति, ) is the official motto of the [Military Academy](Indonesian)(Indonesian Military Academy),[*Akademi Militer*](https://www.akmil.ac.id/lambang). Official website of the Indonesian Military Academy. *Upakriya Labdha Prayojana Balottama* (उपक्रिया लब्ध प्रयोजन बालोत्तम, ) is the official motto of the Army Psychological Corps, *Karmanye Vadikaraste Mafalesu Kadatjana* (कर्मण्येवाधिकारस्ते मा फलेषु कदाचन, ) is the official motto of the Air-Force Special Forces ([Paskhas](Paskhas)),[*Sejarah*](https://paskhas.mil.id/sejarah) . Official website of the Air-Force Special Forces (Paskhas). *Jalesu Bhumyamca Jayamahe* (जलेषु भूम्यम्च जयमहे, ) is the official motto of the [Marine Corps](Indonesian)(Indonesian Marine Corps), and there are more units and organizations in Indonesia either Armed Forces or civil which use the Sanskrit language respectively as their mottoes and other purposes.
* Many of India's and Nepal's scientific and administrative terms use Sanskrit. The [guided missile program](Indian)(Integrated Guided Missile Development Program) that was commenced in 1983 by the [Research and Development Organisation](Defence)(Defence Research and Development Organisation) has named the five missiles (ballistic and others) that it developed [Prithvi](Prithvi (missile)), [Agni](Agni (missile)), [Akash](Akash (missile)), [Nag](Nag (missile)) and the [missile system](Trishul)(Integrated Guided Missile Development Program#Trishul missile system). India's first modern fighter aircraft is named [Tejas](HAL)(HAL Tejas).
In November 2020, [Sharma](Gaurav)(Gaurav Sharma (politician)), a New Zealand politician of Indian origin swore into [parliament](New Zealand Parliament) using Sanskrit alongside [Māori](Māori language); the decision was made as a "homage to all Indian languages" compromising between his native [Pahari](Pahari language) and [Punjabi](Punjabi language).
### In popular culture
The song *[Sweet Lord](My)(My Sweet Lord)* by [Harrison](George)(George Harrison) includes The Hare Krishna mantra, also referred to reverentially as the Maha Mantra, a 16-word Vaishnava mantra which is mentioned in the Kali-Santarana Upanishad. *[Satyagraha](Satyagraha (opera))*, an opera by [Glass](Philip)(Philip Glass), uses texts from the *Bhagavad Gita*, sung in Sanskrit. In 1996, English [rock](psychedelic)(psychedelic rock) band [Shaker](Kula)(Kula Shaker) released *[Govinda](Govinda (Kula Shaker song))*, a song entirely sung in Sanskrit. The closing credits of *[Matrix Revolutions](The)(The Matrix Revolutions)* has a prayer from the *[Upanishad](Brihadaranyaka)(Brihadaranyaka Upanishad)*. The song "Cyber-raga" from [Madonna's](Madonna (entertainer)) album *[Music](Music (Madonna album))* includes Sanskrit chants, and *Shanti/Ashtangi* from her 1998 album *[of Light](Ray)(Ray of Light)*, which won a Grammy, is the [vinyasa yoga](ashtanga)(ashtanga vinyasa yoga) chant. The lyrics include the mantra *Om shanti*. Composer [Williams](John)(John Williams) featured choirs singing in Sanskrit for *[Jones and the Temple of Doom](Indiana)(Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom)* and in *[Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace](Star)(Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace)*. The theme song of *[Galactica 2004](Battlestar)(Battlestar Galactica (2004 TV series))* is the [Mantra](Gayatri)(Gayatri Mantra), taken from the [Rigveda](Rigveda). The lyrics of "The Child in Us" by [Enigma](Enigma (German band)) also contain Sanskrit verses. In 2006, Mexican singer [Rubio](Paulina)(Paulina Rubio) was influenced in Sanskrit for her concept album *[Ananda](Ananda (album))*.
## See also
* [prayoga](Arsha)(Arsha prayoga)
* [numeration](Āryabhaṭa)(Āryabhaṭa numeration)
* [of Sanskrit-related topics](List)(List of Sanskrit-related topics)
* [Manuscript](Spitzer)(Spitzer Manuscript)
* [Proto-Indo-Aryan](Proto-Indo-Aryan language)
* [Proto-Indo-Iranian](Proto-Indo-Iranian language)
* [Proto-Indo-European](Proto-Indo-European language)
## Notes
## References
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## External links
* 31 Sanskrit and Dravidian dictionaries for Lingvo.
* free online lessons from the
* an organisation promoting the usage of Sanskrit
* — Documents in ITX format of Upanishads, Stotras etc.
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* for typing Sanskrit in the Devanagari script.
* — sources results from Monier Williams etc.
* — dynamic online declension and conjugation tool
* — Sanskrit hypertext dictionary
* — Collection of Sanskrit Shlokas from Various Sanskrit Texts
[ ](Category:Sanskrit)
[languages](Category:Indo-Aryan)(Category:Indo-Aryan languages)
[attested from the 2nd millennium BC](Category:Languages)(Category:Languages attested from the 2nd millennium BC)
[written in Devanagari](Category:Languages)(Category:Languages written in Devanagari)
[languages](Category:Subject–object–verb)(Category:Subject–object–verb languages)
[Language in India](Category:Classical)(Category:Classical Language in India)
[languages of India](Category:Official)(Category:Official languages of India)
[of Nepal](Category:Languages)(Category:Languages of Nepal)
[of India](Category:Languages)(Category:Languages of India)
[officially written in Indic scripts](Category:Languages)(Category:Languages officially written in Indic scripts)
[languages used for Indian scriptures](Category:Formal)(Category:Formal languages used for Indian scriptures)
[languages](Category:Sacred)(Category:Sacred languages)
[Akademi recognised languages](Category:Sahitya)(Category:Sahitya Akademi recognised languages)
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History of Japan
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history_of_japan
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# History of Japan
*Revision ID: 1160157031 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T18:48:26Z*
---
The first human inhabitants of the [archipelago](Japanese)(Japanese archipelago) have been traced to [times](prehistoric)(Japanese Paleolithic) around 30,000 BC. The [period](Jōmon)(Jōmon period), named after its [pottery](cord-marked)(cord-marked pottery), was followed by the [period](Yayoi)(Yayoi period) in the first millennium BC when new inventions were introduced from Asia. During this period, the first known written reference to [Japan](Japan) was recorded in the Chinese *[of Han](Book)(Book of Han)* in the first century AD.
Around the 3rd century BC, the [people](Yayoi)(Yayoi people) from the continent immigrated to the Japanese archipelago and introduced iron technology and agricultural civilization.
Because they had an agricultural civilization, the population of the Yayoi began to grow rapidly and ultimately overwhelmed the [people](Jōmon)(Jōmon period), natives of the Japanese archipelago who were hunter-gatherers.
Between the fourth to ninth centuries, Japan's many kingdoms and tribes gradually came to be unified under a centralized government, nominally controlled by the [of Japan](Emperor)(Emperor of Japan). The [dynasty](imperial)(Imperial House of Japan) established at this time continues to this day, albeit in an almost entirely ceremonial role. In 794, a new imperial capital was established at [Heian-kyō](Heian-kyō) (modern [Kyoto](Kyoto)), marking the beginning of the [period](Heian)(Heian period), which lasted until 1185. The Heian period is considered a golden age of classical [culture](Japanese)(Culture of Japan). Japanese religious life from this time and onwards was a mix of native [Shinto](Shinto) practices and [Buddhism](Buddhism in Japan).
Over the following centuries, the power of the imperial house decreased, passing first to great clans of civilian aristocrats – most notably the [Fujiwara](Fujiwara clan) – and then to the military clans and their armies of [samurai](samurai). The [clan](Minamoto)(Minamoto clan) under [no Yoritomo](Minamoto)(Minamoto no Yoritomo) emerged victorious from the [War](Genpei)(Genpei War) of 1180–85, defeating their rival military clan, the [Taira](Taira clan). After seizing power, Yoritomo set up his capital in [Kamakura](Kamakura) and took the title of *[shōgun](shōgun)*. In 1274 and 1281, the [shogunate](Kamakura)(Kamakura shogunate) withstood two [invasions](Mongol)(Mongol invasions of Japan), but in 1333 it was toppled by a rival claimant to the shogunate, ushering in the [period](Muromachi)(Muromachi period). During this period, regional warlords called *[daimyō](daimyō)* grew in power at the expense of the *shōgun*. Eventually, Japan descended into [period of civil war](a)(Sengoku period). Over the course of the late 16th century, Japan was reunified under the leadership of the prominent *daimyō* [Nobunaga](Oda)(Oda Nobunaga) and his successor, [Hideyoshi](Toyotomi)(Toyotomi Hideyoshi). After Toyotomi's death in 1598, [Ieyasu](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa Ieyasu) came to power and was appointed *shōgun* by the emperor. The [shogunate](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa shogunate), which governed from [Edo](Edo) (modern [Tokyo](Tokyo)), presided over a prosperous and peaceful era known as the [period](Edo)(Edo period) (1600–1868). The Tokugawa shogunate imposed [strict class system](a)(Edo society#Four Classes) on Japanese society and [off almost all contact with the outside world](cut)(Sakoku).
Portugal and Japan came into contact in 1543, when the Portuguese became the first Europeans to reach Japan by landing in the southern archipelago. They had a significant impact on Japan, even in this initial limited interaction, [firearms to Japanese warfare](introducing)(Firearms of Japan). The American [Expedition](Perry)(Perry Expedition) in 1853–54 more completely ended Japan's seclusion; this contributed to the [of the shogunate](fall)(Bakumatsu) and the [of power to the emperor](return)(Meiji Restoration) during the [War](Boshin)(Boshin War) in 1868. The [national leadership](new)(Meiji oligarchy) of the following [period](Meiji)(Meiji period) transformed the isolated feudal island country into [empire](an)(Empire of Japan) that closely followed Western models and became a [power](great)(great power). Although democracy developed and modern civilian culture prospered during the [period](Taishō)(Taishō period) (1912–26), Japan's powerful military had great autonomy and overruled Japan's civilian leaders in the 1920s and 1930s. The Japanese military [Manchuria](invaded)(Japanese invasion of Manchuria) in 1931, and from 1937 the conflict escalated into a [war with China](prolonged)(Second Sino-Japanese War). Japan's [on Pearl Harbor](attack)(attack on Pearl Harbor) in 1941 led to [with the United States](war)(Pacific War) and [allies](its)(Allies of World War II). Japan's forces soon became overextended, but the military held out in spite of [air attacks](Allied)(Air raids on Japan) that inflicted severe damage on population centers. Emperor [Hirohito](Hirohito) announced [surrender](Japan's)(Surrender of Japan) on August 15, 1945, following the [bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki](atomic)(atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki) and the [invasion of Manchuria](Soviet)(Soviet invasion of Manchuria).
The [occupied Japan](Allies)(Occupation of Japan) until 1952, during which a [constitution](new)(Constitution of Japan) was enacted in 1947 that transformed Japan into the [monarchy](constitutional)(constitutional monarchy). After 1955, Japan enjoyed [high economic growth](very)(Japanese economic miracle) under the governance of the [Democratic Party](Liberal)(Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)), and became a world [powerhouse](economic)(Economy of Japan). Since the [Decade](Lost)(Lost Decades (Japan)) of the 1990s, Japanese economic growth has slowed.
## Prehistoric and ancient Japan
### Paleolithic period
[[Image:Japan glaciation.gif|thumb|180px|Japan at the [Glacial Maximum](Last)(Last Glacial Maximum) in the [Pleistocene](Late)(Late Pleistocene) about 20,000 years ago
black outline indicates present-day Japan]]
Hunter-gatherers arrived in Japan in [Paleolithic](Paleolithic) times, though little evidence of their presence remains, as Japan's acidic soils are inhospitable to the process of fossilization. However, the discovery of unique edge-ground axes in Japan dated to over 30,000 years ago may be evidence of the first *Homo sapiens* in Japan. Early humans likely arrived in Japan by sea on watercraft. Evidence of human habitation has been dated to 32,000 years ago in Okinawa's [Cave](Yamashita)(Yamashita Cave Man) and up to 20,000 years ago on Ishigaki Island's [Saonetabaru Cave](Shiraho)(Shiraho Saonetabaru Cave Ruins).
### Jōmon period
[[File:Sannai IMG 20161009 143947.jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of a Jōmon family from the [Site](Sannai-Maruyama)(Sannai-Maruyama Site).]]
The Jōmon period of prehistoric Japan spans from roughly 13,000 BC to about 1,000 BC. Japan was inhabited by a predominantly [hunter-gatherer](hunter-gatherer) culture that reached a considerable degree of [sedentism](sedentism) and cultural complexity. The name Jōmon, meaning "cord-marked", was first applied by American scholar [S. Morse](Edward)(Edward S. Morse), who discovered [shards](Sherd) of [pottery](Jōmon pottery) in 1877. The pottery style characteristic of the first phases of Jōmon culture was decorated by impressing cords into the surface of wet clay. [pottery](Jōmon)(Jōmon pottery) is generally accepted to be among the oldest in East Asia and the world.
File:JomonPottery.JPG|A vase from the early [period](Jōmon)(Jōmon period) (11000–7000 BC)
File:MiddleJomonJar2000BCE.jpg|Middle Jōmon vase (2000 BC)
File:Dogu Miyagi 1000 BCE 400 BCE.jpg|[Dogū](Dogū) figurine of the late [period](Jōmon)(Jōmon period) (1000–400 BC)
### Yayoi period
The advent of the [people](Yayoi)(Yayoi people) from the Asian mainland brought fundamental transformations to the Japanese archipelago. The millennial achievements of the [Revolution](Neolithic)(Neolithic Revolution) took hold of the islands in a relatively short span of centuries, particularly with the development of [cultivation](rice)(Paddy field)Kumar, Ann (2009) [*Globalizing the Prehistory of Japan: Language, Genes and Civilisation,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=f_aQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1) [Routledge](Routledge). p. 1 and metallurgy. Until recently, the onset of this wave of cultural and technological changes was thought to have begun around 400 BC.Bruce Loyd Batten,[*To the Ends of Japan: Premodern Frontiers, Boundaries, and Interactions,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=fRs3Qdya40QC&pg=PA60) [of Hawaii Press](University)(University of Hawaii Press), 2003 p. 60. Radio-carbon evidence now suggests that the new phase started some 500 years earlier, between 1,000 and 800 BC.Crawford, Gary W. "Japan and Korea:Japan," in [Asher Silberman](Neil)(Neil Asher Silberman), Alexander A. Bauer (eds.), [*The Oxford Companion to Archaeology,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=xeJMAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA155) [University Press USA](Oxford)(Oxford University Press USA), Vol.1 2012 pp. 153–157 p. 155. Endowed with bronze and iron weapons and tools initially imported from China and the Korean peninsula, the Yayoi radiated out from northern [Kyūshū](Kyushu), gradually supplanting the Jōmon.Imamura, Keiji (1996) [*Prehistoric Japan: New Perspectives on Insular East Asia,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=HpgcaKpnuU0C&pg=PA168) [of Hawaii Press](University)(University of Hawaii Press). pp. 165–178. They also introduced weaving and silk production,Kaner, Simon (2011) 'The Archeology of Religion and Ritual in the Prehistoric Japanese Archipelago,' in Timothy Insoll (ed.),[*The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Ritual and Religion,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=SgLxGuvnezUC&pg=PA462) [University Press](Oxford)(Oxford University Press), pp. 457–468, p. 462. new woodworking methods, glassmaking technology, and new architectural styles.Mizoguchi, Koji (2013) [*The Archaeology of Japan: From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=CZM2AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA82) [University Press](Cambridge)(Cambridge University Press), pp. 81–82, referring to the two sub-styles of houses introduced from the Korean peninsular: [*Songguk’ni*](Songguk-ri) (松菊里) and *Teppyong’ni* (大坪里). The expansion of the Yayoi appears to have brought about a fusion with the indigenous Jōmon, resulting in a small genetic admixture.[Mark](Hudson,)(Mark J. Hudson) (1999) [*Ruins of Identity: Ethnogenesis in the Japanese Islands,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=eTFMPO5NdKgC&pg=PA79) [of Hawaii Press](University)(University of Hawaii Press), pp. 79–81. The Jōmon component is estimated at somewhere under 25%.
[[File:DotakuBronzeBellLateYayoi3rdCenturyCE.jpg|thumb|upright|A [period](Yayoi)(Yayoi period) bronze bell (*[dōtaku](dōtaku)*) of the 3rd century AD]]These Yayoi technologies originated on the Asian mainland. There is debate among scholars as to what degree their spread can be attributed to migration or to cultural diffusion. The migration theory is supported by genetic and linguistic studies. Historian Hanihara Kazurō has suggested that the annual immigrant influx from the continent range from 350 to 3,000.
The population of Japan began to increase rapidly, perhaps with a 10-fold rise over the Jōmon. Calculations of the population size by the end of the Yayoi period have varied from 1 to 4 million. Skeletal remains from the late Jōmon period reveal a deterioration in already poor standards of health and nutrition, whereas contemporaneous Yayoi archaeological sites possess large structures suggestive of grain storehouses. This shift was accompanied by an increase in both the [stratification](social stratification) of society and tribal warfare, indicated by segregated gravesites and military fortifications.
During the Yayoi period, the Yayoi tribes gradually coalesced into a number of kingdoms. In the earliest written work to unambiguously mention Japan, the *[of Han](Book)(Book of Han)*, published in 111 AD, states that one hundred kingdoms comprised Japan, which is referred to as [*Wa*](Wa (Japan)). A later Chinese work of history, the *[of Wei](Book)(Records of the Three Kingdoms#Book of Wei (魏書))*, states that by 240 AD, the powerful kingdom of [Yamatai](Yamatai), ruled by the female monarch [Himiko](Himiko), had gained ascendancy over the others, though modern historians continue to debate its location and other aspects of its depiction in the *Book of Wei*.
### Kofun period (c. 250–538)
[[File:NintokuTomb Aerial photograph 2007.jpg|thumb|Daisenryō Kofun, [Osaka](Osaka Prefecture)]]
During the subsequent [period](Kofun)(Kofun period), Japan gradually unified under a single territory. The symbol of the growing power of Japan's new leaders was the *[kofun](kofun)* burial mounds they constructed from around 250 AD onwards. Many were of massive scales, such as the [Kofun](Daisenryō)(Mozu Tombs), a 486 m-long [burial mound](keyhole-shaped)(Zenpokoenfun) that took huge teams of laborers fifteen years to complete. It is commonly accepted that the tomb was built for [Nintoku](Emperor)(Emperor Nintoku). The *kofun* were often surrounded by and filled with numerous *[haniwa](haniwa)* clay sculptures, often in the shape of warriors and horses.
The center of the unified state was [Yamato](Yamato Province) in the [Kinai](Kinai) region of central Japan. The rulers of the Yamato state were a hereditary line of emperors who still reign as the world's longest dynasty. The rulers of the Yamato extended their power across Japan through military conquest, but their preferred method of expansion was to convince local leaders to accept their authority in exchange for positions of influence in the government. Many of the powerful local clans who joined the Yamato state became known as the *[uji](Uji (clan))*.
[[en.png|thumb|left|Territorial extent of Yamato court during the Kofun period](File:Yamato)]
These leaders sought and received formal diplomatic recognition from China, and Chinese accounts record five successive such leaders as the [kings of Wa](Five)(Five kings of Wa). Craftsmen and scholars from China and the [Kingdoms of Korea](Three)(Three Kingdoms of Korea) played an important role in transmitting continental technologies and administrative skills to Japan during this period.
Historians agree that there was a big struggle between the Yamato federation and the Izumo Federation centuries before written records.
## Classical Japan
### Asuka period (538–710)
[[File:Horyu-ji08s3200.jpg|thumb|[temple](Buddhist)(Buddhist temple) of [Horyu-ji](Horyu-ji) is the oldest wooden structure in the world. It was commissioned by [Shotoku](Prince)(Prince Shotoku) and represents the beginning of [Buddhism](Buddhism) in Japan.]]
The [period](Asuka)(Asuka period) began as early as 538 AD with the introduction of the Buddhist religion from the Korean kingdom of [Baekje](Baekje). Since then, Buddhism has coexisted with Japan's native Shinto religion, in what is today known as [Shinbutsu-shūgō](Shinbutsu-shūgō). The period draws its name from the *de facto* imperial capital, [Asuka](Asuka, Yamato), in the Kinai region.
The Buddhist [clan](Soga)(Soga clan) took over the government in the 580s and controlled Japan from behind the scenes for nearly sixty years. [Shōtoku](Prince)(Prince Shōtoku), an advocate of Buddhism and of the Soga cause, who was of partial Soga descent, served as regent and *de facto* leader of Japan from 594 to 622. Shōtoku authored the [constitution](Seventeen-article)(Seventeen-article constitution), a [Confucian](Confucian)-inspired code of conduct for officials and citizens, and attempted to introduce a merit-based civil service called the [and Rank System](Cap)(Twelve Level Cap and Rank System). In 607, Shōtoku offered a subtle insult to China by opening his letter with the phrase, "The ruler of the land of the rising sun addresses the ruler of the land of the setting sun" as seen in the [kanji](kanji) characters for Japan (*Nippon*). By 670, a variant of this expression, *Nihon*, established itself as the official name of the nation, which has persisted to this day.
[[File:Nihon.png|thumb|upright|alt=Nihon|The word *Nihon* written in [kanji](kanji) (horizontal placement of characters). The text means "Japan" in Japanese.]]
[[File:Prince Shotoku at Age 14 as Buddhist Pilgrim, 14th century.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=|[Shōtoku](Prince)(Prince Shōtoku) was a semi-legendary [regent](regent) of the [period](Asuka)(Asuka period), and considered to be the first major sponsor of Buddhism in Japan.]]
In 645, the Soga clan were [in a coup](overthrown)(Isshi Incident) launched by [Naka no Ōe](Prince)(Emperor Tenji) and [no Kamatari](Fujiwara)(Fujiwara no Kamatari), the founder of the [clan](Fujiwara)(Fujiwara clan). Their government devised and implemented the far-reaching [Reform](Taika)(Taika Reform)s. The Reform began with land reform, based on Confucian ideas and [philosophies](Chinese philosophy) from [China](China). It nationalized all land in Japan, to be [equally](distributed)(Equal-field system) among cultivators, and ordered the compilation of a household registry as the basis for a new system of taxation. The true aim of the reforms was to bring about greater centralization and to enhance the power of the imperial court, which was also based on the governmental structure of China. Envoys and students were dispatched to China to learn about Chinese writing, politics, art, and religion. After the reforms, the [War](Jinshin)(Jinshin War) of 672, a bloody conflict between [Ōama](Prince)(Prince Ōama) and his nephew [Ōtomo](Prince)(Prince Ōtomo), two rivals to the throne, became a major catalyst for further administrative reforms. These reforms culminated with the promulgation of the [Code](Taihō)(Taihō Code), which consolidated existing statutes and established the structure of the central government and its subordinate local governments. These legal reforms created the *[ritsuryō](ritsuryō)* state, a system of Chinese-style centralized government that remained in place for half a millennium.
The art of the Asuka period embodies the themes of Buddhist art. One of the most famous works is the [temple](Buddhist)(Buddhist temple) of [Horyu-ji](Horyu-ji), commissioned by Prince Shōtoku and completed in 607 AD. It is now the oldest wooden structure in the world.
### Nara period (710–794)
[[File:Daibutsu-den in Todaiji Nara01bs3200.jpg|thumb|The Daibutsu-den, within the complex of [Tōdai-ji](Tōdai-ji). This Buddhist temple was sponsored by the [Court](Imperial)(Imperial Court in Kyoto) during the [period](Nara)(Nara period).]]
In 710, the government constructed a grandiose new capital at [Heijō-kyō](Heijō-kyō) (modern [Nara](Nara, Nara)) modeled on [Chang'an](Chang'an), the capital of the Chinese [dynasty](Tang)(Tang dynasty). During this period, the first two books produced in Japan appeared: the *[Kojiki](Kojiki)* and *[Shoki](Nihon)(Nihon Shoki)*, which contain chronicles of legendary accounts of early Japan and its [myth](creation)(Japanese creation myth), which describes the imperial line as descendants of [gods](the)(kami). The ''[Man'yōshū](Man'yōshū)'' was compiled in the latter half of the eighth century, which is widely considered the finest collection of Japanese poetry.
During this period, Japan suffered a series of natural disasters, including wildfires, droughts, famines, and outbreaks of disease, such as a [epidemic in 735–737](smallpox)(735–737 Japanese smallpox epidemic) that killed over a quarter of the population. [Shōmu](Emperor)(Emperor Shōmu) (r. 724–749) feared his lack of piousness had caused the trouble and so increased the government's promotion of Buddhism, including the construction of the temple [Tōdai-ji](Tōdai-ji) in 752. The funds to build this temple were raised in part by the influential Buddhist monk [Gyōki](Gyōki), and once completed it was used by the Chinese monk [Ganjin](Ganjin) as an [ordination](ordination#Buddhism) site. Japan nevertheless entered a phase of population decline that continued well into the following [period](Heian)(Heian period).
There was also a serious attempt to overthrow the Imperial house during the middle Nara period. During the 760s, [Dōkyō](monk)(Dōkyō) tried to establish his own dynasty by the aid of [Shōtoku](Empress)(Empress Kōken), but after her death in 770 he lost all his power and was exiled. The Fujiwara clan furthermore consolidated its power.
### Heian period (794–1185)
[[File:西寺復元模型.jpg|thumb|Miniature model of the ancient capital [Heian-kyō](Heian-kyō)]]
[[File:Gosannen kassen.jpg|thumb|upright=2.5|[Three-Year War](Later)(Later Three-Year War) in the 11th century. ]]
In 784, the capital moved briefly to [Nagaoka-kyō](Nagaoka-kyō), then again in 794 to [Heian-kyō](Heian-kyō) (modern [Kyoto](Kyoto)), which remained the capital until 1868. Political power within the court soon passed to the Fujiwara clan, a family of court nobles who grew increasingly close to the imperial family through intermarriage. Between 812 and 814 CE, a smallpox epidemic killed almost half of the Japanese population.
In 858, [no Yoshifusa](Fujiwara)(Fujiwara no Yoshifusa) had himself declared *[sesshō](sesshō)* ("regent") to the underage emperor. His son [no Mototsune](Fujiwara)(Fujiwara no Mototsune) created the office of *[kampaku](kampaku)*, which could rule in the place of an adult reigning emperor. [no Michinaga](Fujiwara)(Fujiwara no Michinaga), an exceptional statesman who became *kampaku* in 996, governed during the height of the Fujiwara clan's power and married four of his daughters to emperors, current and future. The Fujiwara clan held on to power until 1086, when [Shirakawa](Emperor)(Emperor Shirakawa) ceded the throne to his son [Horikawa](Emperor)(Emperor Horikawa) but continued to exercise political power, establishing the practice of [rule](cloistered)(cloistered rule), by which the reigning emperor would function as a figurehead while the real authority was held by a retired predecessor behind the scenes.
Throughout the Heian period, the power of the imperial court declined. The court became so self-absorbed with power struggles and with the artistic pursuits of court nobles that it neglected the administration of government outside the capital. The nationalization of land undertaken as part of the *ritsuryō* state decayed as various noble families and religious orders succeeded in securing tax-exempt status for their private *[shōen](shōen)* manors. By the eleventh century, more land in Japan was controlled by *shōen* owners than by the central government. The imperial court was thus deprived of the tax revenue to pay for its national army. In response, the owners of the *shōen* set up their own armies of [samurai](samurai) warriors. Two powerful noble families that had descended from branches of the imperial family, the [Taira](Taira clan) and [clan](Minamoto)(Minamoto clan)s, acquired large armies and many *shōen* outside the capital. The central government began to use these two warrior clans to suppress rebellions and piracy. Japan's population stabilized during the late Heian period after hundreds of years of decline.
During the early Heian period, the imperial court successfully consolidated its control over the [Emishi](Emishi) people of northern Honshu. [no Otomaro](Ōtomo)(Ōtomo no Otomaro) was the first man the court granted the title of *seii tai-shōgun* ("Great Barbarian Subduing General"). In 802, seii tai-shōgun [no Tamuramaro](Sakanoue)(Sakanoue no Tamuramaro) subjugated the Emishi people, who were led by [Aterui](Aterui). By 1051, members of the [clan](Abe)(Abe clan), who occupied key posts in the regional government, were openly defying the central authority. The court requested the Minamoto clan to engage the Abe clan, whom they defeated in the [Nine Years' War](Former)(Former Nine Years' War). The court thus temporarily reasserted its authority in northern Japan. Following another civil warthe [Three-Year War](Later)(Gosannen War)[no Kiyohira](Fujiwara)(Fujiwara no Kiyohira) took full power; his family, the [Fujiwara](Northern)(Northern Fujiwara), controlled northern Honshu for the next century from their capital [Hiraizumi](Hiraizumi, Iwate).
In 1156, [dispute over succession to the throne](a)(Hōgen rebellion) erupted and the two rival claimants ([Go-Shirakawa](Emperor)(Emperor Go-Shirakawa) and [Sutoku](Emperor)(Emperor Sutoku)) hired the Taira and Minamoto clans in the hopes of securing the throne by military force. During this war, the Taira clan led by [no Kiyomori](Taira)(Taira no Kiyomori) defeated the Minamoto clan. Kiyomori used his victory to accumulate power for himself in Kyoto and even installed his own grandson [Antoku](Emperor Antoku) as emperor. The outcome of this war led to the rivalry between the Minamoto and Taira clans. As a result, the dispute and power struggle between both clans led to the [rebellion](Heiji)(Heiji rebellion) in 1160. In 1180, Taira no Kiyomori was challenged by an uprising led by [no Yoritomo](Minamoto)(Minamoto no Yoritomo), a member of the Minamoto clan whom Kiyomori had exiled to Kamakura. Though Taira no Kiyomori died in 1181, the ensuing bloody [War](Genpei)(Genpei War) between the Taira and Minamoto families continued for another four years. The victory of the Minamoto clan was sealed in 1185, when a force commanded by Yoritomo's younger brother, [no Yoshitsune](Minamoto)(Minamoto no Yoshitsune), scored a decisive victory at the naval [of Dan-no-ura](Battle)(Battle of Dan-no-ura). Yoritomo and his retainers thus became the *de facto* rulers of Japan.
#### Heian culture
[[File:Genji emaki TAKEKAWA.jpg|thumb|alt=|A handscroll painting dated , illustrating a scene from the "Bamboo River" chapter of *[Tale of Genji](The)(The Tale of Genji)*]]
During the Heian period, the imperial court was a vibrant center of high art and culture. Its literary accomplishments include the poetry collection *[Kokinshū](Kokinshū)* and the *[Diary](Tosa)(Tosa Diary)*, both associated with the poet [no Tsurayuki](Ki)(Ki no Tsurayuki), as well as [Shōnagon](Sei)(Sei Shōnagon)'s collection of miscellany *[Pillow Book](The)(The Pillow Book)*, and [Shikibu](Murasaki)(Murasaki Shikibu)'s *[of Genji](Tale)(The Tale of Genji)*, often considered the masterpiece of Japanese literature.
The development of the [kana](kana) written syllabaries was part of a general trend of declining Chinese influence during the Heian period. The official Japanese missions to Tang dynasty of China, which began in the year 630, ended during the ninth century, though informal missions of monks and scholars continued, and thereafter the development of native Japanese forms of art and poetry accelerated. A major architectural achievement, apart from Heian-kyō itself, was the temple of [Byōdō-in](Byōdō-in) built in 1053 in [Uji](Uji, Kyoto).
## Feudal Japan
### Kamakura period (1185–1333)
[[File:Minamoto no Yoritomo.jpg|thumb|Minamoto no Yoritomo was the founder of the Kamakura shogunate in 1192. This was the first [government](military)(military government) in which the shogun with the [samurai](samurai) were the de facto rulers of Japan.]]
Upon the consolidation of power, [no Yoritomo](Minamoto)(Minamoto no Yoritomo) chose to rule in concert with the [Court in Kyoto](Imperial)(Imperial Court in Kyoto). Though Yoritomo set up his own government in [Kamakura](Kamakura) in the [region](Kantō)(Kantō region) located in eastern Japan, its power was legally authorized by the Imperial court in Kyoto in several occasions. In 1192, the emperor declared Yoritomo *seii tai-shōgun* (; *Eastern Barbarian Subduing Great General*), abbreviated as *[shōgun](shōgun)*. Yoritomo's government was called the *[bakufu](bakufu)* ( ("tent government")), referring to the tents where his soldiers encamped. The English term *shogunate* refers to the *bakufu*. Japan remained largely under military rule until 1868.
Legitimacy was conferred on the shogunate by the Imperial court, but the shogunate was the *de facto* rulers of the country. The court maintained bureaucratic and religious functions, and the shogunate welcomed participation by members of the aristocratic class. The older institutions remained intact in a weakened form, and Kyoto remained the official capital. This system has been contrasted with the "simple warrior rule" of the later Muromachi period.
Yoritomo soon turned on Yoshitsune, who was initially harbored by [no Hidehira](Fujiwara)(Fujiwara no Hidehira), the grandson of Kiyohira and the *de facto* ruler of northern Honshu. In 1189, after Hidehira's death, his successor [Yasuhira](Fujiwara no Yasuhira) attempted to curry favor with Yoritomo by attacking Yoshitsune's home. Although Yoshitsune was killed, Yoritomo still invaded and conquered the Northern Fujiwara clan's territories. In subsequent centuries, Yoshitsune would become a legendary figure, portrayed in countless works of literature as an idealized tragic hero.
After Yoritomo's death in 1199, the office of shogun weakened. Behind the scenes, Yoritomo's wife [Masako](Hōjō)(Hōjō Masako) became the true power behind the government. In 1203, her father, [Tokimasa](Hōjō)(Hōjō Tokimasa), was appointed regent to the shogun, Yoritomo's son [no Sanetomo](Minamoto)(Minamoto no Sanetomo). Henceforth, the Minamoto shoguns became puppets of the [regents](Hōjō)(Hōjō clan), who wielded actual power.
The regime that Yoritomo had established, and which was kept in place by his successors, was decentralized and [feudalistic](feudalistic) in structure, in contrast with the earlier ritsuryō state. Yoritomo selected the provincial governors, known under the titles of *[shugo](shugo)* or *[jitō](jitō)*, from among his close vassals, the *[gokenin](gokenin)*. The Kamakura shogunate allowed its vassals to maintain their own armies and to administer law and order in their provinces on their own terms.
In 1221, the retired [Go-Toba](Emperor)(Emperor Go-Toba) instigated what became known as the [War](Jōkyū)(Jōkyū War), a rebellion against the shogunate, in an attempt to restore political power to the court. The rebellion was a failure and led to Go-Toba being exiled to [Island](Oki)(Oki Islands), along with two other emperors, the retired [Tsuchimikado](Emperor)(Emperor Tsuchimikado) and [Juntoku](Emperor)(Emperor Juntoku), who were exiled to [Province](Tosa)(Tosa Province) and [Island](Sado)(Sado Island) respectively. The shogunate further consolidated its political power relative to the Kyoto aristocracy.
The samurai armies of the whole nation were mobilized in 1274 and 1281 to confront [full-scale invasions](two)(Mongol invasions of Japan) launched by [Khan](Kublai)(Kublai Khan) of the [Empire](Mongol)(Mongol Empire). Though outnumbered by an enemy equipped with superior weaponry, the Japanese fought the Mongols to a standstill in Kyushu on both occasions until the Mongol fleet was destroyed by typhoons called *[kamikaze](Kamikaze (typhoon))*, meaning "divine wind". In spite of the Kamakura shogunate's victory, the defense so depleted its finances that it was unable to provide compensation to its vassals for their role in the victory. This had permanent negative consequences for the shogunate's relations with the samurai class. Discontent among the samurai proved decisive in ending the Kamakura shogunate. In 1333, [Go-Daigo](Emperor)(Emperor Go-Daigo) launched a rebellion in the hope of restoring full power to the imperial court. The shogunate sent General [Takauji](Ashikaga)(Ashikaga Takauji) to quell the revolt, but Takauji and his men instead joined forces with Emperor Go-Daigo and overthrew the Kamakura shogunate.
Japan nevertheless entered a period of prosperity and population growth starting around 1250. In rural areas, the greater use of iron tools and fertilizer, improved irrigation techniques, and [double-cropping](Multiple cropping) increased productivity and rural villages grew. Fewer famines and epidemics allowed cities to grow and commerce to boom. Buddhism, which had been largely a religion of the elites, was brought to the masses by prominent monks, such as [Hōnen](Hōnen) (1133–1212), who established [Land Buddhism](Pure)(Pure Land Buddhism) in Japan, and [Nichiren](Nichiren) (1222–1282), who founded [Buddhism](Nichiren)(Nichiren Buddhism). [Zen](Zen) Buddhism spread widely among the samurai class.
File:Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba.jpg|Ancient drawing depicting a samurai battling forces of the Mongol Empire
File:Mitsui Sukenaga.jpg|Samurai Mitsui Sukenaga (right) defeating the Mongolian invasion army (left)
File:Tagezaki Suenaga,Ekotoba5.jpg|Shiraishi clan
### Muromachi period (1333–1568)
[[File:Ashikaga Takauji Jōdo-ji.jpg|thumb|Portrait of [Takauji](Ashikaga)(Ashikaga Takauji) who was the founder and first *shōgun* of the Ashikaga shogunate]]
Takauji and many other samurai soon became dissatisfied with Emperor Go-Daigo's [Restoration](Kenmu)(Kenmu Restoration), an ambitious attempt to monopolize power in the imperial court. Takauji rebeled after Go-Daigo refused to appoint him shōgun. In 1338, Takauji captured Kyoto and installed a rival member of the imperial family to the throne, [Kōmyō](Emperor)(Emperor Kōmyō), who did appoint him shogun. Go-Daigo responded by fleeing to the southern city of [Yoshino](Yoshino, Nara), where he set up a rival government. This ushered in a prolonged [of conflict between the Northern Court and the Southern Court](period)(Nanboku-chō period).
Takauji set up his shogunate in the Muromachi district of Kyoto. However, the shogunate was faced with the twin challenges of fighting the Southern Court and of maintaining its authority over its own subordinate governors. Like the Kamakura shogunate, the Muromachi shogunate appointed its allies to rule in the provinces, but these men increasingly styled themselves as feudal lords—called *[daimyō](daimyō)s*—of their domains and often refused to obey the shogun. The Ashikaga shogun who was most successful at bringing the country together was Takauji's grandson [Yoshimitsu](Ashikaga)(Ashikaga Yoshimitsu), who came to power in 1368 and remained influential until his death in 1408. Yoshimitsu expanded the power of the shogunate and in 1392, brokered a deal to bring the Northern and Southern Courts together and end the civil war. Henceforth, the shogunate kept the emperor and his court under tight control.
[[was built in 1397 by Ashikaga Yoshimitsu](File:Kinkaku3402CBcropped.jpg|thumb|left|Kinkaku-ji)]
[[Japan Genki1-en.svg|thumb|left|Map showing the territories of major *daimyō* families around 1570 CE](File:Map)]
During the final century of the Ashikaga shogunate the country descended into another, more violent period of civil war. This started in 1467 when the [War](Ōnin)(Ōnin War) broke out over who would succeed the ruling shogun. The *daimyōs* each took sides and burned Kyoto to the ground while battling for their preferred candidate. By the time the succession was settled in 1477, the shogun had lost all power over the *daimyō*, who now ruled hundreds of independent states throughout Japan. During this [States period](Warring)(Sengoku period), *daimyōs* fought among themselves for control of the country. Some of the most powerful *daimyōs* of the era were [Kenshin](Uesugi)(Uesugi Kenshin) and [Shingen](Takeda)(Takeda Shingen). One enduring symbol of this era was the [ninja](ninja), skilled spies and assassins hired by *daimyōs*. Few definite historical facts are known about the secretive lifestyles of the ninja, who became the subject of many legends. In addition to the *daimyōs*, rebellious peasants and "warrior monks" affiliated with Buddhist temples also raised their own armies.
#### Nanban trade
Amid this on-going anarchy, a trading ship was blown off course and landed in 1543 on the Japanese island of [Tanegashima](Tanegashima), just south of Kyushu. The three [Portuguese](Portugal) traders on board were the first Europeans to set foot in Japan. Soon European traders would introduce many new items to Japan, most importantly the [musket](musket). By 1556, the *daimyōs* were using about 300,000 muskets in their armies. The Europeans also [Christianity](brought)(History of Roman Catholicism in Japan), which soon came to have a substantial following in Japan reaching 350,000 believers. In 1549 the [Jesuit](Society of Jesus) missionary [Xavier](Francis)(Francis Xavier) disembarked in Kyushu.
[[by João Vaz Dourado.jpg|thumb|Japan (Iapam) and Korea, in the 1568 Portuguese map of the cartographer João Vaz Dourado.](File:Iapam)]
Initiating direct [commercial](Nanban trade) and [cultural](Nanban art) exchange between Japan and the West, the first map made of Japan in the west was represented in 1568 by the Portuguese cartographer [Vaz Dourado](Fernão)(Fernão Vaz Dourado).
The Portuguese were allowed to trade and create colonies where they could convert new believers into the Christian religion. The civil war status in Japan greatly benefited the Portuguese, as well as several competing gentlemen who sought to attract Portuguese black boats and their trade to their domains. Initially, the Portuguese stayed on the lands belonging to Matsura Takanobu, Firando (Hirado), and in the province of Bungo, lands of Ōtomo Sōrin, but in 1562 they moved to Yokoseura when the Daimyô there, Omura Sumitada, offered to be the first lord to convert to Christianity, adopting the name of Dom Bartolomeu. In 1564, he faced a rebellion instigated by the Buddhist clergy and Yokoseura was destroyed.
In 1561 forces under [Sōrin](Ōtomo)(Ōtomo Sōrin) attacked the castle in [Moji](Siege of Moji) with an alliance with the Portuguese, who provided three ships, with a crew of about 900 men and more than 50 cannons. This is thought to be the first bombardment by foreign ships on Japan. The first recorded naval battle between Europeans and the Japanese occurred in 1565. In the Battle of Fukuda Bay, the *[daimyō](daimyō)* [Takanobu](Matsura)(Matsura Takanobu) attacked two Portuguese trade vessels at [Hirado](Hirado) port. The engagement led the Portuguese traders to find a safe harbor for their [ships](Carrack) that took them to [Nagasaki](Nagasaki).
[[File:Nanbansen Carrack by Kano Naizen.jpg|thumb|The Black Ship Portuguese traders that came from [Goa](Goa) and Macau once a year.]]
In 1571, Dom Bartolomeu, also known as [Sumitada](Ōmura)(Ōmura Sumitada), guaranteed a little land in the small fishing village of "Nagasáqui" to the Jesuits, who divided it into six areas. They could use the land to receive Christians exiled from other territories, as well as for Portuguese merchants. The Jesuits built a chapel and a school under the name of São Paulo, like those in Goa and Malacca. By 1579, Nagasáqui had four hundred houses, and some Portuguese had gotten married. Fearful that Nagasaki could fall into the hands of its rival Takanobu, Omura Sumitada (Dom Bartolomeu) decided to guarantee the city directly to the Jesuits in 1580. After a few years, the Jesuits came to realize that if they understood the language they would achieve more conversions to the Catholic religion. Jesuits such as João Rodrigues wrote a [dictionary](Japanese)(Nippo jisho). Thus Portuguese became the first Western language to have such a dictionary when it was published in Nagasaki in 1603.
[Nobunaga](Oda)(Oda Nobunaga) used European technology and firearms to conquer many other *daimyōs*; his consolidation of power began what was known as the [period](Azuchi–Momoyama)(Azuchi–Momoyama period) (1573–1603). After Nobunaga was assassinated in 1582 by [Mitsuhide](Akechi)(Akechi Mitsuhide), his successor [Hideyoshi](Toyotomi)(Toyotomi Hideyoshi) unified the nation in 1590 and launched [unsuccessful invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597](two)(Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)). Before the invasion, Hideyoshi tried to hire two Portuguese galleons to join the invasion but the Portuguese refused the offer.
[Ieyasu](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa Ieyasu) served as regent for Hideyoshi's son [Hideyori](Toyotomi)(Toyotomi Hideyori) and used his position to gain political and military support. When open war broke out, Ieyasu defeated rival clans in the [of Sekigahara](Battle)(Battle of Sekigahara) in 1600. In 1603 the [shogunate](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa shogunate) at [Edo](Edo) enacted measures including *[shohatto](buke)(buke shohatto)*, as a code of conduct to control the autonomous *daimyōs*, and in 1639 the isolationist *[sakoku](sakoku)* ("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the [period](Edo)(Edo period) (1603–1868), this act ended with Portuguese influence after 100 years in Japanese territory, also aiming to limit the political presence of any foreign power.
#### Muromachi culture
In spite of the war, Japan's relative economic prosperity, which had begun in the Kamakura period, continued well into the Muromachi period. By 1450 Japan's population stood at ten million, compared to six million at the end of the thirteenth century. Commerce flourished, including considerable trade with China and Korea. Because the *daimyōs* and other groups within Japan were minting their own coins, Japan began to transition from a barter-based to a currency-based economy. During the period, some of Japan's most representative art forms developed, including [wash painting](ink)(ink wash painting), *[ikebana](ikebana)* flower arrangement, the [ceremony](tea)(tea ceremony), [garden](Japanese)(Japanese garden)ing, *[bonsai](bonsai)*, and *[Noh](Noh)* theater. Though the eighth Ashikaga shogun, [Yoshimasa](Ashikaga Yoshimasa), was an ineffectual political and military leader, he played a critical role in promoting these cultural developments. He had the famous [Kinkaku-ji](Kinkaku-ji) or "Temple of the Golden Pavilion" built in Kyoto in 1397.
### Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568-1600)
During the second half of the 16th century, Japan gradually reunified under two powerful warlords: [Nobunaga](Oda)(Oda Nobunaga) and [Hideyoshi](Toyotomi)(Toyotomi Hideyoshi). The period takes its name from Nobunaga's headquarters, [Castle](Azuchi)(Azuchi Castle), and Hideyoshi's headquarters, [Castle](Momoyama)(Momoyama Castle).
[[in 1582, showing territory conquered by Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi in gray](File:Azuchimomoyama-japan.png|thumb|alt=|Japan)]
Nobunaga was the *daimyō* of the small province of [Owari](Owari Province). He burst onto the scene suddenly, in 1560, when, during the [of Okehazama](Battle)(Battle of Okehazama), his army defeated a force several times its size led by the powerful *daimyō* [Yoshimoto](Imagawa)(Imagawa Yoshimoto). Nobunaga was renowned for his strategic leadership and his ruthlessness. He encouraged Christianity to incite hatred toward his Buddhist enemies and to forge strong relationships with European arms merchants. He equipped his armies with muskets and trained them with innovative tactics. He promoted talented men regardless of their social status, including his peasant servant Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who became one of his best generals.
The Azuchi–Momoyama period began in 1568, when Nobunaga seized Kyoto and thus effectively brought an end to the Ashikaga shogunate. He was well on his way towards his goal of reuniting all Japan when, in 1582, one of his own officers, [Mitsuhide](Akechi)(Akechi Mitsuhide), killed him during an abrupt attack on his encampment. Hideyoshi avenged Nobunaga by crushing Akechi's uprising and emerged as Nobunaga's successor. Hideyoshi completed the reunification of Japan by conquering [Shikoku](Shikoku), Kyushu, and the lands of the [family](Hōjō)(Late Hōjō clan) in eastern Japan. He launched sweeping changes to Japanese society, including the confiscation of swords from the peasantry, new restrictions on *daimyōs*, persecutions of Christians, a thorough land survey, and a new law effectively forbidding the peasants and samurai from changing their social class. Hideyoshi's land survey designated all those who were cultivating the land as being "commoners", an act which effectively granted freedom to most of Japan's [slaves](Slavery in Japan).
As Hideyoshi's power expanded, he dreamed of conquering China and launched two massive [of Korea](invasions)(Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)) starting in 1592. Hideyoshi failed to defeat the Chinese and Korean armies on the Korean Peninsula and the war ended after his death in 1598. In the hope of founding a new dynasty, Hideyoshi had asked his most trusted subordinates to pledge loyalty to his infant son [Hideyori](Toyotomi)(Toyotomi Hideyori). Despite this, almost immediately after Hideyoshi's death, war broke out between Hideyori's allies and those loyal to [Ieyasu](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa Ieyasu), a *daimyō* and a former ally of Hideyoshi. Tokugawa Ieyasu won a decisive victory at the [of Sekigahara](Battle)(Battle of Sekigahara) in 1600, ushering in 268 uninterrupted years of rule by the [clan](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa clan).
## Early modern Japan
### Edo period (1600–1868)
[[Ieyasu2 full.JPG|thumb|upright|Tokugawa Ieyasu was the founder and first *shōgun* of the Tokugawa shogunate.](File:Tokugawa)]
The [period](Edo)(Edo period) was characterized by relative peace and stability under the tight control of the [shogunate](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa shogunate), which ruled from the eastern city of [Edo](Edo) (modern Tokyo). In 1603, [Go-Yōzei](Emperor)(Emperor Go-Yōzei) declared Tokugawa Ieyasu *shōgun*, and Ieyasu abdicated two years later to groom his son as the second *shōgun* of what became a long dynasty. Nevertheless, it took time for the Tokugawas to consolidate their rule. In 1609, the *shōgun* gave the *daimyō* of the [Domain](Satsuma)(Satsuma Domain) permission to [the Ryukyu Kingdom](invade)(Invasion of Ryukyu) for perceived insults towards the shogunate; the Satsuma victory began 266 years of Ryukyu's dual subordination to Satsuma and China. Ieyasu led the [of Osaka](Siege)(Siege of Osaka) that ended with the destruction of the [clan](Toyotomi)(Toyotomi clan) in 1615. Soon after the shogunate promulgated the [for the Military Houses](Laws)(Buke shohatto), which imposed tighter controls on the *daimyōs*, and the [attendance system](alternate)(Sankin-kōtai), which required each *daimyō* to spend every other year in Edo. Even so, the *daimyōs* continued to maintain a significant degree of autonomy in their domains. The central government of the shogunate in Edo, which quickly became the most populous city in the world, took counsel from a group of senior advisors known as *[rōjū](rōjū)* and employed samurai as bureaucrats. The emperor in Kyoto was funded lavishly by the government but was allowed no political power.
The Tokugawa shogunate went to great lengths to suppress social unrest. Harsh penalties, including crucifixion, beheading, and death by boiling, were decreed for even the most minor offenses, though criminals of high social class were often given the option of *[seppuku](seppuku)* ("self-disembowelment"), an ancient form of suicide that became ritualized. Christianity, which was seen as a potential threat, was gradually clamped down on until finally, after the Christian-led [Rebellion](Shimabara)(Shimabara Rebellion) of 1638, the religion was completely outlawed. To prevent further foreign ideas from sowing dissent, the third Tokugawa shogun, [Iemitsu](Iemitsu), implemented the *[sakoku](sakoku)* ("closed country") isolationist policy under which Japanese people were not allowed to travel abroad, return from overseas, or build ocean-going vessels. The only Europeans allowed on Japanese soil were the Dutch, who were granted a single trading post on the island of [Dejima](Dejima) at [Nagasaki](Nagasaki) from 1634 to 1854. JapanVisitor Japan Travel Guide|website=www.japanvisitor.com|language=en|access-date=6 May 2018}} China and Korea were the only other countries permitted to trade, and many foreign books were banned from import.
During the first century of Tokugawa rule, Japan's population doubled to thirty million, mostly because of agricultural growth; the population remained stable for the rest of the period. The shogunate's construction of roads, elimination of road and bridge tolls, and standardization of coinage promoted commercial expansion that also benefited the merchants and artisans of the cities. City populations grew, but almost ninety percent of the population continued to live in rural areas. Both the inhabitants of cities and of rural communities would benefit from one of the most notable social changes of the Edo period: increased literacy and numeracy. The number of private schools greatly expanded, particularly those attached to temples and shrines, and raised literacy to thirty percent. This may have been the world's highest rate at the time and drove a flourishing commercial publishing industry, which grew to produce hundreds of titles per year. In the area of [numeracy](numeracy) – approximated by an index measuring people's ability to report an exact rather than a rounded age (age-heaping method), and which level shows a strong correlation to later economic development of a country – Japan's level was comparable to that of north-west European countries, and moreover, Japan's index came close to the 100 percent mark throughout the nineteenth century. These high levels of both literacy and numeracy were part of the socio-economical foundation for Japan's strong growth rates during the following century.
#### Culture and philosophy
[[File:Samurai-Edo-Customs-1798-Shiji-no-Yukikai.png|thumb|Samurai could [a commoner](kill)(Kiri-sute gomen) for the slightest insult and were widely feared by the Japanese population. Edo period, 1798.]]
The Edo period was a time of cultural flourishing, as the merchant classes grew in wealth and began spending their income on cultural and social pursuits. Members of the merchant class who patronized culture and entertainment were said to live hedonistic lives, which came to be called the *[ukiyo](ukiyo)* ("floating world"). This lifestyle inspired *[ukiyo-zōshi](ukiyo-zōshi)* popular novels and *[ukiyo-e](ukiyo-e)* art, the latter of which were often woodblock prints that progressed to greater sophistication and use of [printed colors](multiple)(Nishiki-e).
Forms of theater such as [kabuki](kabuki) and *[bunraku](bunraku)* puppet theater became widely popular. These new forms of entertainment were (at the time) accompanied by short songs (*kouta*) and music played on the *[shamisen](shamisen)*, a new import to Japan in 1600. *[Haiku](Haiku)*, whose greatest master is generally agreed to be [Bashō](Matsuo)(Matsuo Bashō) (1644–1694), also rose as a major form of poetry. [Geisha](Geisha), a new profession of entertainers, also became popular. They would provide conversation, sing, and dance for customers, though they would not sleep with them.
The Tokugawas sponsored and were heavily influenced by [Neo-Confucianism](Neo-Confucianism), which led the government to divide society into four classes based on the [occupations](four)(four occupations). The samurai class claimed to follow the ideology of [bushido](bushido), literally "the way of the warrior".
#### Decline and fall of the shogunate
By the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the shogunate showed signs of weakening. The dramatic growth of agriculture that had characterized the early Edo period had ended, and the government handled the devastating [famine](Tenpō)(Tenpō famine)s poorly. Peasant unrest grew and government revenues fell. The shogunate cut the pay of the already financially distressed samurai, many of whom worked side jobs to make a living. Discontented samurai were soon to play a major role in engineering the downfall of the Tokugawa shogunate.
At the same time, the people drew inspiration from new ideas and fields of study. Dutch books brought into Japan stimulated interest in Western learning, called *[rangaku](rangaku)* or "Dutch learning". The physician [Genpaku](Sugita)(Sugita Genpaku), for instance, used concepts from Western medicine to help spark a revolution in Japanese ideas of human anatomy. The scholarly field of *[kokugaku](kokugaku)* or "national learning", developed by scholars such as [Norinaga](Motoori)(Motoori Norinaga) and [Atsutane](Hirata)(Hirata Atsutane), promoted what it asserted were native Japanese values. For instance, it criticized the Chinese-style Neo-Confucianism advocated by the shogunate and emphasized the Emperor's divine authority, which the Shinto faith taught had its roots in Japan's mythic past, which was referred to as the "[of the Gods](Age)(Age of the Gods)".
[[of the Satsuma Domain during the Boshin War](File:Satsuma-samurai-during-boshin-war-period.jpg|thumb|left|alt=|Samurai)]
The arrival in 1853 of a fleet of American ships commanded by Commodore [Perry](Matthew C.)(Matthew C. Perry) threw Japan into turmoil. The [government](US)(Federal government of the United States) aimed to end Japan's isolationist policies. The shogunate had no defense against Perry's gunboats and had to agree to his demands that American ships be permitted to acquire provisions and trade at Japanese ports. The [powers](Western)(Western world) imposed what became known as "[treaties](unequal)(Unequal treaty)" on Japan which stipulated that Japan must allow citizens of these countries to visit or reside on Japanese territory and must not levy tariffs on their imports or try them in Japanese courts.
The shogunate's failure to oppose the Western powers angered many Japanese, particularly those of the southern domains of [Chōshū](Chōshū Domain) and [Satsuma](Satsuma Domain). Many samurai there, inspired by the nationalist doctrines of the kokugaku school, adopted the slogan of *[jōi](sonnō)(sonnō jōi)* ("revere the emperor, expel the barbarians"). The two domains went on to form an alliance. In August 1866, soon after becoming shogun, [Yoshinobu](Tokugawa)(Tokugawa Yoshinobu), struggled to maintain power as civil unrest continued. The Chōshū and Satsuma domains in 1868 convinced the young [Meiji](Emperor)(Emperor Meiji) and his advisors to issue a [rescript](rescript) calling for an end to the Tokugawa shogunate. The armies of Chōshū and Satsuma soon marched on Edo and the ensuing [War](Boshin)(Boshin War) led to the fall of the shogunate.
## Modern Japan
### Meiji period (1868–1912)
[[File:Meiji tenno1.jpg|thumb|upright|Emperor Meiji, the 122nd [of Japan](Emperor)(Emperor of Japan)]]
The emperor was restored to nominal supreme power, and in 1869, the imperial family moved to Edo, which was renamed [Tokyo](Tokyo) ("eastern capital"). However, the most powerful men in the government were former samurai from Chōshū and Satsuma rather than the emperor, who was fifteen in 1868. These men, known as the [oligarchs](Meiji)(Meiji oligarchy), oversaw the dramatic changes Japan would experience during this period. The leaders of the [government](Meiji)(Government of Meiji Japan) desired Japan to become a modern nation-state that could stand equal to the Western imperialist powers. Among them were [Toshimichi](Ōkubo)(Ōkubo Toshimichi) and [Takamori](Saigō)(Saigō Takamori) from Satsuma, as well as [Takayoshi](Kido)(Kido Takayoshi), [Hirobumi](Ito)(Ito Hirobumi), and [Aritomo](Yamagata)(Yamagata Aritomo) from Chōshū.
#### Political and social changes
The Meiji government abolished the Edo class structure and replaced the feudal domains of the *daimyōs* with [prefectures](Prefectures of Japan). It instituted comprehensive tax reform and lifted the ban on Christianity. Major government priorities also included the introduction of railways, telegraph lines, and a universal education system. The Meiji government promoted widespread [Westernization](Westernization) and hired hundreds of [from Western nations](advisers)(Foreign government advisors in Meiji Japan) with expertise in such fields as education, mining, banking, law, military affairs, and transportation to remodel Japan's institutions. The Japanese adopted the [calendar](Gregorian)(Gregorian calendar), Western clothing, and Western hairstyles. One leading advocate of Westernization was the popular writer [Yukichi](Fukuzawa)(Fukuzawa Yukichi). As part of its Westernization drive, the Meiji government enthusiastically sponsored the importation of Western science, above all medical science. In 1893, [Shibasaburō](Kitasato)(Kitasato Shibasaburō) established the Institute for Infectious Diseases, which would soon become world-famous, and in 1913, [Noguchi](Hideyo)(Hideyo Noguchi) proved the link between [syphilis](syphilis) and [paresis](paresis). Furthermore, the introduction of European literary styles to Japan sparked a boom in new works of prose fiction. Characteristic authors of the period included [Shimei](Futabatei)(Futabatei Shimei) and [Ōgai](Mori)(Mori Ōgai), although the most famous of the Meiji era writers was [Sōseki](Natsume)(Natsume Sōseki), who wrote satirical, autobiographical, and psychological novels combining both the older and newer styles. [Higuchi](Ichiyō)(Ichiyō Higuchi), a leading female author, took inspiration from earlier literary models of the Edo period.
Government institutions developed rapidly in response to the [and People's Rights Movement](Freedom)(Freedom and People's Rights Movement), a grassroots campaign demanding greater popular participation in politics. The leaders of this movement included [Taisuke](Itagaki)(Itagaki Taisuke) and [Shigenobu](Ōkuma)(Ōkuma Shigenobu). [Hirobumi](Itō)(Itō Hirobumi), the first [Minister of Japan](Prime)(Prime Minister of Japan), responded by writing the [Constitution](Meiji)(Meiji Constitution), which was promulgated in 1889. The new constitution established an elected lower house, the [of Representatives](House)(House of Representatives (Japan)), but its powers were restricted. Only two percent of the population were eligible to vote, and legislation proposed in the House required the support of the unelected upper house, the [of Peers](House)(House of Peers (Japan)). Both the cabinet of Japan and the Japanese military were directly responsible not to the elected legislature but to the emperor. Concurrently, the Japanese government also developed a form of [nationalism](Japanese)(Japanese nationalism) under which [became the state religion](Shinto)(State Shinto) and the emperor was declared a living god. Schools nationwide instilled patriotic values and loyalty to the emperor.
#### Rise of imperialism and the military
In December 1871, a Ryukyuan ship was shipwrecked on Taiwan and the crew [massacred](were)(Mudan incident). In 1874, using the incident as a pretext, Japan launched [military expedition](a)(Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)) to Taiwan to assert their claims to the [Islands](Ryukyu)(Ryukyu Islands). The expedition featured the first instance of the Japanese military ignoring the orders of the civilian government, as the expedition set sail after being ordered to postpone. [Aritomo](Yamagata)(Yamagata Aritomo), who was born a samurai in the Chōshū Domain, was a key force behind the modernization and enlargement of the [Japanese Army](Imperial)(Imperial Japanese Army), especially the introduction of national conscription. The new army was put to use in 1877 to crush the [Rebellion](Satsuma)(Satsuma Rebellion) of discontented samurai in southern Japan led by the former Meiji leader Saigo Takamori.
The Japanese military played a key role in Japan's expansion abroad. The government believed that Japan had to acquire its own colonies to compete with the Western colonial powers. After consolidating its control over [Hokkaido](Hokkaido) (through the [Development Commission](Hokkaidō)(Hokkaidō Development Commission)) and annexing the [Kingdom](Ryukyu)(Ryukyu Kingdom) (the "[Disposition](Ryūkyū)(Ryūkyū Disposition)"), it next turned its attention to China and Korea. In 1894, Japanese and Chinese troops clashed in Korea, where they were both stationed to suppress the [Rebellion](Donghak)(Donghak Rebellion). During the ensuing [Sino-Japanese War](First)(First Sino-Japanese War), Japan's highly motivated and well-led forces defeated the more numerous and better-equipped military of [China](Qing)(Qing China). The island of Taiwan was thus ceded to Japan in 1895, and Japan's government gained enough international prestige to allow Foreign Minister [Munemitsu](Mutsu)(Mutsu Munemitsu) to renegotiate the "unequal treaties". In 1902 Japan signed [important military alliance](an)(Anglo-Japanese Alliance) with the British.
[[File:Pacific Area - The Imperial Powers 1939 - Map.svg|thumb|The [Empire](Japanese)(Japanese Empire) in 1939]]
Japan next clashed with Russia, which was expanding its power in Asia. The [of Yalu River](Battle)(Battle of the Yalu River (1904)) was the first time in decades that an Asian power defeated a western power. The [War](Russo-Japanese)(Russo-Japanese War) of 1904–05 ended with the dramatic [of Tsushima](Battle)(Battle of Tsushima), which was another victory for Japan's new navy. Japan thus laid claim to Korea [a protectorate](as)(Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905) in 1905, followed by [annexation in 1910](full)(Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910). The defeat of Russia in the war had set in motion a change in the global world order with the emergence of Japan as not only a regional power, but rather, the main Asian power.
#### Economic modernization and labor unrest
During the Meiji period, Japan underwent a rapid transition towards an industrial economy. Both the Japanese government and private entrepreneurs adopted Western technology and knowledge to create factories capable of producing a wide range of goods.
By the end of the period, the majority of Japan's exports were manufactured goods. Some of Japan's most successful new businesses and industries constituted huge family-owned conglomerates called *[zaibatsu](zaibatsu)*, such as [Mitsubishi](Mitsubishi) and [Sumitomo](Sumitomo). The phenomenal industrial growth sparked rapid urbanization. The proportion of the population working in agriculture shrank from 75 percent in 1872 to 50 percent by 1920. In 1927 the [Metro Ginza Line](Tokyo)(Tokyo Metro Ginza Line) opened and it is the oldest subway line in Asia.
Japan enjoyed solid economic growth at this time and most people lived longer and healthier lives. The population rose from 34 million in 1872 to 52 million in 1915. Poor working conditions in factories led to growing labor unrest, and many workers and intellectuals came to embrace socialist ideas. The Meiji government responded with harsh suppression of dissent. Radical socialists plotted to assassinate the emperor in the [Treason Incident](High)(High Treason Incident) of 1910, after which the [Tokkō](Tokubetsu Kōtō Keisatsu) secret police force was established to root out left-wing agitators. The government also introduced social legislation in 1911 setting maximum work hours and a minimum age for employment.
### Taishō period (1912–1926)
During the short reign of [Taishō](Emperor)(Emperor Taishō), Japan developed stronger democratic institutions and grew in international power. The [political crisis](Taishō)(Taishō political crisis) opened the period with mass protests and riots organized by Japanese political parties, which succeeded in forcing [Tarō](Katsura)(Katsura Tarō) to resign as prime minister. This and the [riots of 1918](rice)(rice riots of 1918) increased the power of Japan's political parties over the ruling oligarchy. The [Seiyūkai](Seiyūkai) and [Minseitō](Rikken Minseitō) parties came to dominate politics by the end of the so-called "Taishō democracy" era. The franchise for the House of Representatives had been gradually expanded since 1890, and in 1925 [male suffrage](universal)(universal male suffrage) was introduced. However, in the same year the far-reaching [Preservation Law](Peace)(Peace Preservation Law) also passed, prescribing harsh penalties for political dissidents.
[participation in World War I](Japan's)(Japan during World War I) on the side of the [Allies](Allies of World War I) sparked unprecedented economic growth and earned Japan [colonies in the South Pacific](new)(South Seas Mandate) seized from Germany. After the war, Japan signed the [of Versailles](Treaty)(Treaty of Versailles) and enjoyed good international relations through its membership in the [of Nations](League)(League of Nations) and participation in international disarmament conferences. The [Kantō earthquake](Great)(1923 Great Kantō earthquake) in September 1923 left over 100,000 dead, and combined with the resultant fires destroyed the homes of more than three million.
The growth of popular prose fiction, which began during the Meiji period, continued into the Taishō period as literacy rates rose and book prices dropped. Notable literary figures of the era included short story writer [Akutagawa](Ryūnosuke)(Ryūnosuke Akutagawa) and the novelist [Satō](Haruo)(Haruo Satō (novelist)). [Tanizaki](Jun'ichirō)(Jun'ichirō Tanizaki), described as "perhaps the most versatile literary figure of his day" by the historian Conrad Totman, produced many works during the Taishō period influenced by European literature, though his 1929 novel *[Prefer Nettles](Some)(Some Prefer Nettles)* reflects deep appreciation for the virtues of traditional Japanese culture. At the end of the Taishō period, Tarō Hirai, known by his penname [Ranpo](Edogawa)(Edogawa Ranpo), began writing popular mystery and crime stories.
### Shōwa period (1926–1989)
Emperor [Hirohito](Hirohito)'s sixty-three-year reign from 1926 to 1989 is the longest in recorded Japanese history. The first twenty years were characterized by the rise of extreme nationalism and a series of expansionist wars. After suffering defeat in World War II, Japan was occupied by foreign powers for the first time in its history, and then re-emerged as a major world economic power.
#### Manchurian Incident and the Second Sino-Japanese War
[[Japan VP8.webm|thumb|The Empire of Japan in 1937](File:1937)]
Left-wing groups had been subject to violent suppression by the end of the Taishō period, and radical right-wing groups, inspired by fascism and Japanese nationalism, rapidly grew in popularity. The extreme right became influential throughout the Japanese government and society, notably within the [Army](Kwantung)(Kwantung Army), a Japanese army stationed in China along the Japanese-owned [Manchuria Railroad](South)(South Manchuria Railroad). During the [Incident](Manchurian)(Manchurian Incident) of 1931, radical army officers bombed a small portion of the South Manchuria Railroad and, falsely attributing the attack to the Chinese, invaded Manchuria. The Kwantung Army conquered Manchuria and set up the puppet government of [Manchukuo](Manchukuo) there without permission from the Japanese government. International criticism of Japan following the invasion led to Japan withdrawing from the [of Nations](League)(League of Nations).
Prime Minister [Inukai](Tsuyoshi)(Tsuyoshi Inukai) of the Seiyūkai Party attempted to restrain the Kwantung Army and was assassinated in 1932 by right-wing extremists. Because of growing opposition within the Japanese military and the extreme right to party politicians, who they saw as corrupt and self-serving, Inukai was the last party politician to govern Japan in the pre-World War II era. In February 1936 young radical officers of the Imperial Japanese Army [a coup d'état](attempted)(February 26 Incident). They assassinated many moderate politicians before the coup was suppressed. In its wake the Japanese military consolidated its control over the political system and most political parties were abolished when the [Rule Assistance Association](Imperial)(Imperial Rule Assistance Association) was founded in 1940.
[[File:193109 mukden incident railway sabotage.jpg|thumb|left|Japanese experts inspect the scene of the 'railway sabotage' on South Manchurian Railway, leading to the [Incident](Mukden)(Mukden Incident) and the Japanese occupation of Manchuria.]]
Japan's expansionist vision grew increasingly bold. Many of Japan's political elite aspired to have Japan acquire new territory for resource extraction and settlement of surplus population. These ambitions led to the outbreak of the [Sino-Japanese War](Second)(Second Sino-Japanese War) in 1937. After [victory](their)(Battle of Nanjing) in [Chinese capital](the)(Nanjing), the Japanese military committed the infamous [massacre](Nanjing)(Nanjing massacre). The Japanese military failed to defeat the Chinese government led by [Kai-shek](Chiang)(Chiang Kai-shek) and the war descended into a bloody stalemate that lasted until 1945. Japan's stated war aim was to establish the [East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere](Greater)(Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere), a vast [pan-Asian](pan-Asian) union under Japanese domination. Hirohito's role in Japan's foreign wars remains a subject of controversy, with various historians portraying him as either a powerless figurehead or an enabler and supporter of Japanese militarism.
The United States opposed Japan's invasion of China and responded with increasingly stringent economic sanctions intended to deprive Japan of the resources to continue its war in China. Japan reacted by forging an alliance with Germany and Italy in 1940, known as the [Pact](Tripartite)(Tripartite Pact), which worsened its relations with the US. In July 1941, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands froze all Japanese assets when Japan completed its [of French Indochina](invasion)(invasion of French Indochina) by occupying the southern half of the country, further increasing tension in the Pacific.
#### World War II
[[File:Carrier shokaku.jpg|thumb|Planes from the [aircraft carrier *Shōkaku*](Japanese)(Japanese aircraft carrier Shōkaku) preparing the attack on Pearl Harbor]]
[[File:Japanese_Empire_(orthographic_projection).svg|thumb|The [of Japan](Empire)(Empire of Japan) at its peak in 1942: }}]]
In late 1941, Japan's government, led by Prime Minister and General [Tojo](Hideki)(Hideki Tojo), decided to break the US-led embargo through force of arms. On 7 December 1941, the Imperial Japanese Navy launched [surprise attack](a)(Attack on Pearl Harbor) on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. This brought the US into [War II](World)(World War II) on the side of the [Allies](Allies of World War II). Japan then successfully invaded the Asian colonies of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands, including the [Philippines](Commonwealth of the Philippines), [Malaya](British Malaya), [Kong](Hong)(British Hong Kong), [Singapore](Singapore in the Straits Settlements), [Burma](British rule in Burma), and the [East Indies](Dutch)(Dutch East Indies).
In the early stages of the war, Japan scored victory after victory. The tide began to turn against Japan following the [of Midway](Battle)(Battle of Midway) in June 1942 and the subsequent [of Guadalcanal](Battle)(Battle of Guadalcanal), in which Allied troops wrested the [Islands](Solomon)(Solomon Islands) from Japanese control. During this period the Japanese military was responsible for such war crimes as mistreatment of prisoners of war, massacres of civilians, and the use of chemical and biological weapons. The Japanese military earned a reputation for fanaticism, often employing [charge](banzai)(banzai charge)s and fighting almost to the last man against overwhelming odds. In 1944 the Imperial Japanese Navy began deploying squadrons of *[kamikaze](kamikaze)* pilots who crashed their planes into enemy ships.
[[cloud over Hiroshima - NARA 542192 - Edit.jpg|thumb|left|Atomic cloud over Hiroshima, 1945](File:Atomic)]
Life in Japan became increasingly difficult for civilians due to stringent rationing of food, electrical outages, and a brutal crackdown on dissent. In 1944 the US Army captured the island of [Saipan](Battle of Saipan), which allowed the United States to begin widespread [raids on the Japanese mainland](bombing)(Air raids on Japan). These destroyed over half of the total area of Japan's major cities. The [of Okinawa](Battle)(Battle of Okinawa), fought between April and June 1945, was the largest naval operation of the war and left 115,000 soldiers and 150,000 Okinawan civilians dead, suggesting that the planned [of mainland Japan](invasion)(Operation Downfall) would be even bloodier. The Japanese superbattleship *[Yamato](Japanese battleship Yamato)* was sunk en route to aid in the Battle of Okinawa.
However, on 6 August 1945, the US dropped an atomic bomb [Hiroshima](over)(Atomic bombing of Hiroshima), killing over 70,000 people. This was the first nuclear attack in history. On 9 August the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) declared war on Japan and [Manchukuo](invaded)(Soviet invasion of Manchuria) and other territories, and Nagasaki was struck by [second atomic bomb](a)(Atomic bombing of Nagasaki), killing around 40,000 people. The [of Japan](surrender)(surrender of Japan) was communicated to the Allies on 14 August and [broadcast](Hirohito surrender broadcast) by Emperor Hirohito on national radio the following day.
#### Occupation of Japan
[[File:Macarthur hirohito.jpg|thumb|General [MacArthur](Douglas)(Douglas MacArthur) and [of Japan](Emperor)(Emperor of Japan), [Hirohito](Hirohito), at their first meeting, September 1945]]
[[File:Treaty of peace with japan.jpg|thumb|left|US Secretary of State [Acheson](Dean)(Dean Acheson) signing the [of Peace with Japan](Treaty)(Treaty of San Francisco), 8 September 1951]]
Japan experienced dramatic political and social transformation under the Allied occupation in 1945–1952. US General [MacArthur](Douglas)(Douglas MacArthur), the [Commander of Allied Powers](Supreme)(Supreme Commander of Allied Powers), served as Japan's *de facto* leader and played a central role in implementing reforms, many inspired by the [Deal](New)(New Deal) of the 1930s.
The occupation sought to decentralize power in Japan by breaking up the *[zaibatsu](zaibatsu)*, transferring ownership of agricultural land from landlords to tenant farmers, and promoting labor unionism. Other major goals were the demilitarization and democratization of Japan's government and society. Japan's military was disarmed, [colonies](its)(Japanese colonial empire) were granted independence, the [Preservation Law](Peace)(Peace Preservation Law) and [Higher Police](Special)(Special Higher Police) were abolished, and the [Military Tribunal of the Far East](International)(International Military Tribunal of the Far East) tried war criminals. The [cabinet](Cabinet of Japan) became responsible not to the Emperor but to the elected [Diet](National)(National Diet). The Emperor was permitted to remain on the throne, but was ordered to [his claims to divinity](renounce)(Humanity Declaration), which had been a pillar of the [Shinto](State)(State Shinto) system. Japan's [constitution](new)(Constitution of Japan) came into effect in 1947 and guaranteed civil liberties, labor rights, and women's suffrage, and through [9](Article)(Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution), Japan renounced its right to go to war with another nation.
The [Francisco Peace Treaty](San)(San Francisco Peace Treaty) of 1951 officially normalized relations between Japan and the United States. The occupation ended in 1952, although the US continued to [a number of the Ryukyu Islands](administer)(United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands). In 1968, the [Islands](Ogasawara)(Ogasawara Islands) were returned from US occupation to Japanese sovereignty. Japanese citizens were allowed to return. Okinawa was the last to [returned](be)(1971 Okinawa Reversion Agreement) in 1972. The US continues to operate military bases throughout the Ryukyu Islands, mostly on Okinawa, as part of the [Security Treaty](US-Japan)(Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan).
#### Postwar growth and prosperity
[[File:Shigeru Yoshida suit.jpg|upright|180px|thumb|alt=|[Yoshida](Shigeru)(Shigeru Yoshida) was one of the [serving PMs in Japanese history](longest)(List of Prime Ministers of Japan#Rank by tenure) (1946–1947 and 1948–1954).]]
[Yoshida](Shigeru)(Shigeru Yoshida) served as [minister](prime)(Prime Minister of Japan) in 1946–1947 and 1948–1954, and played a key role in guiding Japan through the occupation. His policies, known as the [Doctrine](Yoshida)(Yoshida Doctrine), proposed that Japan should forge a tight relationship with the United States and focus on developing the economy rather than pursuing a proactive foreign policy. Yoshida was one of the [serving prime ministers in Japanese history](longest)(List of Prime Ministers of Japan#Rank by tenure). Yoshida's [Party](Liberal)(Liberal Party (Japan, 1945)) merged in 1955 into the new [Democratic Party](Liberal)(Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)) (LDP), which went on to dominate Japanese politics for the remainder of the [period](Shōwa)(Shōwa period).
Although the Japanese economy was in bad shape in the immediate postwar years, an austerity program implemented in 1949 by finance expert [Dodge](Joseph)(Joseph Dodge) ended inflation. The [War](Korean)(Korean War) (1950–1953) was a major boon to Japanese business. In 1949 the Yoshida cabinet created the [of International Trade and Industry](Ministry)(Ministry of International Trade and Industry) (MITI) with a mission to promote economic growth through close cooperation between the government and big business. MITI sought successfully to promote manufacturing and heavy industry, and encourage exports. The factors behind Japan's postwar economic growth included technology and quality control techniques imported from the West, close economic and defense cooperation with the United States, non-tariff barriers to imports, restrictions on labor unionization, long work hours, and a generally favorable global economic environment. Japanese corporations successfully retained a loyal and experienced workforce through the system of [employment](lifetime)(Shūshin koyō), which assured their employees a safe job.
By 1955, the Japanese economy had grown beyond prewar levels, and by 1968 it had become the second largest capitalist economy in the world. The [GNP](gross national product) expanded at an annual rate of nearly 10% from 1956 until the [oil crisis](1973)(1973 oil crisis) slowed growth to a still-rapid average annual rate of just over 4% until 1991. [expectancy](Life)(Life expectancy) rose and Japan's population increased to 123 million by 1990. Ordinary Japanese people became wealthy enough to purchase a wide array of consumer goods. During this period, Japan became the world's largest manufacturer of automobiles and a leading producer of electronics. Japan signed the [Accord](Plaza)(Plaza Accord) in 1985 to depreciate the US dollar against the yen and other currencies. By the end of 1987, the [Nikkei](Nikkei 225) stock market index had doubled and the [Stock Exchange](Tokyo)(Tokyo Stock Exchange) became the largest in the world. During [ensuing economic bubble](the)(Japanese asset price bubble), stock and real-estate loans grew rapidly.
Japan became a member of the [Nations](United)(United Nations) in 1956 and further cemented its international standing in 1964, when it hosted the [Games](Olympic)(1964 Summer Olympics) in Tokyo. Japan was a close ally of the United States during the [War](Cold)(Cold War), though this alliance did not have unanimous support from the Japanese people. As requested by the United States, Japan reconstituted its army in 1954 under the name [Self-Defense Forces](Japan)(Japan Self-Defense Forces) (JSDF), though some Japanese insisted that the very existence of the JSDF was a violation of Article 9 of Japan's constitution. In 1960, the massive [protests](Anpo)(Anpo protests) saw hundreds of thousands of citizens take to the streets in opposition to the [Security Treaty](US-Japan)(Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan). Japan successfully normalized relations [the Soviet Union](with)(Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956) in 1956, despite [ongoing dispute](an)(Kuril Islands dispute) over the ownership of the [Islands](Kuril)(Kuril Islands), and [South Korea](with)(Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea) in 1965, despite [ongoing dispute](an)(Liancourt Rocks dispute) over the ownership of the islands of [Rocks](Liancourt)(Liancourt Rocks). In accordance with US policy, Japan recognized the [of China](Republic)(Republic of China) on Taiwan as the legitimate government of China after World War II, though Japan switched its recognition to the [Republic of China](People's)(People's Republic of China) in 1972.
Among cultural developments, the immediate post-occupation period became a golden age for [cinema](Japanese)(Cinema of Japan). The reasons for this include the abolition of government censorship, low film production costs, expanded access to new film techniques and technologies, and huge domestic audiences at a time when other forms of recreation were relatively scarce. On 1 October 1964, Japan's first high-speed rail line was built called the [Shinkansen](Tokaido)(Tokaido Shinkansen). It is also the oldest high-speed rail system in the world.
### Heisei period (1989–2019)
[[Tokyo3.png|thumb|Tokyo in 2010](File:Japan)]
Emperor [Akihito](Akihito)'s reign began upon the death of his father, Emperor [Hirohito](Hirohito). The economic bubble popped in 1989, and stock and land prices plunged as Japan entered a [spiral](deflationary)(Deflation#Japan). Banks found themselves saddled with insurmountable debts that hindered economic recovery. Stagnation worsened as the birthrate declined far below replacement level. The 1990s are often referred to as Japan's [Decade](Lost)(Lost Decades (Japan)). Economic performance was often poor in the following decades, and the stock market never returned to its pre-1989 highs. Japan's system of lifetime employment largely collapsed and unemployment rates rose. The faltering economy and several corruption scandals weakened the LDP's dominant political position. Japan was nevertheless governed by non-LDP prime ministers only in 1993–1996 and 2009–2012.
Japan's dealing with its war legacy strained relations with China and Korea. [officials and emperors](Japanese)(List of war apology statements issued by Japan) have made over 50 formal war apologies since the 1950s. However, some politicians of China and Korea found the official apologies, such as those of the Emperor in 1990 and the [Statement](Murayama)(Murayama Statement) of 1995, inadequate or insincere. Nationalist politics have exacerbated this, such as [of the Nanjing Massacre](denial)(Nanjing Massacre denial) and other war crimes, [history textbooks](revisionist)(Japanese history textbook controversies), which provoked [in East Asia](protests)(2005 anti-Japanese demonstrations). Japanese politicians make frequent visits to [Shrine](Yasukuni)(Yasukuni Shrine) to commemorate the people who died in wars from 1868 to 1954, but convicted war criminals are among the enshrined.
[[File:Shinchi Sta 20110404.jpg|thumb|alt=|Wreckage at a railway station destroyed during the [earthquake and tsunami](2011)(2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami).]]
The [of Japan](population)(Demographics of Japan) peaked at 128,083,960 in 2008, and as of December 2020 it had fallen below 126 million.Japan Statistical Agency monthly Population Estimate. In 2011, China surpassed Japan as the world's second largest economy by nominal GDP. Despite Japan's economic difficulties, this period also saw [popular culture](Japanese)(Japanese popular culture), including [games](video)(Video gaming in Japan), [anime](anime), and [manga](manga), expanding worldwide, especially among young people. In March 2011, the [Skytree](Tokyo)(Tokyo Skytree) became the [tower](tallest)(List of tallest towers in the world) in the world at , displacing the [Tower](Canton)(Canton Tower). It is the second [structure](tallest)(tallest structure) in the world after the [Khalifa](Burj)(Burj Khalifa) ().
On 11 March 2011, [of the largest earthquakes recorded in Japan](one)(List of earthquakes in Japan) [in the northeast](occurred)(2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami). The resulting tsunami [the nuclear facilities in Fukushima](damaged)(Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster), which suffered a nuclear meltdown and severe radiation leakage.
### Reiwa period (2019–present)
Emperor [Naruhito](Naruhito)'s reign began upon the abdication of his father, Emperor Akihito, on 1 May 2019.
In 2020, Tokyo was due to host the [Olympics](Summer)(2020 Summer Olympics) for the second time since 1964. Japan was the first Asian country to host the Olympics twice. However, due to the global outbreak and economic impact of [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic in Japan), the Summer Olympics were postponed to 2021; they took place from 23 July to 8 August 2021. Japan ranked third place, with 27 gold medals.
When the [Russian invasion of Ukraine](2022)(2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine) began, Japan condemned and levied sanctions on Russia for its actions. Ukrainian President [Zelenskyy](Volodymyr)(Volodymyr Zelenskyy) praised Japan as the "first Asian nation that has begun exerting pressure on Russia." Japan froze the assets of Russia's central bank and other major Russian banks and assets owned by 500 Russian citizens and organizations. Japan banned new investments and the export of high tech to the country. Russia's trade status as [nation](favored)(Most favoured nation) was revoked. Japan's swift actions shows its becoming a leading power in the world. The war in Ukraine and threats from China and North Korea caused a shift in Japan's security policy with higher defense spending which erodes its former pacifist stance.
On 8 July 2022, former Prime Minister [Abe](Shinzo)(Shinzo Abe), was [assassinated](Assassination of Shinzo Abe) in the city of [Nara](Nara, Nara) by former [Self-Defense Force](Japan)(Japan Self-Defense Force) Marine Tetsuya Yamagami while campaigning two days before the [House of Councillors election](2022)(2022 Japanese House of Councillors election). NHK WORLD-JAPAN News |url=https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/20220708_53/ |access-date=2022-07-08 |website=NHK WORLD |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708102230/https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/20220708_53/ |archive-date=July 8, 2022}} This shocked the public, because firearm fatalities are very rare in Japan. There were only 10 shooting deaths from 2017 to 2020 and 1 gun death incident in 2021.
After [visit by Nancy Pelosi to Taiwan](2022)(2022 visit by Nancy Pelosi to Taiwan), China conducted "precision missile strikes" in the ocean around Taiwan's coastline on August 4, 2022. These military exercises raised tensions in the region. The Japanese [of Defense](Ministry)(Ministry of Defense (Japan)) reported that this was the first time ballistic missiles launched by China landed in Japan's exclusive economic zone and lodged a diplomatic protest with Beijing. Five Chinese missiles landed in Japan's EEZ off [Hateruma](Hateruma) which is near Taiwan. Japanese Defense Minister [Kishi](Nobuo)(Nobuo Kishi) said these missiles are "serious threats to Japan's national security and the safety of the Japanese people."
On December 16, 2022, Japan announced a major shift in its military policy by acquiring counterstrike capabilities and a defense budget increase to 2% of GDP (¥43 trillion ($315 billion) by 2027. The impetus are regional security concerns over China, North-Korea and Russia. This will leapfrog Japan from ninth to the world's third-largest defense spender, behind the United States and China.
## Social conditions
Social stratification in Japan became pronounced during the Yayoi period. Expanding trade and agriculture increased the wealth of society, which was increasingly monopolized by social elites. By 600 AD, a class structure had developed which included court aristocrats, the families of local magnates, commoners, and slaves. Over 90% were commoners, who included farmers, merchants, and artisans. During the late Heian period, the governing elite consisted of three classes. The traditional aristocracy shared power with Buddhist monks and samurai, though the latter became increasingly dominant in the Kamakura and Muromachi periods. These periods witnessed the rise of the merchant class, which diversified into a greater variety of specialized occupations.
Women initially held social and political equality with men, and archaeological evidence suggests a prehistorical preference for female rulers in western Japan. Female Emperors appear in recorded history until the [Constitution](Meiji)(Meiji Constitution) declared strict male-only ascension in 1889. Chinese Confucian-style patriarchy was first codified in the 7th–8th centuries with the *[ritsuryō](ritsuryō)* system, which introduced a patrilineal [register](family)(koseki) with a male head of household. Women until then had held important roles in government which thereafter gradually diminished, though even in the late Heian period women wielded considerable court influence. Marital customs and many laws governing private property remained gender neutral.
For reasons that are unclear to historians the status of women rapidly deteriorated from the fourteenth century and onwards. Women of all social classes lost the right to own and inherit property and were increasingly viewed as inferior to men. Hideyoshi's land survey of the 1590s further entrenched the status of men as dominant landholders.[Tonomura](#CITEREFTonomura2009), 360. During the US occupation following World War II , women gained legal equality with men, but faced widespread workplace discrimination. A movement for women's rights led to the passage of an equal employment law in 1986, but by the 1990s women held only 10% of management positions.
Hideyoshi's land survey of the 1590s designated all who cultivated the land as commoners, an act which granted effective freedom to most of Japan's [slaves](Slavery in Japan).
[[social structure.svg|thumb|Social structure of the Edo period](File:Edo)]
The Tokugawa shogunate rigidified long-existent class divisions, placing most of the population into [Neo-Confucian](a)(Edo Neo-Confucianism) hierarchy of [occupations](four)(four occupations), with the ruling elite at the top, followed by the peasants who made up 80% of the population, then artisans, and merchants at the bottom. Court nobles, clerics, outcasts, entertainers, and workers of the licensed quarters fell outside this structure. Different legal codes applied to different classes, marriage between classes was prohibited, and towns were subdivided into different class areas. The social stratification had little bearing on economic conditions: many samurai lived in poverty and the wealth of the merchant class grew throughout the period as the commercial economy developed and urbanization grew. The Edo-era social power structure proved untenable and gave way following the Meiji Restoration to one in which commercial power played an increasingly significant political role.
Although all social classes were legally abolished at the start of the Meiji period, income inequality greatly increased. New economic class divisions were formed between capitalist business owners who formed the new middle class, small shopkeepers of the old middle class, the working class in factories, rural landlords, and tenant farmers. The great disparities of income between the classes dissipated during and after World War II, eventually declining to levels that were among the lowest in the industrialized world. Some postwar surveys indicated that up to 90% of Japanese self-identified as being middle class.
Populations of workers in professions [unclean](considered)(Kegare), such as leatherworkers and those who handled the dead, developed in the 15th and 16th centuries into hereditary [outcast](Outcast (person)) communities. These people, later called *[burakumin](burakumin)*, fell outside the Edo-period class structure and suffered discrimination that lasted after the class system was abolished. Though activism has improved the social conditions of those from *burakumin* backgrounds, discrimination in employment and education has lingered into the 21st century.
## See also
* [history of Japan](Economic)(Economic history of Japan)
* [period](Higashiyama)(Higashiyama period)
* [of Japan](Historiography)(Historiography of Japan)
** [of Japanese history](Bibliography)(Bibliography of Japanese history)
***[of the National Museum of Japanese History](Bulletin)(Bulletin of the National Museum of Japanese History)*, in Japanese
***[Journal of Religious Studies](Japanese)(Japanese Journal of Religious Studies)*
***[of Japanese Studies](Journal)(Journal of Japanese Studies)*
***[Nipponica](Monumenta)(Monumenta Nipponica)*, Japanese studies, in English
***[Science Japan Journal](Social)(Social Science Japan Journal)*
* [of East Asia](History)(History of East Asia)
* [of Japanese art](History)(Japanese art#History of Japanese art)
* [of Japanese foreign relations](History)(History of Japanese foreign relations)
** [relations of Meiji Japan](Foreign)(Foreign relations of Meiji Japan)
** [East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere](Greater)(Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere), 1930–1945
** [of Japan–Korea relations](History)(History of Japan–Korea relations)
** [of Sino-Japanese relations](History)(History of Sino-Japanese relations), China
** [foreign policy on Southeast Asia](Japanese)(Japanese foreign policy on Southeast Asia)
** [Union relations](Japan–Soviet)(Japan–Soviet Union relations)
* [of Tokyo](History)(History of Tokyo)
* [of Emperors of Japan](List)(List of Emperors of Japan)
* [of prime ministers of Japan](List)(List of prime ministers of Japan)
* [of Japanese history](Timeline)(Timeline of Japanese history)
## Citations
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Beasley, WG (1962). "Japan". In Hinsley, FH (ed.). *The New Cambridge Modern History Volume 11: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems 1870–1898*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 472
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Carter, William R. (1983). "Asuka period". In Reischauer, Edwin et al. (eds.). *Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan Volume 1*. Tokyo: Kodansha. p. 107. .
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[Alvin](Coox,)(Alvin Coox) (1988). "The Pacific War," in *The Cambridge History of Japan: Volume 6.* Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 368
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Deal, William E (2006). *Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan*. New York: Facts on File. p. 296. .
Edstrom, Bert (2016). "Japan's Foreign Policy and the Yoshida Legacy Revisited". In Edstrom, Bert (ed.). *Turning Points in Japanese History*. London: Routledge. p. 216. .
Feifer, George (1992). *Tennozan: The Battle of Okinawa and the Atomic Bomb*. New York: Ticknor & Fields. pp. 558, 578, 597, 600. .
Frederic, Louis (2002). *Japan Encyclopedia*. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap. p. 59. .
Gordon, Andrew (2009). *A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the Present*. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 55–56. .
Hane, Mikiso and Perez, Louis G. (2015). *Premodern Japan: A Historical Survey* (2nd ed.). Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. pp. 161-162. .
Hirschmeier, Johannes and Yui, Tsunehiko (1975). *The Development of Japanese Business, 1600-1973*. London: Allen & Unwin. p. 32
Hudson, Mark (2009). "Japanese Beginnings", p. 15 In Tsutsui, William M. (ed.). *A Companion to Japanese History*. Malden MA: Blackwell. .
Ito, Takatoshi (1992). *The Japanese Economy*. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. p. 60
Karan, Pradyumna (2010). *Japan in the 21st Century: Environment, Economy, and Society*. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. p. 60. .
Kidder, J. Edward (1993). "The Earliest Societies in Japan," in *The Cambridge History of Japan: Volume 1.* Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 59
Kshetry, Gopal (2008). *Foreigners in Japan: A Historical Perspective*. Kathmandu: Rabin Gurung. p. 29
Kuroda, Sokichi (13 January 2020). "Documents show concerns from Okinawa on U.S. base presence". *Asahi Shimbun*.
Maher, Kohn C. (1996). "North Kyushu Creole: A Language Contact Model for the Origins of Japanese," in *Multicultural Japan: Palaeolithic to Postmodern.* New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 40
McCurry, Justin (1 April 2019). ["Reiwa: Japan Prepares to Enter New Era of 'Fortunate Harmony'"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/01/reiwa-japan-prepares-to-enter-new-era-brimming-with-hope) . *The Guardian*.
Mackie, Vera (2003). *Feminism in Modern Japan*. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 121. .
Mason, RHP and Caiger, JG (1997). *A History of Japan*. Rutland, Vermont: Tuttle. p. 315. .
McCullough, William H. (1999). "The Heian Court, 794–1070," in *The Cambridge History of Japan: Volume 2.* Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 30–31
Nester, William R. (1996). *Power across the Pacific: A Diplomatic History of American Relations with Japan*. Basingstoke: Macmillan. p. 177. .
Ono, Akira (2014). "Modern hominids in the Japanese Islands and the early use of obsidian", pp. 157–159 in Sanz, Nuria (ed.). [*Human Origin Sites and the World Heritage Convention in Asia*](https://whc.unesco.org/en/series/39/) . Paris: UNESCO.
Pekkanen, Robert (2018). "Introduction". In Pekkanen, Robert (ed.). *Critical readings on the Liberal Democratic Party in Japan Volume One*. Leiden: Brill. p. 3. .
Perkins, Dorothy (1991). *Encyclopedia of Japan : Japanese history and culture, from abacus to zori* [pp. 19, 20](https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofja00perk)
Deal, William E and Ruppert, Brian Douglas (2015). *A Cultural History of Japanese Buddhism*. Chichester, West Sussex : Wiley Blackwell. pp. 63-64. .
Takeuchi, Rizo (1999). "The Rise of the Warriors," in *The Cambridge History of Japan: Volume 2.* Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 675-677
Turnbull, Stephen and Hook, Richard (2005). *Samurai Commanders*. Oxford: Osprey. pp. 53–54
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}}
## Cited sources
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* [online](https://archive.org/details/historyofjapan00kenn)
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* In
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## Further reading
* Garon, Sheldon (May 1994). "Rethinking Modernization and Modernity in Japanese History: A Focus on State-Society Relations". *Journal of Asian Studies* 53#2, pp. 346–366. .
* Hara, Katsuro (2010). [*Introduction to the History of Japan*](https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000hara/page/n9/mode/2up) .
* Hook, Glenn D. et al. (2011). ''Japan's International Relations: Politics, Economics and Security* [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/dp/0415587433/)
*
*
* Kingston, Jeffrey (2001). *Japan in Transformation, 1952–2000*. Pearson Education. 215pp; brief history textbook.
* Kitaoka, Shin’ichi (2019). *The Political History of Modern Japan: Foreign Relations and Domestic Politics*. Routledge.
*
* Tames, Richard, et al. (2008). [*A Traveller's History of Japan''](https://archive.org/details/travellershistor00tame). Popular history.
## External links
*
*
[ ](Category:History of Japan)
[containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips)
[culture](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese culture)
[nationalism](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese nationalism)
[of Japan](Category:Politics)(Category:Politics of Japan)
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Gravity Falls
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gravity_falls
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# Gravity Falls
*Revision ID: 1159875172 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T02:40:47Z*
---
* [Mystery](Mystery fiction)
* [comedy](Surreal)(Surreal comedy)
}}
| creator = [Hirsch](Alex)(Alex Hirsch)
| director =
| creative_director = [Rianda](Mike)(Mike Rianda)
| voices =
| theme_music_composer = Brad Breeck
| opentheme = "*Gravity Falls* Theme"
| endtheme =
| composer = Brad Breeck
| location =
| country = United States
| language = English
| num_seasons = 2
| num_episodes = 40
| list_episodes = List of Gravity Falls episodes
| executive_producer = Alex Hirsch
| producer =
| animator =
| editor = Kevin Locarro
| camera =
| runtime =
| company = [Television Animation](Disney)(Disney Television Animation)
| network =
| picture_format = [HDTV](HDTV) [720p](720p)
| audio_format = [Digital 5.1](Dolby)(Dolby Digital 5.1)
| first_aired =
| last_aired =
}}
***Gravity Falls*** is an American [mystery](Mystery fiction) [comedy](comedy) [television series](animated)(animated television series) created by [Hirsch](Alex)(Alex Hirsch) for [Channel](Disney)(Disney Channel) and [XD](Disney)(Disney XD). The series follows the adventures of [Pines](Dipper)(Dipper Pines) ([Ritter](Jason)(Jason Ritter)) and his twin sister [Mabel](Mabel Pines) ([Schaal](Kristen)(Kristen Schaal)) who are sent to spend the summer with their great-uncle (or "Grunkle") [Stan](Grunkle Stan) (Hirsch) in Gravity Falls, [Oregon](Oregon), a mysterious town full of [paranormal](paranormal) incidents and [supernatural](supernatural) creatures. The kids help Stan run the "Mystery Shack", the [trap](tourist)(tourist trap) that he owns, while also investigating the local mysteries.
The series premiered on June 15, 2012, and ran until February 15, 2016. On November 20, 2015, Hirsch announced that the series would finish with its second season, stating that this was "100% [his] choice" and that "the show isn't being cancelled – it's being finished" and was simply reaching its natural conclusion. The series ended on February 15, 2016, with a one-hour finale, "[3: Take Back The Falls](Weirdmageddon)(Weirdmageddon 3: Take Back The Falls)". Hirsch later stated that he remains open to continuing the series with additional episodes or specials.
*Gravity Falls* received critical acclaim with praise directed at its writing, characters, voice acting, animation, humor, and multi-generational appeal. Additionally, the series won two [Awards](Emmy)(Emmy Awards), three [Awards](Annie)(Annie Awards), and a [Children's Award](BAFTA)(British Academy Children's Awards), among various other wins and nominations. *Gravity Falls* garnered high viewership amongst kids, teenagers, and young adults during its run and was Disney XD's highest rated show in 2015 and early 2016, while also setting several ratings records for the network. The series has attracted a broad and passionate [fandom](fandom) and has been considered to be an influence for many animated shows that followed it, and has also spawned a variety of official merchandise.
## Premise
For their summer vacation, 12-year-old twins [Dipper](Dipper Pines) and [Pines](Mabel)(Mabel Pines) are dropped off from their home in [California](Piedmont,)(Piedmont, California), to the fictitious town of Gravity Falls, Roadkill County, [Oregon](Oregon), to spend the summer with their great uncle [Pines](Stan)(Grunkle Stan) (often shortened to Grunkle Stan), who runs a [trap](tourist)(tourist trap) called the "Mystery Shack". Things are not what they seem in this small town, and with the help of a mysterious journal that Dipper finds in the forest, they begin unraveling the town's mysteries each day. With Wendy Corduroy, Mystery Shack cashier; Soos Ramirez, a friend of Dipper and Mabel and handyman to Grunkle Stan; plus an assortment of other characters, Dipper and Mabel always have an intriguing day to look forward to.
## Episodes
**Main series**
**Shorts**
| end1 = start
| episodes1 = 1
| color2 = #50f5f5
| link2 = List of Gravity Falls episodes#Dipper's Guide to the Unexplained (2013)
| auxA2 = ''Dipper's Guide to the Unexplained''
| episodes2 = 6
| start2 =
| end2 =
| color3 = #ff669c
| link3 = List of Gravity Falls episodes#Mabel's Guide to Life (2014)
| auxA3 = ''Mabel's Guide to Life''
| episodes3 = 5
| start3 =
| end3 =
| color4 = #839a9a
| link4 = List of Gravity Falls episodes#Fixin' It with Soos (2014)
| auxA4 = ''Fixin' It with Soos*
| episodes4 = 2
| start4 =
| end4 =
| color5 = #ffd700
| link5 = List of Gravity Falls episodes#TV Shorts (2014)
| auxA5 = *TV Shorts''
| episodes5 = 2
| start5 =
| end5 =
| color6 = #4f4f9f
| link6 = List of Gravity Falls episodes#Mabel's Scrapbook (2014)
| auxA6 = ''Mabel's Scrapbook''
| episodes6 = 2
| start6 =
| end6 = start
| color7 = #FFAAD7
| link7 = List of Gravity Falls episodes#Creepy Letters from Lil' Gideon (2014)
| auxA7 = ''Creepy Letters from Lil' Gideon''
| episodes7 = 5
| start7 =
| end7 =
| color8 = #D76CD7
| link8 = List of Gravity Falls episodes#Old Man McGucket's Conspiracy Corner (2015)
| auxA8 = ''Old Man McGucket's Conspiracy Corner''
| episodes8 = 10
| start8 =
| end8 = start
| color9 = #FAF75B
| link9 = List of Gravity Falls episodes#Grunkle Stan's Lost Mystery Shack Interviews (2015)
| auxA9 = ''Grunkle Stan's Lost Mystery Shack Interviews''
| episodes9 = 13
| start9 =
| end9 =
| color10 = #b45700
| link10 = List of Gravity Falls episodes#'Pocalypse Preppin' (2015)
| auxA10 = '''Pocalypse Preppin'*
| episodes10 = 8
| start10 =
| end10 =
| color11 = #FE4C4C
| link11 = List of Gravity Falls episodes#Mystery Shack: Shop at Home with Mr. Mystery (2015)
| auxA11 = *Mystery Shack: Shop at Home with Mr. Mystery''
| episodes11 = 9
| start11 =
| end11 =
| color12 = #FFB072
| link12 = List of Gravity Falls episodes#Soos' Stan Fiction (2017)
| auxA12 = ''Soos' Stan Fiction*
| episodes12 = 4
| start12 =
| end12 = start
| color13 = #343434
| link13 = List of Gravity Falls episodes#Gravity Falls x Line Rider (2020)
| auxA13 = *Gravity Falls x Line Rider*
| start13 =
| end13 = start
| episodes13 = 1
| color14 = #930200
| link14 = List of Gravity Falls episodes#Call Me Maybe Parody (2020)
| auxA14 = *Call Me Maybe Parody''
| start14 =
| end14 = start
| episodes14 = 1
}}
## Characters
[[File:Jason Ritter y Kristen Schaal.jpg|right|thumb|[Ritter](Jason)(Jason Ritter) and [Schaal](Kristen)(Kristen Schaal) at [Diego Comic-Con](San)(San Diego Comic-Con) in 2013]]
**Main characters**
* **[Pines](Dipper)(Dipper Pines)** (voiced by [Ritter](Jason)(Jason Ritter)) – The 12-year-old younger twin brother of Mabel Pines.
* **[Pines](Mabel)(Mabel Pines)** (voiced by [Schaal](Kristen)(Kristen Schaal)) – The 12-year-old older twin sister of Dipper Pines.
* **["Stan" Pines](Stanley)(Grunkle Stan)** (also known as **"Grunkle Stan"**) (voiced by [Hirsch](Alex)(Alex Hirsch)) – The greedy, grumpy, yet loving great-uncle of Dipper and Mabel Pines.
* **Soos Ramirez** (voiced by Alex Hirsch) – The 22-year-old handyman at the Mystery Shack.
* **Wendy Corduroy** (voiced by [Cardellini](Linda)(Linda Cardellini)) – A 15-year-old part-time employee at the Mystery Shack, on whom Dipper has a crush.
* **Stanford Pines** (voiced by [K. Simmons](J.)(J. K. Simmons)) – Stan's six-fingered long-lost identical twin brother and the author of the journals.
* **Bill Cipher** (voiced by Alex Hirsch) – An interdimensional demon that can be summoned and released into a person's mind. He resembles a one-eyed yellow triangle superficially similar to the [of Providence](Eye)(Eye of Providence) that wears a top hat and a bow tie. He serves as the [antagonist](main)(main antagonist) of the series.
## Production
### Conception
[[File:811SonoraAvenue.jpg|thumb|right|*Gravity Falls*' main production offices were located at [Television Animation](Disney)(Disney Television Animation) in [Glendale](Glendale, California), California.]]
[[File:Alex Hirsch and Grunkle Stan puppet at San Diego Comic-Con International 2013.jpg|thumb|right|Series creator Alex Hirsch at [Diego Comic-Con](San)(San Diego Comic-Con) in 2013]]
Prior to working on the series, series creator Alex Hirsch's primary inspiration growing up was the popular [sitcom](animated)(animated sitcom) *[Simpsons](The)(The Simpsons)*, where he observed that "animation could be funnier than live-action. That animation didn't have to just be for kids. That it could be satirical and observational and grounded in a sense of character interaction". Hirsch graduated from the [Institute of the Arts](California)(California Institute of the Arts), and was hired to work as writer and storyboard artist for the [Network](Cartoon)(Cartoon Network) series *[Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack](The)(The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack)*, where he was paired up with [Ward](Pendleton)(Pendleton Ward), the creator of *[Time](Adventure)(Adventure Time)*. Afterwards, he moved on to co-develop the Disney Channel animated series *[Hooks](Fish)(Fish Hooks)*; shortly before he pitched *Gravity Falls*, which was subsequently [green-lit](green-light).
Hirsch said he was at the [Institute of the Arts](California)(California Institute of the Arts) when he turned down [Animation](DreamWorks)(DreamWorks Animation) executive [Katzenberg](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Katzenberg) out of a desire to work for Disney. He first coined the concept for the show in an 11-minute low-budget student film that he made at the institute. Hirsch was called in to do a [pitch](Pitch (filmmaking)) for Disney Channel for a show based on the short pilot. Disney Channel bought the idea and the series premiered on June 15, 2012.
The series was inspired by Hirsch's own childhood experiences and his relationship with his own twin sister growing up during their summer vacations. He placed many of his real-life experiences in the show, like living in Piedmont and trick-or-treating with his sister as kids. [Pines](Dipper)(Dipper Pines) is based on Hirsch's memory of how it felt to be a kid. When Hirsch was around Dipper's age, he "would record [him]self and play it backwards and try to learn to speak backwards". Hirsch described himself as "that neurotic kid who would carry 16 disposable cameras everywhere I went". [Pines](Mabel)(Mabel Pines) was inspired by his twin sister, Ariel Hirsch. According to Hirsch, just like Mabel, his sister "really did wear wacky sweaters and have a different ridiculous crush, every week." In the series Mabel gets a pet pig, just like his sister had always wanted when she was a kid. [Stan](Grunkle)(Grunkle Stan) was inspired by Hirsch's grandpa Stan, who according to Hirsch "was a guy that told tall tales and would frequently mess with us to get a rise out of us. So, my family really inspired the characters on the show."
### Writing
In an interview with *[My Disney](Oh)(The Walt Disney Company)*, Hirsch claimed he already had the beginning, middle, and end of the story for *Gravity Falls* planned out when he first pitched the series. He originally thought the series would "be two or three seasons". However, Hirsch had never created a TV series before and after experiencing how "incredibly draining" it was, he initially wanted to end the series after season one and, ultimately, on a cliffhanger. After the series premiered and became a huge commercial success, Hirsch began to rethink his decision. Two people convinced him to return and do a second season: [Stewart](Jon)(Jon Stewart), the former host of *[Daily Show](The)(The Daily Show)* (and eventual *Gravity Falls* guest star), who told Hirsch that his kids loved the show, and [McHale](Patrick)(Patrick McHale (artist)), who created the animated series *[the Garden Wall](Over)(Over the Garden Wall)*. McHale had been watching the series and told him: "Look, after that cliffhanger, you've got to finish it." Hirsch decided that he had about ten more episodes left in him, so he went to the network, who said, "We only take seasons in twenties." So he said, "Okay, one more season, … Before we started the [second] season, it said in my contract, before I put pen to paper, that this is my last season." The studio agreed, under the condition that Hirsch could not tell anyone. As a result, [Ritter](Jason)(Jason Ritter), who voices Dipper, did not know the series was ending until after he read the finale script, claiming that "when I read the finale I thought, this feels like, not just the season finale. It feels like a series finale."
Hirsch explained in an interview with *[A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club)* that during the production of season one, a typical episode was conceived in a room reserved for writers, where a simple synopsis was presented, and from then on [structure](dramatic)(dramatic structure) was defined, and the plot was modified to include a character-driven subplot, which Hirsch expressed as "the hardest thing ... to find a character story that actually uncovers, explores, or pushes tension—on something our characters care about—that is properly explored via the magic or monster or impossibility of the week."
[B-](Subplot) and [A-stories](Plot (narrative)) were created and were given to a writer to produce an [outline](Outline (list)), which was then subsequently checked-off by Hirsch for feedback. The writer produced a draft from these edits, where more notes may have been given. Hirsch stated that he and creative director [Rianda](Mike)(Mike Rianda) may have personally created a draft for themselves before a final script was produced, in which the dialogue from the draft received from the writer was significantly revised; Hirsch stated that the revising process "is not a discredit to our writers—it's just we have a very particular vision. In particular, I usually rewrite almost all of Dipper's dialogue and most of Mabel's dialogue, just because I have them in my head. Me and Mike will stay up for about 24 hours prior to the delivery of every script. We'll take the weekend, we'll work all night, we'll drink [Bull](Red)(Red Bull), we'll sleep on the couch in shifts like maniacs, we'll slap each other in the face."
### Animation
After a script was delivered, an episode then got translated into a [storyboard](storyboard), where feedback was received from Hirsch to the board artists if a certain element, such as a [gag](Visual gag), did not work. Afterwards, a [pitch](Pitch (filmmaking)) for the episode was given to the network, where they did a read-through, and then the episode was either checked out by the network, or retooled in the small amount of time allocated before an [studio](animation)(animation studio) must receive something to work with. The series was animated by [Draft Korea](Rough)(Rough Draft Studios), Digital eMation and [Productions](Yearim)(Yearim Productions). However, whenever a sequence was deemed too important for the outside animation studios to realize, it was animated in-house by storyboard artist and supervisor [Terrace](Dana)(Dana Terrace).
## Broadcast
### Initial broadcast
The first twelve episodes of *Gravity Falls* aired in a regular weekly slot on [Channel](Disney)(Disney Channel) starting in mid-2012, but subsequent episodes were broadcast without similar regularity; it took until August 2013 to broadcast the remaining eight episodes of the first season. The second season began airing a year later in August 2014, transitioning over to [XD](Disney)(Disney XD), but again without any regularity as to when new episodes would be first broadcast. The first nine episodes aired from August to November 2014, the following two in February and March 2015, the next eight from July to November 2015, and the finale aired on February 15, 2016. According to Disney XD, as each episode took about six months of work to complete, they opted against stockpiling episodes to show weekly but instead take advantage of the serial nature of the show, broadcasting each episode as it was completed and making an event out of it. On April 2, 2018, reruns of the show started airing on Disney Channel, although reruns of the show still air on Disney XD.
### International broadcast
The series began airing on Disney Channel Canada on September 1, 2015, following Corus Entertainment's acquisition of Disney Channel rights in Canada. In Canada the show began airing on Disney XD starting on December 1, 2015, following the launch of Disney XD. The show started broadcasting in the United Kingdom and Ireland on July 20, 2012, as a preview and officially premiered on September 7, 2012. In Australia and New Zealand it previewed on August 17, 2012, and premiered on September 24, 2012. It also premiered in Southeast Asia on October 27, 2012. In India, it premiered on September 16, 2013. In the Middle East region, the series was previewed on October 19, 2012, and premiered on November 10, 2012.
The series preview debuted in Canada on June 15, 2012, and premiered on July 6, 2012, on [Channel](Family)(Family Channel (Canadian TV network)), until January 2016 when it moved to the [Disney XD channel](local)(Disney XD (Canada)) following [Entertainment](Corus)(Corus Entertainment)'s acquisition of Disney Channel rights in Canada from Family's owner [Media](DHX)(DHX Media). In Australia, the show airs on Disney XD and [7mate](7mate) while in Chile, the show was broadcast on [13](Canal)(Canal 13 (Chile)) on November 24, 2013, under its programming block *[CuBox](Canal 13 (Chile)#CuBox)*. In the Philippines, the show was shown on [TV5](TV5 (Philippines)) beginning on May 4, 2014, while in Brazil, the show also began airing on [Globo](Rede)(Rede Globo) on May 10, 2014. In Indonesia, the show premiered on [RCTI](RCTI) on August 17, 2014.
### Broadcast edits
The symbol on Grunkle Stan's fez was changed from a crescent shape resembling the Islamic [crescent](Star and crescent) to a fish-like symbol mid-way through the first season's broadcast. The symbol represents his membership in the Royal Order of the Holy Mackerel. When the series was released to [Disney+](Disney+), the crescent-shaped symbol was edited out entirely, leaving a symbol-less fez in the early episodes—later episodes featuring the fish-like symbol were unaffected. However, the crescent symbol remains in the thumbnails, and on the zodiac wheel in the title sequence. Hirsch drew attention to the change on Twitter. Disney has not commented on why it was removed. Sometime later, the symbol on the fez was restored.
In 2017, Disney Channel redubbed [C.K.](Louis)(Louis C.K.)'s minor role as "The Horrifying Sweaty One-Armed Monstrosity" in the 2015 episode "Weirdmageddon Part 1", as well as its 2016 follow-up episode and series finale, "[3: Take Back The Falls](Weirdmageddon)(Weirdmageddon 3: Take Back The Falls)", following the comedian's admission of sexual misconduct. Series creator Alex Hirsch is now credited as voicing the character.
## Merchandise
### Home media
On March 27, 2018, [Factory](Shout!)(Shout! Factory) announced that they would release the complete series as a box set on July 24, 2018, on DVD and Blu-ray Disc. The box set is available in a "Collector's Edition", which includes an exclusive bonus features disc. The complete series has only been released in the United States and Canada. The box set is now out of print.
### Books
### Video game
A video game was created for the series, titled *[Falls: Legend of the Gnome Gemulets](Gravity)(Gravity Falls: Legend of the Gnome Gemulets)*. The game was released exclusively on [3DS](Nintendo)(Nintendo 3DS) on October 20, 2015. It was developed and published by [Ubisoft](Ubisoft) and produced by [Interactive Studios](Disney)(Disney Interactive Studios). The game is a [platformer](Platform game) and uses the same graphics as the series.
## Reception
### Critical reception
Both seasons of *Gravity Falls* hold a 100% approval rating on [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes).
On Rotten Tomatoes, season one has an average critic score of 7.40 out of 10 based on 12 reviews. Season two has an average critic score of 8.80 out of 10 based on 8 reviews. The website's critical consensus for season one reads: "*Gravity Falls*' warm humor and bright performances elevate this children's cartoon to a show for all ages", while the website's critical consensus for season two reads: "*Gravity Falls* continues to blend old fashioned storytelling with a modern sense of humor to create a uniquely enjoyable viewing experience."
Brian Lowry of *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* stated: "The show has a breezy quality that should play to kids, and tickle some twinges of nostalgia among their parents." Robert Lloyd of the *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* referred to the program as "...gently twisted, with some Disneyfied action and heart-warming folded in". In his review, David Hinckley of *[York Daily News](New)(New York Daily News)* called *Gravity Falls* "quirky and endearing", and offered praise for the character of Mabel Pines. Matt Blum, writing for *[Wired](Wired (magazine))*, favorably compared the show to [Network](Cartoon)(Cartoon Network)'s *[Show](Regular)(Regular Show)* and Disney Channel's *[and Ferb](Phineas)(Phineas and Ferb)*, hailing *Gravity Falls* as "clever, strange, and somewhat poignant". Erik Kain of *[Forbes](Forbes)* called *Gravity Falls* "the best thing on TV at the moment", saying "I don't care how old you are, if you're not watching *Gravity Falls* you're missing out on some of the cleverest, most enjoyable television you can find". Kayla Cobb of *[Decider](New York Post#Website)* called *Gravity Falls* "one of the most structurally smart shows ever created". Matt Fowler from *[IGN](IGN)* called *Gravity Falls* "a quirky and gently twisted heart-warmer for all ages. Smart, satirical, and sweet. *Gravity Falls* was a one-of-a-kind gem."
Michelle Jaworski writing for *[Daily Dot](The)(The Daily Dot)* described *Gravity Falls* as "[A] classic summer story woven into a smart and addictive show tackling the paranormal, the supernatural, and the pains of growing up." *[IndieWire](IndieWire)*s Michael Schneider said "*Gravity Falls* is a kids' show so dense with mythology, pop culture jokes, Easter eggs, and mystery that grown-ups were often more invested." Joey Keogh from *[of Geek](Den)(Den of Geek)* wrote "*Gravity Falls*, is a spooky-cute must-watch for adults who never grew out of Halloween." Donna Dickens from *[Uproxx](Uproxx)* said "Not only does *Gravity Falls* deal with the inexplicable supernatural occurrences in the town, the whole thing is just one big puzzle of secrets waiting for fans to uncover and solve." Myles McNutt from *[A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club)* said "With a complex mythology and a deep lexicon of cultural references, there's sophistication to the show's epic storytelling that immediately drew the attention of a wider audience." Liz Baessler writing for *[School Rejects](Film)(Film School Rejects)* said "*Gravity Falls* is an exceptional kids' show — brilliant, hilarious, and carefully crafted." Kevin Tash from *[Collider](Collider (website))* called *Gravity Falls* "one of the greatest things that Disney has ever produced in general."
In 2015, *[Uproxx](Uproxx)* ranked *Gravity Falls* as the third Current Kids Cartoon That Adults Need to be Watching. In 2018, *[IndieWire](IndieWire)* ranked *Gravity Falls* at number 12 on their list of The 50 Best Animated Series Of All Time. In 2019, *[Yardbarker](Yardbarker)* ranked *Gravity Falls* at number 21 on their list of The 25 Greatest Animated Shows of All Time. Also in 2019, *[IGN](IGN)* placed *Gravity Falls* at Number 19 on their list titled The 25 Best Adult Cartoon TV Series and *[A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club)* placed *Gravity Falls* at number 48 on their list of The 100 Best TV Shows of the 2010s.
### Ratings
A special preview of the series following the Disney Channel Original Movie *[It Shine](Let)(Let It Shine (film))* was watched by 3.4 million viewers. The series garnered high viewership on its fifth episode, which aired on July 13, 2012, and attracted 3.6 million viewers. On March 15, 2013, the episode "The Deep End" was watched by 4.5 million viewers after the premiere of *[of Waverly Place](Wizards)(Wizards of Waverly Place)* *[Wizards Return: Alex vs. Alex](The)(The Wizards Return: Alex vs. Alex)*, becoming the highest-rated episode of the series.
Later moving on to Disney XD, the episode "[Tale of Two Stans](A)(A Tale of Two Stans)" became the highest-rated telecast ever on Disney XD, with 1.91 million viewers. In addition to total viewers, "A Tale of Two Stans" also set a network record in kids ages 2–11 (1.036 million), boys ages 2–11 (686,000), boys ages 6–11 (574,000), kids ages 6–14 (1.279 million) and boys ages 6–14 (856,000). In 2015, *Gravity Falls* accounted for Disney XD's top seven regular animated series telecasts of all time among kids ages 6–11. During the week of July 12–18, 2015, *Gravity Falls* was the top-rated program in its 8:30 p.m. timeslot across kids and boys ages 2–11, 6–11 and 6–14. That same week, it was also cable TV's number 1 scripted telecast in total viewers, according to estimates from [Ratings](Nielsen)(Nielsen Ratings).
*Gravity Falls* ranked as Disney XD's number 1 series of 2015 across all target demographics with an average of 1.8 million viewers per episode. Additionally, *Gravity Falls* ranked as 2015's third animated cable TV series in boys ages 9–14. In kids ages 6–11, the series averaged 654,000 viewers and 790,000 in kids ages 2–11. Among boys ages 6–14 it pulled in 680,000 views. That is strong viewership in Disney XD's core demographics, but it also makes it clear that older teens and young adults make up more than half of the show's audience according to *[Variety](Variety (magazine))*.
In February 2016, *Gravity Falls* was the number 1 regular series telecast on record across kids ages 6–11 (1.0 million/4.4 rating), boys ages 6–11 (642,000/5.3 rating), kids ages 2–11 (1.3 million/3.4 rating) and boys ages 2–11 (797,000/4.0 rating). The series finale "[3: Take Back The Falls](Weirdmageddon)(Weirdmageddon 3: Take Back The Falls)" beat the ratings record previously held by "A Tale of Two Stans" becoming Disney XD's most-watched telecast ever, with 2.47 million viewers in the United States. "Weirdmageddon 3: Take Back The Falls" also established new all-time network highs in kids ages 6–14 (1.5 million/4.1 rating) and boys ages 6–14 (909,000/5.0 rating). The all-day *Gravity Falls* marathon that preceded the premiere of "Weirdmageddon 3: Take Back The Falls" generated 10.7 million unique total viewers, of which 5.4 million were kids ages 2–14.
### Influence, legacy and industry impact
[[File:Montreal Comiccon 2015 - Dipper and Mabel (19290755940).jpg|right|thumb|Fans [cosplay](cosplay)ing as Dipper and Mabel at [Comiccon](Montreal)(Montreal Comiccon) in 2015]] *Gravity Falls* has been considered to be an influence for many animated shows that followed it, including *[Universe](Steven)(Steven Universe)*, *[vs. the Forces of Evil](Star)(Star vs. the Forces of Evil)*, *[Owl House](The)(The Owl House)*, *[Amphibia](Amphibia (TV series))* and *[and Morty](Rick)(Rick and Morty)*. Other examples of the show's influence include [LGBT](LGBT) representation and series-long story arcs as opposed to isolated single-episode stories. The show also maintains a loyal and passionate [fandom](fandom), even years after the series finale. The creator of the show hid a variety of codes, cryptograms, backwards messages, and other secret clues for fans to find in every episode, which often contributed to the show's mysteries and lore. Some have compared *Gravity Falls* to more adult-oriented mystery shows like *[Lost](Lost (TV series))*, *[Peaks](Twin)(Twin Peaks)* and *[X-Files](The)(The X-Files)*. While it was on the air, the show was Disney XD's highest rated series, with an average of 1.8 million viewers per episode.
In the summer of 2016, *Gravity Falls*' creator Alex Hirsch threw an international treasure hunt known as the "[Hunt](Cipher)(Cipher Hunt)", the goal of which was to find the real-life Bill Cipher statue briefly glimpsed in the series finale. It ran from July 20 to August 3, 2016, and involved retrieving and decoding riddles and codes hidden in various locations worldwide. One clue involved a 2,000-piece jigsaw puzzle that took several days to complete with someone almost always working on it. On August 3, 2016, the statue was found in a forest in [Oregon](Reedsport,)(Reedsport, Oregon). While the first ones to the statue received various prizes, Hirsch made it clear that the hunt itself was the real treasure. On August 3, the statue was removed by authorities due to a property dispute and was temporarily held at the Reedsport police department while Hirsch arranged for it to be moved somewhere else. By August 5, the statue temporarily ended up in Bicentennial Park in Reedsport, before being permanently relocated to [Hill](Confusion)(Confusion Hill) in [California](Piercy,)(Piercy, California) a few weeks later.
In celebration of the release of *Journal 3* and the end of the *Gravity Falls* series, Oh My Disney and Cyclops Print Works teamed up with Gallery Nucleus in [California](Alhambra,)(Alhambra, California) to hold an official *Gravity Falls* [show](art)(Art exhibition), titled *Farewell to the Falls: A Gravity Falls Art Show*, on August 6–21, 2016. Creator Alex Hirsch along with other production staff and professional illustrators contributed new and original artwork to this exhibition. Some fans camped out overnight to see the show and some works of art sold for over $1,000.
On August 8, 2020, Disney Channel aired a *Gravity Falls*-inspired episode of the show *[Amphibia](Amphibia (TV series))* titled "Wax Museum". The episode served as a tribute to *Gravity Falls* and features Alex Hirsch in a voice role.
On September 11, 2020, a short was released on the Disney Channel YouTube channel called "Gravity Falls x Line Rider". The short is based on the Internet game *[Rider](Line)(Line Rider)*. It is the first of a new series of shorts for Disney. Disney partnered with *Line Rider* artists Mark Robbins, Ben Harvey and David Lu for the series.
On September 25, 2020, a *Gravity Falls* short was released on the Disney Channel YouTube channel called "Call Me Maybe Parody". In the short, Mabel sings "Call Me Mabel", a parody of [Rae Jepsen](Carly)(Carly Rae Jepsen)'s "[Me Maybe](Call)(Call Me Maybe)". The short was released as a part of a series called "Broken Karaoke" where various Disney characters sing parodies of pop songs.
On October 3, 2021, the television show *[Simpsons](The)(The Simpsons)* aired the episode "[in Jail!](Bart's)(Bart's in Jail!)" which featured a brief cameo of Bill Cipher as one of [Loki](Loki (Marvel Cinematic Universe))'s many incarnations, voiced by Alex Hirsch in a guest role.
[[File:Dana Terrace, Peabody acceptance speech, June 2021.png|220px|right|thumb|[Terrace](Dana)(Dana Terrace), one of the notable animators who worked on *Gravity Falls*]]
Several former storyboard artists and production crew members who worked on *Gravity Falls* have gone on to create their own series and movies, including [Braly](Matt)(Matt Braly) (a former director and storyboard artist who went on to create *[Amphibia](Amphibia (TV series))*), Dana Terrace (a former storyboard artist who went on to direct on the first season of [*DuckTales*](DuckTales (2017 TV series)) and create *[Owl House](The)(The Owl House)*), Chris Houghton (a former storyboard artist who went on to create *[City Greens](Big)(Big City Greens)* with his brother Shane Houghton), Mike Rianda (a former creative director, and writer who went on to make the film *[Mitchells vs. the Machines](The)(The Mitchells vs. the Machines)*) and Shion Takeuchi (a former writer who went on to create [Job*](*Inside)(Inside Job (2021 TV series))).
### Awards and nominations
## Future
On July 14, 2017, Hirsch revealed that he and Disney had talked about making a *Gravity Falls* film. Disney ultimately passed on the project, as the studio felt the show "wasn't big enough to warrant [film](a)"; Hirsch stated that he was still interested in the idea.
In February 2018, on the second anniversary of the series finale, Hirsch used a [cipher](cipher) to announce *[Falls: Lost Legends](Gravity)(Gravity Falls: Lost Legends)*, a continuation of the *Gravity Falls* story in a new [novel](graphic)(graphic novel) that was later released on July 24, 2018.
In an interview with *[Inverse](Inverse (website))* in March 2021, Hirsch expressed interest in continuing the story of *Gravity Falls* in the form of a video game that "is really, really in-depth to the lore of the series and includes new canon that has been in the periphery of the series."
## Notes
## References
}}
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Orlando nightclub shooting
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orlando_nightclub_shooting
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# Orlando nightclub shooting
*Revision ID: 812368406 | Timestamp: 2017-11-27T13:33:44Z*
---
#REDIRECT [nightclub shooting](Orlando)(Orlando nightclub shooting)
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Mahabharata
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mahabharata
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# Mahabharata
*Revision ID: 1157172428 | Timestamp: 2023-05-26T20:38:04Z*
---
The ***Mahābhārata*** ( ;["Mahabharata"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120903041128/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Mahabharata). *[Dictionaries Online](Oxford)(Oxford Dictionaries Online)*.["Mahabharata"](http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Mahabharata). ''[House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary](Random)(Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary)*. , **, ) is one of the two major [Sanskrit](Sanskrit literature) [epics](Indian epic poetry) of [India](ancient)(ancient India) in [Hinduism](Hinduism), the other being the *[Rāmāyaṇa](Ramayana)*. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the [War](Kurukshetra)(Kurukshetra War) and the fates of the [Kaurava](Kaurava) and the [Pāṇḍava](Pandava) princes and their successors.
It also contains [philosophical](Hindu philosophy) and devotional material, such as a discussion of the four "goals of life" or *[puruṣārtha](puruṣārtha)* (12.161). Among the principal works and stories in the *Mahābhārata* are the *[Gita](Bhagavad)(Bhagavad Gita)*, the story of [Damayanti](Damayanti), the story of [Shakuntala](Shakuntala), the story of [Pururava](Pururava) and [Urvashi](Urvashi), the story of [and Satyavan](Savitri)(Savitri and Satyavan), the story of [Kacha](Kacha (sage)) and [Devayani](Devayani), the story of [Rishyasringa](Rishyasringa) and an abbreviated version of the *Rāmāyaṇa*, often considered as works in their own right.
[[File:Krishna and Arjun on the chariot, Mahabharata, 18th-19th century, India.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|[Krishna](Krishna) and [Arjuna](Arjuna) at [Kurukshetra](Kurukshetra), 18th–19th-century painting]]
Traditionally, the authorship of the *Mahābhārata* is attributed to [Vyāsa](Vyasa). There have been many attempts to unravel its historical growth and compositional layers. The bulk of the *Mahābhārata'' was probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE.Brockington (1998, p. 26) The text probably reached its final form by the early [period](Gupta)(Gupta Empire) ().Van Buitenen; *The Mahabharata* – 1; The Book of the Beginning. Introduction (Authorship and Date)
The *Mahābhārata* is the longest epic poem known and has been described as "the longest poem ever written". Its longest version consists of over 100,000 *[śloka](shloka)* or over 200,000 individual verse lines (each shloka is a couplet), and long prose passages. At about 1.8 million words in total, the *Mahābhārata* is roughly ten times the length of the *[Iliad](Iliad)* and the *[Odyssey](Odyssey)* combined, or about four times the length of the [Rāmāyaṇa](Ramayana).[Howard](Spodek,)(Howard Spodek). Richard Mason. The World's History. Pearson Education: 2006, New Jersey. 224, 0-13-177318-6Amartya Sen, *The Argumentative Indian. Writings on Indian Culture, History and Identity*, London: Penguin Books, 2005. W. J. Johnson has compared the importance of the *Mahābhārata* in the context of world civilization to that of the [Bible](Bible), the [Quran](Quran), the works of [Homer](Homer), [drama](Greek)(Theater of ancient Greece), or the works of [Shakespeare](William)(William Shakespeare). Within the Indian tradition it is sometimes called the [Veda](fifth)(fifth Veda).
## Textual history and structure
[[File: Karwar Pictures - Yogesa 19.JPG|thumb|Modern depiction of Vyasa narrating the *Mahābhārata* to [Ganesha](Ganesha) at the [Murudeshwara](Murudeshwara) temple, Karnataka.]]
The epic is traditionally ascribed to the sage [Vyāsa](Vyasa), who is also a major character in the epic. Vyāsa described it as being *[itihāsa](Itihasa)* (). He also describes the [tradition](Guru–shishya)(Guru–shishya tradition), which traces all great teachers and their students of the Vedic times.
The first section of the *Mahābhārata* states that it was [Ganesha](Ganesha) who wrote down the text to Vyasa's dictation, but this is regarded by scholars as a later interpolation to the epic and the "Critical Edition" doesn't include [Ganesha](Ganesha) at all.*Mahābhārata*, Vol. 1, Part 2. Critical edition, p. 884.
The epic employs the [within a story](story)(story within a story) structure, otherwise known as [frametales](Frame story), popular in many Indian religious and non-religious works. It is first recited at *[Takshashila](Taxila)* by the sage [Vaiśampāyana](Vaisampayana), a disciple of Vyāsa, to the King [Janamejaya](Janamejaya II) who was the great-grandson of the [Pāṇḍava](Pandava) prince [Arjuna](Arjuna). The story is then recited again by a professional storyteller named [Sauti](Ugraśrava)(Ugrasrava Sauti), many years later, to an assemblage of sages performing the 12-year sacrifice for the king Saunaka Kulapati in the [Forest](Naimiśa)(Naimisha Forest).
[[recites the slokas of the Mahabharata.jpg|thumb|Sauti recites the slokas of the *Mahabharata*.](File:Sauti)]
The text was described by some early 20th-century [Indologists](Indology) as unstructured and chaotic. [Oldenberg](Hermann)(Hermann Oldenberg) supposed that the original poem must once have carried an immense "tragic force" but dismissed the full text as a "horrible chaos."Hermann Oldenberg, *Das Mahabharata: seine Entstehung, sein Inhalt, seine Form*, Göttingen, 1922, [Winternitz](Moritz)(Moritz Winternitz) (*Geschichte der indischen Literatur* 1909) considered that "only unpoetical theologists and clumsy scribes" could have lumped the parts of disparate origin into an unordered whole.["The Mahabharata"](http://www.harekrsna.com/sun/features/07-06/features360.htm) at *The Sampradaya Sun*
### Accretion and redaction
[[Reviewing Mahabharata.jpg|thumb|Vyasa Reviewing Mahabharata](File:Vyasa)]
Research on the *Mahābhārata* has put an enormous effort into recognizing and dating layers within the text. Some elements of the present *Mahābhārata* can be traced back to Vedic times.[*A History of Indian Literature*](https://books.google.com/books?id=FYPOVdzZ2UIC&dq=a+history+of+indian+literature+mahabharata+date&pg=PA452), Volume 1 by Maurice Winternitz The background to the *Mahābhārata* suggests the origin of the epic occurs "after the very early [period](Vedic)(Vedic period)" and before "[first Indian 'empire'](the)(Maurya Empire) was to rise in the third century B.C." That this is "a date not too far removed from the 8th or 9th century B.C."Buitenen (1973) pp. xxiv–xxv is likely. *Mahābhārata* started as an orally-transmitted tale of the charioteer [bard](bard)s. It is generally agreed that "Unlike the [Vedas](Vedas), which have to be preserved letter-perfect, the epic was a popular work whose reciters would inevitably conform to changes in language and style," so the earliest 'surviving' components of this dynamic text are believed to be no older than the earliest 'external' references we have to the epic, which include an reference in [Panini](Pāṇini)'s 4th century BCE grammar Aṣṭādhyāyī 4:2:56. Vishnu Sukthankar, editor of the first great critical edition of the *Mahābhārata*, commented: "It is useless to think of reconstructing a fluid text in an original shape, based on an archetype and a *[codicum](stemma)(stemma codicum)*. What then is possible? Our objective can only be to reconstruct *the oldest form of the text which it is possible to reach* based on the manuscript material available."Sukthankar (1933) "Prolegomena" p. lxxxvi. Emphasis is original. That manuscript evidence is somewhat late, given its material composition and the [of India](climate)(climate of India), but it is very extensive.
The *Mahābhārata* itself (1.1.61) distinguishes a core portion of 24,000 verses: the *Bhārata* proper, as opposed to additional secondary material, while the *[Gṛhyasūtra](Aśvalāyana)(Grhya Sutras)* (3.4.4) makes a similar distinction. At least three redactions of the text are commonly recognized: *Jaya* (Victory) with 8,800 verses attributed to [Vyāsa](Vyasa), *Bhārata* with 24,000 verses as recited by [Vaiśampāyana](Vaisampayana), and finally the *Mahābhārata* as recited by [Sauti](Ugraśrava)(Ugrasrava Sauti) with over 100,000 verses.Gupta & Ramachandran (1976), citing *Mahabharata*, Critical Edition, I, 56, 33SP Gupta and KS Ramachandran (1976), p.3-4, citing Vaidya (1967), p.11 However, some scholars, such as John Brockington, argue that *Jaya* and *Bharata* refer to the same text, and ascribe the theory of *Jaya* with 8,800 verses to a misreading of a verse in Ā*diparvan* (1.1.81).
The [redaction](redaction) of this large body of text was carried out after formal principles, emphasizing the numbers 1818 books, 18 chapters of the *Bhagavadgita* and the Narayaniya each, corresponding to the 18 days of the battle and the 18 armies (Mbh. 5.152.23) and 12. The addition of the latest parts may be dated by the absence of the *Anuśāsana-Parva* and the *Virāta Parva* from the "[manuscript](Spitzer)(The Spitzer manuscript)".The Spitzer Manuscript (Beitrage zur Kultur- und Geistesgeschichte Asiens), Austrian Academy of Sciences, 2004. It is one of the oldest Sanskrit manuscripts found on the [Road](Silk)(Silk Road) and part of the estate of Dr. Moritz Spitzer. The oldest surviving Sanskrit text dates to the Kushan Period (200 CE).
According to what one character says at Mbh. 1.1.50, there were three versions of the epic, beginning with *Manu* (1.1.27), *Astika* (1.3, sub-Parva 5), or *Vasu* (1.57), respectively. These versions would correspond to the addition of one and then another 'frame' settings of dialogues. The *Vasu* version would omit the frame settings and begin with the account of the birth of Vyasa. The *astika* version would add the *sarpasattra* and *aśvamedha* material from Brahmanical literature, introduce the name *Mahābhārata*, and identify Vyāsa as the work's author. The redactors of these additions were probably [Pāñcarātrin](Pañcaratra) scholars who according to Oberlies (1998) likely retained control over the text until its final redaction. Mention of the [Huna](Huna (people)) in the *Bhīṣma-Parva* however appears to imply that this Parva may have been edited around the 4th century.
[[snake sacrifice of Janamejaya](File:Snakesacrifice.jpg|thumb|The)]
The Ādi-Parva includes the snake sacrifice (*sarpasattra*) of [Janamejaya](Janamejaya II), explaining its motivation, detailing why all snakes in existence were intended to be destroyed, and why despite this, there are still snakes in existence. This *sarpasattra* material was often considered an independent tale added to a version of the *Mahābhārata* by "thematic attraction" (Minkowski 1991), and considered to have a particularly close connection to [Vedic](Vedic Sanskrit) ([Brahmana](Brahmana)) literature. The [Brahmana](Pañcavimśa)(Panchavimsha Brahmana) (at 25.15.3) enumerates the officiant priests of a *sarpasattra* among whom the names Dhṛtarāṣtra and Janamejaya, two main characters of the *Mahābhārata*'s *sarpasattra*, as well as Takṣaka, the name of a snake in the *Mahābhārata*, occur.J.A.B. van Buitenen, *Mahābhārata, Volume 1*, p.445, citing W. Caland, *The Pañcaviṃśa Brāhmaṇa*, p.640-2
The *[Suparṇākhyāna](Suparṇākhyāna)*, a late Vedic period poem considered to be among the "earliest traces of epic poetry in India," is an older, shorter precursor to the expanded legend of [Garuda](Garuda) that is included in the *Āstīka Parva*, within the *Ādi Parva* of the *Mahābhārata*.
### Historical references
The earliest known references to *bhārata* and the [compound](Compound (linguistics)) *mahābhārata* date to the *[Aṣṭādhyāyī](Aṣṭādhyāyī)* ([sutra](sutra) 6.2.38)*mahān vrīhyaparāhṇagṛṣṭīṣvāsajābālabhārabhāratahailihilarauravapravṛddheṣu*, ['Pāṇini Research Tool', Sanskrit Dictionary](http://sanskritdictionary.com/panini/6-2-38) of [Pāṇini](Pāṇini) (*fl.* 4th century BCE) and the *[Gṛhyasūtra](Aśvalāyana)(Grhya Sutras)* (3.4.4). This may mean the core 24,000 verses, known as the *Bhārata*, as well as an early version of the extended *Mahābhārata*, were composed by the 4th century BCE. However, it is not certain whether Pāṇini referred to the epic, as *bhārata* was also used to describe other things. [Weber](Albrecht)(Albrecht Weber) mentions the [Rigvedic](Rigveda) tribe of the [Bharatas](Bharatas (tribe)), where a great person might have been designated as *Mahā-Bhārata*. However, as Páṇini also mentions characters that play a role in the *Mahābhārata*, some parts of the epic may have already been known in his day. Another aspect is that Pāṇini determined the [accent](Pitch-accent language) of *mahā-bhārata*. However, the *Mahābhārata* was not recited in [accent](Vedic)(Vedic accent).[J.](Bronkhorst,)(Johannes Bronkhorst) (2016): *How the Brahmins Won. From Alexander to the Guptas*, Brill, p. 78-80, 97
The Greek writer [Chrysostom](Dio)(Dio Chrysostom) () reported that [Homer](Homer)'s poetry was being sung even in India.Dio Chrysostom, 53.[6](https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dio_Chrysostom/Discourses/53*.html#6)-7, trans. H. Lamar Crosby, [Classical Library](Loeb)(Loeb Classical Library), 1946, vol. 4, p. 363. Many scholars have taken this as evidence for the existence of a *Mahābhārata* at this date, whose episodes Dio or his sources identify with the story of the *Iliad*.[Lassen](Christian)(Christian Lassen), in his *Indische Alterthumskunde*, supposed that the reference is ultimate to Dhritarashtra's sorrows, the laments of Gandhari and Draupadi, and the valor of Arjuna and Suyodhana or Karna (cited approvingly in [Duncker](Max)(Maximilian Wolfgang Duncker), *The History of Antiquity* (trans. [Abbott](Evelyn)(Evelyn Abbott), London 1880), vol. 4, [p. 81](https://books.google.com/books?id=gIkBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA81)). This interpretation is endorsed in such standard references as [Weber](Albrecht)(Albrecht Weber)'s *History of Indian Literature* but has sometimes been repeated as fact instead of as interpretation.
Several stories within the *Mahābhārata* took on separate identities of their own in [Sanskrit literature](Classical)(Classical Sanskrit literature). For instance, [Abhijñānaśākuntala](Abhijñānaśākuntalam) by the renowned Sanskrit poet [Kālidāsa](Kālidāsa) (), believed to have lived in the era of the [Gupta](Gupta Empire) dynasty, is based on a story that is the precursor to the *Mahābhārata*. [Urubhaṅga](Urubhanga), a Sanskrit play written by [Bhāsa](Bhāsa) who is believed to have lived before [Kālidāsa](Kalidasa), is based on the slaying of Duryodhana by the splitting of his thighs by [Bhīma](Bhima).
The copper-plate inscription of the [Maharaja](Maharaja) Sharvanatha (533–534 CE) from Khoh ([Satna](Satna) District, [Pradesh](Madhya)(Madhya Pradesh)) describes the *Mahābhārata* as a "collection of 100,000 verses" (*śata-sahasri saṃhitā*).
### The 18 parvas or books
The Mahabharata begins with the following hymn and in fact this praise has been made at the beginning of every Parva:
|author=[Vyasa](Vyasa)|title=Mahabharata}}
**"Om! Having bowed down to [Narayana](Narayana) and [(Arjuna)](Nara)(Nara (Arjuna)), the most exalted male being, and also to the goddess [Saraswati](Saraswati), must the word Jaya be uttered."**[THE MAHABHARATA ADI PARVA SECTION I](https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m01/m01002.htm) *sacred-texts.com*.
[Nara-Narayana](Nara-Narayana) were two ancient sages who were the portion of Shree [Vishnu](Vishnu). [Nara](Nara-Narayana#Etymology) was the previous birth of [Arjuna](Arjuna) and the friend of [Narayana](Narayana), while Narayana was the incarnation of Shree [Vishnu](Vishnu) and thus the previous birth of Shree [Krishna](Krishna).
The division into 18 parvas is as follows:
## Historical context
The historicity of the [War](Kurukshetra)(Kurukshetra War) is unclear. Many historians estimate the date of the Kurukshetra war to [Age India](Iron)(Iron Age India) of the 10th century BCE.In discussing the dating question, historian A. L. Basham says: "According to the most popular later tradition the Mahabharata War took place in 3102 BCE, which in the light of all evidence, is quite impossible. More reasonable is another tradition, placing it in the 15th century BCE, but this is also several centuries too early in the light of our archaeological knowledge. Probably the war took place around the beginning of the 9th century BCE; such a date seems to fit well with the scanty archaeological remains of the period, and there is some evidence in the Brahmana literature itself to show that it cannot have been much earlier." Basham, p. 40, citing HC Raychaudhuri, *Political History of Ancient India*, pp.27ff. The setting of the epic has a historical precedent in Iron Age ([Vedic](Vedic India)) India, where the [Kuru](Kuru (kingdom)) kingdom was the center of political power during roughly 1200 to 800 BCE.M Witzel, *Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state*, EJVS vol.1 no.4 (1995); also in B. Kölver (ed.), *Recht, Staat und Verwaltung im klassischen Indien. The state, the Law, and Administration in Classical India*, München, R. Oldenbourg, 1997, p.27-52 A dynastic conflict of the period could have been the inspiration for the *Jaya*, the foundation on which the *Mahābhārata* corpus was built, with a climactic battle, eventually coming to be viewed as an epochal event.
[literature](Puranic)(Puranas) presents genealogical lists associated with the *Mahābhārata* narrative. The evidence of the Puranas is of two kinds. Of the first kind, there is the direct statement that there were 1015 (or 1050) years between the birth of [Parikshit](Parikshit) (Arjuna's grandson) and the accession of [Nanda](Mahapadma)(Mahapadma Nanda) (400-329 BCE), which would yield an estimate of about 1400 BCE for the Bharata battle.A.D. Pusalker, *History and Culture of the Indian People*, Vol I, Chapter XIV, p.273 However, this would imply improbably long reigns on average for the kings listed in the genealogies.FE Pargiter, *Ancient Indian Historical Tradition*, p.180. He shows estimates of the average as 47, 50, 31, and 35 for various versions of the lists.
Of the second kind is analyses of parallel genealogies in the Puranas between the times of Adhisimakrishna ([Parikshit](Parikshit)'s great-grandson) and [Nanda](Mahapadma)(Mahapadma Nanda). Pargiter accordingly estimated 26 generations by averaging 10 different dynastic lists and, assuming 18 years for the average duration of a reign, arrived at an estimate of 850 BCE for Adhisimakrishna, and thus approximately 950 BCE for the Bharata battle.Pargiter, *op.cit.* p.180-182
[[File: Painted Grey Ware Culture (1200-600 BCE).png|thumb|Map of some [Grey Ware](Painted)(Painted Grey Ware) (PGW) sites.]]
[B. Lal](B.)(B. B. Lal) used the same approach with a more conservative assumption of the average reign to estimate a date of 836 BCE, and correlated this with archaeological evidence from [Grey Ware](Painted)(Painted Grey Ware) (PGW) sites, the association being strong between PGW artifacts and places mentioned in the epic.B. B. Lal, *Mahabharata and Archaeology* in Gupta and Ramachandran (1976), p.57-58 [Keay](John)(John Keay) confirms this and also gives 950 BCE for the Bharata battle.
Attempts to date the events using methods of [archaeoastronomy](archaeoastronomy) have produced, depending on which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted, estimates ranging from the late 4th to the mid-2nd millennium BCE.Gupta and Ramachandran (1976), p.246, who summarize as follows: "Astronomical calculations favor 15th century BCE as the date of the war while the Puranic data place it in the 10th/9th century BCE. Archaeological evidence points towards the latter." (p.254) The late 4th-millennium date has a precedent in the calculation of the *[Yuga](Kali)(Kali Yuga)* epoch, based on planetary conjunctions, by [Aryabhata](Aryabhata) (6th century). Aryabhata's date of 18 February 3102 BCE for *Mahābhārata* war has become widespread in Indian tradition. Some sources mark this as the disappearance of [Krishna](Krishna) from the Earth. The [Aihole](Aihole) inscription of [II](Pulakeshin)(Pulakeshin II), dated to Saka 556 = 634 CE, claims that 3735 years have elapsed since the Bharata battle, putting the date of *Mahābhārata* war at 3137 BCE.Gupta and Ramachandran (1976), p.55; AD Pusalker, HCIP, Vol I, p.272
Another traditional school of astronomers and historians, represented by [Garga](Vrddha)(Vrddha Garga), [Varāhamihira](Varāhamihira) and [Kalhana](Kalhana), place the Bharata war 653 years after the *Kali Yuga* epoch, corresponding to 2449 BCE.AD Pusalker, *op.cit.* p.272 According to Varāhamihira's *[Saṃhitā](Bṛhat)(Bṛhat Saṃhitā)* (6th century), [Yudhishthara](Yudhishthara) lived 2526 years before the beginning of the [era](Shaka)(Shaka era), which begins in the 78 CE. This places Yudhishthara (and therefore, the Mahabharata war) around 2448-2449 BCE (2526-78). Some scholars have attempted to identify the "Shaka" calendar era mentioned by Varāhamihira with other eras, but such identifications place Varāhamihira in the first century BCE, which is impossible as he refers to the 5th century astronomer [Aryabhata](Aryabhata). [Kalhana](Kalhana)'s *[Rajatarangini](Rajatarangini)* (11th century), apparently relying on Varāhamihira, also states that the Pandavas flourished 653 years after the beginning of the Kali Yuga; Kalhana adds that people who believe that the Bharata war was fought at the end of the *[Yuga](Dvapara)(Dvapara Yuga)* are foolish.
## Synopsis
[[Ganesha write Mahabharata.jpg|thumb|Ganesha writes the *Mahabharata* upon Vyasa's dictation.](File:)]
The core story of the work is that of a dynastic struggle for the throne of [Hastinapura](Hastinapura), the kingdom ruled by the [Kuru](Kuru (India)) clan. The two collateral branches of the family that participate in the struggle are the [Kaurava](Kaurava) and the [Pandava](Pandava). Although the Kaurava is the senior branch of the family, [Duryodhana](Duryodhana), the eldest Kaurava, is younger than [Yudhishthira](Yudhishthira), the eldest Pandava. Both [Duryodhana](Duryodhana) and [Yudhishthira](Yudhishthira) claim to be first in line to inherit the throne.
The struggle culminates in the [battle of Kurukshetra](great)(Kurukshetra War), in which the [Pandavas](Pandavas) are ultimately victorious. The battle produces complex conflicts of kinship and friendship, instances of family loyalty and duty taking precedence over what is right, as well as the converse.
The *Mahābhārata* itself ends with the death of [Krishna](Krishna), and the subsequent end of his dynasty and ascent of the Pandava brothers to heaven. It also marks the beginning of the Hindu age of *[Yuga](Kali)(Kali Yuga)*, the fourth and final age of humankind, in which great values and noble ideas have crumbled, and people are heading towards the complete dissolution of right action, morality, and virtue.
### The older generations
[[File: Ravi Varma-Shantanu and Satyavati.jpg|thumb|Shantanu falls in love with Satyavati, the fisherwoman. Painting by [Ravi Varma](Raja)(Raja Ravi Varma).]]
King Janamejaya's ancestor [Shantanu](Shantanu), the king of [Hastinapura](Hastinapura), has a short-lived marriage with the goddess [Ganga](Ganga (goddess)) and has a son, Devavrata (later to be called [Bhishma](Bhishma), a great warrior), who becomes the heir apparent. Many years later, when King [Shantanu](Shantanu) goes hunting, he sees [Satyavati](Satyavati), the daughter of the chief of fisherman, and asks her father for her hand. Her father refuses to consent to the marriage unless Shantanu promises to make any future son of Satyavati the king upon his death. To resolve his father's dilemma, [Devavrata](Bhishma) agrees to relinquish his right to the throne. As the fisherman is not sure about the prince's children honoring the promise, Devavrata also takes a vow of lifelong celibacy to guarantee his father's promise.
Shantanu has two sons by Satyavati, [Chitrāngada](Chitrāngada) and [Vichitravirya](Vichitravirya). Upon Shantanu's death, Chitrangada becomes king. He lives a very short uneventful life and dies. Vichitravirya, the younger son, rules [Hastinapura](Hastinapura). Meanwhile, the King of [Kāśī](Kāśī) arranges a [swayamvara](swayamvara) for his three daughters, neglecting to invite the royal family of Hastinapur. To arrange the marriage of young Vichitravirya, Bhishma attends the swayamvara of the three princesses [Amba](Amba (Mahabharata)), Ambika, and [Ambalika](Ambalika), uninvited, and proceeds to abduct them. Ambika and Ambalika consent to be married to Vichitravirya.
The oldest princess Amba, however, informs Bhishma that she wishes to marry the king of Shalva whom Bhishma defeated at their swayamvara. Bhishma lets her leave to marry the king of Shalva, but Shalva refuses to marry her, still smarting at his humiliation at the hands of Bhishma. Amba then returns to marry Bhishma but he refuses due to his vow of celibacy. Amba becomes enraged and becomes Bhishma's bitter enemy, holding him responsible for her plight. She vows to kill him in her next life. Later she is reborn to King [Drupada](Drupada) as [Shikhandi](Shikhandi) (or Shikhandini) and causes Bhishma's fall, with the help of [Arjuna](Arjuna), in the battle of Kurukshetra.
### The Pandava and Kaurava princes
[[File:Draupadi and Pandavas.jpg|thumb|[Draupadi](Draupadi) with her five husbands – the [Pandavas](Pandavas). The central figure is [Yudhishthira](Yudhishthira); the two on the bottom are [Bhima](Bhima) and [Arjuna](Arjuna). [Nakula](Nakula) and [Sahadeva](Sahadeva), the twins, are standing. Painting by [Ravi Varma](Raja)(Raja Ravi Varma), .]]
When Vichitravirya dies young without any heirs, Satyavati asks her first son [Vyasa](Vyasa) to [children with](father)(niyoga) the widows. The eldest, Ambika, shuts her eyes when she sees him, and so her son [Dhritarashtra](Dhritarashtra) is born blind. Ambalika turns pale and bloodless upon seeing him, and thus her son [Pandu](Pandu) is born pale and unhealthy (the term Pandu may also mean 'jaundiced'). Due to the physical challenges of the first two children, Satyavati asks Vyasa to try once again. However, Ambika and Ambalika send their maid instead, to Vyasa's room. Vyasa fathers a third son, [Vidura](Vidura), by the maid. He is born healthy and grows up to be one of the wisest characters in the *Mahabharata*. He serves as Prime Minister (Mahamantri or Mahatma) to King Pandu and King Dhritarashtra.
When the princes grow up, Dhritarashtra is about to be crowned king by Bhishma when Vidura intervenes and uses his knowledge of politics to assert that a blind person cannot be king. This is because a blind man cannot control and protect his subjects. The throne is then given to Pandu because of Dhritarashtra's blindness. Pandu marries twice, to [Kunti](Kunti) and [Madri](Madri). Dhritarashtra marries [Gandhari](Gandhari (Mahabharata)), a princess from Gandhara, who blindfolds herself for the rest of her life so that she may feel the pain that her husband feels. Her brother [Shakuni](Shakuni) is enraged by this and vows to take revenge on the Kuru family. One day, when Pandu is relaxing in the forest, he hears the sound of a wild animal. He shoots an arrow in the direction of the sound. However, the arrow hits the sage [Kindama](Kindama), who was engaged in a sexual act in the guise of a deer. He curses Pandu that if he engages in a sexual act, he will die. Pandu then retires to the forest along with his two wives, and his brother Dhritarashtra rules thereafter, despite his blindness.
Pandu's older queen Kunti, however, had been given a boon by Sage [Durvasa](Durvasa) that she could invoke any god using a special mantra. Kunti uses this boon to ask [Dharma](Dharma) the god of justice, [Vayu](Vayu) the god of the wind, and [Indra](Indra) the lord of the heavens for sons. She gives birth to three sons, [Yudhishthira](Yudhishthira), [Bhima](Bhima), and [Arjuna](Arjuna), through these gods. Kunti shares her mantra with the younger queen [Madri](Madri), who bears the twins [Nakula](Nakula) and [Sahadeva](Sahadeva) through the [Ashwini](Ashvins) twins. However, Pandu and Madri indulge in lovemaking, and Pandu dies. Madri commits suicide out of remorse. Kunti raises the five brothers, who are from then on usually referred to as the [Pandava](Pandava) brothers.
Dhritarashtra has a hundred sons, and one daughter—[Duhsala](Duhsala)—through [Gandhari](Gandhari (Mahabharata)), all born after the birth of Yudhishthira. These are the [Kaurava](Kaurava) brothers, the eldest being [Duryodhana](Duryodhana), and the second [Dushasana](Dushasana). Other Kaurava brothers were [Vikarna](Vikarna) and Sukarna. The rivalry and enmity between them and the Pandava brothers, from their youth and into manhood, leads to the [Kurukshetra](Kurukshetra) war.
### Lakshagraha (the house of lac)
After the deaths of their mother (Madri) and father (Pandu), the Pandavas and their mother Kunti return to the palace of Hastinapur. Yudhishthira is made Crown Prince by Dhritarashtra, under considerable pressure from his courtiers. Dhritarashtra wanted his son Duryodhana to become king and lets his ambition get in the way of preserving justice.
Shakuni, Duryodhana, and Dushasana plot to get rid of the Pandavas. Shakuni calls the architect [Purochana](Purochana) to build a palace out of flammable materials like lac and ghee. He then arranges for the Pandavas and the Queen Mother Kunti to stay there, intending to set it alight. However, the Pandavas are warned by their wise uncle, [Vidura](Vidura), who sends them a miner to dig a tunnel. They can escape to safety and go into hiding. During this time Bhima marries a [demon](demon)ess [Hidimbi](Hidimbi) and has a son [Ghatotkacha](Ghatotkacha). Back in Hastinapur, the Pandavas and Kunti are presumed dead.
### Marriage to Draupadi
[[File:Swayamvara Draupadi Arjuna Archery.jpg|thumb|[Arjuna](Arjuna) piercing the eye of the fish as depicted in [Temple](Chennakesava)(Chennakesava Temple) built by [Empire](Hoysala)(Hoysala Empire)]]
Whilst they were in hiding the Pandavas learn of a [swayamvara](swayamvara) which is taking place for the hand of the [Pāñcāla](Pāñcāla) princess [Draupadī](Draupadī). The Pandavas disguised as [Brahmin](Brahmin)s come to witness the event. Meanwhile, Krishna who has already befriended Draupadi, tells her to look out for Arjuna (though now believed to be dead). The task was to string a mighty steel bow and shoot a target on the ceiling, which was the eye of a moving artificial fish while looking at its reflection in oil below. In popular versions, after all the princes fail, many being unable to lift the bow, Karna proceeds to the attempt but is interrupted by Draupadi who refuses to marry a suta (this has been excised from the Critical Edition of Mahabharata as later interpolation). After this the swayamvara is opened to the Brahmins leading Arjuna to win the contest and marry Draupadi. The Pandavas return home and inform their meditating mother that Arjuna has won a competition and to look at what they have brought back. Without looking, Kunti asks them to share whatever Arjuna has won amongst themselves, thinking it to be [alms](alms). Thus, Draupadi ends up being the [of all five brothers](wife)(Fraternal polyandry).
### Indraprastha
After the wedding, the Pandava brothers are invited back to Hastinapura. The Kuru family elders and relatives negotiate and broker a split of the kingdom, with the Pandavas obtaining and demanding only a wild forest inhabited by [Takshaka](Takshaka), the king of snakes, and his family. Through hard work, the Pandavas can build a new glorious capital for the territory at [Indraprastha](Indraprastha).
Shortly after this, Arjuna elopes with and then marries Krishna's sister, [Subhadra](Subhadra). Yudhishthira wishes to establish his position as king; he seeks Krishna's advice. Krishna advises him, and after due preparation and the elimination of some opposition, Yudhishthira carries out the *rājasūya yagna* ceremony; he is thus recognized as pre-eminent among kings.
The Pandavas have a new palace built for them, by [Maya](Mayasura) the [Danava](Danava (Hinduism)). They invite their Kaurava cousins to Indraprastha. Duryodhana walks round the palace, and mistakes a glossy floor for water, and will not step in. After being told of his error, he then sees a pond and assumes it is not water and falls in. [Bhima](Bhima), [Arjun](Arjuna), the twins and the servants laugh at him. In popular adaptations, this insult is wrongly attributed to Draupadi, even though in the Sanskrit epic, it was the Pandavas (except Yudhishthira) who had insulted Duryodhana. Enraged by the insult, and jealous at seeing the wealth of the Pandavas, Duryodhana decides to host a dice-game on Shakuni's suggestion. This suggestion was accepted by Yudhisthira despite the rest of the Pandavas advising him not to play.
### The dice game
[[Disrobing of Draupadi.jpg|thumb|Draupadi humiliated](File:)]
[Shakuni](Shakuni), Duryodhana's uncle, now arranges a dice game, playing against Yudhishthira with loaded dice. Shakuni's dice had magic as they were made from the bones of his siblings. In the dice game, Yudhishthira loses all his wealth, then his kingdom. Yudhishthira then gambles his brothers, himself, and finally his wife into servitude. The jubilant Kauravas insult the Pandavas in their helpless state and even try to disrobe Draupadi in front of the entire court, but Draupadi's disrobe is prevented by Krishna, who miraculously make her dress endless, therefore it couldn't be removed.
Dhritarashtra, Bhishma, and the other elders are aghast at the situation, but Duryodhana is adamant that there is no place for two crown princes in Hastinapura. Against his wishes Dhritarashtra orders for another dice game. The Pandavas are required to go into exile for 12 years, and in the 13th year, they must remain hidden. If they are discovered by the Kauravas in the 13th year of their exile, then they will be forced into exile for another 12 years.
### Exile and return
The Pandavas spend thirteen years in exile; many adventures occur during this time. The Pandavas acquire many divine weapons, given by gods, during this period. They also prepare alliances for a possible future conflict. They spend their final year in disguise in the court of the king [Virata](Virata), and they are discovered just after the end of the year.
At the end of their exile, they try to negotiate a return to Indraprastha with Krishna as their emissary. However, this negotiation fails, because Duryodhana objected that they were discovered in the 13th year of their exile and the return of their kingdom was not agreed upon. Then the Pandavas fought the Kauravas, claiming their rights over Indraprastha.[[File: The center of battle of Kurukshetra.jpg|thumb|A scene from the *Mahābhārata* war, [Wat](Angkor)(Angkor Wat): A black stone relief depicting several men wearing a crown and a dhoti, fighting with spears, swords, and bows. A chariot with half the horse out of the frame is seen in the middle.|alt=A black stone relief depicting several men wearing a crown and a dhoti, fighting with spears, swords, and bows. A chariot with half the horse out of the frame is seen in the middle.]]
### The battle at Kurukshetra
[[BharatVarsh.jpg|thumb|A map of India depicting various regions during the Mahabharata period](File:Mahabharata)]
The two sides summon vast armies to their help and line up at [Kurukshetra](Kurukshetra) for a war. The kingdoms of [Panchala](Panchala), [Dwaraka](Dvārakā), Kasi, [Kekaya](Kekaya), [Magadha](Magadha), [Matsya](Matsya Kingdom), [Chedi](Chedi Kingdom), [Pandyas](Pandya dynasty), [Telinga](Telinga), and the [Yadu](Yadu)s of [Mathura](Mathura, Uttar Pradesh) and some other clans like the [Kambojas](Parama)(Parama Kambojas) were allied with the [Pandava](Pandava)s. The allies of the [Kaurava](Kaurava)s included the kings of Pragjyotisha, [Anga](Anga), Kekaya, Sindhudesa (including Sindhus, [Sauviras](Sovira) and Sivis), Mahishmati, [Avanti](Avanti (India)) in Madhyadesa, [Madra](Madra), [Gandhara](Gandhara), [people](Bahlika)(Bahlika people), [Kambojas](Kambojas) and many others. Before war being declared, [Balarama](Balarama) had expressed his unhappiness at the developing conflict and leaves to go on [pilgrimage](pilgrimage); thus he does not take part in the battle itself. Krishna takes part in a non-combatant role, as charioteer ([Sarathy](Sarathi (name of Krishna))) for [Arjuna](Arjuna) and offers [Sena](Narayani)(Narayani Sena) consisting of [Abhira](Abhira tribe) gopas to the [Kaurava](Kaurava)s to fight on their side.
Before the battle, Arjuna, noticing that the opposing army includes his cousins and relatives, including his grandfather [Bhishma](Bhishma) and his teacher [Drona](Drona), has grave doubts about the fight. He falls into despair and refuses to fight. At this time, Krishna reminds him of his duty as a [Kshatriya](Kshatriya) to fight for a righteous cause in the famous [Gita](Bhagavad)(Bhagavad Gita) section of the epic.
Though initially sticking to chivalrous notions of warfare, both sides soon adopt dishonorable tactics. At the end of the 18-day battle, only the Pandavas, [Satyaki](Satyaki), [Kripa](Kripa), [Ashwatthama](Ashwatthama), [Kritavarma](Kritavarma), [Yuyutsu](Yuyutsu) and Krishna survive. Yudhisthira becomes King of Hastinapur and Gandhari curses Krishna that the downfall of his clan is imminent.
### The end of the Pandavas
[[File:Totheforest.jpg|thumb|left|Gandhari, blindfolded, supporting Dhrtarashtra and following Kunti when Dhritarashtra became old and infirm and retired to the forest. A miniature painting from a 16th-century manuscript of part of the Razmnama, a [Persian](Persian language) translation of the *Mahabharata*]]
After "seeing" the carnage, [Gandhari](Gandhari (Mahabharata)), who had lost all her sons, curses [Krishna](Krishna) to be a witness to a similar annihilation of his family, for though divine and capable of stopping the war, he had not done so. Krishna accepts the curse, which bears fruit 36 years later.
The Pandavas, who had ruled their kingdom meanwhile, decide to renounce everything. Clad in skins and rags they retire to the [Himalaya](Himalaya) and climb towards heaven in their bodily form. A stray dog travels with them. One by one the brothers and Draupadi fall on their way. As each one stumbles, Yudhishthira gives the rest the reason for their fall ([Draupadi](Draupadi) was partial to [Arjuna](Arjuna), [Nakula](Nakula) and Sahadeva were vain and proud of their looks, and Bhima and Arjuna were proud of their strength and archery skills, respectively). Only the virtuous Yudhishthira, who had tried everything to prevent the carnage, and the dog remain. The dog reveals himself to be the god Yama (also known as Yama Dharmaraja) and then takes him to the underworld where he sees his siblings and wife. After explaining the nature of the test, Yama takes Yudhishthira back to heaven and explains that it was necessary to expose him to the underworld because (Rajyante narakam dhruvam) any ruler has to visit the underworld at least once. Yama then assures him that his siblings and wife would join him in heaven after they had been exposed to the underworld for measures of time according to their vices.
Arjuna's grandson [Parikshit](Parikshit) rules after them and dies bitten by a snake. His furious son, Janamejaya, decides to perform a snake sacrifice (*[sarpasattra](sarpasattra)*) to destroy the snakes. It is at this sacrifice that the tale of his ancestors is narrated to him.
### The reunion
The *Mahābhārata* mentions that [Karna](Karna), the Pandavas, Draupadi and Dhritarashtra's sons eventually ascended to [svarga](svarga) and "attained the state of the [god](god)s", and banded together – "serene and free from anger".
## Themes
[[File:M 134 Short.png|thumb|The god Krishna acts as a charioteer to Arjuna in the battle of the Bhagavad Gita, a section of the Mahabharata. Taken from an illustrated manuscript scroll, 1795 C.E. held in the [archive collection](https://images.is.ed.ac.uk/luna/servlet/detail/UoE~3~3~210~198024:Mahabharata-Scroll-Section-134?qvq=q:LIMIT%3A%20UoE~3~3;lc:UoE~3~3&mi=253&trs=264) at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland.]]
### Just war
The *Mahābhārata* offers one of the first instances of theorizing about *[dharmayuddha](Dharma-yuddha)*, "[war](just)(Just war theory)", illustrating many of the standards that would be debated later across the world. In the story, one of five brothers asks if the suffering caused by war can ever be justified. A long discussion ensues between the siblings, establishing criteria like *proportionality* (chariots cannot attack cavalry, only other chariots; no attacking people in distress), *just means* (no poisoned or barbed arrows), *just cause* (no attacking out of rage), and fair treatment of captives and the wounded.
## Translations, versions and derivative works
### Translations
[[File:Razmnama Bhishma.jpg|right|thumb|Bhishma on his death-bed of arrows with the [Pandavas](Pandavas) and [Krishna](Krishna). Folio from the *[Razmnama](Razmnama)* (1761–1763), Persian translation of the *Mahabharata*, commissioned by Mughal emperor [Akbar](Akbar). The Pandavas are dressed in Persian armour and robes.]]
The first [Bengali](Bengali language) translations of the *Mahabharata* emerged in the 16th century. It is disputed whether [Parameshwar](Kavindra)(Kavindra Parameshwar) of [Hooghly](Hooghly district) (based in [Chittagong](Chittagong) during his writing) or [Sanjay](Sri)(Sri Sanjay) of [Sylhet](Sylhet) was the first to translate it into Bengali.
A [Persian](Persian language) translation of *Mahabharata*, titled *[Razmnameh](Razmnameh)*, was produced at Akbar's orders, by [Faizi](Faizi) and [al-Qadir Badayuni](ʽAbd)(ʽAbd al-Qadir Badayuni) in the 18th century.
The first complete English translation was the [Victorian](Victorian literature) prose version by [Mohan Ganguli](Kisari)(Kisari Mohan Ganguli),Several editions of the [Mohan Ganguli](Kisari)(Kisari Mohan Ganguli) translation of the *Mahabharata* incorrectly cite the publisher, Pratap Chandra Roy, as the translator and this error has been propagated into secondary citations. See the publisher's preface to the current Munshiram Manoharlal edition for an explanation. published between 1883 and 1896 (Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers) and by M. N. Dutt ([Banarsidass](Motilal)(Motilal Banarsidass) Publishers). Most critics consider the translation by Ganguli to be faithful to the original text. The complete text of Ganguli's translation is in the [domain](public)(public domain) and is available online.[The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli](http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/maha/index.htm) at the [Sacred Text Archive](Internet)(Internet Sacred Text Archive)
An early poetry translation by [Chunder Dutt](Romesh)(Romesh Chunder Dutt) and published in 1898 condenses the main themes of the *Mahābhārata* into English verse.[The *Mahabharata of Krishna*-Dwaipayana Vyasa translated by Romesh Chunder Dutt](http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/19630) at the Online Library of Liberty. A later poetic "transcreation" (author's description) of the full epic into English, done by the poet [Lal](P.)(Purushottama Lal), is complete, and in 2005 began being published by [Workshop](Writers)(Writers Workshop), [Calcutta](Calcutta). The P. Lal translation is a non-rhyming verse-by-verse rendering, and is the only edition in any language to include all slokas in all recensions of the work (not just those in the *Critical Edition*). The completion of the publishing project is scheduled for 2010. Sixteen of the eighteen volumes are now available. Dr. Pradip Bhattacharya stated that the P. Lal version is "known in academia as the ‘[vulgate](vulgate)'". However, it has been described as "not strictly speaking a translation".
A project to translate the full epic into English prose, translated by various hands, began to appear in 2005 from the [Sanskrit Library](Clay)(Clay Sanskrit Library), published by [York University](New)(New York University) Press. The translation is based not on the *Critical Edition* but on the version known to the commentator [Nīlakaṇṭha](Nīlakaṇṭha Caturdhara). Currently available are 15 volumes of the projected 32-volume edition.
Indian Vedic [Shripad Damodar Satwalekar](Scholar)(Shripad Damodar Satwalekar) translated the Critical Edition of Mahabharata into Hindi which was assigned to him by the [of India](Government)(Government of India). After his death, the task was taken up by Shrutisheel Sharma.S R, Ramaswamy (1972). *ಮಹಾಭಾರತದ ಬೆಳವಣಿಗೆ*. Mysore: Kavyalaya Publishers.Please note, that Sadwalekar has two translations in Hindi. To read BORI CE in Hindi specifically, go for the translations he published starting from 1968(BORI was published in 1966).
Indian economist [Debroy](Bibek)(Bibek Debroy) also wrote an unabridged English translation in ten volumes. Volume 1: Adi Parva was published in March 2010, and the last two volumes were published in December 2014. Abhinav Agarwal referred to Debroy's translation as "thoroughly enjoyable and impressively scholarly". In a review of the seventh volume, Bhattacharya stated that the translator bridged gaps in the narrative of the Critical Edition, but also noted translation errors. Gautam Chikermane of *[Times](Hindustan)(Hindustan Times)* wrote that where "both Debroy and Ganguli get tiresome is in the use of adjectives while describing protagonists".
Another English prose translation of the full epic, based on the *Critical Edition*, is in progress, published by [of Chicago](University)(University of Chicago) Press. It was initiated by [Indologist](Indologist) [A. B. van Buitenen](J.)(J. A. B. van Buitenen) (books 1–5) and, following a 20-year hiatus caused by the death of van Buitenen is being continued by several scholars. [L. Fitzgerald](James)(James L. Fitzgerald) translated book 11 and the first half of book 12. David Gitomer is translating book 6, Gary Tubb is translating book 7, [Minkowski](Christopher)(Christopher Minkowski) is translating book 8, [Hiltebeitel](Alf)(Alf Hiltebeitel) is translating books 9 and 10, Fitzgerald is translating the second half of book 12, [Olivelle](Patrick)(Patrick Olivelle) is translating book 13, and Fred Smith is translating book 14–18.
Many condensed versions, abridgments and novelistic prose retellings of the complete epic have been published in English, including works by [Menon](Ramesh)(Ramesh Menon (writer)), [Buck](William)(William Buck (translator)), [K. Narayan](R.)(R. K. Narayan), [Rajagopalachari](C.)(C. Rajagopalachari), Kamala Subramaniam, [M. Munshi](K.)(Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi), Krishna Dharma, [C. Dutt](Romesh)(Romesh Chunder Dutt), Bharadvaja Sarma, [D. Smith](John)(John D. Smith) and [Maas](Sharon)(Sharon Maas).
### *Critical Edition*
Between 1919 and 1966, scholars at the [Oriental Research Institute](Bhandarkar)(Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute), [Pune](Pune), compared the various manuscripts of the epic from India and abroad and produced the *Critical Edition* of the *Mahabharata*, on 13,000 pages in 19 volumes, over the span of 47 years, followed by the *[Harivamsha](Harivamsha)* in another two volumes and six index volumes. This is the text that is usually used in current Mahābhārata studies for reference.[Bhandarkar Institute, Pune](http://www.virtualpune.com/html/channel/edu/institutes/html/bhandark.shtml) —Virtual Pune This work is sometimes called the "Pune" or "Poona" edition of the *Mahabharata*.
### Regional versions
Many regional versions of the work developed over time, mostly differing only in minor details, or with verses or subsidiary stories being added. These include the [Tamil](Tamil culture) street theatre, [terukkuttu](terukkuttu) and [kattaikkuttu](kattaikkuttu), the plays of which use themes from the Tamil language versions of *Mahabharata*, focusing on [Draupadi](Draupadi).
[[File: Wayang Wong Bharata Pandawa.jpg|thumb|The [Pandava](Pandava)s and [Krishna](Krishna) in an act of the Javanese *[wong](wayang)(wayang wong)* performance]]
Outside the Indian subcontinent, in [Indonesia](Indonesia), a version was developed in ancient [Java](Java) as [Bhāratayuddha](Kakawin)(Kakawin Bhāratayuddha) in the 11th century under the patronage of King [Dharmawangsa](Dharmawangsa) (990–1016) and later it spread to the neighboring island of [Bali](Bali), which remains a Hindu majority island today. It has become the fertile source for Javanese literature, dance drama ([wong](wayang)(wayang wong)), and [wayang](wayang) shadow puppet performances. This Javanese version of the *Mahābhārata* differs slightly from the original Indian version. The author later added some female characters to be wed to the Pandavas, for example, Arjuna is described as having many wives and consorts next to [Subhadra](Subhadra). Another difference is that [Shikhandi](Shikhandi)ni does not change her sex and remains a woman, to be wed to [Arjuna](Arjuna), and takes the role of a warrior princess during the war. Another twist is that [Gandhari](Gandhari (character)) is described as an antagonistic character who hates the Pandavas: her hate is out of jealousy because, during Gandhari's [swayamvara](swayamvara), she was in love with Pandu but was later wed to his blind elder brother instead, whom she did not love, so she blindfolded herself as a protest.}} Another notable difference is the inclusion of the [Punakawan](Punakawan)s, the clown servants of the main characters in the storyline. These characters include [Semar](Semar), [Petruk](Petruk), Gareng, and Bagong, who are much-loved by Indonesian audiences. There are also some spin-off episodes developed in ancient Java, such as [Arjunawiwaha](Arjunawiwaha) composed in the 11th century.
A [Kawi](Kawi language) version of the *Mahabharata*, of which eight of the eighteen *parvas* survive, is found on the Indonesian island of [Bali](Bali). It has been translated into English by Dr. [Gusti Putu Phalgunadi](I.)(I. Gusti Putu Phalgunadi).
### Derivative literature
[Bhasa](Bhasa), the 2nd- or 3rd-century CE Sanskrit playwright, wrote two plays on episodes in the *Marabharata*, *[Urubhanga](Urubhanga)* (*Broken Thigh*), about the fight between [Duryodhana](Duryodhana) and [Bhima](Bhima), while *[Madhyamavyayoga](Madhyamavyayoga)* (*The Middle One*) set around [Bhima](Bhima) and his son, Ghatotkacha. The first important play of 20th century was *[Yug](Andha)(Andha Yug)* (*The Blind Epoch*), by [Bharati](Dharamvir)(Dharamvir Bharati), which came in 1955, found in *Mahabharat*, both an ideal source and expression of modern predicaments and discontent. Starting with [Alkazi](Ebrahim)(Ebrahim Alkazi), it was staged by numerous directors. [S. Khandekar](V.)(V. S. Khandekar)'s Marathi novel, *Yayati* (1960), and [Karnad](Girish)(Girish Karnad)'s debut play *Yayati* (1961) are based on the story of King [Yayati](Yayati) found in the *Mahabharat*. Bengali writer and playwright, [Bose](Buddhadeva)(Buddhadeva Bose) wrote three plays set in Mahabharat, *Anamni Angana*, *Pratham Partha* and *Kalsandhya*.[The Mahabharata as Theatre](http://www.boloji.com/hinduism/084.htm) by Pradip Bhattacharya, 13 June 2004. [Ray](Pratibha)(Pratibha Ray) wrote an [award](Moortidevi Award) winning novel entitled [Yajnaseni](Yajnaseni (novel)) from [Draupadi](Draupadi)'s perspective in 1984. Later, [Banerjee Divakaruni](Chitra)(Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni) wrote a similar novel entitled *[Palace of Illusions: A Novel](The)(The Palace of Illusions: A Novel)* in 2008. Gujarati poet [Modi](Chinu)(Chinu Modi) has written long narrative poetry *[Bahuk](Bahuk)* based on character [Bahuka](Bahuka (Nala)). [Udayasankar](Krishna)(Krishna Udayasankar), a Singapore-based Indian author, has written several novels which are modern-day retellings of the epic, most notably the Aryavarta Chronicles Series. [Pokhrel](Suman)(Suman Pokhrel) wrote a [play](solo)(Yajnaseni (play)) based on [novel](Ray's)(Yajnaseni (novel)) by personalizing and taking [Draupadi](Draupadi) alone in the scene.
[Chitra Katha](Amar)(Amar Chitra Katha) published a 1,260-page [book version of the *Mahabharata*](comic)(Mahabharata (comics)).
### In film and television
[[File:FullPagadeYakshagana.jpg|right|thumb|Krishna as portrayed in [Yakshagana](Yakshagana) from [Karnataka](Karnataka) which is based largely on stories of *Mahabharata*]]
In [cinema](Indian)(Cinema of India), several film versions of the epic have been made, dating back to 1920. The *Mahābhārata* was also reinterpreted by [Benegal](Shyam)(Shyam Benegal) in *[Kalyug](Kalyug (1980 film))*. [Jha](Prakash)(Prakash Jha) directed 2010 film [Raajneeti](Raajneeti) was partially inspired by the *Mahabharata*. A [animated adaptation](2013)(Mahabharat (2013 film)) holds the record for India's most expensive animated film.
In 1988, [R. Chopra](B.)(B. R. Chopra) created a television series named *[Mahabharat](Mahabharat (1988 TV series)).* It was directed by [Chopra](Ravi)(Ravi Chopra), (1988–1990 TV series) and was televised on India's national television ([Doordarshan](Doordarshan)). The same year as *Mahabharat* was being shown on Doordarshan, that same company's other television show, *[Ek Khoj](Bharat)(Bharat Ek Khoj)*, also directed by Shyam Benegal, showed a 2-episode abbreviation of the *Mahabharata*, drawing from various interpretations of the work, be they sung, danced, or staged. In the [world](Western)(Western world), a well-known presentation of the epic is [Brook](Peter)(Peter Brook)'s nine-hour play, which premiered in [Avignon](Avignon) in 1985, and its five-hour movie version [The Mahābhārata*](*)(The Mahabharata (1989 film)) (1989). (1989 mini-series). In the late 2013 *[Mahabharat](Mahabharat (2013 TV series))* was televised on STAR Plus. It was produced by Swastik Productions Pvt.
Uncompleted projects on the *Mahābhārata* include one by [Santoshi](Rajkumar)(Rajkumar Santoshi), and a theatrical adaptation planned by [Ray](Satyajit)(Satyajit Ray).
### In folk culture
Every year in the [region](Garhwal)(Garhwal division) of [Uttarakhand](Uttarakhand), villagers perform the *[Lila](Pandav)(Pandav Lila)*, a ritual re-enactment of episodes from the *Mahabharata* through dancing, singing, and recitation. The *lila* is a cultural highlight of the year and is usually performed between November and February. Folk instruments of the region, [dhol](dhol), [damau](damau) and two long trumpets [bhankore](bhankore), accompany the action. The actors, who are amateurs not pr, professionals, often break into a spontaneous dance when they are "possessed" by the spirits of their characters.
### Jain version
[[Neminath Wedding.JPG|thumb|Depiction of wedding procession of Lord Neminatha. The enclosure shows the animals that are to be slaughtered for food for weddings. Overcome with Compassion for animals, Neminatha refused to marry and renounced his kingdom to become a Shramana](File:)]
[Jain](Jainism) versions of *Mahābhārata* can be found in the various [texts](Jain)(Jain texts) like *[Harivamsapurana](Harivamsapurana)* (the story of [Harivamsa](Harivamsa)) *Trisastisalakapurusa Caritra* (Hagiography of 63 Illustrious persons), *Pandavacharitra* (lives of [Pandava](Pandava)s) and *Pandavapurana* (stories of [Pandava](Pandava)s). p. 351-52 From the earlier canonical literature, *Antakrddaaśāh* (8th cannon) and *Vrisnidasa* (*upangagama* or secondary canon) contain the stories of [Neminatha](Neminatha) (22nd [Tirthankara](Tirthankara)), Krishna and Balarama. vol 1 pp. 14–15 Prof. [Jaini](Padmanabh)(Padmanabh Jaini) notes that, unlike in the Hindu Puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are not restricted to Balarama and Krishna in Jain Puranas. Instead, they serve as names of two distinct classes of mighty brothers, who appear nine times in each half of time cycles of the [cosmology](Jain)(Jain cosmology) and rule half the earth as half-chakravartins. Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to the Jinacharitra by [Bhadrabahu](Bhadrabahu) swami (4th–3rd century BCE). p. 377 According to [cosmology](Jain)(Jain cosmology) Balarama, Krishna and Jarasandha are the ninth and the last set of Baladeva, Vasudeva, and Prativasudeva. p.305 The main battle is not the Mahabharata, but the fight between Krishna and Jarasandha (who is killed by Krishna as Prativasudevas are killed by Vasudevas). Ultimately, the Pandavas and Balarama take renunciation as [monk](Jain)(Jain monk)s and are reborn in heavens, while on the other hand Krishna and Jarasandha are reborn in hell. p. 351 In keeping with the [of karma](law)(Karma in Jainism), Krishna is reborn in hell for his exploits (sexual and violent) while Jarasandha for his evil ways. Prof. Jaini admits a possibility that perhaps because of his popularity, the Jain authors were keen to rehabilitate Krishna. The Jain texts predict that after his karmic term in the hell is over sometime during the next half time-cycle, Krishna will be reborn as a Jain [Tirthankara](Tirthankara) and attain [liberation](Moksa (Jainism)). Krishna and Balrama are shown as contemporaries and cousins of 22nd Tirthankara, Neminatha. According to this story, Krishna arranged young Neminath's marriage with Rajemati, the daughter of Ugrasena, but Neminatha, empathizing with the animals which were to be slaughtered for the marriage feast, left the procession suddenly and renounced the world. refer story of Neminatha
## Kuru family tree
## Cultural influence
In the *[Gita](Bhagavad)(Bhagavad Gita)*, [Krishna](Krishna) explains to [Arjuna](Arjuna) his duties as a warrior and prince and elaborates on different [Yogic](Yoga) and [Vedantic](Vedantic) philosophies, with examples and analogies. This has led to the *Gita* often being described as a concise guide to [philosophy](Hindu)(Hindu philosophy) and a practical, self-contained guide to life.Maharishi Mahesh Yogi; *On the Bhagavad Gita: A New Translation and Commentary with Sanskrit Text*, chapters 1 to 6, Preface p. 9 In more modern times, [Vivekananda](Swami)(Swami Vivekananda), Netaji [Chandra Bose](Subhas)(Subhas Chandra Bose), [Gangadhar Tilak](Bal)(Bal Gangadhar Tilak), [Gandhi](Mahatma)(Mahatma Gandhi) and many others used the text to help inspire the [independence movement](Indian)(Indian independence movement).Stevenson, Robert W., "Tilak and the Bhagavadgita's Doctrine of Karmayoga", in Minor, p. 44.Jordens, J. T. F., "Gandhi and the Bhagavadgita", in Minor, p. 88.
It has also inspired several works of modern [Hindi](Hindi) literature, such as [Singh Dinkar](Ramdhari)(Ramdhari Singh Dinkar)'s *[Rashmirathi](Rashmirathi)*, which is a rendition of *Mahabharata* centered around [Karna](Karna) and his conflicts. It was written in 1952, and won the prestigious [Award](Jnanpith)(Jnanpith Award) in 1972.
## Explanatory notes
## Citations
## General sources
* Badrinath, Chaturvedi. *The Mahābhārata: An Inquiry in the Human Condition*, New Delhi, Orient Longman (2006).
* Bandyopadhyaya, Jayantanuja (2008). *[Class and Religion in Ancient India](https://books.google.com/books?id=gwUF11NRyT4C)*. Anthem Press.
*
* Bhasin, R. V. *Mahabharata* published by National Publications, India, 2007.
* J. Brockington. *[The Sanskrit Epics](https://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C)*, Leiden (1998).
* Buitenen, Johannes Adrianus Bernardus (1978). *[The Mahābhārata](https://books.google.com/books?id=wFtXBGNn0aUC)*. 3 volumes (translation / publication incomplete due to his death). [of Chicago Press](University)(University of Chicago Press).
* Chaitanya, Krishna (K.K. Nair). *The Mahabharata, A Literary Study*, Clarion Books, New Delhi 1985.
* Gupta, S. P. and Ramachandran, K. S. (ed.). *Mahabharata: myth and reality*. Agam Prakashan, New Delhi 1976.
* [Alf](Hiltebeitel,)(Alf Hiltebeitel). *The Ritual of Battle, Krishna in the Mahabharata*, SUNY Press, New York 1990.
* Hopkins, E. W. *[The Great Epic of India](https://books.google.com/books?id=hC1d-xN6nzoC)*, New York (1901).
* Jyotirmayananda, Swami. *Mysticism of the Mahabharata*, Yoga Research Foundation, Miami 1993.
* Katz, Ruth Cecily *Arjuna in the Mahabharata*, University of South Carolina Press, Columbia 1989.
*
*
* Lerner, Paule. *Astrological Key in Mahabharata*, David White (trans.) Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi 1988.
* Mallory, J. P (2005). *In Search of the Indo-Europeans*. [& Hudson](Thames)(Thames & Hudson).
* Mehta, M. *The problem of the double introduction to the Mahabharata*, [JAOS](JAOS) 93 (1973), 547–550.
* Minkowski, C. Z. *Janamehayas *Sattra* and Ritual Structure*, JAOS 109 (1989), 410–420.
* Minkowski, C. Z. 'Snakes, *Sattras* and the Mahabharata', in: *Essays on the Mahabharata*, ed. A. Sharma, Leiden (1991), 384–400.
* [Hermann](Oldenberg,)(Hermann Oldenberg). *Zur Geschichte der Altindischen Prosa*, Berlin (1917)
* Oberlies, Th. 'The Counsels of the Seer Narada: Ritual on and under the surface of the Mahabharata', in: *[New methods in the research of epic](https://books.google.com/books?id=-0tcQr3WzqsC)* (ed. H. L. C. Tristram), Freiburg (1998).
* Oldenberg, H. *Das Mahabharata*, Göttingen (1922).
* [Pāṇini](Pāṇini). *Ashtādhyāyī*. [Book 4](http://www.wilbourhall.org/pdfs/chandravasu/book4.pdf). Translated by Chandra Vasu. [Benares](Benares), 1896.
* Pargiter, F. E. *Ancient Indian Historical Tradition*, London 1922. Repr. Motilal Banarsidass 1997.
*
* Sukthankar, Vishnu S. and Shrimant Balasaheb Pant Pratinidhi (1933). *The Mahabharata: for the first time critically edited*. [Oriental Research Institute](Bhandarkar)(Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute).
* Sullivan, Bruce M. *Seer of the Fifth Veda, Krsna Dvaipayana Vyasa in the Mahabharata*, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi 1999.
* Sutton, Nicholas. *[Religious Doctrines in the Mahabharata](https://books.google.com/books?id=rFyUHC-ORp4C)*, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi 2000.
* Utgikar, N. B. "The mention of the Mahābhārata in the Ashvalayana Grhya Sutra", Proceedings and Transactions of the All-India Oriental Conference, Poona (1919), vol. 2, Poona (1922), 46–61.
* Vaidya, R. V. *A Study of Mahabharat; A Research*, Poona, A.V.G. Prakashan, 1967
* [Michael](Witzel,)(Michael Witzel), *Epics, Khilas and Puranas: Continuities and Ruptures*, Proceedings of the Third Dubrovnik International Conference on the Sanskrit Epics and Puranas, ed. P. Koskiallio, Zagreb (2005), 21–80.
## External links
* [Sacred-Texts: Hinduism](https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/maha/index.htm) – English translation of 18 parvas of *Mahabharata*
* [harivamsham - mahaabhaarat khila parva](http://mahabharata-resources.org/harivamsa/harivamsa-cs-index.html) – English translation of harivamsa Parva of *Mahabharata*
* [Sanskrit etext of the *Mahābhārata* online](https://bombay.indology.info/mahabharata/statement.html) (licensed and approved by [BORI](Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute))
* [All volumes in 12 PDF files](http://www.holybooks.com/mahabharata-all-volumes-in-12-pdf-files/) (Holybooks.com, 181 MB in total)
* [Reading Suggestions, J. L. Fitzgerald, Das Professor of Sanskrit, Department of Classics, Brown University](http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Sanskrit_in_Classics_at_Brown/Mahabharata/MBh2Biblio.html#Poona)
* [Critical Edition Prepared by Scholars at Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute BORI](https://sanskritdocuments.org/mirrors/mahabharata/mahabharata-bori.html)
*
[ ](Category:Mahabharata)
[texts](Category:Sanskrit)(Category:Sanskrit texts)
[poems in Sanskrit](Category:Epic)(Category:Epic poems in Sanskrit)
[poetry](Category:Hindu)(Category:Hindu poetry)
[texts](Category:Hindu)(Category:Hindu texts)
[Category:Kurukshetra](Category:Kurukshetra)
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Edmund Kemper
|
edmund_kemper
|
# Edmund Kemper
*Revision ID: 1159057485 | Timestamp: 2023-06-07T23:42:27Z*
---
}}
| birth_place = [Burbank](Burbank, California), [California](California), U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| cause =
| height =
| victims = 10
| country = United States
| states = California
| beginyear = 1964
| endyear = 1973
| apprehended = August 27, 1964 (first arrest)April 24, 1973 (second arrest)
| motive = |[Necrophilia](Necrophilia)}}
| conviction = [murder](First-degree)(First-degree murder) (×8)
| sentence = [imprisonment](Life)(Life imprisonment) (×8; [concurrent](Concurrent sentence))
| imprisoned = [Medical Facility](California)(California Medical Facility)
| criminal_charge = None (1964 arrest; murders deemed "incomprehensible for a 15-year-old to commit") First-degree murder (×8; 1973 arrest)
}}
**Edmund Emil Kemper III** (born December 18, 1948) is an American [killer](serial)(serial killer) who murdered 10 people. Kemper murdered a 15-year-old girl, as well as his own mother and her best friend, from May 1972 to April 1973. This was after Kemper's [parole](parole) for murdering his paternal grandparents at 15 years old. Kemper was nicknamed the **Co-ed Killer**, as most of his non-familial victims were female college students hitchhiking in the vicinity of [Cruz County](Santa)(Santa Cruz County, California), [California](California). He stands at a height of . Most of his murders included [necrophilia](necrophilia), with some incidents of [rape](rape).
Born in [California](Burbank,)(Burbank, California), Kemper had a troubled upbringing. His parents divorced in early life; as a child, he moved to [Montana](Montana) with his mother Clarnell, who kept Kemper locked in their basement which had been frequented by rats. He ran away to reunite with his father, but he had remarried around Christmas of 1963 and sent Edmund to stay with his paternal grandparents in [Fork, California](North)(North Fork, California). It was there, in August 1964 at the age of 15, that he murdered them. Following the murders, Kemper was briefly diagnosed with [schizophrenia](paranoid)(paranoid schizophrenia) by court psychiatrists and sentenced to the [State Hospital](Atascadero)(Atascadero State Hospital) as a [insane](criminally)(criminally insane) juvenile.
Released at the age of 21 after convincing psychiatrists he was rehabilitated, Kemper was reportedly regarded as non-threatening by his future victims. He targeted young female hitchhikers during his killing spree, luring them into his vehicle and driving them to secluded areas where he would murder them before taking their corpses back to his home to be [decapitated](decapitation), [dismembered](dismemberment), and violated. Kemper then murdered his mother and one of her friends before turning himself in to the authorities.
Found sane and guilty at his trial in 1973, Kemper requested the [penalty](death)(Capital punishment) for his crimes. Capital punishment was [in California](suspended)(Capital punishment in California#1972 abolition of capital punishment) at the time, and he instead received eight concurrent [sentence](life)(life sentence)s. Since then, he has been incarcerated in the [Medical Facility](California)(California Medical Facility) in [Vacaville](Vacaville, California).
Kemper and [Mullin](Herbert)(Herbert Mullin) overlapped in their 1972 to 1973 murder sprees, adding confusion to the police investigations and ending with both being arrested, within a few weeks of each other, after the deaths of 21 people.
## Early life
Edmund Emil Kemper III was born in [Burbank](Burbank, California), [California](California), on December 18, 1948. He was the middle child of three children and only son born to Clarnell Elizabeth Kemper ([née](née) Stage, 1921–1973) and Edmund Emil Kemper Jr. (1919–1985). Edmund Jr. was a [War II](World)(World War II) veteran who, after the war, [tested](Nuclear weapons testing) [weapon](nuclear)(nuclear weapon)s at the [Proving Grounds](Pacific)(Pacific Proving Grounds) before returning to California, where he worked as an electrician. Clarnell often complained about her husband's "menial" electrician job. Edmund Jr. later stated that "suicide missions in wartime and the atomic bomb testings were nothing compared to living with [Clarnell]" and that she affected him "more than three hundred and ninety-six days and nights of fighting on the front did."
Weighing as a newborn, Kemper was a head taller than his peers by the age of four. Early on, he exhibited [behavior](antisocial)(antisocial behavior) such as torture of insects and [to animals](cruelty)(cruelty to animals): at the age of 10, he buried a pet cat alive; once it died, he dug it up, decapitated it, and mounted its head on a spike. Kemper later stated that he derived pleasure from successfully lying to his family about killing the cat. At the age of 13, he killed another family cat when he perceived it to be favoring his younger sister, Allyn Lee Kemper (b. 1951), over him; he kept pieces of it in his closet until his mother found them.
Kemper was known to have a dark [fantasy](Fantasy (psychology)#In schizophrenia) and morbid imagination. In his youth, Kemper performed rites with his younger sister's dolls that culminated in his removing their heads and hands; on one occasion, when his elder sister, Susan Hughey Kemper (1943–2014), teased him and asked why he did not try to kiss his teacher, he replied, "If I kiss her, I'd have to kill her first." Kemper also recalled that as a young boy, he would sneak out of his house and, armed with his father's [bayonet](bayonet), go to his second-grade teacher's house to watch her through the windows. Kemper did state in interviews in his later life that some of his favorite games to play as a child were "Gas Chamber" and "Electric Chair", in which he asked his younger sister to tie him up and flip an imaginary switch; he would then tumble over and writhe on the floor, pretending that he was being executed by [inhalation](gas)(Gas chamber) or [shock](electric)(Electric chair). Kemper also had [experience](close-to-death)(near-death experience)s as a child. Once, his elder sister tried to push him in front of a train. Another time, she successfully pushed him into the deep end of a swimming pool, where Kemper almost drowned.
Kemper had a close relationship with his father, and was notably devastated when his parents [separated](Legal separation) in 1957 and divorced in 1961, causing him to be raised by Clarnell in [Helena](Helena, Montana), [Montana](Montana). He had a severely dysfunctional relationship with his mother, a neurotic, domineering alcoholic who frequently belittled, humiliated, and [abused](child abuse) him. Clarnell often made her son sleep in a locked basement because she feared that he would harm his sisters, regularly mocked him for his large size — he stood by the age of 15 — and derided him as "a real weirdo" in a phone conversation to Kemper's father, unaware that her son had been eavesdropping. She also refused to show Kemper affection out of fear that she would "turn him [gay](homosexuality)" and told the young Kemper that he reminded her of his father and that no woman would ever love him. Kemper later described her as a "sick angry woman," and it has been postulated that she had [personality disorder](borderline)(borderline personality disorder).
At the age of 14, Kemper ran away from home in an attempt to reconcile with his father in [Nuys, California](Van)(Van Nuys, California). Once there, Kemper learned that his father had remarried and now had a stepson. Kemper stayed with his father for a short while until the elder Kemper sent him to live with his paternal grandparents, who lived on a ranch in the foothills of the [Nevada](Sierra)(Sierra Nevada) on Road 224, about two miles west of the town of [Fork](North)(North Fork, California). Kemper hated living in North Fork; he described his grandfather as "[senile](senile)" and said that his grandmother "was constantly emasculating me and my grandfather."
## First murders
On August 27, 1964, at the age of 15, Kemper was sitting at the kitchen table with his grandmother Maude Matilda (Hughey) Kemper (b. 1897) when they had an argument. Enraged, Kemper stormed off and retrieved a [rifle](rifle) that his grandfather had given him for hunting; the rifle had been confiscated because he used it to needlessly shoot animals. He then re-entered the kitchen and fatally shot his grandmother in the head before firing twice more into her back. His grandmother's last words reportedly were, "Oh, you'd better not be shooting the birds again." Some accounts mention that she also suffered multiple post-mortem stab wounds with a kitchen knife. When Kemper's grandfather, Edmund Emil Kemper Sr. (b. 1892), returned from grocery shopping, Kemper went outside and fatally shot him in the driveway next to his car. He was unsure of what to do next, so he phoned his mother, who told him to contact the local police. Kemper did so and waited to be taken into custody.
After his arrest, Kemper said that he "just wanted to see what it felt like to kill Grandma", and testified that he killed his grandfather so he would not have to find out that his wife was dead, and that he would be angry with Kemper for what he'd done. Psychiatrist Donald Lunde, who interviewed Kemper during adulthood, wrote, "In his way, he had avenged the rejection of both his father and his mother." Kemper's crimes were deemed incomprehensible for a 15-year-old to commit, and court psychiatrists diagnosed him with [schizophrenia](paranoid)(paranoid schizophrenia). He was sent to [State Hospital](Atascadero)(Atascadero State Hospital), a [maximum-security](maximum-security) facility in [Luis Obispo County](San)(San Luis Obispo County, California) that houses mentally ill convicts.
### Imprisonment
At Atascadero, [Youth Authority](California)(California Youth Authority) psychiatrists and social workers disagreed with the court psychiatrists' diagnoses. Their reports stated that Kemper showed "no [of ideas](flight)(flight of ideas), no interference with thought, no expression of [delusion](delusion)s or [hallucination](hallucination)s, and no evidence of bizarre thinking." They also observed him to be intelligent and introspective. Initial testing measured his [IQ](Intelligence quotient) at 136, over two [deviations](standard)(standard deviations) above average. Kemper was re-diagnosed with a less severe condition, a "[trait disturbance, passive-aggressive type](personality)(Passive–aggressive personality disorder)." Later on in his time at Atascadero, he was given another IQ test, which gave a higher result of 145.
Kemper endeared himself to his psychiatrists by being a model prisoner, and he was trained to administer psychiatric tests to other inmates. A psychiatrist later said, "He was a very good worker[,] and this is not typical of a [sociopath](antisocial personality disorder). He really took pride in his work." Kemper also became a member of the [Jaycees](United States Junior Chamber) while in Atascadero and claimed to have developed "some new tests and some new scales on the [Multiphasic Personality Inventory](Minnesota)(Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)," specifically an "Overt Hostility Scale", during his work with Atascadero psychiatrists. After his second arrest, Kemper said that being able to understand how these tests functioned allowed him to manipulate his psychiatrists, admitting that he learned a lot from the [offender](sex)(sex offender)s to whom he administered tests.
## Release and time between murders
On December 18, 1969, his 21st birthday, Kemper was released on [parole](parole) from Atascadero. Against the recommendations of psychiatrists at the hospital, he was released into the care of his mother Clarnell —who previously remarried, taken the surname Strandberg, and then later divorced again. Clarnell then resided in [California](Aptos,)(Aptos, California), a short drive from where she worked as an administrative assistant at the [of California, Santa Cruz](University)(University of California, Santa Cruz) (UCSC). Kemper later demonstrated further to his psychiatrists that he was rehabilitated and on November 29, 1972, his juvenile records were permanently [expunged](Expungement in the United States). The last report from his probation psychiatrists read:
}}
While staying with his mother, Kemper attended [college](community)(community college) in accordance with his parole requirements and had hoped to become a police officer, though he was rejected because of his size—at the time of his release from Atascadero, Kemper stood tall—which led to his nickname, "Big Ed". Kemper maintained relationships with [Cruz](Santa)(Santa Cruz, California) police officers despite his rejection from joining the force and became a self-described "friendly nuisance" at a bar called the Jury Room, a popular hangout for local cops.
Kemper worked a series of menial jobs before gaining employment with the [of California Division of Highways](State)(California Department of Transportation). During this time, his relationship with Clarnell remained toxic and hostile, the two having frequent arguments that their neighbors often overheard. Kemper later described the arguments he had with his mother around this time, stating the following:
}}
When he had saved enough money, Kemper moved out to live with a friend in [Alameda](Alameda, California). There, he still complained of being unable to get away from his mother because she regularly phoned him and paid him surprise visits. He often had financial difficulties, which resulted in his frequently returning to his mother's apartment in Aptos. At a Santa Cruz beach, Kemper, who was in his early twenties, met a student from [High School](Turlock)(Turlock High School) to whom he became engaged in March 1973. Their engagement lasted over a year, then, was broken off due to Kemper's second arrest. Her parents requested her name not be revealed to the public; she was reportedly 17 at the time of the arrest. She was then reported to be living in privacy, trying to finish her high-school studies after the arrest and was reportedly in shock from said arrest.
The same year that he began working for the Highway Division, Kemper was hit by a car while riding a motorcycle that he had recently purchased. His arm was badly injured in the crash, and he received a $15,000 () settlement in the [suit](civil)(civil lawsuit) he filed against the car's driver. As he was driving around in the [Ford Galaxie](1969)(Ford Galaxie#1969–1974) he bought with part of his settlement money, he noticed a large number of young women [hitchhiking](hitchhiking) and began storing plastic bags, knives, blankets and handcuffs in his car. He then began picking up young women and peacefully letting them go. According to Kemper, he picked up around 150 hitchhikers who were in line with this pattern. This was before he felt homicidal sexual urges, which he called his "little zapples," and later began acting on said urges.
## Later murders
Between May 1972 and April 1973, Kemper killed eight people — all women. He would pick up female students who were hitchhiking and take them to isolated areas where he would shoot, stab, smother, or [strangle](strangulation) them. He would then take their bodies back to his home, where he [decapitated](decapitation) them, performed [irrumatio](irrumatio) on their severed heads, [sexual intercourse with their corpses](had)(Necrophilia), and then [dismembered](dismemberment) them.
During this 11-month murder spree, Kemper killed five college students, one high school student, his mother, and his mother's best friend. Kemper has stated in interviews that he often searched for victims after having arguments with his mother and that she refused to introduce him to women attending the university where she worked. He recalled: "She would say, 'You're just like your father. You don't deserve to get to know them'." Psychiatrists, and Kemper himself, have espoused the belief that the young women were surrogates for his ultimate target: his mother.
### Mary Ann Pesce and Anita Luchessa
[[Luchessa May 7 1972.jpg|thumb|upright|Anita Luchessa](File:Anita)]
On May 7, 1972, Kemper was driving in [Berkeley](Berkeley, California), when he picked up two 18-year-old hitchhiking students from [State University](Fresno)(Fresno State University), Mary Ann Pesce and Anita Mary Luchessa, with the pretense of taking them to [University](Stanford)(Stanford University). After driving for an hour, he managed to reach a secluded wooded area near Alameda, with which he was familiar from his work at the Highway Department, without alerting his passengers that he had changed directions from where they wanted to go. It was there that he handcuffed Pesce and locked Luchessa in the trunk, then stabbed and strangled Pesce to death, subsequently killing Luchessa in a similar manner. Kemper later confessed that while handcuffing Pesce, he "brushed the back of [his] hand against one of her breasts and it embarrassed [him]", adding that he said, "'Whoops, I'm sorry' or something like that" after grazing her breast, despite murdering her minutes later.
Kemper put both of the women's bodies in the trunk of his Ford Galaxie and returned to his apartment. He was stopped on the way by a police officer for having a broken taillight, but the officer did not detect the corpses in the car. Kemper's roommate was not at home, so he took the bodies into his apartment, where he photographed and had sexual intercourse with the naked corpses before dismembering them. He then put the body parts into plastic bags, which he later abandoned near [Prieta Mountain](Loma)(Loma Prieta). Before disposing of Pesce's and Luchessa's severed heads in a ravine, Kemper engaged in [irrumatio](irrumatio) with both of them. In August of that year, Pesce's skull was found on Loma Prieta Mountain. An extensive search failed to turn up the rest of Pesce's remains or a trace of Luchessa.
### Aiko Koo
[[Koo, who was picked up and killed by Kemper](File:Aiko_Koo_(Kemper_victim).jpg|thumb|upright|Aiko)]
On the evening of September 14, 1972, Kemper picked up a 15-year-old dance student named Aiko Koo, who had decided to hitchhike to a dance class after missing her bus. He again drove to a remote area, where he pulled a gun on Koo before accidentally locking himself out of his car. However, Koo let him back inside, despite the fact that the gun was still in the car. Back inside the car, he proceeded to choke her unconscious, rape her, and kill her.
Kemper subsequently packed Koo's body into the trunk of his car and went to a nearby bar to have a few drinks, then returned to his apartment. He later confessed that after exiting the bar, he opened the trunk of his car, "admiring [his] catch like a fisherman." Back at his apartment, he had sexual intercourse with the corpse, then dismembered and disposed of the remains in a similar manner as his previous two victims. Koo's mother called the police to report the disappearance of her daughter and put up hundreds of flyers asking for information, but she did not receive any responses regarding her daughter's location or status.
### Cindy Schall
On January 7, 1973, Kemper, who had moved back in with his mother, was driving around the [College](Cabrillo)(Cabrillo College) campus when he picked up 18-year-old student Cynthia Anne "Cindy" Schall. He drove to a wooded area and fatally shot her with a [caliber](.22)(.22 caliber) [pistol](pistol). He then placed her body in the trunk of his car and drove to his mother's house, where he kept her body hidden in a closet in his room overnight. When his mother left for work the next morning, he had sexual intercourse with and removed the bullet from Schall's corpse, then dismembered and decapitated her in his mother's bathtub.
Kemper kept Schall's severed head for several days, regularly engaging in irrumatio with it, then buried it in his mother's garden facing upward toward her bedroom. After his arrest, he stated that he did this because his mother "always wanted people to look up to her." He discarded the rest of Schall's remains by throwing them off a cliff. Over the course of the following few weeks, all except Schall's head and right hand were discovered and "pieced together like a macabre jigsaw puzzle." A pathologist determined that Schall had been cut into pieces with a power saw.
### Rosalind Thorpe and Allison Liu
[[Liu, who was killed by Kemper, shortly after he shot Thorpe](File:Allison_Liu.jpeg|thumb|upright|Allison)]
On February 5, 1973, after a heated argument with his mother, Kemper left his house in search of possible victims. With heightened suspicion of a [killer](serial)(serial killer) preying on hitchhikers in the Santa Cruz area, students had been advised to accept rides only from cars with university stickers on them. Kemper was able to obtain a sticker, as his mother worked at UCSC. He encountered 23-year-old Rosalind Heather Thorpe and 20-year-old Alice Helen "Allison" Liu on the UCSC campus. According to Kemper, Thorpe entered his car first, reassuring Liu to also enter. He first fatally shot Thorpe and then Liu with his pistol and wrapped their bodies in blankets.
Kemper again brought his victims back to his mother's house; this time he beheaded them in his car and carried the headless corpses into his mother's house to have sexual intercourse with them. He then dismembered the bodies, removed the bullets to prevent identification, and discarded their remains the next morning. Some remains were found at Eden Canyon a week later, and more were found near [1](Route)(California State Route 1) in March.
When questioned in an interview as to why he decapitated his victims, he explained: "The head trip fantasies were a bit like a trophy. You know, the head is where everything is at, the brain, eyes, mouth. That's the person. I remember being told as a kid, you cut off the head and the body dies. The body is nothing after the head is cut off ... well, that's not quite true, there's a lot left in the girl's body without the head."
### Clarnell (Kemper) Strandberg and Sally Hallett
On April 20, 1973, allegedly three weeks after becoming engaged, Kemper was coming home from a party, and 52-year-old Clarnell Strandberg was awakened by her son's arrival. While sitting in her bed reading a book, she noticed Kemper enter her room and said to him, "I suppose you're going to want to sit up all night and talk now." Kemper replied, "No, good night." He then waited for her to fall asleep, then he snuck back into her room to bludgeon her with a [hammer](claw)(claw hammer) and slit her throat with a [penknife](penknife). Kemper then beheaded her and "humiliated her corpse," as stated in an 1984 interview. Kemper stated that he "put [head](her) on a shelf and screamed at it for an hour ... threw darts at it," and, ultimately, "smashed her face in." He also cut out her tongue and [larynx](larynx) and put them in the garbage disposal. However, the garbage disposal could not break down the tough vocal cords and ejected the tissue back into the sink. "That seemed appropriate, as much as she'd bitched and screamed and yelled at me over so many years", Kemper later said.
Kemper hid his mother's corpse in a closet and went to drink at a nearby bar. Upon his return, he invited his mother's best friend, 59-year-old Sara Taylor "Sally" Hallett, over to the house to have dinner and watch a movie. When Hallett arrived, Kemper strangled her to death to create a cover story that his mother and Hallett had gone away together on vacation. He subsequently put Hallett's corpse in a closet, obscured any outward signs of a disturbance, and left a note to the police. It read:}}
Afterward, Kemper fled the scene. He drove non-stop to [Colorado](Pueblo,)(Pueblo, Colorado), taking caffeine pills to stay awake for the over 1,000-mile (about 1,600 km) journey. He had three guns and hundreds of rounds of ammunition in his car, and he believed he was the target of an active manhunt. After not hearing any news on the radio about the murders of his mother and Hallett when he arrived in Pueblo, he found a phone booth and called the police. He confessed to the murders of his mother and Hallett, but the police did not take his call seriously and told him to call back at a later time. Several hours later, Kemper called again, asking to speak to an officer he personally knew. He confessed to that officer of killing his mother and Hallett, then waited for the police to arrive and take him into custody. Upon his capture, Kemper also confessed to the murders of the six students.
When asked in a later interview why he turned himself in, Kemper said: "The original purpose was gone ... It wasn't serving any physical or real or emotional purpose. It was just a pure waste of time ... Emotionally, I couldn't handle it much longer. Toward the end there, I started feeling the folly of the whole damn thing, and at the point of near exhaustion, near collapse, I just said to hell with it and called it all off."
## Trial
[[Kemper, 1973.jpg|thumb|upright|Mug shot of Kemper taken on November 9, 1973](File:Edmund)]
Kemper was [indicted](indictment) on eight counts of [murder](first-degree)(Murder (United States law)#Degrees) on May 7, 1973. He was assigned the Chief Public Defender of Santa Cruz County, attorney Jim Jackson. Due to Kemper's explicit and detailed confession, his counsel's only option was to plead [guilty by reason of insanity](not)(insanity defense) to the charges. Kemper twice tried to commit [suicide](suicide) in custody. His trial went ahead on October 23, 1973.
Three court-appointed psychiatrists found Kemper to be legally sane. One of the psychiatrists, Dr. Joel Fort, investigated his juvenile records and the diagnosis that he was once psychotic. Fort also interviewed Kemper, including under [serum](truth)(truth serum), and relayed to the court that Kemper had engaged in [cannibalism](cannibalism), alleging that he sliced flesh from the legs of his victims, then cooked and consumed these strips of flesh in a casserole. Nevertheless, Fort determined that Kemper was fully cognizant in each case and stated that Kemper enjoyed the prospect of the infamy associated with being labeled a murderer. Kemper later recanted the confession of cannibalism.
California used the [standard](M'Naghten)(M'Naghten rules), which held that for a defendant to "establish a defense on the ground of insanity, it must be clearly proved that, at the time of the committing of the act, the party accused was laboring under such a defect of reason, from disease of mind, and not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing; or if he did know it, that he did not know he was doing what was wrong." Kemper appeared to have known that the nature of his acts was wrong, and he had shown signs of [aforethought](malice)(malice aforethought).
On November 1, Kemper took the stand. He testified that he killed the victims because he wanted them "for myself, like possessions", and attempted to convince the jury that he was insane based on the reasoning that his actions could have been committed only by someone with an aberrant mind. He stated that two beings inhabited his body and that when the killer personality took over, it was "kind of like blacking out."
On November 8, 1973, the six-man, six-woman jury deliberated for five hours before declaring Kemper sane and guilty on all counts. He asked for the [penalty](death)(Capital punishment), requesting "death by torture." However, with a [placed on capital punishment](moratorium)(Capital punishment in California#1972 abolition of capital punishment) by the [Court of California](Supreme)(Supreme Court of California), he instead received seven years to [life](life imprisonment) for each count, with these terms to be served concurrently, and was sentenced to the [Medical Facility](California)(California Medical Facility) in [Vacaville](Vacaville, California).
## Psychology
While on trial for murdering his grandparents, Kemper was diagnosed with [schizophrenia](paranoid)(paranoid schizophrenia) by court-appointed psychiatrists; however, [Youth Authority](California)(California Youth Authority) psychiatrists and social workers at [State Hospital](Atascadero)(Atascadero State Hospital) disagreed on the basis that Kemper showed "no [of ideas](flight)(flight of ideas), no interference with thought, no expression of [delusion](delusion)s or [hallucination](hallucination)s, and no evidence of bizarre thinking", further observing him to be highly intelligent and introspective. Kemper was therefore re-diagnosed with "[trait disturbance, passive-aggressive type](personality)(Passive–aggressive personality disorder)."
Shortly after arriving at [Medical Facility](California)(California Medical Facility) in 1973, Kemper was admitted to psychiatrists for re-evaluation. He was re-diagnosed with [antisocial](Antisocial personality disorder), [narcissistic](Narcissistic personality disorder), and [schizotypal](Schizotypal personality disorder) personality disorders.
## Imprisonment
In the California Medical Facility, Kemper was incarcerated in the same prison block as other notorious criminals such as [Mullin](Herbert)(Herbert Mullin) and [Manson](Charles)(Charles Manson). Kemper showed particular disdain for Mullin, who committed his murders at the same time and in the same area as Kemper. He described Mullin as "just a cold-blooded killer... killing everybody he saw for no good reason." Kemper manipulated and physically intimidated Mullin, who, at , was a foot shorter than him. Kemper stated that "[Mullin] had a habit of singing and bothering people when somebody tried to watch TV, so I threw water on him to shut him up. Then, when he was a good boy, I'd give him peanuts. Herbie liked peanuts. That was effective because pretty soon he asked permission to sing. That's called [modification treatment](behavior)(behavior modification)."
Kemper remains among the general population in prison and is considered a model prisoner. He was in charge of scheduling other inmates' appointments with psychiatrists and was an accomplished craftsman of ceramic cups. He was also a prolific narrator of [audiobook](audiobook)s for a charity program that prepared material for the visually impaired; a 1987 *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* article stated that he was the coordinator of the prison's program and had personally spent over 5,000 hours narrating books with several hundred completed recordings to his name. Kemper was retired from these positions in 2015 after he experienced a [stroke](stroke) and was declared medically disabled. He received his first rules violation report in 2016 for failing to provide a urine sample.
[[2011.jpg|thumb|upright|Kemper on November 17, 2011](File:CDCB52453)]
While imprisoned, Kemper has participated in a number of interviews, including a segment in the 1982 documentary *[Killing of America](The)(The Killing of America)*, as well as an appearance in the 1984 documentary *Murder: No Apparent Motive*. His interviews have contributed to the understanding of the mind of serial killers. [FBI](FBI) profiler [Douglas](John)(John E. Douglas) described Kemper as "among the brightest" prison inmates he interviewed and capable of "rare [insight](introspection) for a violent criminal." He further added that he personally liked Kemper, referring to him as "friendly, open, sensitive, [having](and) a good sense of humor."
Kemper is forthcoming about the nature of his crimes and has stated that he participated in the interviews to save others like himself from killing. At the end of his *Murder: No Apparent Motive* interview, he said, "There's somebody out there that is watching this and hasn't done that — hasn't killed people, and wants to, and rages inside and struggles with that feeling, or is so sure they have it under control. They need to talk to somebody about it. Trust somebody enough to sit down and talk about something that isn't a crime; thinking that way isn't a crime. Doing it isn't just a crime; it's a horrible thing. It doesn't know when to quit, and it can't be stopped easily once it starts." He also conducted an interview with French writer [Bourgoin](Stéphane)(Stéphane Bourgoin) in 1991.
Kemper was first eligible for parole in 1979. He was denied parole that year, as well as at parole hearings in 1980, 1981, and 1982. He subsequently waived his right to a hearing in 1985. He was denied parole at his 1988 hearing, where he said, "Society is not ready in any shape or form for me. I can't fault them for that." He was denied parole again in 1991 and in 1994. He then waived his right to a hearing in 1997 and in 2002. He attended the next hearing in 2007, where he was again denied parole. Prosecutor Ariadne Symons said, "We don't care how much of a model prisoner he is because of the enormity of his crimes." Kemper waived his right to a hearing again in 2012. He was denied parole in 2017 and is next eligible in 2024.
## In popular culture
Kemper has influenced many works of film and literature. He and fellow serial killers [Bundy](Ted)(Ted Bundy), [Heidnik](Gary)(Gary Heidnik), [Brudos](Jerry)(Jerry Brudos), [Ridgway](Gary)(Gary Ridgway), and [Gein](Ed)(Ed Gein) were used as an inspiration for the character of [Bill](Buffalo)(Buffalo Bill (character)) in [Harris](Thomas)(Thomas Harris)'s 1988 novel [Silence of the Lambs*](*The)(The Silence of the Lambs (novel)). Like Kemper, Bill fatally shoots his grandparents as a teenager. [Koontz](Dean)(Dean Koontz) cited Kemper as an inspiration for Edgler Vess, the villain of his 1996 novel [*Intensity*](Intensity (novel)). The character [Bateman](Patrick)(Patrick Bateman) in the 2000 film [Psycho*](*American)(American Psycho (film)) mistakenly attributes a quote by Kemper to Gein, saying: "You know what Ed Gein said about women? ... He said 'When I see a pretty girl walking down the street, I think two things. One part of me wants to take her out, talk to her, be real nice and sweet and treat her right ... [other part wonders](the) what her head would look like on a stick'."
A direct-to-video horror film loosely based on Kemper's murders, titled *[The CoEd Killer](Kemper:)(Kemper: The CoEd Killer)*, was released in 2008. In 2012, French author [Dugain](Marc)(Marc Dugain) published a novel, *Avenue des géants* (*Avenue of the Giants*), about Kemper. Kemper was portrayed by 6'5" actor [Britton](Cameron)(Cameron Britton) in three episodes (nos. 2, 3 and 10) of the first season of the 2017 [Netflix](Netflix) television drama series [*Mindhunter*](Mindhunter (TV series)), surrounding FBI research of the criminally insane. Britton received a nomination for the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series) because of this role, and appeared in the fifth episode of the second season.
Kemper has been the subject of multiple books, including *Edmund Kemper: The True Story of the Co-Ed Killer, Edmund Kemper: The True Story of the Brutal Co-ed Butcher*, and *The Co‑Ed Killer: A Study of the Murders, Mutilations, and Matricide of Edmund Kemper III,* among others.
Extracts from Kemper's interviews have been used in numerous songs, including "Love // Hate" by [Dystopia](Dystopia (band)), "Abomination Unseen" by [Devourment](Devourment), "Forever" by [Berzerker](The)(The Berzerker), "Severed Head" by [Commando](Suicide)(Suicide Commando), "New Flesh" by [Pitchshifter](Pitchshifter), and "Crave" by [Wound Profile](Optimum)(Optimum Wound Profile). He is discussed in many songs, such as "Edmund Kemper Had a Horrible Temper" by [Macabre](Macabre (band)), "Fortress" by [of a Down](System)(System of a Down), "Temper Temper Mr. Kemper" by [Celibate Rifles](The)(The Celibate Rifles), "Murder" by [Seabound](Seabound), "Killfornia (Ed Kemper)" by [of Misery](Church)(Church of Misery), and "Edmund Temper" by [the Devil](Amigo)(Amigo the Devil).
## See also
*[of serial killers in the United States](List)(List of serial killers in the United States)
*[of serial killers by number of victims](List)(List of serial killers by number of victims)
## References
## Bibliography
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*
## External links
*
[births](Category:1948)(Category:1948 births)
[people convicted of murder](Category:American)(Category:American people convicted of murder)
[prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment](Category:American)(Category:American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment)
[murderers of children](Category:American)(Category:American murderers of children)
[rapists](Category:American)(Category:American rapists)
[serial killers](Category:American)(Category:American serial killers)
[trophy collecting](Category:Human)(Category:Human trophy collecting)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[serial killers](Category:Male)(Category:Male serial killers)
[Category:Matricides](Category:Matricides)
[convicted of murder](Category:Minors)(Category:Minors convicted of murder)
[Category:Necrophiles](Category:Necrophiles)
[convicted of murder by California](Category:People)(Category:People convicted of murder by California)
[from Aptos, California](Category:People)(Category:People from Aptos, California)
[from Burbank, California](Category:People)(Category:People from Burbank, California)
[with antisocial personality disorder](Category:People)(Category:People with antisocial personality disorder)
[with narcissistic personality disorder](Category:People)(Category:People with narcissistic personality disorder)
[with schizotypal personality disorder](Category:People)(Category:People with schizotypal personality disorder)
[with passive-aggressive personality disorder](Category:People)(Category:People with passive-aggressive personality disorder)
[sentenced to life imprisonment by California](Category:Prisoners)(Category:Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by California)
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Family of Donald Trump
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family_of_donald_trump
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# Family of Donald Trump
*Revision ID: 1086892027 | Timestamp: 2022-05-09T00:49:02Z*
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#REDIRECT [of Donald Trump](Family)(Family of Donald Trump)
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Zachary Levi
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zachary_levi
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# Zachary Levi
*Revision ID: 1159678566 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T21:15:18Z*
---
| birth_place = [Charles, Louisiana](Lake)(Lake Charles, Louisiana), U.S.
| occupation =
| years_active = 2001–present
| spouse =
| website =
}}
**Zachary Levi Pugh** ( ; born September 29, 1980) is an American actor. He received critical acclaim for starring as [Bartowski](Chuck)(Chuck Bartowski) in the series *[Chuck](Chuck (TV series))*, and as [title character](the)(Captain Marvel (DC Comics)) in *[Shazam!](Shazam! (film))* and its [sequel](2023)(Shazam! Fury of the Gods), as a part of the [Extended Universe](DC)(DC Extended Universe).
He [voiced](Voice acting) [Rider](Flynn)(Flynn Rider) in the 2010 animated film *[Tangled](Tangled)*, where he performed "[See the Light](I)(I See the Light)" with [Moore](Mandy)(Mandy Moore); the song won a [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award) for [Song Written for Visual Media](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media). He reprised the voice role in the 2012 short film *[Ever After](Tangled)(Tangled Ever After)* and in 2017, ''[Tangled Adventure](Rapunzel's)(Rapunzel's Tangled Adventure)'', a [Channel](Disney)(Disney Channel) [series](television)(Tangled: The Series) based on the film. He appeared in the [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe) films *[The Dark World](Thor:)(Thor: The Dark World)* and *[Ragnarok](Thor:)(Thor: Ragnarok)* as [Fandral](Fandral). Levi starred as Georg Nowack in the 2016 [Broadway](Broadway theatre) revival of *[Loves Me](She)(She Loves Me)* opposite [Benanti](Laura)(Laura Benanti), for which he received a [Award](Tony)(Tony Award) nomination.
In 2022 Levi published a memoir/self-help book titled *Radical Love: Learning to Accept Yourself and Others*.
## Early life
Levi was born in [Charles, Louisiana](Lake)(Lake Charles, Louisiana), the son of Susan Marie (née Hoctor; 1950–2015) and Darrell Alton Pugh (1946-2023). He has [English](English people), [German](Germans), and [Welsh](Welsh people) ancestry.Stated on *[Do You Think You Are?](Who)(Who Do You Think You Are? (American TV series))*, July 31, 2022 When he was a child, his family moved across several states before returning to their home in [California](Ventura,)(Ventura, California), where he attended [High School](Buena)(Buena High School (California)) for four years. He began acting on stage at the age of six, performing lead roles in regional productions such as *[Grease](Grease (musical))*, *[Outsiders](The)(The Outsiders (novel))*, *[Oklahoma!](Oklahoma!)*, *[Oliver!](Oliver!)*, *[Wizard of Oz](The)(Adaptations of The Wizard of Oz)*, and *[River](Big)(Big River (musical))* at the [Ojai](Ojai, California) Art Center.
## Career
### Acting
[[at the 2009 San Diego Comic-Con](File:ZacharyLeviCCJuly09.jpg|thumb|upright|Levi)]
Levi first appeared in the [FX](FX Networks) television movie *Big Shot: Confessions of a Campus Bookie*. He played Kipp Steadman on the [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) sitcom *[than Perfect](Less)(Less than Perfect)*. He also portrayed a potential boyfriend of [Carpenter](Charisma)(Charisma Carpenter)'s character, Jane, in the then-[Family](ABC)(Freeform (TV channel)) television movie *[Jane Date](See)(See Jane Date).* Levi was slated to be a lead in an ABC pilot called *Three* for the 2004/2005 television season, but the show was not picked up.
He landed the [role](starring)(Chuck Bartowski) in *[Chuck](Chuck (TV series))* in 2007. Levi and his *Chuck* co-star [Strahovski](Yvonne)(Yvonne Strahovski) were both nominated for Best Action Actor and Actress Choice TV Series for the [Choice Awards](Teen)(Teen Choice Awards) 2010 where they both won and presented. In the summer of 2008, Levi was named one of ''[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)'s *Top Thirty People Under Thirty. He later starred in the film *[and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel](Alvin)(Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel)'' in the lead role as Dave's cousin Toby Seville. He starred in the 2010 Disney-animated feature film *[Tangled](Tangled)*, which is based on the popular fairy tale [Rapunzel](Rapunzel). He voices Flynn Rider, a bandit who finds refuge in Rapunzel's tower. He provided narration in the 2011 film *Under the Boardwalk: The Monopoly Story*, a documentary about the game of [Monopoly](Monopoly (game)). Levi hosted the 2011 [Video Game Awards](Spike)(Spike Video Game Awards).
[[File:Zachary Levi 2011.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Levi at the [Academy Awards](83rd)(83rd Academy Awards) in February 2011]]
[BuddyTV](BuddyTV) ranked him #97 on its list of "TV's Sexiest Men of 2011". Levi landed the male lead in the 2012 TV pilot *Let It Go*, which would have aired on Fox, but was not picked up. Levi hosted the web documentaries *Tomb Raider The Final Hours*, going behind the scenes of the new *[Raider game](Tomb)(Tomb Raider (2013 video game))*. He was originally to portray Fandral in *[Thor](Thor (film))*, but had to drop out due to scheduling conflicts with *Chuck*. He did play the role in the sequels, *[The Dark World](Thor:)(Thor: The Dark World)* (2013), after original actor [Dallas](Josh)(Josh Dallas) had scheduling conflicts of his own, and briefly in *[Ragnarok](Thor:)(Thor: Ragnarok)* (2017). Levi made his Broadway debut in a production of the musical comedy *[Date](First)(First Date the Musical)* in August 2013.
In January 2015, it was announced that Levi would be a lead member of the cast of NBC's 13-episode miniseries *[Reborn](Heroes)(Heroes Reborn (TV miniseries))* as Luke Collins. The show was not picked up for a second season. He also guest-starred as Abraham Lincoln in the Hulu original series *[Deadbeat](Deadbeat (TV series))*.
Levi joined the cast of the [Broadway](Broadway theatre) revival of *[Loves Me](She)(She Loves Me)* in the lead role of Georg, alongside [Benanti](Laura)(Laura Benanti) as Amalia. It opened at [54](Studio)(Studio 54) on March 17, 2016, after previews on February 19, 2016, for a limited engagement through June 12. The run was later extended through July 10, when it closed. The production received high critical praise, receiving 5 Stars from *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* and was selected as a Critics' Pick for *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*. Levi was nominated for a [Award](Tony)(Tony Award) for Best Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Musical for his performance. Critics praised Levi's performance of Georg, noting that his portrayal is "suave and handsome at times, disarmingly nebbishy at others," and that he "[exudes] sweet modesty and just a pinch of hauteur." The production had a historic [livestreamed](Streaming media) performance on June 30, 2016, with Levi and the cast participating in the first livestreamed show in Broadway history.
In 2017, Levi reprised his role as Flynn Rider in a [Channel Original Movie](Disney)(Disney Channel Original Movies) titled *[Before Ever After](Tangled:)(Tangled: Before Ever After).* This movie continued the story as a regular series titled ''[Tangled Adventure](Rapunzel's)(Rapunzel's Tangled Adventure)*, which lasted for 3 seasons, premiering on March 24, 2017, and concluding March 1, 2020. The series is based on the 2010 film *[Tangled](Tangled)'' and features the returning voices of [Moore](Mandy)(Mandy Moore) and Zachary Levi.
In 2018, Levi appeared as Dr. Benjamin Ettenberg, a love interest for the main character, Miriam 'Midge' Maisel, in the second season of *[Marvelous Mrs. Maisel](The)(The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel)*. With the series' other principal cast members, Levi won the [Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series) at SAG's January 2019 awards ceremony.
In 2019, Levi starred as the title character in [Line Cinema](New)(New Line Cinema) and [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.)' superhero comedy feature film *[Shazam!](Shazam! (film))*, an entry in the [Extended Universe](DC)(DC Extended Universe) franchise. In the film, Levi's [Shazam](Captain Marvel (DC Comics)) character (also known as [Marvel](Captain)(Captain Marvel (DC Comics))) is the superpowered alter-ego of a teenaged boy, Billy Batson (played by [Angel](Asher)(Asher Angel)), who retains his childish personality in his adult form similar to the 1988 20th Century Fox comedy *[Big](Big (film)).*
After a nearly two-year hiatus away from acting, Levi starred in a supporting role on *[Mauritanian](The)(The Mauritanian)*, which was directed by [Macdonald](Kevin)(Kevin Macdonald (director)) and starred [Rahim](Tahar)(Tahar Rahim) and [Foster](Jodie)(Jodie Foster) in the lead roles. He has starred in one film and is set to star in another upcoming film by the [Story Company](Kingdom)(Kingdom Story Company): the leading role of Kurt Warner in the biographical sports drama *[Underdog](American)(American Underdog (film))*, and LaRette in *[Unbreakable Boy](The)(The Unbreakable Boy)*. He reprised his role as Billy Batson/Shazam in *[Fury of the Gods](Shazam!)(Shazam! Fury of the Gods)*, released on March 17, 2023.
### Music
In April 2010, [McPhee](Katharine)(Katharine McPhee) released a preview of a music video to cinemas for her single "[Terrified](Terrified (Katharine McPhee song))". Levi duets with her on the song (which was re-recorded; the original album version features [Reeves](Jason)(Jason Reeves (songwriter))) and appears in the music video singing with McPhee. On May 3, 2010, the song was previewed on the *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)* website and made available for purchase on [iTunes](iTunes). The full video premiered May 7, 2010 on the music video website [Vevo](Vevo). Levi financed [Payne](Kendall)(Kendall Payne)'s album *Grown* after she was dropped by her label, [Records](Capitol)(Capitol Records).
On the soundtrack of the movie *[Tangled](Tangled)*, Levi sings "I See the Light" (with costar [Moore](Mandy)(Mandy Moore)) and "[Got a Dream](I've)(I've Got a Dream)". In honor of the Oscar nomination for Best Original Song, Levi and Moore performed "I See the Light" at the [Academy Awards](83rd)(83rd Academy Awards). Levi has also been a guest member of [from TV](Band)(Band from TV), a band made up of actors from various American television shows.
## Personal life
[[Levi about working on Broadway at NerdHQ 2014.webm|thumb|Levi about his time on Broadway|thumbtime=2:00](File:Zachary)]
Levi is a sports car and motorcycle enthusiast and owns a 2009 [GT-R](Nissan)(Nissan GT-R). He is an avid gamer, having first played *[Mario Bros.](Super)(Super Mario Bros.)*, and appreciates video games for their ability to provide interactive stories. He is a [Libertarian](Libertarianism).
Levi currently lives in [Texas](Bastrop,)(Bastrop, Texas), in the Austin area.
In September 2010, Levi started his own company, The Nerd Machine. He participated in the Celebrity All Star Game at [All Star Weekend 2011](NBA)(2011 NBA All-Star Game), playing for the team coached by [Johnson](Magic)(Magic Johnson).
On June 16, 2014, Canadian actress [Peregrym](Missy)(Missy Peregrym) announced that she and Levi had married in [Hawaii](Maui,)(Maui, Hawaii). They filed for divorce in April 2015, with the separation date listed in court documents as December 3, 2014.
On May 21, 2019, [Minds](Active)(Active Minds), a mental health charity, announced that Levi would be an ambassador for the organization.
Levi has been open about his struggles with mental health and suicidal thoughts, both on social media and in his 2022 memoir *Radical Love*.
In a 2022 episode of the podcast *[Joe Rogan Experience](The)(The Joe Rogan Experience)*, Levi described Canadian psychologist [Peterson](Jordan)(Jordan Peterson) as "one of the deepest thinkers I've ever heard break down human behavior" who "has a lot of integrity".
### Religion
Levi was raised a [Christian](Christians). In a 2002 interview with *[Magazine](Relevant)(Relevant Magazine)*, he said:My job on my set, I believe, is to first just love people and gain that trust with people where they know that I really do love them and care about their well-being, so that when they are running into problems, they will hopefully, at some point, come to me and ask me, 'What is your peace all about? What is your comfort all about? Where do you get your love? Where do you get your talents?' And I can turn to them and say without blinking, '[Christ](Jesus)(Jesus Christ).'
In a 2018 interview, he said, "I'm very spiritual, but not particularly religious." While avowing belief in God, he said, "[Religion] is, in my opinion, very destructive to what I believe the true heart and spirit then essence of who God is."
In a 2021 interview with *[Christian Post](The)(The Christian Post)*, he said working on the movie *[Underdog](American)(American Underdog (film))* bolstered his Christian faith, and in getting to work on this project, "it feels like God's fingerprints were all over it."
Though he has no [Jewish](Jews) ancestry, Levi is often incorrectly perceived to be Jewish due to his stage name. In a 2016 interview, he claimed that he had been turned down for a number of roles because he was considered "too Jewish" for the part.
## Filmography
[[File:Zachary Levi - Guardians of the Galaxy premiere - July 2014 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Levi at the premiere of *[of the Galaxy](Guardians)(Guardians of the Galaxy (film))* in July 2014]]
### Film
### Television
### Video games
### Internet
## Theater
## Discography
* "[Terrified](Terrified (Katharine McPhee song))" (2010) Performed by [McPhee](Katharine)(Katharine McPhee) featuring Zachary Levi.
* "[See the Light](I)(I See the Light)" (2010) Performed by Zachary Levi and [Moore](Mandy)(Mandy Moore) for the film *[Tangled](Tangled)*.
* [Date*](*First)(First Date (musical)) *(Original Broadway Cast Recording)*
* *[Loves Me](She)(She Loves Me)* *(2016 Broadway Cast Recording)*
### Live performances
On February 27, 2011, Levi performed "I See the Light" with [Moore](Mandy)(Mandy Moore) at the [Academy Awards](83rd)(83rd Academy Awards). On June 12, 2016, Levi performed the title song from *She Loves Me*, as part of the medley presented on the [Tony Awards](70th)(70th Tony Awards). He has also performed live in various programs from childhood.
## Awards and nominations
### Film
### Television
### Theater
## References
## External links
*
*
*
*
* [2019 Christmas commercial](https://www.ispot.tv/ad/ZA37/tjx-companies-spend-less-gift-better)
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Aluminium
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aluminium
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# Aluminium
*Revision ID: 1160064048 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T06:20:42Z*
---
**Aluminium** (**aluminum** in [American English](North)(North American English)) is a [element](chemical)(chemical element) with the [symbol](chemical symbol) **Al** and [number](atomic)(atomic number) 13. Aluminium has a density lower than those of other common [metal](metal)s; about one-third that of [steel](steel). It has a great affinity towards [oxygen](oxygen), [a protective layer](forming)(passivation (chemistry)) of [oxide](aluminium oxide) on the surface when exposed to air. Aluminium visually resembles [silver](silver), both in its color and in its great ability to reflect light. It is soft, [nonmagnetic](magnetism) and [ductile](ductility). It has one stable isotope: 27Al, which is highly abundant, making aluminium the [common element](twelfth-most)(abundance of the chemical elements) in the universe. The [radioactivity](radioactive decay) of [26Al](aluminium-26) is used in [dating](radiometric)(radiometric dating).
Chemically, aluminium is a [metal](post-transition)(post-transition metal) in the [group](boron)(boron group); as is common for the group, aluminium forms compounds primarily in the +3 [state](oxidation)(oxidation state). The aluminium [cation](cation) Al3+ is small and highly charged; as such, it is polarizing, and [bonds](chemical bond) aluminium forms tend towards [covalency](covalent bond). The strong affinity towards oxygen leads to aluminium's common association with oxygen in nature in the form of oxides; for this reason, aluminium is found on Earth primarily in rocks in the [crust](Earth's crust), where it is the [abundant element](third-most)(abundance of elements in Earth's crust), after [oxygen](oxygen) and [silicon](silicon), rather than in the [mantle](mantle (geology)), and virtually never as the [metal](free)(free element). It is obtained industrially by mining [bauxite](bauxite), a [rock](sedimentary)(sedimentary rock) rich in aluminium minerals.
The discovery of aluminium was announced in 1825 by Danish physicist [Christian Ørsted](Hans)(Hans Christian Ørsted). The first industrial production of aluminium was initiated by French chemist [Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville](Henri)(Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville) in 1856. Aluminium became much more available to the public with the [process](Hall–Héroult)(Hall–Héroult process) developed independently by French engineer [Héroult](Paul)(Paul Héroult) and American engineer [Martin Hall](Charles)(Charles Martin Hall) in 1886, and the mass production of aluminium led to its extensive use in industry and everyday life. In World Wars [I](World War I) and [II](World War II), aluminium was a crucial [resource](strategic)(strategic resource) for [aviation](aviation). In 1954, aluminium became the most produced [metal](non-ferrous)(non-ferrous metal), surpassing [copper](copper). In the 21st century, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan.
Despite its prevalence in the environment, no living organism is known to use aluminium [salts](Salt (chemistry)) for [metabolism](metabolism), but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of the abundance of these salts, the potential for a biological role for them is of interest, and studies continue.
## Physical characteristics
### Isotopes
Of aluminium isotopes, only is stable. This situation is common for elements with an odd atomic number. It is the only [primordial](primordial nuclide) aluminium isotope, i.e. the only one that has existed on Earth in its current form since the formation of the planet. Nearly all aluminium on Earth is present as this isotope, which makes it a [element](mononuclidic)(mononuclidic element) and means that its [atomic weight](standard)(standard atomic weight) is virtually the same as that of the isotope. This makes aluminium very useful in [magnetic resonance](nuclear)(nuclear magnetic resonance) (NMR), as its single stable isotope has a high NMR sensitivity. The standard atomic weight of aluminium is low in comparison with many other metals.; copper ; lead . which has consequences for the element's properties (see [below](#Bulk))}}
All other isotopes of aluminium are [radioactive](radioactive decay). The most stable of these is [26Al](Aluminium-26): while it was present along with stable 27Al in the interstellar medium from which the Solar System formed, having been produced by [nucleosynthesis](stellar)(stellar nucleosynthesis) as well, its [half-life](half-life) is only 717,000 years and therefore a detectable amount has not survived since the formation of the planet.
However, minute traces of 26Al are produced from [argon](argon) in the [atmosphere](Earth's atmosphere) by [spallation](spallation) caused by [ray](cosmic)(cosmic ray) protons. The ratio of 26Al to [10Be](beryllium-10) has been used for [radiodating](Radiometric dating) of geological processes over 105 to 106 year time scales, in particular transport, deposition, [sediment](sediment) storage, burial times, and erosion.
Most meteorite scientists believe that the energy released by the decay of 26Al was responsible for the melting and [differentiation](planetary differentiation) of some [asteroids](asteroids) after their formation 4.55 billion years ago.
The remaining isotopes of aluminium, with [number](mass)(mass number)s ranging from 22 to 43, all have half-lives well under an hour. Three [metastable](metastable) states are known, all with half-lives under a minute.
### Electron shell
An aluminium atom has 13 electrons, arranged in an [configuration](electron)(electron configuration) of 3s2 3p1}}, with three electrons beyond a stable noble gas configuration. Accordingly, the combined first three [energies](ionization)(ionization energy) of aluminium are far lower than the fourth ionization energy alone. Such an electron configuration is shared with the other well-characterized members of its group, [boron](boron), [gallium](gallium), [indium](indium), and [thallium](thallium); it is also expected for [nihonium](nihonium). Aluminium can surrender its three outermost electrons in many chemical reactions (see [below](#Chemistry)). The [electronegativity](electronegativity) of aluminium is 1.61 (Pauling scale).
[[File:Aluminium Atomic lattice.png|alt=M. Tunes & S. Pogatscher, Montanuniversität Leoben 2019 No copyrights =)|left|thumb|upright=1.2|High-resolution [STEM](Scanning transmission electron microscopy)-[HAADF](Annular dark-field imaging) micrograph of Al atoms viewed along the [001] zone axis.]]
A free aluminium atom has a [radius](atomic radius) of 143 [pm](picometer). With the three outermost electrons removed, the [radius](ionic radius) shrinks to 39 pm for a 4-coordinated atom or 53.5 pm for a 6-coordinated atom. At [temperature and pressure](standard)(Standard conditions for temperature and pressure), aluminium atoms (when not affected by atoms of other elements) form a [cubic crystal system](face-centered)(Cubic crystal system) bound by [bonding](metallic)(metallic bonding) provided by atoms' outermost electrons; hence aluminium (at these conditions) is a metal. This crystal system is shared by many other metals, such as [lead](lead) and [copper](copper); the size of a unit cell of aluminium is comparable to that of those other metals.
The system, however, is not shared by the other members of its group; boron has ionization energies too high to allow metallization, thallium has a [close-packed](hexagonal)(hexagonal close-packed) structure, and gallium and indium have unusual structures that are not close-packed like those of aluminium and thallium. The few electrons that are available for [bonding](metallic)(metallic bonding) in aluminium metal are a probable cause for it being soft with a low melting point and low [resistivity](electrical)(electrical resistivity).Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 222–4
### Bulk
Aluminium metal has an appearance ranging from silvery white to dull gray, depending on the [roughness](surface)(surface roughness). Both sides reflect similar amounts of visible light, but the shiny side reflects a far greater share of visible light [specularly](specular reflection) whereas the dull side almost exclusively [diffuses](Diffuse reflection) light. Both sides of aluminium foil serve as good [reflectors](Reflectance) (approximately 86%) of [light](visible)(visible light) and an excellent reflector (as much as 97%) of medium and far [infrared](infrared) radiation.}} Aluminium mirrors are the most reflective of all metal mirrors for the near [ultraviolet](ultraviolet) and far [infrared](infrared) light, and one of the most reflective in the visible spectrum, nearly on par with silver, and the two therefore look similar. Aluminium is also good at reflecting [radiation](solar)(solar radiation), although prolonged exposure to sunlight in air adds wear to the surface of the metal; this may be prevented if aluminium is [anodized](anodization), which adds a protective layer of oxide on the surface.
The density of aluminium is 2.70 g/cm3, about 1/3 that of steel, much lower than other commonly encountered metals, making aluminium parts easily identifiable through their lightness. Aluminium's low density compared to most other metals arises from the fact that its nuclei are much lighter, while difference in the unit cell size does not compensate for this difference. The only lighter metals are the metals of [1](groups)(alkali metal) and [2](alkaline earth metal), which apart from [beryllium](beryllium) and [magnesium](magnesium) are too reactive for structural use (and beryllium is very toxic).
Aluminium is not as strong or stiff as steel, but the low density makes up for this in the [aerospace](aerospace) industry and for many other applications where light weight and relatively high strength are crucial.
Pure aluminium is quite soft and lacking in strength. In most applications various [alloys](aluminium)(aluminium alloys) are used instead because of their higher strength and hardness. The [strength](yield)(yield (engineering)) of pure aluminium is 7–11 [MPa](Pascal (unit)), while [alloy](aluminium)(aluminium alloy)s have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa.
Aluminium is [ductile](ductility), with a percent elongation of 50-70%,
and [malleable](malleable) allowing it to be easily [drawn](drawing (metalworking)) and [extruded](extrusion). It is also easily [machined](machining) and [cast](casting (metalworking)).
Aluminium is an excellent [thermal](Heat conduction) and [conductor](electrical)(electrical conductor), having around 60% the conductivity of [copper](copper), both thermal and electrical, while having only 30% of copper's density. Aluminium is capable of [superconductivity](superconductor), with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 [kelvin](kelvin) and a critical magnetic field of about 100 [gauss](gauss (unit)) (10 [millitesla](millitesla)s).
It is [paramagnetic](paramagnetic) and thus essentially unaffected by static magnetic fields. The high electrical conductivity, however, means that it is strongly affected by alternating magnetic fields through the induction of [currents](eddy)(eddy currents).
## Chemistry
Aluminium combines characteristics of pre- and post-transition metals. Since it has few available electrons for metallic bonding, like its heavier [13](group)(Group 13 element) congeners, it has the characteristic physical properties of a post-transition metal, with longer-than-expected interatomic distances. Furthermore, as Al3+ is a small and highly charged cation, it is strongly polarizing and [bonding](Chemical bond) in aluminium compounds tends towards [covalency](Covalent bond); this behavior is similar to that of [beryllium](beryllium) (Be2+), and the two display an example of a [relationship](diagonal)(diagonal relationship).
The underlying core under aluminium's valence shell is that of the preceding [gas](noble)(noble gas), whereas those of its heavier congeners [gallium](gallium), [indium](indium), [thallium](thallium), and [nihonium](nihonium) also include a filled d-subshell and in some cases a filled f-subshell. Hence, the inner electrons of aluminium shield the valence electrons almost completely, unlike those of aluminium's heavier congeners. As such, aluminium is the most electropositive metal in its group, and its hydroxide is in fact more basic than that of gallium.}} Aluminium also bears minor similarities to the metalloid boron in the same group: AlX3 compounds are valence [isoelectronic](isoelectronic) to BX3 compounds (they have the same valence electronic structure), and both behave as [acid](Lewis)(Lewis acid)s and readily form [adduct](adduct)s. Additionally, one of the main motifs of boron chemistry is [icosahedral](regular)(regular icosahedron) structures, and aluminium forms an important part of many icosahedral [quasicrystal](quasicrystal) alloys, including the Al–Zn–Mg class.
Aluminium has a high [affinity](chemical)(chemical affinity) to oxygen, which renders it suitable for use as a [agent](reducing)(reducing agent) in the [thermite](thermite) reaction. A fine powder of aluminium metal reacts explosively on contact with [oxygen](liquid)(liquid oxygen); under normal conditions, however, aluminium forms a thin oxide layer (~5 nm at room temperature)
that protects the metal from further corrosion by oxygen, water, or dilute acid, a process termed [passivation](passivation (chemistry)).
Because of its general resistance to corrosion, aluminium is one of the few metals that retains silvery reflectance in finely powdered form, making it an important component of [silver-colored](silver (color)) paints.
Aluminium is not attacked by oxidizing acids because of its passivation. This allows aluminium to be used to store reagents such as [acid](nitric)(nitric acid), concentrated [acid](sulfuric)(sulfuric acid), and some organic acids.
In hot concentrated [acid](hydrochloric)(hydrochloric acid), aluminium reacts with water with evolution of hydrogen, and in aqueous [hydroxide](sodium)(sodium hydroxide) or [hydroxide](potassium)(potassium hydroxide) at room temperature to form [aluminates](aluminates)—protective passivation under these conditions is negligible. [regia](Aqua)(Aqua regia) also dissolves aluminium. Aluminium is corroded by dissolved [chlorides](chlorides), such as common [chloride](sodium)(sodium chloride), which is why household plumbing is never made from aluminium. The oxide layer on aluminium is also destroyed by contact with [mercury](mercury (element)) due to [amalgamation](Amalgam (chemistry)) or with salts of some electropositive metals. As such, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion-resistant due to [galvanic](galvanic cell) reactions with alloyed [copper](copper), and aluminium's corrosion resistance is greatly reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals.
Aluminium reacts with most nonmetals upon heating, forming compounds such as [nitride](aluminium)(aluminium nitride) (AlN), [sulfide](aluminium)(aluminium sulfide) (Al2S3), and the aluminium halides (AlX3). It also forms a wide range of [compound](intermetallic)(intermetallic compound)s involving metals from every group on the periodic table.
### Inorganic compounds
The vast majority of compounds, including all aluminium-containing minerals and all commercially significant aluminium compounds, feature aluminium in the oxidation state 3+. The [number](coordination)(coordination number) of such compounds varies, but generally Al3+ is either six- or four-coordinate. Almost all compounds of aluminium(III) are colorless.
[[hydrolysis as a function of pH. Coordinated water molecules are omitted. (Data from Baes and Mesmer)*](File:AlHydrolysis.png|thumb|upright=1.0|right|Aluminium)]
In aqueous solution, Al3+ exists as the hexaaqua cation [Al(H2O)6]3+, which has an approximate [Ka](acid dissociation constant) of 10−5. Such solutions are acidic as this cation can act as a proton donor and progressively [hydrolyze](hydrolysis) until a [precipitate](Precipitation (chemistry)) of [hydroxide](aluminium)(aluminium hydroxide), Al(OH)3, forms. This is useful for [clarification](Sedimentation (water treatment)) of water, as the precipitate nucleates on [suspended](Suspension (chemistry)) particles in the water, hence removing them. Increasing the pH even further leads to the hydroxide dissolving again as [aluminate](aluminate), [Al(H2O)2(OH)4]−, is formed.
Aluminium hydroxide forms both salts and aluminates and dissolves in acid and alkali, as well as on fusion with acidic and basic oxides. This behavior of Al(OH)3 is termed [amphoterism](amphoterism) and is characteristic of weakly basic cations that form insoluble hydroxides and whose hydrated species can also donate their protons. One effect of this is that aluminium salts with weak acids are hydrolyzed in water to the aquated hydroxide and the corresponding nonmetal hydride: for example, [sulfide](aluminium)(aluminium sulfide) yields [sulfide](hydrogen)(hydrogen sulfide). However, some salts like [carbonate](aluminium)(aluminium carbonate) exist in aqueous solution but are unstable as such; and only incomplete hydrolysis takes place for salts with strong acids, such as the halides, [nitrate](aluminium nitrate), and [sulfate](aluminium sulfate). For similar reasons, anhydrous aluminium salts cannot be made by heating their "hydrates": hydrated aluminium chloride is in fact not AlCl3·6H2O but [Al(H2O)6]Cl3, and the Al–O bonds are so strong that heating is not sufficient to break them and form Al–Cl bonds instead:
:2[Al(H2O)6]Cl3 Al2O3 + 6 HCl + 9 H2O
All four [trihalides](Halide) are well known. Unlike the structures of the three heavier trihalides, [fluoride](aluminium)(aluminium fluoride) (AlF3) features six-coordinate aluminium, which explains its involatility and insolubility as well as high [of formation](heat)(heat of formation). Each aluminium atom is surrounded by six fluorine atoms in a distorted [octahedral](octahedron) arrangement, with each fluorine atom being shared between the corners of two octahedra. Such {AlF6} units also exist in complex fluorides such as [cryolite](cryolite), Na3AlF6.}} AlF3 melts at and is made by reaction of [oxide](aluminium)(aluminium oxide) with [fluoride](hydrogen)(hydrogen fluoride) gas at .
With heavier halides, the coordination numbers are lower. The other trihalides are [dimeric](Dimer (chemistry)) or [polymer](polymer)ic with tetrahedral four-coordinate aluminium centers.}} [trichloride](Aluminium)(Aluminium trichloride) (AlCl3) has a layered polymeric structure below its melting point of but transforms on melting to Al2Cl6 dimers. At higher temperatures those increasingly dissociate into trigonal planar AlCl3 monomers similar to the structure of [BCl3](boron trichloride). [tribromide](Aluminium)(Aluminium tribromide) and [triiodide](aluminium)(aluminium triiodide) form Al2X6 dimers in all three phases and hence do not show such significant changes of properties upon phase change. These materials are prepared by treating aluminium metal with the halogen. The aluminium trihalides form many [compound](addition)(addition compound)s or complexes; their [acid](Lewis)(Lewis acid)ic nature makes them useful as [catalysts](catalysis) for the [reaction](Friedel–Crafts)(Friedel–Crafts reaction)s. Aluminium trichloride has major industrial uses involving this reaction, such as in the manufacture of [anthraquinone](anthraquinone)s and [styrene](styrene); it is also often used as the precursor for many other aluminium compounds and as a reagent for converting nonmetal fluorides into the corresponding chlorides (a [reaction](transhalogenation)(Transhalogenation)).
Aluminium forms one stable oxide with the [formula](chemical)(chemical formula) Al2O3, commonly called [alumina](alumina).
It can be found in nature in the mineral [corundum](corundum), α-alumina;
there is also a γ-alumina phase. Its crystalline form, [corundum](corundum), is very hard ([hardness](Mohs)(Mohs hardness) 9), has a high melting point of , has very low volatility, is chemically inert, and a good electrical insulator, it is often used in abrasives (such as toothpaste), as a refractory material, and in [ceramics](ceramics), as well as being the starting material for the electrolytic production of aluminium metal. [Sapphire](Sapphire) and [ruby](ruby) are impure corundum contaminated with trace amounts of other metals. The two main oxide-hydroxides, AlO(OH), are [boehmite](boehmite) and [diaspore](diaspore). There are three main trihydroxides: [bayerite](bayerite), [gibbsite](gibbsite), and [nordstrandite](nordstrandite), which differ in their crystalline structure ([polymorphs](polymorphism (materials science))). Many other intermediate and related structures are also known. Most are produced from ores by a variety of wet processes using acid and base. Heating the hydroxides leads to formation of corundum. These materials are of central importance to the production of aluminium and are themselves extremely useful. Some mixed oxide phases are also very useful, such as [spinel](spinel) (MgAl2O4), Na-β-alumina (NaAl11O17), and [aluminate](tricalcium)(tricalcium aluminate) (Ca3Al2O6, an important mineral phase in [cement](Portland)(Portland cement)).
The only stable [chalcogenide](chalcogenide)s under normal conditions are [sulfide](aluminium)(aluminium sulfide) (Al2S3), [selenide](aluminium selenide) (Al2Se3), and [telluride](aluminium telluride) (Al2Te3). All three are prepared by direct reaction of their elements at about and quickly hydrolyze completely in water to yield aluminium hydroxide and the respective [chalcogenide](hydrogen)(hydrogen chalcogenide). As aluminium is a small atom relative to these chalcogens, these have four-coordinate tetrahedral aluminium with various polymorphs having structures related to [wurtzite](wurtzite), with two-thirds of the possible metal sites occupied either in an orderly (α) or random (β) fashion; the sulfide also has a γ form related to γ-alumina, and an unusual high-temperature hexagonal form where half the aluminium atoms have tetrahedral four-coordination and the other half have trigonal bipyramidal five-coordination.
Four [pnictide](pnictide)s – [nitride](aluminium)(aluminium nitride) (AlN), [phosphide](aluminium)(aluminium phosphide) (AlP), [arsenide](aluminium)(aluminium arsenide) (AlAs), and [antimonide](aluminium)(aluminium antimonide) (AlSb) – are known. They are all [semiconductor](III-V)(III-V semiconductor)s isoelectronic to [silicon](silicon) and [germanium](germanium), all of which but AlN have the [blende](zinc)(zinc blende) structure. All four can be made by high-temperature (and possibly high-pressure) direct reaction of their component elements.
Aluminium alloys well with most other metals (with the exception of most [metals](alkali)(alkali metals) and group 13 metals) and over 150 [intermetallics](intermetallics) with other metals are known. Preparation involves heating fixed metals together in certain proportion, followed by gradual cooling and [annealing](Annealing (metallurgy)). Bonding in them is predominantly [metallic](Metallic bonding) and the crystal structure primarily depends on efficiency of packing.
There are few compounds with lower oxidation states. A few [aluminium(I)](aluminium(I)) compounds exist: AlF, AlCl, AlBr, and AlI exist in the gaseous phase when the respective trihalide is heated with aluminium, and at cryogenic temperatures. A stable derivative of aluminium monoiodide is the cyclic [adduct](adduct) formed with [triethylamine](triethylamine), Al4I4(NEt3)4. Al2O and Al2S also exist but are very unstable. Very simple aluminium(II) compounds are invoked or observed in the reactions of Al metal with oxidants. For example, [monoxide](aluminium)(aluminium monoxide), AlO, has been detected in the gas phase after explosion and in stellar absorption spectra. More thoroughly investigated are compounds of the formula R4Al2 which contain an Al–Al bond and where R is a large organic [ligand](ligand).
### Organoaluminium compounds and related hydrides
[[File:Trimethylaluminium-from-xtal-3D-bs-17-25.png|thumb|upright=1.0|Structure of [trimethylaluminium](trimethylaluminium), a compound that features five-coordinate carbon.]]
A variety of compounds of empirical formula AlR3 and AlR1.5Cl1.5 exist. The aluminium trialkyls and triaryls are reactive, volatile, and colorless liquids or low-melting solids. They catch fire spontaneously in air and react with water, thus necessitating precautions when handling them. They often form dimers, unlike their boron analogues, but this tendency diminishes for branched-chain alkyls (e.g. [Pr*i*](isopropyl), [Bu*i*](isobutyl), Me3CCH2); for example, [triisobutylaluminium](triisobutylaluminium) exists as an equilibrium mixture of the monomer and dimer.
These dimers, such as [trimethylaluminium](trimethylaluminium) (Al2Me6), usually feature tetrahedral Al centers formed by dimerization with some alkyl group bridging between both aluminium atoms. They are [acid](hard)(HSAB theory)s and react readily with ligands, forming adducts. In industry, they are mostly used in alkene insertion reactions, as discovered by [Ziegler](Karl)(Karl Ziegler), most importantly in "growth reactions" that form long-chain unbranched primary alkenes and alcohols, and in the low-pressure polymerization of [ethene](ethene) and [propene](propene). There are also some [heterocyclic](heterocycle) and cluster organoaluminium compounds involving Al–N bonds.
The industrially most important aluminium hydride is [aluminium hydride](lithium)(lithium aluminium hydride) (LiAlH4), which is used in as a reducing agent in [chemistry](organic)(organic chemistry). It can be produced from [hydride](lithium)(lithium hydride) and [trichloride](aluminium)(Aluminium chloride). The simplest hydride, [hydride](aluminium)(aluminium hydride) or alane, is not as important. It is a polymer with the formula (AlH3)*n*, in contrast to the corresponding boron hydride that is a dimer with the formula (BH3)2.
## Natural occurrence
### Space
Aluminium's per-particle abundance in the [System](Solar)(Solar System) is 3.15 [ppm](parts per million) (parts per million).
parts; aluminium comprises 8.410 parts.}} It is the twelfth most abundant of all elements and third most abundant among the elements that have odd atomic numbers, after hydrogen and nitrogen. The only stable isotope of aluminium, 27Al, is the eighteenth most abundant nucleus in the Universe. It is created almost entirely after fusion of carbon in massive stars that will later become [II supernova](Type)(Type II supernova)s: this fusion creates 26Mg, which, upon capturing free protons and neutrons becomes aluminium. Some smaller quantities of 27Al are created in [burning](hydrogen)(hydrogen burning) shells of evolved stars, where 26Mg can capture free protons. Essentially all aluminium now in existence is 27Al. 26Al was present in the early Solar System with abundance of 0.005% relative to 27Al but its half-life of 728,000 years is too short for any original nuclei to survive; 26Al is therefore [extinct](extinct radionuclide). Unlike for 27Al, hydrogen burning is the primary source of 26Al, with the nuclide emerging after a nucleus of 25Mg catches a free proton. However, the [quantities](trace)(trace radioisotope) of 26Al that do exist are the most common [ray](gamma)(gamma ray) emitter in the [gas](interstellar)(interstellar gas); if the original 26Al were still present, [ray maps](gamma)(Gamma-ray astronomy) of the Milky Way would be brighter.
### Earth
[[File:Bauxite hérault.JPG|thumb|[Bauxite](Bauxite), a major aluminium ore. The red-brown color is due to the presence of [oxide](iron)(iron oxide) minerals.]]
Overall, the Earth is about 1.59% aluminium by mass (seventh in abundance by mass).William F McDonough [The composition of the Earth](https://web.archive.org/web/20110928074153/http://quake.mit.edu/hilstgroup/CoreMantle/EarthCompo.pdf). quake.mit.edu, archived by the Internet Archive Wayback Machine. Aluminium occurs in greater proportion in the Earth's crust than in the Universe at large, because aluminium easily forms the oxide and becomes bound into rocks and stays in the [crust](Earth's)(Earth's crust), while less reactive metals sink to the core. In the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant metallic element (8.23% by mass) and the third most abundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon).Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 217–9 A large number of silicates in the Earth's crust contain aluminium. In contrast, the Earth's [mantle](mantle (geology)) is only 2.38% aluminium by mass. Aluminium also occurs in seawater at a concentration of 2 μg/kg.
Because of its strong affinity for oxygen, aluminium is almost never found in the elemental state; instead it is found in oxides or silicates. [Feldspar](Feldspar)s, the most common group of minerals in the Earth's crust, are aluminosilicates. Aluminium also occurs in the minerals [beryl](beryl), [cryolite](cryolite), [garnet](garnet), [spinel](spinel), and [turquoise](turquoise). Impurities in Al2O3, such as [chromium](chromium) and [iron](iron), yield the [gemstone](gemstone)s [ruby](ruby) and [sapphire](sapphire), respectively. [aluminium](Native)(Native aluminium) metal is extremely rare and can only be found as a minor phase in low oxygen [fugacity](fugacity) environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes. Native aluminium has been reported in [seep](cold)(cold seep)s in the northeastern [slope](continental)(continental slope) of the [China Sea](South)(South China Sea). It is possible that these deposits resulted from [bacteria](bacteria)l [reduction](Redox) of tetrahydroxoaluminate Al(OH)4−.
Although aluminium is a common and widespread element, not all aluminium minerals are economically viable sources of the metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the [ore](ore) [bauxite](bauxite) (AlO*x*(OH)3–2*x*). Bauxite occurs as a [weathering](weathering) product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions. In 2017, most bauxite was mined in Australia, China, Guinea, and India.
## History
[[File:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Litho.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[Wöhler](Friedrich)(Friedrich Wöhler), the chemist who first thoroughly described metallic elemental aluminium]]
The history of aluminium has been shaped by usage of [alum](alum). The first written record of alum, made by [Greek](Ancient Greece) historian [Herodotus](Herodotus), dates back to the 5th century BCE. The ancients are known to have used alum as a dyeing [mordant](mordant) and for city defense. After the [Crusades](Crusades), alum, an indispensable good in the European fabric industry, was a subject of international commerce; it was imported to Europe from the eastern Mediterranean until the mid-15th century.
The nature of alum remained unknown. Around 1530, Swiss physician [Paracelsus](Paracelsus) suggested alum was a salt of an earth of alum. In 1595, German doctor and chemist [Libavius](Andreas)(Andreas Libavius) experimentally confirmed this. In 1722, German chemist [Hoffmann](Friedrich)(Friedrich Hoffmann) announced his belief that the base of alum was a distinct earth. In 1754, German chemist [Sigismund Marggraf](Andreas)(Andreas Sigismund Marggraf) synthesized alumina by boiling clay in sulfuric acid and subsequently adding [potash](potash).
Attempts to produce aluminium metal date back to 1760. The first successful attempt, however, was completed in 1824 by Danish physicist and chemist [Christian Ørsted](Hans)(Hans Christian Ørsted). He reacted anhydrous [chloride](aluminium)(aluminium chloride) with potassium [amalgam](amalgam (chemistry)), yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin. He presented his results and demonstrated a sample of the new metal in 1825. In 1827, German chemist [Wöhler](Friedrich)(Friedrich Wöhler) repeated Ørsted's experiments but did not identify any aluminium. (The reason for this inconsistency was only discovered in 1921.) He conducted a similar experiment in the same year by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and produced a powder of aluminium. In 1845, he was able to produce small pieces of the metal and described some physical properties of this metal. For many years thereafter, Wöhler was credited as the discoverer of aluminium.
[[File:Eros-piccadilly-circus.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|right|The statue of [Anteros](Anteros) in [Circus](Piccadilly)(Piccadilly Circus), London, was made in 1893 and is one of the first statues cast in aluminium.]]
As Wöhler's method could not yield great quantities of aluminium, the metal remained rare; its cost exceeded that of gold. The first industrial production of aluminium was established in 1856 by French chemist [Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville](Henri)(Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville) and companions. Deville had discovered that aluminium trichloride could be reduced by sodium, which was more convenient and less expensive than potassium, which Wöhler had used. Even then, aluminium was still not of great purity and produced aluminium differed in properties by sample. Because of its electricity-conducting capacity, aluminium was used as the cap of the [Monument](Washington)(Washington Monument), completed in 1885. The tallest building in the world at the time, the non-corroding metal cap was intended to serve as a [rod](lightning)(lightning rod) peak.
The first industrial large-scale production method was independently developed in 1886 by French engineer [Héroult](Paul)(Paul Héroult) and American engineer [Martin Hall](Charles)(Charles Martin Hall); it is now known as the [process](Hall–Héroult)(Hall–Héroult process). The Hall–Héroult process converts alumina into metal. Austrian chemist [Joseph Bayer](Carl)(Carl Josef Bayer) discovered a way of purifying bauxite to yield alumina, now known as the [process](Bayer)(Bayer process), in 1889. Modern production of the aluminium metal is based on the Bayer and Hall–Héroult processes.
Prices of aluminium dropped and aluminium became widely used in jewelry, everyday items, eyeglass frames, optical instruments, tableware, and [foil](Aluminium foil) in the 1890s and early 20th century. Aluminium's ability to form hard yet light alloys with other metals provided the metal with many uses at the time. During [War I](World)(World War I), major governments demanded large shipments of aluminium for light strong airframes;
during [War II](World)(World War II), demand by major governments for aviation was even higher.
By the mid-20th century, aluminium had become a part of everyday life and an essential component of housewares. In 1954, production of aluminium surpassed that of [copper](copper), production by USGS.}} historically second in production only to iron, making it the most produced [metal](non-ferrous)(non-ferrous metal). During the mid-20th century, aluminium emerged as a civil engineering material, with building applications in both basic construction and interior finish work, and increasingly being used in military engineering, for both airplanes and land armor vehicle engines. [first artificial satellite](Earth's)(Sputnik 1), launched in 1957, consisted of two separate aluminium semi-spheres joined and all subsequent space vehicles have used aluminium to some extent. The [can](aluminium)(aluminium can) was invented in 1956 and employed as a storage for drinks in 1958.
[[- world production trend.svg|thumb|upright=1.0|lang=en|World production of aluminium since 1900](File:Aluminium)]
Throughout the 20th century, the production of aluminium rose rapidly: while the world production of aluminium in 1900 was 6,800 metric tons, the annual production first exceeded 100,000 metric tons in 1916; 1,000,000 tons in 1941; 10,000,000 tons in 1971. In the 1970s, the increased demand for aluminium made it an exchange commodity; it entered the [Metal Exchange](London)(London Metal Exchange), the oldest industrial metal exchange in the world, in 1978. The output continued to grow: the annual production of aluminium exceeded 50,000,000 metric tons in 2013.
The [price](real)(real price) for aluminium declined from $14,000 per metric ton in 1900 to $2,340 in 1948 (in 1998 United States dollars). Extraction and processing costs were lowered over technological progress and the scale of the economies. However, the need to exploit lower-grade poorer quality deposits and the use of fast increasing input costs (above all, energy) increased the net cost of aluminium; the real price began to grow in the 1970s with the rise of energy cost. Production moved from the industrialized countries to countries where production was cheaper. Production costs in the late 20th century changed because of advances in technology, lower energy prices, exchange rates of the United States dollar, and alumina prices. The [BRIC](BRIC) countries' combined share in primary production and primary consumption grew substantially in the first decade of the 21st century. China is accumulating an especially large share of the world's production thanks to an abundance of resources, cheap energy, and governmental stimuli; it also increased its consumption share from 2% in 1972 to 40% in 2010. In the United States, Western Europe, and Japan, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging. In 2021, prices for industrial metals such as aluminium have soared to near-record levels as [shortages](energy)(2021–2022 global energy crisis) in China drive up costs for electricity.
## Etymology
The names *aluminium* and *aluminum* are derived from the word *alumine*, an obsolete term for *alumina*,
}} a [occurring oxide of aluminium](naturally)(Aluminium oxide).
*n.*, *suffix*, *n.*}} *Alumine* was borrowed from French, which in turn derived it from *alumen*, the classical Latin name for [alum](alum), the mineral from which it was collected.
*n.*1, after French *-ine* suffix4.}} The Latin word *alumen* stems from the [Proto-Indo-European](Proto-Indo-European language) root **alu-* meaning "bitter" or "beer".
[[Turner Brass Works ad 1897.jpg|thumb|upright|1897 American advertisement featuring the *aluminum* spelling](File:The)]
### Origins
British chemist [Davy](Humphry)(Humphry Davy), who performed a number of experiments aimed to isolate the metal, is credited as the person who named the element. The first name proposed for the metal to be isolated from alum was *alumium*, which Davy suggested in an 1808 article on his electrochemical research, published in [Transactions of the Royal Society](Philosophical)(Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society). It appeared that the name was created from the English word *alum* and the Latin suffix *-ium*; but it was customary then to give elements names originating in Latin, so this name was not adopted universally. This name was criticized by contemporary chemists from France, Germany, and Sweden, who insisted the metal should be named for the oxide, alumina, from which it would be isolated. The English name *alum* does not come directly from Latin, whereas *alumine*/*alumina* obviously comes from the Latin word *alumen* (upon [declension](declension), *alumen* changes to *alumin-*).
One example was *Essai sur la Nomenclature chimique* (July 1811), written in French by a Swedish chemist, [Jacob Berzelius](Jöns)(Jöns Jacob Berzelius), in which the name *aluminium* is given to the element that would be synthesized from alum.. with his proposed system of one or two-letter [symbol](chemical)(chemical symbol)s, which are used up to the present day; sodium and potassium have the symbols *Na* and *K*, respectively, after their Latin names.}} (Another article in the same journal issue also gives the name *aluminium* to the metal whose oxide is the basis of [sapphire](sapphire).). A January 1811 summary of one of Davy's lectures at the [Society](Royal)(Royal Society) mentioned the name *aluminium* as a possibility. The next year, Davy published a chemistry textbook in which he used the spelling *aluminum*. Both spellings have coexisted since. Their usage is regional: *aluminum* dominates in the United States and Canada; *aluminium*, in the rest of the English-speaking world.
*n.* coexisted with its synonym *n.* throughout the 19th cent. From the beginning of the 20th cent., *aluminum* gradually became the predominant form in North America; it was adopted as the official name of the metal in the United States by the American Chemical Society in 1925. Elsewhere, *aluminum* was gradually superseded by *aluminium*, which was accepted as international standard by IUPAC in 1990.}}
### Spelling
In 1812, a British scientist, [Young](Thomas)(Thomas Young (scientist)), wrote an anonymous review of Davy's book, in which he proposed the name *aluminium* instead of *aluminum*, which he thought had a "less classical sound". This name did catch on: although the ** spelling was occasionally used in Britain, the American scientific language used ** from the start. Most scientists throughout the world used ** in the 19th century; and it was entrenched in many other European languages, such as [French](French language), [German](German language), and [Dutch](Dutch language). In 1828, an American lexicographer, [Webster](Noah)(Noah Webster), entered only the *aluminum* spelling in his ''[Dictionary of the English Language](American)(Webster's Dictionary#First edition 1828)*. In the 1830s, the ** spelling gained usage in the United States; by the 1860s, it had become the more common spelling there outside science. In 1892, Hall used the ** spelling in his advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal, despite his constant use of the ** spelling in all the patents he filed between 1886 and 1903: it is unknown whether this spelling was introduced by mistake or intentionally; but Hall preferred *aluminum* since its introduction because it resembled *[platinum](platinum)*, the name of a prestigious metal. By 1890, both spellings had been common in the United States, the ** spelling being slightly more common; by 1895, the situation had reversed; by 1900, *aluminum* had become twice as common as *aluminium*; in the next decade, the ** spelling dominated American usage. In 1925, the [Chemical Society](American)(American Chemical Society) adopted this spelling.
The [Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry](International)(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) (IUPAC) adopted *aluminium* as the standard international name for the element in 1990. In 1993, they recognized *aluminum'' as an acceptable variant; the most recent [edition of the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry](2005)(IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry 2005) also acknowledges this spelling. IUPAC official publications use the ** spelling as primary, and they list both where it is appropriate.}}
## Production and refinement
The production of aluminium starts with the extraction of [bauxite](bauxite) rock from the ground. The bauxite is processed and transformed using the [process](Bayer)(Bayer process) into [alumina](alumina), which is then processed using the [process](Hall–Héroult)(Hall–Héroult process), resulting in the final aluminium metal.
Aluminium production is highly energy-consuming, and so the producers tend to locate smelters in places where electric power is both plentiful and inexpensive. As of 2019, the world's largest [smelters](Smelting) of aluminium are located in China, India, Russia, Canada, and the United Arab Emirates, while China is by far the top producer of aluminium with a world share of fifty-five percent.
According to the [Resource Panel](International)(International Resource Panel)'s [Stocks in Society report](Metal)(Metal Stocks in Society report), the global [capita](per)(per capita) stock of aluminium in use in society (i.e. in cars, buildings, electronics, etc.) is . Much of this is in more-developed countries ( per capita) rather than less-developed countries ( per capita).
### Bayer process
[Bauxite](Bauxite) is converted to alumina by the Bayer process. Bauxite is blended for uniform composition and then is ground. The resulting [slurry](slurry) is mixed with a hot solution of [hydroxide](sodium)(sodium hydroxide); the mixture is then treated in a digester vessel at a pressure well above atmospheric, dissolving the aluminium hydroxide in bauxite while converting impurities into relatively insoluble compounds:
After this reaction, the slurry is at a temperature above its atmospheric boiling point. It is cooled by removing steam as pressure is reduced. The bauxite residue is separated from the solution and discarded. The solution, free of solids, is seeded with small crystals of aluminium hydroxide; this causes decomposition of the [Al(OH)4]− ions to aluminium hydroxide. After about half of aluminium has precipitated, the mixture is sent to classifiers. Small crystals of aluminium hydroxide are collected to serve as seeding agents; coarse particles are converted to alumina by heating; the excess solution is removed by evaporation, (if needed) purified, and recycled.
### Hall–Héroult process
[[File:Tovarna glinice in aluminija Kidričevo - kupi aluminija 1968.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|right|[Extrusion](Extrusion) billets of aluminium]]
The conversion of [alumina](alumina) to aluminium metal is achieved by the [process](Hall–Héroult)(Hall–Héroult process). In this energy-intensive process, a solution of alumina in a molten () mixture of [cryolite](cryolite) (Na3AlF6) with [fluoride](calcium)(calcium fluoride) is [electrolyzed](electrolysis) to produce metallic aluminium. The liquid aluminium metal sinks to the bottom of the solution and is tapped off, and usually cast into large blocks called [billets](aluminium)(Bar stock) for further processing.
Anodes of the electrolysis cell are made of carbon—the most resistant material against fluoride corrosion—and either bake at the process or are prebaked. The former, also called Söderberg anodes, are less power-efficient and fumes released during baking are costly to collect, which is why they are being replaced by prebaked anodes even though they save the power, energy, and labor to prebake the cathodes. Carbon for anodes should be preferably pure so that neither aluminium nor the electrolyte is contaminated with ash. Despite carbon's resistivity against corrosion, it is still consumed at a rate of 0.4–0.5 kg per each kilogram of produced aluminium. Cathodes are made of [anthracite](anthracite); high purity for them is not required because impurities [leach](Leaching (chemistry)) only very slowly. The cathode is consumed at a rate of 0.02–0.04 kg per each kilogram of produced aluminium. A cell is usually terminated after 2–6 years following a failure of the cathode.
The Hall–Heroult process produces aluminium with a purity of above 99%. Further purification can be done by the [process](Hoopes)(Hoopes process). This process involves the electrolysis of molten aluminium with a sodium, barium, and aluminium fluoride electrolyte. The resulting aluminium has a purity of 99.99%.
Electric power represents about 20 to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending on the location of the smelter. Aluminium production consumes roughly 5% of electricity generated in the United States. Because of this, alternatives to the Hall–Héroult process have been researched, but none has turned out to be economically feasible.
### Recycling
[[bins recyclable.jpg|thumb|Common bins for recyclable waste along with a bin for unrecyclable waste. The bin with a yellow top is labeled "aluminum". Rhodes, Greece.](File:Waste)]
Recovery of the metal through [recycling](recycling) has become an important task of the aluminium industry. Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the growing use of aluminium [can](beverage)(beverage can)s brought it to public awareness. Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires only 5% of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore, though a significant part (up to 15% of the input material) is lost as [dross](dross) (ash-like oxide). An aluminium stack melter produces significantly less dross, with values reported below 1%.
White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations still contains useful quantities of aluminium that can be [industrially](extracted)(Aluminium dross recycling). The process produces aluminium billets, together with a highly complex waste material. This waste is difficult to manage. It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of gases (including, among others, [hydrogen](hydrogen), [acetylene](acetylene), and [ammonia](ammonia)), which spontaneously ignites on contact with air; contact with damp air results in the release of copious quantities of ammonia gas. Despite these difficulties, the waste is used as a filler in [asphalt](Asphalt concrete) and [concrete](concrete).
## Applications
[[File:Austin A40 Roadster ca 1951.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|Aluminium-bodied [A40 Sports](Austin)(Austin A40 Sports) (c. 1951)]]
### Metal
The global production of aluminium in 2016 was 58.8 million metric tons. It exceeded that of any other metal except [iron](iron) (1,231 million metric tons).
Aluminium is almost always alloyed, which markedly improves its mechanical properties, especially when [tempered](tempering (metallurgy)). For example, the common [foil](aluminium)(aluminium foil)s and beverage cans are alloys of 92% to 99% aluminium. The main [alloying](alloying) agents are [copper](copper), [zinc](zinc), [magnesium](magnesium), [manganese](manganese), and [silicon](silicon) (e.g., [duralumin](duralumin)) with the levels of other metals in a few percent by weight. Aluminium, both wrought and cast, has been alloyed with: [manganese](manganese), [silicon](silicon), [magnesium](magnesium), [copper](copper) and [zinc](zinc) among others. For example, the [Kynal](Kynal) family of alloys was developed by the British chemical manufacturer [Chemical Industries](Imperial)(Imperial Chemical Industries).
[[File:Drinking can ring-pull tab.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|[can](Aluminium)(Aluminium can)]]
The major uses for aluminium metal are in:
* Transportation ([automobile](automobile)s, aircraft, [truck](truck)s, [car](railway)(railway car)s, marine vessels, [bicycle](bicycle)s, spacecraft, *etc.*). Aluminium is used because of its low density;
* Packaging ([cans](aluminium can), foil, frame, *etc.*). Aluminium is used because it is non-toxic (see [below](#Toxicity)), non-[adsorptive](Adsorption), and [splinter](splinter)-proof;
* Building and construction ([window](window)s, [door](door)s, [siding](Siding (construction)), building wire, sheathing, roofing, *etc.*). Since steel is cheaper, aluminium is used when lightness, corrosion resistance, or engineering features are important;
* Electricity-related uses (conductor alloys, motors, and generators, transformers, capacitors, *etc.*). Aluminium is used because it is relatively cheap, highly conductive, has adequate mechanical strength and low density, and resists corrosion;
* A wide range of [household](household) items, from [utensil](cooking)(cooking utensil)s to [furniture](furniture). Low density, good appearance, ease of fabrication, and durability are the key factors of aluminium usage;
* Machinery and equipment (processing equipment, pipes, tools). Aluminium is used because of its corrosion resistance, non-[pyrophoricity](pyrophoricity), and mechanical strength.
* Portable computer cases. Currently rarely used without alloying, but aluminium can be recycled and clean aluminium has residual market value: for example, the [beverage can](used)(Used Beverage Can) (UBC) material was used to encase the electronic components of [Air](MacBook)(MacBook Air) laptop, [5](Pixel)(Pixel 5) smartphone or [Lite](Summit)(Montblanc (company)) smartwatch.
### Compounds
The great majority (about 90%) of [oxide](aluminium)(aluminium oxide) is converted to metallic aluminium. Being a very hard material ([hardness](Mohs)(Mohs hardness) 9), alumina is widely used as an abrasive; being extraordinarily chemically inert, it is useful in highly reactive environments such as [pressure sodium](high)(high pressure sodium) lamps. Aluminium oxide is commonly used as a catalyst for industrial processes; e.g. the [process](Claus)(Claus process) to convert [sulfide](hydrogen)(hydrogen sulfide) to sulfur in [refineries](refineries) and to [alkylate](alkylation) [amine](amine)s. Many industrial [catalysts](Catalysis) are [supported](catalyst support) by alumina, meaning that the expensive [catalyst](Catalysis) material is dispersed over a surface of the inert alumina. Another principal use is as a drying agent or absorbent.
[[Laser Deposition in Action.jpg|thumb|upright|Laser deposition of alumina on a substrate](File:Pulsed)]
Several sulfates of aluminium have industrial and commercial application. [sulfate](Aluminium)(Aluminium sulfate) (in its hydrate form) is produced on the annual scale of several millions of metric tons. About two-thirds is consumed in [treatment](water)(water treatment). The next major application is in the manufacture of paper. It is also used as a mordant in dyeing, in pickling seeds, deodorizing of mineral oils, in [tanning](leather)(Tanning (leather)), and in production of other aluminium compounds. Two kinds of alum, [alum](ammonium)(ammonium alum) and [alum](potassium)(potassium alum), were formerly used as mordants and in leather tanning, but their use has significantly declined following availability of high-purity aluminium sulfate. Anhydrous [chloride](aluminium)(aluminium chloride) is used as a catalyst in chemical and petrochemical industries, the dyeing industry, and in synthesis of various inorganic and organic compounds. Aluminium hydroxychlorides are used in purifying water, in the paper industry, and as [antiperspirants](antiperspirants). [aluminate](Sodium)(Sodium aluminate) is used in treating water and as an accelerator of solidification of cement.
Many aluminium compounds have niche applications, for example:
* [acetate](Aluminium)(Aluminium acetate) in solution is used as an [astringent](astringent).
* [phosphate](Aluminium)(Aluminium phosphate) is used in the manufacture of glass, ceramic, [pulp](Wood pulp) and paper products, [cosmetics](cosmetics), paints, [varnish](varnish)es, and in dental [cement](cement).
* [hydroxide](Aluminium)(Aluminium hydroxide) is used as an [antacid](antacid), and mordant; it is used also in [water](water) purification, the manufacture of glass and ceramics, and in the [waterproofing](waterproofing) of [fabrics](Textile).
* [aluminium hydride](Lithium)(Lithium aluminium hydride) is a powerful reducing agent used in [chemistry](organic)(organic chemistry).
* [Organoaluminiums](Organoaluminium chemistry) are used as [acid](Lewis)(Lewis acid)s and co-catalysts.
* [Methylaluminoxane](Methylaluminoxane) is a co-catalyst for [Ziegler–Natta](Ziegler–Natta) [olefin](olefin) [polymerization](polymerization) to produce [polymer](vinyl)(vinyl polymer)s such as [polyethene](polyethene).
* Aqueous aluminium ions (such as aqueous aluminium sulfate) are used to treat against fish parasites such as *[salaris](Gyrodactylus)(Gyrodactylus salaris)*.
* In many [vaccine](vaccine)s, certain aluminium salts serve as an immune [adjuvant](Immunologic adjuvant) (immune response booster) to allow the [protein](protein) in the vaccine to achieve sufficient potency as an immune stimulant.
## Aluminized substrates
Aluminizing is the process of coating a structure or material with a thin layer of aluminium. It is done to impart specific traits that the underlying [substrate](substrate (materials science)) lacks, such as a certain chemical or physical property. *Aluminized* materials include:
* [steel](Aluminized)(Aluminized steel), for corrosion resistance and other properties
* [screen](Aluminized)(Aluminized screen), for display devices
* [cloth](Aluminized)(Aluminized cloth), to reflect heat
* [mylar](Aluminized)(Aluminized mylar), to reflect heat
## Biology
[[absorption by skin.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Schematic of aluminium absorption by human skin.](File:Al)]
Despite its widespread occurrence in the Earth's crust, aluminium has no known function in biology. At pH 6–9 (relevant for most natural waters), aluminium precipitates out of water as the hydroxide and is hence not available; most elements behaving this way have no biological role or are toxic. [sulfate](Aluminium)(Aluminium sulfate) has an [LD50](Median lethal dose) of 6207 mg/kg (oral, mouse), which corresponds to 435 grams (about one pound) for a person.
### Toxicity
Aluminium is classified as a non-carcinogen by the [States Department of Health and Human Services](United)(United States Department of Health and Human Services). likely due to exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.}} A review published in 1988 said that there was little evidence that normal exposure to aluminium presents a risk to healthy adult, and a 2014 multi-element toxicology review was unable to find deleterious effects of aluminium consumed in amounts not greater than 40 mg/day per kg of [mass](body)(body weight). Most aluminium consumed will leave the body in feces; most of the small part of it that enters the bloodstream, will be excreted via urine; nevertheless some aluminium does pass the blood-brain barrier and is lodged preferentially in the brains of Alzheimer's patients.
Evidence published in 1989 indicates that, for Alzheimer's patients, aluminium may act by [electrostatically](electrostatically) [crosslink](crosslink)ing proteins, thus down-regulating genes in the [temporal gyrus](superior)(superior temporal gyrus).
### Effects
Aluminium, although rarely, can cause vitamin D-resistant [osteomalacia](osteomalacia), [erythropoietin](erythropoietin)-resistant [anemia](microcytic)(microcytic anemia), and central nervous system alterations. People with kidney insufficiency are especially at a risk. Chronic ingestion of hydrated aluminium silicates (for excess gastric acidity control) may result in aluminium binding to intestinal contents and increased elimination of other metals, such as [iron](iron) or [zinc](zinc); sufficiently high doses (>50 g/day) can cause anemia.
[[File:Al transport across human cells.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|There are five major aluminium forms absorbed by human body: the free solvated trivalent cation (Al3+(aq)); low-molecular-weight, neutral, soluble complexes (LMW-Al0(aq)); high-molecular-weight, neutral, soluble complexes (HMW-Al0(aq)); low-molecular-weight, charged, soluble complexes (LMW-Al(L)n+/−(aq)); nano and micro-particulates (Al(L)n(s)). They are transported across cell membranes or cell epi-/[endothelia](endothelia) through five major routes: (1) [paracellular](paracellular); (2) [transcellular](transcellular); (3) [transport](active)(active transport); (4) channels; (5) adsorptive or receptor-mediated [endocytosis](endocytosis).]]
During the 1988 [water pollution incident](Camelford)(Camelford water pollution incident) people in [Camelford](Camelford) had their drinking water contaminated with [sulfate](aluminium)(aluminium sulfate) for several weeks. A final report into the incident in 2013 concluded it was unlikely that this had caused long-term health problems.
Aluminium has been suspected of being a possible cause of [disease](Alzheimer's)(Alzheimer's disease), but research into this for over 40 years has found, , no good evidence of causal effect.
Aluminium increases [estrogen](estrogen)-related [expression](gene)(gene expression) in human [cancer](breast)(breast cancer) cells cultured in the laboratory.
In very high doses, aluminium is associated with altered function of the blood–brain barrier.
A small percentage of people have contact [allergies](allergy) to aluminium and experience itchy red rashes, headache, muscle pain, joint pain, poor memory, insomnia, depression, asthma, irritable bowel syndrome, or other symptoms upon contact with products containing aluminium.
Exposure to powdered aluminium or aluminium welding fumes can cause [fibrosis](pulmonary)(pulmonary fibrosis). Fine aluminium powder can ignite or explode, posing another workplace hazard.
### Exposure routes
Food is the main source of aluminium. Drinking water contains more aluminium than solid food; however, aluminium in food may be absorbed more than aluminium from water. Major sources of human oral exposure to aluminium include food (due to its use in food additives, food and beverage packaging, and cooking utensils), drinking water (due to its use in municipal water treatment), and aluminium-containing medications (particularly antacid/antiulcer and buffered aspirin formulations). Dietary exposure in Europeans averages to 0.2–1.5 mg/kg/week but can be as high as 2.3 mg/kg/week. Higher exposure levels of aluminium are mostly limited to miners, aluminium production workers, and [dialysis](Kidney dialysis) patients.
Consumption of [antacid](antacid)s, antiperspirants, [vaccine](vaccine)s, and cosmetics provide possible routes of exposure. Consumption of acidic foods or liquids with aluminium enhances aluminium absorption, and [maltol](maltol) has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminium in nerve and bone tissues.
### Treatment
In case of suspected sudden intake of a large amount of aluminium, the only treatment is [mesylate](deferoxamine)(deferoxamine mesylate) which may be given to help eliminate aluminium from the body by [chelation](chelation).[Aluminum Toxicity](http://www.med.nyu.edu/content?ChunkIID=164929) from [Langone Medical Center](NYU)(NYU Langone Medical Center). Last reviewed November 2012 by Igor Puzanov, MD However, this should be applied with caution as this reduces not only aluminium body levels, but also those of other metals such as copper or iron.
## Environmental effects
[[File:Luftaufnahmen Nordseekueste 2012-05-by-RaBoe-478.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|"[tailings](Bauxite)(Bauxite tailings)" storage facility in [Stade](Stade), Germany. The aluminium industry generates about 70 million tons of this waste annually.]]High levels of aluminium occur near mining sites; small amounts of aluminium are released to the environment at the coal-fired power plants or [incinerators](Incineration). Aluminium in the air is washed out by the rain or normally settles down but small particles of aluminium remain in the air for a long time.
Acidic [precipitation](precipitation) is the main natural factor to mobilize aluminium from natural sources and the main reason for the environmental effects of aluminium; however, the main factor of presence of aluminium in salt and freshwater are the industrial processes that also release aluminium into air.
In water, aluminium acts as a toxiс agent on [gill](gill)-breathing animals such as [fish](fish) when the water is acidic, in which aluminium may precipitate on gills, which causes loss of [plasma](Blood plasma)- and [hemolymph](hemolymph) ions leading to [osmoregulatory](Osmoregulation) failure. Organic complexes of aluminium may be easily absorbed and interfere with metabolism in mammals and birds, even though this rarely happens in practice.
Aluminium is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acidic soils. Although it is generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils, in acid soils the concentration of toxic Al3+ [cation](cation)s increases and disturbs root growth and function.
[Wheat](Wheat) has [developed](adaptation) a tolerance to aluminium, releasing [compound](organic)(organic compound)s that bind to harmful aluminium [cations](cations). [Sorghum](Sorghum) is believed to have the same tolerance mechanism.
Aluminium production possesses its own challenges to the environment on each step of the production process. The major challenge is the [gas emissions](greenhouse)(greenhouse gas emissions). These gases result from electrical consumption of the smelters and the byproducts of processing. The most potent of these gases are [perfluorocarbons](Fluorocarbon) from the smelting process. Released [dioxide](sulfur)(sulfur dioxide) is one of the primary precursors of [rain](acid)(acid rain).
Biodegradation of metallic aluminium is extremely rare; most aluminium-corroding organisms do not directly attack or consume the aluminium, but instead produce corrosive wastes. See also the abstract of . The fungus *[candidum](Geotrichum)(Geotrichum candidum)* can consume the aluminium in [disc](compact)(compact disc)s. The bacterium *[aeruginosa](Pseudomonas)(Pseudomonas aeruginosa)* and the fungus *[resinae](Cladosporium)(Cladosporium resinae)* are commonly detected in aircraft fuel tanks that use [kerosene](kerosene)-based fuels (not [avgas](avgas)), and laboratory cultures can degrade aluminium.
## See also
* [granules](Aluminium)(Aluminium granules)
* [joining](Aluminium)(Aluminium joining)
* [battery](Aluminium–air)(Aluminium–air battery)
* [edge staining](Panel)(Panel edge staining)
* [clock](Quantum)(Quantum clock)
## Notes
## References
## Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
## Further reading
* Mimi Sheller, *Aluminum Dream: The Making of Light Modernity*. Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 2014.
## External links
* [Aluminium](http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/013.htm) at *[Periodic Table of Videos](The)(The Periodic Table of Videos)* (University of Nottingham)
* *[Toxic Substances Portal – Aluminum](https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/phs/phs.asp?id=1076&tid=34)* – from the [for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry](Agency)(Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry), United States Department of Health and Human Services
* [CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Aluminum](https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0022.html)
* [World production of primary aluminium, by country](http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/aluminum/aluminum_table12.html)
* [Price history of aluminum, according to the IMF](http://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/?commodity=aluminum&months=300)
* [History of Aluminium](https://web.archive.org/web/20071106081754/http://www.world-aluminium.org/About+Aluminium/Story+of/In+history) – from the website of the International Aluminium Institute
* [Emedicine – Aluminium](http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic113.htm)
*
[ ](Category:Aluminium)
[elements](Category:Chemical)(Category:Chemical elements)
[metals](Category:Post-transition)(Category:Post-transition metals)
[Aluminium](Category:Rocket fuels)
[conductors](Category:Electrical)(Category:Electrical conductors)
[fuels](Category:Pyrotechnic)(Category:Pyrotechnic fuels)
[technology](Category:Airship)(Category:Airship technology)
[agents](Category:Reducing)(Category:Reducing agents)
[additives](Category:E-number)(Category:E-number additives)
[element minerals](Category:Native)(Category:Native element minerals)
[elements with face-centered cubic structure](Category:Chemical)(Category:Chemical elements with face-centered cubic structure)
|
College World Series
|
college_world_series
|
# College World Series
*Revision ID: 1160284893 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T14:03:38Z*
---
The **College World Series** (**CWS**), officially the '''NCAA Men's College World Series** (**MCWS'''), is an annual [baseball](baseball) [tournament](tournament) held in June in [Nebraska](Omaha,)(Omaha, Nebraska). The MCWS is the culmination of the [Collegiate Athletic Association](National)(National Collegiate Athletic Association) (NCAA) [I](Division)(NCAA Division I) [Championship](Baseball)(NCAA Division I Baseball Championship) tournament—featuring 64 teams in the first round—which determines the NCAA Division I [baseball](college)(college baseball) champion. The eight participating teams are split into two, four-team, [double-elimination](Double-elimination tournament) brackets, with the winners of each bracket playing in a [best-of-three](Playoff format#Best-of-three playoff) championship series.
## History
The first edition of the College World Series was held in [1947](1947 College World Series) at [Field](Hyames)(Hyames Field) in [Kalamazoo](Kalamazoo, Michigan), [Michigan](Michigan). The tournament was held there again in [1948](1948 College World Series), but was moved to [Stadium](Lawrence)(Lawrence–Dumont Stadium) in [Wichita](Wichita, Kansas), [Kansas](Kansas) for the [tournament](1949)(1949 College World Series). Since [1950](1950 College World Series), the College World Series (CWS) has been held in Omaha, Nebraska.[CWS History](http://www.cwsomaha.com/index.php?option=com_contents&task=view&did=58264&Itemid=247). CWS Omaha, Inc. Retrieved 2017-02-11. It was held at [Stadium](Rosenblatt)(Johnny Rosenblatt Stadium) from 1950 through [2010](2010 College World Series); starting in [2011](2011 College World Series), it has been held at [Schwab Field Omaha](Charles)(Charles Schwab Field Omaha) (formerly TD Ameritrade Park Omaha). The name "College World Series" is derived from that of the [League Baseball](Major)(Major League Baseball) [Series](World)(World Series) championship; it is currently an MLB trademark licensed to the NCAA.[NCAA Trademarks – NCAA.org](https://www.ncaa.org/wps/ncaa?key=/ncaa/NCAA/About%20The%20NCAA/The%20NCAA%20Brand/Trademarks%20and%20Logos/Trademarks.html) , footnote at bottom: "College World Series and [College World Series](Women's)(Women's College World Series): The NCAA is the exclusive licensee of these marks, registered by Major League Baseball, in connection with the NCAA Division I Men's Baseball Championship and the Division I Women's Softball Championship."
The event's official name was changed to "Men's College World Series" no later than 2008. The most recent hosting agreement between the NCAA and the city of Omaha and related entities, signed in that year, states, "The official name of the [championship] shall be the ''NCAA Men's College World Series''". However, as of October 2021, the CWS logo still appeared on the NCAA's official D-I baseball tournament bracket, and on the front page of the NCAA's official CWS website, without the word "Men's". The NCAA has since added "Men's" to the event's logo, and both the NCAA and College World Series of Omaha, Inc. (CWS Omaha), the nonprofit group that organizes the event, now consistently use the phrase "Men's College World Series" to describe it.See, e.g., the [NCAA Division I baseball home page](https://www.ncaa.com/sports/baseball/d1), with linked stories consistently using "Men's College World Series"; the [NCAA's official MCWS home page](https://www.ncaa.com/championships/baseball/d1); and the [CWS Omaha home page](https://cwsomaha.com/).
On March 13, 2020, it was announced that the 2020 College World Series was canceled due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic), the first time in the event's history it had been canceled.
### Contract extension
On June 10, 2008, the NCAA and CWS Omaha announced a new 25-year contract extension, keeping the MCWS in Omaha through 2035. NCAA Signs 25-Year Agreement with College World Series of Omaha, Inc. A [of understanding](memorandum)(memorandum of understanding) had been reached by all parties on April 30. NCAA Memorandum of Understanding...
The currently binding contract began in 2011, the same year the tournament moved from [Rosenblatt Stadium](Johnny)(Johnny Rosenblatt Stadium) to the venue now known as [Schwab Field Omaha](Charles)(Charles Schwab Field Omaha), a new ballpark across from [Health Center Omaha](CHI)(CHI Health Center Omaha).
### Format history and changes
[[File:College World Series 2006 - Finals Game 2 opening.jpg|thumb|right|[College World Series Championship](2006)(2006 College World Series#Championship Series) game ([of North Carolina](University)(North Carolina Tar Heels baseball) versus [State University](Oregon)(Oregon State Beavers baseball)) at Rosenblatt Stadium in Omaha, Nebraska.]]
* 1947 – Eight teams were divided into two, four-team, single-elimination playoffs. The two winners then met in a best-of-three final in [Michigan](Kalamazoo,)(Kalamazoo, Michigan).
* 1948 – Similar to 1947, but the two, four-team playoffs were changed to double-elimination tournaments. Again in the finals, the two winners met in a best-of-three format in Kalamazoo.
* 1949 – The final was expanded to a four-team, double-elimination format and the site changed to [Kansas](Wichita,)(Wichita, Kansas). Eight teams began the playoffs with the four finalists decided by a best-of-three district format.
* 1950–1987 – An eight-team, double-elimination format for the College World Series coincided with the move to [Nebraska](Omaha,)(Omaha, Nebraska) in 1950. From 1950 to 1953, a baseball committee chose one team from each of the eight NCAA districts to compete at the CWS, which constituted the entire Division I tournament, as there were no preliminary rounds (in 1948 and 1949, a selection committee in each of the eight districts chose its district representative based on the committee's own criteria, which might or might not include committee selections, conference champions, and district playoffs). Through 1987 the College World Series was a pure double-elimination event. That ended with the [College World Series](1987)(1987 College World Series). In 1954, the Division I tournament began having preliminary rounds to determine the eight CWS teams. From 1954 to 1975, the number of teams in the first round of the overall tournament ranged from 21 to 32. The number of first-round teams was increased to 34 in 1976, 36 in 1982, 38 in 1985, 40 in 1986, and 48 in 1987.
* 1988–1998 – The format was changed beginning with the [College World Series](1988)(1988 College World Series), when the tournament was divided into 2 four-team double-elimination brackets, with the survivors of each bracket playing in a single championship game. The single-game championship was designed for network television, with the final game on [CBS](CBS Sports) on a Saturday afternoon.
::Before expanding to 64 teams in 1999, the 1998 Division I tournament began with 48 teams, split into 8 six-team regionals. The 8 regional winners advanced to the College World Series. The regionals were a test of endurance, as teams had to win at least four games over four days, sometimes five if a team dropped into the loser's bracket, placing a premium on pitching. In the last two years of the six-team regional format, the eventual CWS champion – [LSU](LSU Tigers baseball) in [1997](1997 College World Series) and [California](Southern)(USC Trojans baseball) in [1998](1998 College World Series) – had to battle back from the loser's bracket in the regional to advance to Omaha.
* 1999–2002 – With some 293 Division I teams playing, the NCAA expanded the [tournament](overall)(NCAA Division I Baseball Championship) to a 64-team Regional field in 1999—with 8 National Seed teams (the top 8 seeds)—divided into 16 four-team regionals (each region seeded 1 to 4). The winners of the 16 "Regionals" advance to a second round, consisting of 8 two-team, best-of-three-format "Super Regionals". (The National Seed teams that win their regional bracket are placed in different Super Regionals, so that no National Seed teams meet each other in a Super Regional.) The 8 Super Regional winners advance to the CWS in Omaha. While the CWS format remained the same, the expanded field meant that the eight CWS teams now are determined by the second-round Super Regionals. The 64-team bracket is set at the beginning of the championship and teams are not reseeded for the CWS. Since the [College World Series](1999)(1999 College World Series), the four-team brackets in the CWS have been determined by the results of super-regional play, much like the [basketball tournament](NCAA)(NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship). Before 1999, the four-team brackets were determined by the regional tournaments.
* 2003–present – The championship final became a best-of-three series between the two four-team bracket winners, with games scheduled for three consecutive evenings. In the results shown below, **Score** indicates the score of the championship game(s) only. In 2008, the start of the CWS was moved back one day, and an extra day of rest was added in between bracket play and the championship series.
## Results
### Teams reaching the finals
### Best performances by conference
* [CIBA](California Intercollegiate Baseball Association) was California Intercollegiate Baseball Association that competed as a division under the [Coast Conference](Pacific)(Pacific Coast Conference) which operated under its own Charter.
* Independents = [Hurricanes](Miami)(Miami Hurricanes baseball) (4) and [Cross Crusaders](Holy)(Holy Cross Crusaders) (1)
* [SCBA](Southern California Baseball Association) was Southern California Baseball Association (1977–84).
* The Big 12 does not claim any national championships, including baseball, that were won as members of the Big Eight and makes no claim to the history or records of the Big Eight.
* The Western Athletic Conference claims 7 national championships in baseball by former members. There are no gaps in its existence; the WAC has existed continuously since its formation in 1962.
* Coastal Carolina won the 2016 CWS as a member of the Big South Conference less than 24 hours before officially joining the Sun Belt Conference.
* Missouri won the 1954 CWS as a member of the Big Eight Conference.
## Awards
The [World Series Most Outstanding Player](College)(College World Series Most Outstanding Player) award is presented to the best player at each College World Series finals (first awarded in 1949).
An All-Tournament Team consisting of the best players of the tournament has also been announced for each tournament since 1958.
## Records and statistics
### All-time record for champions
## Most appearances without a CWS championship
## Most CWS participants by one conference in a year
## See also
* [of college baseball awards](List)(List of college baseball awards)
* [Club Baseball Association](National)(National Club Baseball Association)
* [Division II Baseball Championship](NCAA)(NCAA Division II Baseball Championship)
* [Division III Baseball Championship](NCAA)(NCAA Division III Baseball Championship)
* [baseball champion](Pre-NCAA)(Pre-NCAA intercollegiate championships#Baseball)
* [college baseball awards](U.S.)(Baseball awards#U.S. college baseball)
* [College World Series](Women's)(Women's College World Series)
## Notes
## References
## External links
* [College World Series of Omaha](http://www.cwsomaha.com/) (CWS Omaha, Inc.) official website
* [Men's College World Series](https://www.ncaa.com/championships/baseball/d1) (NCAA official website)
[ ](Category:College World Series)
[in Omaha, Nebraska](Category:Sports)(Category:Sports in Omaha, Nebraska)
[competitions in Nebraska](Category:Sports)(Category:Sports competitions in Nebraska)
[sporting events established in 1947](Category:Recurring)(Category:Recurring sporting events established in 1947)
[in Nebraska](Category:Baseball)(Category:Baseball in Nebraska)
[in Omaha, Nebraska](Category:Tourism)(Category:Tourism in Omaha, Nebraska)
|
Seven virtues
|
seven_virtues
|
# Seven virtues
*Revision ID: 1156959774 | Timestamp: 2023-05-25T13:02:21Z*
---
In [Christian](Christianity) tradition, the **seven heavenly virtues** combine the four [virtues](cardinal)(cardinal virtues) of [prudence](prudence), [justice](Justice (virtue)), [temperance](Temperance (virtue)), and [fortitude](courage) with the three [virtues](theological)(theological virtues) of [faith](Faith in Christianity), [hope](Hope (virtue)), and [charity](Charity (virtue)).
The **seven capital virtues**, also known as contrary or remedial virtues, are those opposite the [deadly sins](seven)(seven deadly sins). They are often enumerated as [chastity](chastity), [temperance](temperance (virtue)), [charity](Charity (practice)), [diligence](diligence), [patience](patience), [kindness](kindness), and [humility](humility).
## Seven heavenly virtues
### Cardinal virtues
The four cardinal virtues were first defined by 4th-century theologian [Ambrose](Ambrose) as "temperance, justice, prudence, and fortitude". These were also named as cardinal virtues by [of Hippo](Augustine)(Augustine of Hippo), and were subsequently adopted by the [Church](Catholic)(Catholic Church). They are described as "human virtues" in the Catholic *[Catechism](Catechism of the Catholic Church)*.
Prior to Ambrose, these four qualities were identified by the Greek philosopher [Plato](Plato) as the necessary character traits of a good man, and were discussed by other ancient authors such as [Cicero](Cicero). They can also be found in the Jewish [of Wisdom](Book)(Book of Wisdom), which states that wisdom "teaches moderation and prudence, righteousness and fortitude, and nothing in life is more useful than these." Wisdom 8:7, NABRE.
### Theological virtues
The theological virtues are those named by [the Apostle](Paul)(Paul the Apostle) in [Corinthians 13](1)(1 Corinthians 13): "So faith, hope, love remain, these three; but the greatest of these is love."1 Corinthians 13:13, NABRE. The word "love" (*[agape](agape)* in Greek) is translated in the [James Bible](King)(King James Bible) as "charity".
The traditional understanding of the difference between cardinal and theological virtues is that the latter are not fully accessible to humans in their natural state without assistance from God. [Aquinas](Thomas)(Thomas Aquinas) believed that while the cardinal virtues could be formed through habitual practice, the theological virtues could only be practised by divine grace.
## Seven capital virtues
The seven capital virtues (also known as the contrary or remedial virtues) are those thought to stand in opposition to the [capital vices](seven)(seven capital vices) (or deadly sins).
[Prudentius](Prudentius), writing in the 5th century, was the first author to allegorically represent Christian morality as a struggle between seven sins and seven virtues. His poem *[Psychomachia](Psychomachia)* depicts a battle between female personifications of virtues and vices, with each virtue confronting and defeating a particular vice. However, Prudentius did not base his allegory on the cardinal and theological virtues, nor did he use the traditional list of capital vices. The combatants in the *Psychomachia* are as follows:
The success of this work popularised the concept of capital virtues among medieval authors. In AD 590, the seven capital vices were revised by [Gregory I](Pope)(Pope Gregory I), which led to the creation of new lists of corresponding capital virtues. In modern times, the capital virtues are commonly identified as the following:
Although some medieval authors attempted to contrast the capital vices with the heavenly virtues, such efforts were rare. According to historian István P. Bejczy, "the capital vices are more often contrasted with the remedial or contrary virtues in medieval moral literature than with the principal virtues, while the principal virtues are frequently accompanied by a set of mirroring vices rather than by the seven deadly sins".
## See also
* [obedience](Holy)(Holy obedience)
* [list of virtues](Aristotle's)(Virtue ethics#Lists of virtues)
## References
[ ](Category:Seven virtues)
[Category:Asceticism](Category:Asceticism)
[doctrines](Category:Catholic)(Category:Catholic doctrines)
[ethics](Category:Christian)(Category:Christian ethics)
[Seven virtues](7)(Category:Cultural lists)
[Category:Spirituality](Category:Spirituality)
[Category:Virtue](Category:Virtue)
[terminology](Category:Christian)(Category:Christian terminology)
|
University of California, Berkeley
|
university_of_california,_berkeley
|
# University of California, Berkeley
*Revision ID: 1160321741 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T19:02:11Z*
---
([Latin](Latin))
| mottoeng = "Let there be light"
| accreditation = [WSCUC](WASC Senior College and University Commission)
| established =
| parent = [of California](University)(University of California)
| type = [Public](Public university) [land-grant](Land-grant university) [university](research)(research university)
| endowment = $6.9 billion (2022)As of June 30, 2022; includes assets managed by the UC Regents in the General Endowment Pool for the exclusive benefit of Berkeley.
| chancellor = [T. Christ](Carol)(Carol T. Christ)
| provost = [E. Hermalin](Benjamin)(Benjamin E. Hermalin) Executive Vice Chancellor and Provost|url=https://evcp.berkeley.edu/|access-date=2022-07-07|website=evcp.berkeley.edu}}
| students = 45,307 (Fall 2022)
| undergrad = 32,479 (Fall 2022)
| postgrad = 12,828 (Fall 2022)
| total_staff = 23,524 (2020)
| city = [Berkeley](Berkeley, California)
| state = [California](California)
| country = United States
| coordinates = |display=title,inline}}
| campus = Midsize CityCore Campus: Total:
| campus_size =
| former_names = University of California (1868–1958)
| colors = [Blue](Berkeley)(Shades of blue#Berkeley blue) [Please read the attached source before changing; while the color is often shortened to "gold", the source lists "California Gold". -->California Gold](, and [Prize](Wolf)(Wolf Prize) winners (30) than any other public university in the nation; it is affiliated with 34 [Prize](Pulitzer)(Pulitzer Prize)s, 19 [Award](Academy)(Academy Award)s, and more ["Genius Grants"](MacArthur)(MacArthur Fellowship) (108) and [Medals of Science](National)(National Medal of Science) (68) than any other public institution. [university](The)(List of University of California, Berkeley alumni in politics and government) has produced seven [of state](heads)(Head of state) or [government](Head of government); six chief justices, including [Justice of the United States](Chief)(Chief Justice of the United States) [Warren](Earl)(Earl Warren); 22 [cabinet](Cabinet (government))-level officials; 11 [governors](Governor (United States)); and 25 living [billionaires](List of universities by number of billionaire alumni). It is also a leading producer of [Scholars](Fulbright)(Fulbright Scholars), [Fellows](MacArthur)(MacArthur Fellows), and [Scholars](Marshall)(Marshall Scholars).
*
*
* Berkeley alumni have founded [companies](notable)(List of companies founded by UC Berkeley alumni), including [Apple](Apple Inc.), [Tesla](Tesla, Inc.), [Intel](Intel), [eBay](eBay), [SoftBank](SoftBank Group), [AIG](American International Group), and [Stanley](Morgan)(Morgan Stanley).
*
*
* Research UC Berkeley |url=https://vcresearch.berkeley.edu/excellence/innovation-and-entrepreneurship |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190716031859/https://vcresearch.berkeley.edu/excellence/innovation-and-entrepreneurship |archive-date=July 16, 2019 |access-date=April 6, 2018 |website=vcresearch.berkeley.edu |language=en}}
*
*
*
## History
[[File:Berkeley glade afternoon.jpg|thumb|right|View from Memorial Glade of [Tower](Sather)(Sather Tower) (the Campanile), the center of Berkeley—the ring of its bells and clock can be heard from all over campus.]]
[[File:CampanileMtTamalpiasSunset-original.jpg|thumb|Sather Tower (the Campanile) looking out over [Francisco Bay](San)(San Francisco Bay) and [Tamalpais](Mount)(Mount Tamalpais)]]
### Founding
Made possible by [Lincoln](President)(Abraham Lincoln)'s signing of the [Act](Morrill)(Morrill Act) in 1862, the University of California was founded in 1868 as the state's first land-grant university, inheriting the land and facilities of the private [of California](College)(College of California) and the federal-funding eligibility of a public agricultural, mining, and mechanical arts college. The Organic Act states that the "University shall have for its design, to provide instruction and thorough and complete education in all departments of science, literature and art, industrial and professional pursuits, and general education, and also special courses of instruction in preparation for the professions".
Ten faculty members and 40 male students made up the fledgling university when it opened in Oakland in 1869. [H. Billings](Frederick)(Frederick H. Billings), a trustee of the College of California, suggested that a new campus site north of Oakland be named in honor of [Anglo-Irish](Anglo-Irish) philosopher [Berkeley](George)(George Berkeley). The university began admitting women the following year. Campus Climate, Community Engagement & Transformation|website=Campus Climate at Berkeley|language=en|access-date=2019-10-08}} In 1870, [Durant](Henry)(Henry Durant), founder of the College of California, became its first president. With the completion of North and [Halls](South)(South Hall (UC Berkeley)) in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 22 female students. The first female student to graduate was Rosa L. Scrivner in 1874, admitted in the first class to include women in 1870.
Beginning in 1891, [Apperson Hearst](Phoebe)(Phoebe Apperson Hearst) funded several programs and new buildings and, in 1898, sponsored an international competition in Antwerp, Belgium, where French architect [Bénard](Émile)(Émile Bénard) submitted the winning design for a campus master plan.
### 20th century
In 1905, the University Farm was established near [Sacramento](Sacramento), ultimately becoming the [of California, Davis](University)(University of California, Davis). In 1919, Los Angeles State Normal School became the southern branch of the university, which ultimately became the [of California, Los Angeles](University)(University of California, Los Angeles). By the 1920s, the number of campus buildings in Berkeley had grown substantially and included twenty structures designed by architect [Galen Howard](John)(John Galen Howard).
In 1917, one of the nation's first [ROTC](ROTC) programs was established at Berkeley and its School of Military Aeronautics began training pilots, including Gen. [Doolittle](Jimmy)(Jimmy Doolittle). In 1926, future [Admiral](Fleet)(Fleet Admiral (United States)) [W. Nimitz](Chester)(Chester W. Nimitz) established the first [ROTC](Naval)(Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps) unit at Berkeley. Berkeley ROTC alumni include former Secretary of Defense [McNamara](Robert)(Robert McNamara), Army Chief of Staff [C. Weyand](Frederick)(Frederick C. Weyand), sixteen other [officers](general)(general officers in the United States), ten Navy [officer](flag)(flag officer)s, and AFROTC alumna Captain [Claiborne](Theresa)(Theresa Claiborne).
In the 1930s, [Orlando Lawrence](Ernest)(Ernest Lawrence) helped establish the Radiation Laboratory (now [Berkeley National Laboratory](Lawrence)(Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory)) and invented the [cyclotron](cyclotron), which won him the Nobel physics prize in 1939. Using the cyclotron, Berkeley professors and Berkeley Lab researchers went on to discover 16 [elements](chemical)(chemical elements)—more than any other university in the world. In particular, during World War II and following [Seaborg](Glenn)(Glenn T. Seaborg)'s then-secret discovery of plutonium, Lawrence's Radiation Laboratory began to contract with the U.S. Army to develop the atomic bomb. Physics professor [Robert Oppenheimer](J.)(Robert Oppenheimer) was named scientific head of the Manhattan Project in 1942. Along with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley founded and was then a partner in managing two other labs, [Alamos National Laboratory](Los)(Los Alamos National Laboratory) (1943) and [Livermore National Laboratory](Lawrence)(Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory) (1952).
In 1952, the [of California](University)(University of California) reorganized itself into a system of semi-autonomous campuses, with each campus given a chancellor, and [Kerr](Clark)(Clark Kerr) became Berkeley's first Chancellor, while [Sproul](Robert)(Robert Gordon Sproul) remained in place as the President of the University of California.
Berkeley gained a worldwide reputation for [activism](political)(1960s Berkeley protests) in the 1960s. AdmitSee|access-date=August 1, 2017}} In 1964, the [Speech Movement](Free)(Free Speech Movement) organized student resistance to the university's restrictions on political activities on campus—most conspicuously, student activities related to the [Rights Movement](Civil)(Civil Rights Movement). The arrest in Sproul Plaza of [Weinberg](Jack)(Jack Weinberg), a recent Berkeley alumnus and chair of Campus [CORE](Congress of Racial Equality), in October 1964, prompted a series of student-led acts of formal remonstrance and civil disobedience that ultimately gave rise to the Free Speech Movement, which movement would prevail and serve as a precedent for student [opposition](Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War) to America's involvement in the Vietnam War. Free Speech Movement 50th Anniversary|website=fsm.berkeley.edu|language=en-US|access-date=January 19, 2017}} Picture This|website=picturethis.museumca.org|language=en|access-date=January 19, 2017}}
In 1982, the [Sciences Research Institute](Mathematical)(Mathematical Sciences Research Institute) (MSRI) was established on campus with support from the [Science Foundation](National)(National Science Foundation) and at the request of three Berkeley mathematicians — [Chern](Shiing-Shen)(Shiing-Shen Chern), [Moore](Calvin)(Calvin C. Moore), and [M. Singer](Isadore)(Isadore Singer). The institute is now widely regarded as a leading center for collaborative mathematical research, drawing thousands of visiting researchers from around the world each year.
### 21st century
In the current century, compared to the 1960s and 70s, Berkeley has become less politically active, although more liberal. Democrats outnumber Republicans on the faculty by a ratio of nine to one, which is a ratio similar to that of American academia generally.
The school also has become more focused on [STEM](Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) disciplines and fundraising. In 2007, the [Biosciences Institute](Energy)(Energy Biosciences Institute) was established with funding from [BP](BP) and Stanley Hall, a research facility and headquarters for the [Institute for Quantitative Biosciences](California)(California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences), opened. The next few years saw the dedication of the Center for Biomedical and Health Sciences, funded by a lead gift from billionaire [Ka-shing](Li)(Li Ka-shing); the opening of Sutardja Dai Hall, home of the Center for Information Technology Research in the Interest of Society; and the unveiling of Blum Hall, housing the Blum Center for Developing Economies. Supported by a grant from alumnus [Simons](James)(James Simons), the [Institute for the Theory of Computing](Simons)(Simons Institute for the Theory of Computing) was established in 2012. In 2014, Berkeley and its sister campus, [UCSF](UCSF), established the Innovative Genomics Institute, and, in 2020, an anonymous donor pledged $252 million to help fund a new center for computing and data science. For the 2020 fiscal year, Berkeley set a fundraising record, receiving over $1 billion dollars in gifts and pledges, and two years later, it broke that record, raising over $1.2 billion.
## Organization and administration
Although the University of California system does not have an official [campus](flagship)(flagship campus), many scholars and experts consider Berkeley to be its unofficial flagship. In some cases, it shares this unofficial status with the [of California, Los Angeles](University)(University of California, Los Angeles).
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### Name
Officially the University of California, Berkeley, its name is often shortened to Berkeley in general reference or in an academic context (www.berkeley.edu, [Law](Berkeley)(UC Berkeley School of Law), [Engineering](Berkeley)(UC Berkeley College of Engineering), [Haas](Berkeley)(Haas School of Business), [Public Health](Berkeley)(UC Berkeley School of Public Health)) or to California or Cal, particularly when referring to its athletic teams ([Golden Bears](California)(California Golden Bears)).
### Governance
The University of California is governed by a 26-member [of Regents](Board)(Regents of the University of California), 18 of whom are appointed by the [of California](Governor)(Governor of California) to 12-year terms. The board also has seven *[officio](ex)(ex officio)* members, a student regent, and a non-voting student regent-designate. Prior to 1952, Berkeley was the University of California, so the university president was also Berkeley's chief executive. In 1952, the university reorganized itself into a system of semi-autonomous campuses, with each campus having its own chief executive, a chancellor, who would, in turn, report to the president of the university system. Twelve vice chancellors report directly to Berkeley's chancellor, and the deans of the 14 colleges and schools report to the executive vice chancellor and provost, Berkeley's chief academic officer.
Twenty-three presidents and chancellors have led Berkeley since its founding.
### Funding
Berkeley receives funding from a variety of federal, state, and private sources. With the exception of government contracts, public support is apportioned to Berkeley and the other campuses of the University of California system through the UC Office of the President and accounts for some 12 percent of Berkeley's total revenues. Berkeley has long benefited from private philanthropy, with considerable gifts from the Flood, Hearst, Durant, Strauss, Lick, Harmon, and Bacon families in the 19th century and from the Hearst, Doe, Sather, Rockefeller, Cowell, Haviland, Bowles, Boalt, and Stern families, among others, in the first half of the 20th century. More recently, alumni and their foundations have given to the university for operations and capital expenditures.
Berkeley has also benefited from benefactors beyond its alumni ranks, notable among which are [Zuckerberg](Mark)(Mark Zuckerberg) and [Chan](Priscilla)(Priscilla Chan) (pledged $600 million, shared with [UCSF](UCSF) and [University](Stanford)(Stanford University), to form the [Biohub](Biohub)); [Buterin](Vitalik)(Vitalik Buterin), [Collison](Patrick)(Patrick Collison), [Collison](John)(John Collison), the [Conway](Ron)(Ron Conway) family, Crankstart, Elad Gil and Jennifer Huang Gil, [Gross](Daniel)(Daniel Gross (software entrepreneur)), [Moskovitz](Dustin)(Dustin Moskovitz) and [Tuna](Cari)(Cari Tuna), and Hemant and Jessica Taneja, along with [Street](Jane)(Jane Street Capital) principals Matt Berger, Craig Falls, Rob Granieri, James McClave, and Adam Winkel, (pledged $650 million, shared with Stanford and UCSF, to form the Arc Institute); [BP](BP) (pledged $400 million to research biofuels); the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (over $73 million since the foundation's creation), billionaire [Li Ka-Shing](Sir)(Li Ka-Shing) (multiple gifts, most notably a $40 million gift in 2005), Israeli-Russian billionaire [Milner](Yuri)(Yuri Milner), [and Stacey Siebel](Thomas)(Thomas Siebel), [and Joan Weill](Sanford)(Sanford I. Weill), and professor [Rausser](Gordon)(Gordon Rausser) ($50 million gift in 2020). Several significant gifts have been made anonymously, including a 1999 gift of $50 million to support molecular engineering, a 2018 gift of $50 million to support STEM faculty, and a gift in 2020 of $252 million to support data science.
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The 2008–13 "Campaign for Berkeley" raised $3.13 billion from 281,855 donors, and the "Light the Way" campaign, scheduled to conclude at the end of 2023, has raised over $6.2 billion.
## Academics
[[File:Wheeler Hall, University of California, Berkeley.jpg|thumb|right|[Hall](Wheeler)(Wheeler Hall), home to Berkeley's largest lecture hall, was the location of a [Prize](Nobel)(Nobel Prize) conferral during [WWII](WWII).]]
[[File:Hearst_Mining_Building_-_Flickr_-_Joe_Parks.jpg|thumb|The interior of the [Mining Building](Hearst)(Hearst Memorial Mining Building), dedicated by [Hearst](Phoebe)(Phoebe Hearst) in honor of her late husband, [George](George Hearst).]]
Berkeley is a large, primarily residential Tier One research university with a majority of its enrollment in undergraduate programs but also offering a comprehensive doctoral program. The university has been [accredited](educational accreditation) by the [Association of Schools and Colleges](Western)(Western Association of Schools and Colleges) Senior College and University Commission since 1949. The university operates on a [calendar](semester)(Academic term) and awarded 8,725 bachelor's, 3,286 master's or professional and 1,272 doctoral degrees in 2018–2019.
The university's academic enterprise is organized into 14 colleges and schools, which, in turn, comprise 180 departments and 80 interdisciplinary units offering over 350 degree programs. Colleges serve both undergraduate and graduate students, while schools are generally graduate only, though some offer undergraduate majors or minors.
* [of Chemistry](College)(UC Berkeley College of Chemistry)
* [of Engineering](College)(UC Berkeley College of Engineering)
* [of Environmental Design](College)(UC Berkeley College of Environmental Design)
* [of Letters and Science](College)(UC Berkeley College of Letters and Science)
* [School of Public Policy](Goldman)(Goldman School of Public Policy)
* [School of Journalism](Graduate)(UC Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism)
* [School of Business](Haas)(Haas School of Business)
* [College of Natural Resources](Rausser)(UC Berkeley College of Natural Resources)
* [of Information](School)(UC Berkeley School of Information)
* [of Education](School)(UC Berkeley School of Education)
* [of Law](School)(UC Berkeley School of Law)
* [of Public Health](School)(UC Berkeley School of Public Health)
* [of Social Welfare](School)(UC Berkeley School of Social Welfare)
* [School of Optometry](Wertheim)(Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science)
* [Berkeley Extension](UC)(UC Berkeley Extension) (currently has two locations, in downtown [Berkeley](Berkeley, California) and downtown [Francisco](San)(San Francisco)).
### Undergraduate programs
[[File:UCB_Doe_Memorial_Library_oblique_view_dllu.jpg|thumb|[Memorial Library](Doe)(Doe Memorial Library) is Berkeley's main library]]
The four-year, full-time undergraduate program offers 107 bachelor's degrees across the Haas School of Business (1), College of Chemistry (5), College of Engineering (20), College of Environmental Design (4), College of Letters and Science (67), Rausser College of Natural Resources (10), and individual majors (2). The most popular majors are [engineering and computer sciences](electrical)(Computer science and engineering), [science](political)(political science), [molecular](Molecular biology) and [biology](cell)(cell biology), [science](environmental)(environmental science), and [economics](economics).
Requirements for undergraduate degrees are set by four authorities: the University of California system, the Berkeley campus, the college or school, and the department. These requirements include an entry-level writing requirement before enrollment (typically fulfilled by minimum scores on standardized admissions exams such as the SAT or ACT), completing coursework on "American History and Institutions" before or after enrollment by taking an introductory class, passing an "American Cultures Breadth" class at Berkeley, as well as requirements for reading and composition and specific requirements declared by the department and school. Three-hour final examinations are required in most undergraduate classes and take place over a week following the last day of instruction in mid-December for the Fall semester and in mid-May for the Spring semester. [grades](Academic)(Academic grading in the United States) are reported on a four-point, five-letter scale (A through F) with grade points being modified by three-tenths of point for pluses and minuses, save for the A+, which carries just four points. Requirements for [honors](academic)(Latin honors) are specified by individual schools and colleges, scholarly prizes are typically awarded by departments, and students are elected to honor societies based on these organizations' criteria.
### Graduate and professional programs
[[File:Haas_School_of_Business_central_courtyard.JPG|thumb|The [School of Business](Haas)(Haas School of Business) offers both graduate and undergraduate degrees]]
Berkeley has a "comprehensive" graduate program, with high coexistence with the programs offered to undergraduates, and offers interdisciplinary graduate programs with the medical schools at UCSF (various masters and doctoral) and Stanford (MD/MPH). The university offers [of Arts](Master)(Master of Arts), [of Science](Master)(Master of Science), [of Fine Arts](Master)(Master of Fine Arts), and [PhD](PhD) degrees in addition to professional degrees such as the [Doctor](Juris)(Juris Doctor), [of Business Administration](Master)(Master of Business Administration), [of Public Health](Master)(Master of Public Health), and [of Design](Master)(Master of Design). The university awarded 963 doctoral degrees and 3,531 master's degrees in 2017. Admission to graduate programs is decentralized; applicants apply directly to the department or degree program. Most graduate students are supported by fellowships, teaching assistantships, or research assistantships.
### Faculty and research
Berkeley is [classified](Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education) among "R1: Doctoral Universities—Very high research activity". In fiscal year 2021, Berkeley's funding for research and development exceeded $1 billion. There are 1,789 full-time and 886 part-time faculty members among more than 130 academic departments and more than 80 interdisciplinary research units. The current faculty includes 262 [Academy of Arts and Sciences](American)(American Academy of Arts and Sciences) Fellows, three Fields Medalists, 77 [Scholars](Fulbright)(Fulbright Scholars), 139 [Fellows](Guggenheim)(Guggenheim Fellows), 90 members of the [Academy of Engineering](National)(National Academy of Engineering), 144 members of the [Academy of Sciences](National)(United States National Academy of Sciences), ten Nobel Prize winners, four Pulitzer Prize winners, 125 [Fellows](Sloan)(Sloan Fellows), 8 Wolf Prize winners and 1 [Prize](Pritzker)(Pritzker Prize) winner.
### Library system
[[File:Berkeley T-rex - Flickr - Joe Parks.jpg|thumb|The on-campus [of California Museum of Paleontology](University)(University of California Museum of Paleontology) hosts a [replica](life-size)(Replica) of a [T-rex](T-rex).]]
Berkeley's 32 libraries together contain more than 13 million volumes and cover over 12 acres (4.9 ha) of land, forming the fourth largest collegiate library system in the nation. [Library](Doe)(Doe Memorial Library) serves as the library system's reference, periodical, and administrative center, while most of the main collections reside in the subterranean Gardner Main Stacks and Moffitt Undergraduate Library. The [Library](Bancroft)(Bancroft Library), which has over 400,000 printed volumes and 70 million manuscripts, pictures, and maps, maintains special collections that document the history of the western part of North America, with an emphasis on California, Mexico and Central America. The Bancroft Library also houses the Mark Twain Papers, the Oral History Center, the Center for the Tebtunis Papyri and the University Archives.
### Rankings
#### National
* The 2018–19 *[for World University Rankings](Center)(Center for World University Rankings)* (CWUR) rated Berkeley the top public university in the nation and 4th overall based on quality of education, alumni employment, quality of faculty, publications, influence, and citations.
* In 2014, *[Daily Beast](The)(The Daily Beast)* Best Colleges report ranked Berkeley 11th in the country.
* In its 2022 list of [top colleges](America's)(America's Top Colleges), *[Forbes](Forbes)* rated Berkeley the best public school and 2nd overall.
* For 2015 *[Kiplinger](Kiplinger)* ranked Berkeley the 4th best-value public university in the nation for in-state students, and 6th for out-of-state students.
* The *[Magazine](Money)(Money (magazine))* Best Colleges ranking for 2015 ranked Berkeley 9th in the United States, based on educational quality, affordability and alumni earnings.
* For 2021, [*QS*](Quacquarelli Symonds) "World University Rankings: USA" placed Berkeley 4th among all US universities and 1st among publics.
* The 2013 *Top American Research Universities* report by the [for Measuring University Performance](Center)(Center for Measuring University Performance) ranked Berkeley 8th overall, 5th in resources, faculty, and education, 9th in resources and education, and 1st in education.
* In the 2022-2023 *[News & World Report](U.S.)(U.S. News & World Report)* national university rankings, Berkeley was the top public school and 20th overall.
* *[Monthly](Washington)(Washington Monthly)* ranked Berkeley the top public school and 9th among all national universities in 2022, with criteria based on research, community service, and social mobility.
#### Global
* For 2020–21, the *Center for World University Rankings (CWUR)* ranked the university 12th in the world based on quality of education, alumni employment, quality of faculty, and research performance.
* In 2017, the [Index](Nature)(Nature Index) ranked the university the 9th largest contributor to papers published in 82 leading journals.
#### Past rankings
In his memoirs, Clark Kerr records Berkeley's rise in the rankings (according to the [Academies](National)(National academies)) during the 20th century. The school's first ranking in 1906 placed it among the top six schools ("Big Six") in the nation. In 1934 it ranked second, tied with [Columbia](Columbia University) and the [of Chicago](University)(University of Chicago), behind only [Harvard](Harvard University); in 1957 it was ranked as the only school second to Harvard. In 1964 Berkeley was named the "best balanced distinguished university", meaning the school had not only the most top departments but also the highest percentage of top ranking departments in its school. The school in 1993 was the only remaining member of the original 1906 "Big Six", along with Harvard; in that year Berkeley ranked first.
The [Council on Education](American)(American Council on Education), a private non-profit association, ranked Berkeley tenth in 1934. However, by 1942, private funding had helped Berkeley rise to second place, behind only Harvard, based on the number of distinguished departments.
Since its inaugural 1990 reputational survey, *[Higher Education](Times)(Times Higher Education)* has considered Berkeley to be one of the world's "six super brands" along with [Oxford](University of Oxford), [Cambridge](University of Cambridge), Harvard, MIT, and Stanford.
Berkeley was the #1 recipient of [Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowships](National)(NSF-GRF) between 2001 and 2010, with 1,333 awards.
The 2010 [States National Research Council Rankings](United)(United States National Research Council Rankings) identified Berkeley as having the highest number of top-ranked doctoral programs in the nation. Berkeley doctoral programs that received a #1 ranking included English, German, Political Science, Geography, Agricultural and Resource Economics, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Genetics, Genomics, Epidemiology, Plant Biology, Computer Science, Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Civil and Environmental Engineering.
### Admissions and enrollment
For Fall 2022, Berkeley's total enrollment was 45,745: 32,831 undergraduate and 12,914 graduate students, with women accounting for 56 percent of undergraduates and 49 percent of graduate and professional students. It had 128,226 freshman applicants and accepted 14,614 or 11.4%. Among enrolled freshman, the average unweighted GPA was 3.90.
Berkeley students are eligible for a variety of public and private financial aid. Generally, financial aid inquiries are processed through the Financial Aid and Scholarships Office, although some schools, such as the Haas School of Business and [Law](Berkeley)(UC Berkeley School of Law), have their own financial aid offices. Berkeley's enrollment of [Merit Scholars](National)(National Merit Scholarship Program) was third in the nation until 2002, when participation in the National Merit program was discontinued. For 2019, Berkeley ranked fourth in enrollment of recipients of the [Merit $2,500 Scholarship](National)(National Merit Scholarship Program) (132 scholars). Twenty-seven percent of admitted students receive federal [grant](Pell)(Pell grant)s.
## Discoveries and innovation
[[File:Unix history-simple.svg|thumb|alt=A simple flow chart showing the history and timeline of the development of Unix starting with one bubble at the top and 13 tributaries at the bottom of the flow |Simplified evolution of [Unix](Unix) systems and [BSD](BSD) [forks](Fork (software development))]]
A number of significant inventions and discoveries have been made by Berkeley faculty members and researchers:
### Natural sciences
* [bomb](Atomic)(Atomic bomb) – Physics professor [Robert Oppenheimer](J.)(J. Robert Oppenheimer) was wartime director of [Alamos National Laboratory](Los)(Los Alamos National Laboratory) and the [Project](Manhattan)(Manhattan Project).
* [14](Carbon)(Carbon-14) and [photosynthesis](photosynthesis) – [Kamen](Martin)(Martin Kamen) and [Ruben](Sam)(Sam Ruben) first discovered carbon 14 in 1940, and Nobel laureate [Calvin](Melvin)(Melvin Calvin) and his colleagues used carbon 14 as a molecular tracer to reveal the carbon assimilation path in photosynthesis, known as [cycle](Calvin)(Light-independent reactions).
* [Carcinogens](Carcinogens) – Identified chemicals that damage DNA. The [test](Ames)(Ames test) was described in a series of papers in 1973 by [Ames](Bruce)(Bruce Ames) and his group at the university.
* [element](Chemical)(Chemical element)s – 16 elements have been discovered at Berkeley ([technetium](technetium), [astatine](astatine), [neptunium](neptunium), [plutonium](plutonium), [americium](americium), [curium](curium), [berkelium](berkelium), [californium](californium), [einsteinium](einsteinium), [fermium](fermium), [mendelevium](mendelevium), [nobelium](nobelium), [lawrencium](lawrencium), [rutherfordium](rutherfordium), [dubnium](dubnium), and [seaborgium](seaborgium)).
* [bond](Covalent)(Covalent bond) – [N. Lewis](Gilbert)(Gilbert N. Lewis) in 1916 described the sharing of electron pairs between atoms, and invented the Lewis notation to describe the mechanisms.
* [gene editing](CRISPR)(CRISPR) – Nobel laureate [Doudna](Jennifer)(Jennifer Doudna) discovers a precise and inexpensive way for manipulating DNA in human cells.
* [Cyclotron](Cyclotron) – [O. Lawrence](Ernest)(Ernest O. Lawrence) created a [accelerator](particle)(particle accelerator) in 1934, and was awarded the Nobel Physics Prize in 1939.
* [energy](Dark)(Dark energy) – [Perlmutter](Saul)(Saul Perlmutter) and many others in the [Cosmology Project](Supernova)(Supernova Cosmology Project) discover the universe is expanding because of dark energy 1998.
* [vaccine](Flu)(Flu vaccination) – [M. Stanley](Wendell)(Wendell M. Stanley) and colleagues discovered the vaccine in the 1940s.
* [bomb](Hydrogen)(Thermonuclear weapon) – [Teller](Edward)(Edward Teller), the father of hydrogen bomb, was a professor at Berkeley and a researcher at the [Livermore National Laboratory](Lawrence)(Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory) and the [Alamos National Laboratory](Los)(Los Alamos National Laboratory).
* [of cancer](Immunotherapy)(Immunotherapy of cancer) – [P. Allison](James)(James P. Allison) discovers and develops [antibody therapy](monoclonal)(monoclonal antibody therapy) that uses the immune system to combat cancer 1992–1995.
* [clock](Molecular)(Molecular clock) – [Wilson](Allan)(Allan Wilson (biologist)) discovery in 1967.
* [Neuroplasticity](Neuroplasticity) – [Diamond](Marian)(Marian Diamond) discovers structural, biochemical, and synaptic changes in brain caused by environmental enrichment 1964
* [Oncogene](Oncogene) – [Duesberg](Peter)(Peter Duesberg) discovers first cancer causing gene in a virus 1970s.
* [Telomerase](Telomerase) – [H. Blackburn](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth H. Blackburn), [Greider](Carol)(Carol Greider), and [Szostak](Jack)(Jack Szostak) discover enzyme that promotes cell division and growth 1985.
* [E](Vitamin)(Vitamin E) – [Anderson Emerson](Gladys)(Gladys Anderson Emerson) isolates Vitamin E in a pure form in 1952.
### Computer and applied sciences
* [RISC](Berkeley)(Berkeley RISC) – [Patterson](David)(David Patterson (computer scientist)) leads [ARPA](DARPA)'s [project](VLSI)(VLSI project) of [microprocessor](microprocessor) design 1980–1984.
* [UNIX/Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD)](Berkeley)(Berkeley UNIX) – The [Systems Research Group](Computer)(Computer Systems Research Group) was a research group at Berkeley that was dedicated to enhancing [AT&T](Old AT&T) [Unix](Unix) [system](operating)(operating system) and funded by [Advanced Research Projects Agency](Defense)(Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency). [Joy](Bill)(Bill Joy) modified the code and released it in 1977 under the [source](open)(open-source license) [license](BSD)(BSD license), starting an open-source revolution.
* [sea diving](Deep)(Deep sea diving) – [Henry Hildebrand](Joel)(Joel Henry Hildebrand) used [helium](helium) with [oxygen](oxygen) to mitigate [sickness](decompression)(decompression sickness).
* [GIMP](GIMP) – In 1995, [Kimball](Spencer)(Spencer Kimball (computer programmer)) and [Mattis](Peter)(Peter Mattis) began developing GIMP as a semester-long project at Berkeley.
* [Polygraph](Polygraph) – invented by [Augustus Larson](John)(John Augustus Larson) and a police officer from the [Police Department](Berkeley)(Berkeley Police Department) in 1921.
* [Genie](Project)(Project Genie) – [DARPA](DARPA) funded project. It produced an early [time-sharing](time-sharing) system including the [Timesharing System](Berkeley)(Berkeley Timesharing System), which was then commercialized as the [940](SDS)(SDS 940). Concepts from Project Genie influenced the development of the [TENEX](TENEX (operating system)) operating system for the [PDP-10](PDP-10), and [Unix](Unix), which inherited the concept of [forking](process)(Fork (system call)) from it. Unix co-creator [Thompson](Ken)(Ken Thompson (computer programmer)) worked on Project Genie while at Berkeley.
* [SPICE](SPICE) – [O. Pederson](Donald)(Donald O. Pederson) develops the Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis (SPICE) 1972.
* [programming language](Tcl)(Tcl programming language) – developed by [Ousterhout](John)(John Ousterhout) in 1988.
* Three-dimensional [Transistor](Transistor) – [Hu](Chenming)(Chenming Hu) won the 2014 [Medal of Technology](National)(National Medal of Technology) for developing the "first 3-dimensional transistors, which radically advanced semiconductor technology".
* [Vi](Vi) text editor – [Joy](Bill)(Bill Joy) created the first Vi editor in 1976.
* [Wetsuit](Wetsuit) – [Bradner](Hugh)(Hugh Bradner) invents first wetsuit 1952.
### Companies and entrepreneurship
Berkeley alumni and faculty have founded many companies, some of which are shown below. Research UC Berkeley|website=vcresearch.berkeley.edu|language=en|access-date=November 11, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190716031859/https://vcresearch.berkeley.edu/excellence/innovation-and-entrepreneurship|archive-date=July 16, 2019|url-status=dead}} Berkeley has often been cited as one of the universities that have produced most entrepreneurs, and boasts its own [incubator](startup)(startup incubator), [SkyDeck](Berkeley)(Berkeley SkyDeck). The Daily Californian|date=August 18, 2013|work=The Daily Californian|access-date=November 23, 2017|language=en-US}}
* [Blizzard](Activision)(Activision Blizzard), 1979 (as [Activision](Activision)), co-founder [Miller](Alan)(Alan Miller (game designer)) (BS) and [Kaplan](Larry)(Larry Kaplan) (BA)
* [AIG](American International Group), 1919, founder [Vander Starr](Cornelius)(Cornelius Vander Starr) (Attended)
* [Apple](Apple Inc.), 1976, co-founder [Wozniak](Steve)(Steve Wozniak) (BS)
* [Entertainment](Chernin)(Chernin Entertainment), 2009, founder [Chernin](Peter)(Peter Chernin) (BA)
* [Coursera](Coursera), 2012, co-founder [Ng](Andrew)(Andrew Ng) (PhD)
* [eBay](eBay), 1995, founder [Omidyar](Pierre)(Pierre Omidyar) (Attended)
* [Inc.](Gap)(Gap Inc.), 1969, co-founder [Fisher](Donald)(Donald Fisher) (BS)
* [Corporation](HTC)(HTC), 1997, co-founder [Wang](Cher)(Cher Wang) (BA)
* [Intel](Intel), 1968, co-founders [Moore](Gordon)(Gordon Moore) (BS) and [Grove](Andy)(Andrew Grove) (PhD)
* [Technology Group](Marvell)(Marvell Technology Group), 1995, co-founders [Sutardja](Sehat)(Sehat Sutardja) (MS, PhD) and [Dai](Weili)(Weili Dai) (BA)
* [Stanley](Morgan)(Morgan Stanley), 1924 (as [Witter & Co.](Dean)(Dean Witter & Co.)), co-founder [G. Witter](Dean)(Dean G. Witter) (BA)
* [Corporation](Mozilla)(Mozilla Corporation), 2005, co-founder [Baker](Mitchell)(Mitchell Baker) (BA, JD)
* [Myspace](Myspace), 2003, co-founder [Anderson](Tom)(Tom Anderson) (BA)
* [Technologies](Renaissance)(Renaissance Technologies), 1982, founder [Simons](James)(James Harris Simons) (PhD)
* [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), 1998, founders Senh Duong (BA), Patrick Y. Lee (BA) and Stephen Wang (BA)
* [SanDisk](SanDisk), 1988, co-founder [Mehrotra](Sanjay)(Sanjay Mehrotra) (BS, MS)
* [Softbank](SoftBank Group), 1981, founder [Son](Masayoshi)(Masayoshi Son) (BA)
* [Microsystems](Sun)(Sun Microsystems), 1982, co-founder [Joy](Bill)(Bill Joy) (MS)
* [Tesla](Tesla, Inc.), 2003, co-founder [Tarpenning](Marc)(Marc Tarpenning) (BS)
* [VMware](VMware), 1998, co-founders [Greene](Diane)(Diane Greene) (MS) and [Rosenblum](Mendel)(Mendel Rosenblum) (PhD)
## Campus
[[File:Sather_Gate_at_University_of_California,_Berkeley,_California_LCCN2013633500_(edited).jpg|thumb|[Gate](Sather)(Sather Gate), connecting [Plaza](Sproul)(Sproul Plaza) to the inner campus, was a center of the [Speech Movement](Free)(Free Speech Movement).]]
The Berkeley campus encompasses approximately , though the "central campus" occupies only the low-lying western of this area. Of the remaining acres, approximately are occupied by the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; other facilities above the main campus include the [Hall of Science](Lawrence)(Lawrence Hall of Science) and several research units, notably the [Sciences Laboratory](Space)(Space Sciences Laboratory), the [Sciences Research Institute](Mathematical)(Mathematical Sciences Research Institute), an ecological preserve, the [of California Botanical Garden](University)(University of California Botanical Garden) and a recreation center in Strawberry Canyon. Portions of the mostly undeveloped, eastern area of the campus are actually within the [of Oakland](City)(Oakland, California); these portions extend from the [Resort](Claremont)(Claremont Resort) north through the [Hill](Panoramic)(Panoramic Hill, Oakland/Berkeley, California) neighborhood to [Park](Tilden)(Tilden Regional Park).
[[File:Bancroft_Library_-_University_of_California,_Berkeley_-_DSC04902.JPG|thumb|[Library](Bancroft)(Bancroft Library), Berkeley's primary special-collections library]]
To the west of the central campus is the [business district of Berkeley](downtown)(Downtown Berkeley, California); to the northwest is the neighborhood of North Berkeley, including the so-called [Ghetto](Gourmet)(Gourmet ghetto), a commercial district known for high quality dining due to the presence of such world-renowned restaurants as [Panisse](Chez)(Chez Panisse). Immediately to the north is a quiet residential neighborhood known as [Northside](Northside, Berkeley, California) with a large graduate student population; situated north of that are the upscale residential neighborhoods of the [Hills](Berkeley)(Berkeley Hills). Immediately southeast of campus lies fraternity row and beyond that the [Kerr Campus](Clark)(Clark Kerr Campus) and an upscale residential area named [Claremont](Claremont, Oakland/Berkeley, California). The [south of the university](area)(Southside, Berkeley, California) includes student housing and [Avenue](Telegraph)(Telegraph Avenue), one of Berkeley's main shopping districts with stores, street vendors and restaurants catering to college students and tourists. In addition, the university also owns land to the northwest of the main campus, a married student housing complex in the nearby town of Albany ("Albany Village" and the "Gill Tract"), and a [research station](field)(Berkeley Global Campus at Richmond Bay) several miles to the north in [California](Richmond,)(Richmond, California).
[[File:Botanischer_Garten_in_Berkeley,_California.JPG|thumb| The [Botanical Garden](UC)(UC Botanical Garden), located in the [Hills](Berkeley)(Berkeley Hills) and by the [Lab](Berkeley)(Berkeley Lab).]]
The campus is home to several museums including the [of California Museum of Paleontology](University)(University of California Museum of Paleontology), the [Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive](Berkeley)(Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive), and the [Hall of Science](Lawrence)(Lawrence Hall of Science). The Museum of Paleontology, found in the lobby of the Valley Life Sciences Building, showcases a variety of dinosaur fossils including a complete cast of a Tyrannosaurus Rex. The campus also offers resources for innovation and entrepreneurship, such as the Big Ideas Competition (Blum Center for Developing Economies), SkyDeck, the Sutardja Center for Entrepreneurship and Technology, and the Berkeley Haas Innovation Lab. Research UC Berkeley|website=vcresearch.berkeley.edu|access-date=2019-04-14}} The campus is also home to the [of California Botanical Garden](University)(University of California Botanical Garden), one of the most diverse plant collections in the United States, famous for its large number of rare and endangered species, with more than 12,000 individual species.
Outside of the Bay Area, the university owns various research laboratories and research forests in both northern and southern Sierra Nevada.
### Architecture
[[File:South Hall--UC Berkeley--Panoramic.jpg|thumb|[Hall](South)(South Hall (UC Berkeley)) (1873), one of the two original buildings of the University of California, still stands on the Berkeley campus]]
What is considered the historic campus today was the result of the 1898 "International Competition for the [Hearst](Phoebe)(Phoebe Hearst) Architectural Plan for the University of California", funded by [Randolph Hearst](William)(William Randolph Hearst)'s mother and initially held in the Belgian city of [Antwerp](Antwerp); eleven finalists were judged again in San Francisco in 1899. The winner was Frenchman [Bénard](Émile)(Émile Bénard), who refused to personally supervise the implementation of his plan and the task was subsequently given to architecture professor [Galen Howard](John)(John Galen Howard). Howard designed over twenty buildings, which set the tone for the campus up until its expansion in the 1950s and 1960s. The structures forming the "classical core" of the campus were built in the [Beaux-Arts](Beaux-Arts architecture) Classical style, and include [Greek Theatre](Hearst)(Hearst Greek Theatre), [Memorial Mining Building](Hearst)(Hearst Memorial Mining Building), [Memorial Library](Doe)(Doe Memorial Library), California Hall, [Hall](Wheeler)(Wheeler Hall), (Old) Le Conte Hall, Gilman Hall, Haviland Hall, Wellman Hall, [Gate](Sather)(Sather Gate), and the [Tower](Sather)(Sather Tower) (nicknamed "the Campanile" after its architectural inspiration, [Mark's Campanile](St)(St Mark's Campanile) in Venice), the tallest university clock tower in the United States. Buildings he regarded as temporary, nonacademic, or not particularly "serious" were designed in shingle or [Gothic](Collegiate)(Collegiate Gothic in North America) styles; examples of these are North Gate Hall, Dwinelle Annex, and Stephens Hall. Many of Howard's designs are recognized [Historical Landmark](California)(California Historical Landmark)s and are listed on the [Register of Historic Places](National)(National Register of Historic Places).
Built in 1873 in a [Victorian](Victorian architecture) [Second-Empire-style](Second Empire architecture), South Hall, designed by David Farquharson, is the oldest university building in California. It, and the [Law Olmsted](Frederick)(Frederick Law Olmsted)-designed [Avenue](Piedmont)(Piedmont Avenue (Berkeley)) east of the main campus, are two of the only surviving examples of the nineteenth-century campus. Other notable architects and firms whose work can be found in the campus and surrounding area are [Maybeck](Bernard)(Bernard Maybeck) (Faculty Club); [Morgan](Julia)(Julia Morgan) (Hearst Women's Gymnasium and [Morgan Hall](Julia)(Julia Morgan Hall)); [Wurster](William)(William Wurster) (Stern Hall); Moore Ruble Yudell (Haas School of Business); [Williams Billie Tsien Architects](Tod)(Tod Williams Billie Tsien Architects) (C.V. Starr East Asian Library), and [Scofidio + Renfro](Diller)(Diller Scofidio + Renfro) (Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive).
### Natural features
[[File:Strawberry Creek near Dwinelle Hall.jpg|thumb| The south fork of [Creek](Strawberry)(Strawberry Creek), as seen between Dwinelle Hall and [Sproul Plaza](Lower)(Sproul Plaza#Lower Sproul).]]
Flowing into the main campus are two branches of [Creek](Strawberry)(Strawberry Creek). The south fork enters a culvert upstream of the recreational complex at the mouth of Strawberry Canyon and passes beneath [Memorial Stadium](California)(California Memorial Stadium) before appearing again in Faculty Glade. It then runs through the center of the campus before disappearing underground at the west end of campus. The north fork appears just east of [House](University)(University House, Berkeley) and runs through the glade north of the Valley Life Sciences Building, the original site of the Campus Arboretum.
Trees in the area date from the founding of the university. The campus features numerous wooded areas, including: [Rock](Founders')(Founders' Rock), Faculty Glade, Grinnell Natural Area, and the [Eucalyptus](Eucalyptus) Grove, which is both the tallest stand of such trees in the world and the tallest stand of hardwood trees in North America.
The campus sits on the [Fault](Hayward)(Hayward Fault), which runs directly through California Memorial Stadium.
## Student life and traditions
[[File:Cal Football From Tightwad Hill - Flickr - Joe Parks.jpg|thumb|Fans atop [Hill](Tightwad)(Tightwad Hill) watch the [Band](Cal)(Cal Band), with views of the [stadium](California Memorial Stadium) and the [Francisco Bay](San)(San Francisco Bay).]]
The official university mascot is [the Bear](Oski)(Oski (mascot)), who debuted in 1941. Previously, live bear cubs were used as mascots at Memorial Stadium until it was decided in 1940 that a costumed mascot would be a better alternative. Named after the [Oski-wow-wow](The Oski Yell) yell, he is cared for by the Oski Committee, whose members have exclusive knowledge of the identity of the costume-wearer.
The [of California Marching Band](University)(University of California Marching Band), which has served the university since 1891, performs at every home football game and at select road games as well. A smaller subset of the Cal Band, the Straw Hat Band, performs at basketball games, volleyball games, and other campus and community events.
The UC Rally Committee, formed in 1901, is the official guardian of California's Spirit and Traditions. Wearing their traditional blue and gold rugbies, Rally Committee members can be seen at all major sporting and spirit events. Committee members are charged with the maintenance of the six Cal flags, the large California banner overhanging the Memorial Stadium Student Section and [Pavilion](Haas)(Haas Pavilion), the California Victory Cannon, Card Stunts and [Big "C"](The)(The Big "C") among other duties. The Rally Committee is also responsible for safekeeping of the [Axe](Stanford)(Stanford Axe) when it is in Cal's possession. The Chairman of the Rally Committee holds the title "Custodian of the Axe" while it is in the committee's care.
Overlooking the main Berkeley campus from the foothills in the east, The Big "C" is an important symbol of California school spirit. The Big "C" has its roots in an early 20th-century campus event called "Rush", which pitted the freshman and sophomore classes against each other in a race up Charter Hill that often developed into a wrestling match. It was eventually decided to discontinue Rush and, in 1905, the freshman and sophomore classes banded together in a show of unity to build "the Big C". Owing to its prominent position, the Big "C" is often the target of pranks by rival [University](Stanford)(Stanford University) students who paint the Big "C" red and also fraternities and sororities who paint it their organization's colors. One of the Rally Committee's functions is to repaint the Big "C" to its traditional color of King Alfred Yellow.
Cal students invented the college football tradition of [stunts](card)(card stunts). Then known as Bleacher Stunts, they were first performed during the 1910 [Game](Big)(Big Game (football)) and consisted of two stunts: a picture of the Stanford Axe and a large blue "C" on a white background. The tradition is continued today by the Rally Committee in the Cal [section](student)(student section) and incorporates complicated motions, for example tracing the Cal script logo on a blue background with an imaginary yellow pen.
The California Victory Cannon, placed on [Hill](Tightwad)(Tightwad Hill) overlooking the stadium, is fired before every football home game, after every score, and after every Cal victory. First used in the 1963 Big Game, it was originally placed on the sidelines before moving to Tightwad Hill in 1971. The only time the cannon ran out of ammunition was during a game against [Pacific](University of the Pacific (United States)) in 1991, when Cal scored 12 touchdowns.
The Cal Mic Men, a standard at home football games, has recently expanded to involve basketball and volleyball. The traditional role comes from students holding megaphones and yelling, but now includes microphones, a dedicated platform during games, and the direction of the entire student section. Both men and women are allowed to fulfill the role, despite the name.
### Student housing
Berkeley students are offered a variety of housing options, including university-owned or affiliated residences, private residences, fraternities and sororities, and cooperative housing (co-ops).
#### University housing
[[File:I-House Berkeley front.jpg|alt=|thumb|The [House](International)(International House Berkeley) was opened in 1930 with the funding of [D. Rockefeller Jr.](John)(John D. Rockefeller Jr.)]]
The university runs twelve different residence halls: seven undergraduate residence halls or complexes, both with and without themes; family student housing; re-entry student housing; and optional international student housing at the [House](International)(International House Berkeley), built with a gift from [D. Rockefeller Jr.](John)(John D. Rockefeller Jr.) and the erstwhile home of six Nobel laureates. Undergraduate residence halls are located off-campus in the city of Berkeley. Units 1, 2 and 3, located on the south side of campus, offer [high-rise](high-rise) accommodations with common areas on every other floor. Units 1 and 2 share a common dining hall, Crossroads. The oldest unit, Unit 3, has its own dining hall, Café 3, on the first floor. At the beginning of the 2018–2019 school year, a new building called Blackwell Hall, was opened across the street from Unit 3. These buildings share a dining hall. Further away and also on the south side of campus is Clark Kerr, an undergraduate residential complex that houses many student athletes and was once a school for the deaf and blind.
In the foothills east of the central campus, there are three additional undergraduate residence halls: Foothill, Stern, and Bowles. Foothill is a co-ed, suite-style hall reminiscent of a Swiss chalet. Just south of Foothill, overlooking the Hearst Greek Theatre, is the all-women's traditional-style [Hall](Stern)(Stern Hall (Berkeley)), which boasts an original mural by [Rivera](Diego)(Diego Rivera). Because of their proximity to the [of Engineering](College)(UC Berkeley College of Engineering) and [of Chemistry](College)(UC Berkeley College of Chemistry), these residence halls often house science and engineering majors. They tend to be quieter than the southside complexes but often get free glimpses of concerts owing to their proximity to the theater.
[[File:Bowles_Residential_Hall_(UC_Berkeley)_(2016).jpg|thumb|[Hall](Bowles)(Bowles Hall), a co-ed [college](residential)(residential college), neighbors the [Greek Theatre](Hearst)(Hearst Greek Theatre).]]
[Hall](Bowles)(Bowles Hall), the country's oldest residential college, is located on the north side of campus between California Memorial Stadium and the Hearst Greek Theater. Gifted by Mary McNear Bowles in 1929 to honor her late husband, Regent Philip E. Bowles, the college began as a student-governed residence hall. The hall was originally all male until its reopening in 2016 following a $45 million renovation. Bowles is known for its [Gothic](Collegiate)(Collegiate Gothic) architecture, its sense of community, and its unusual traditions and pranks.
The Channing-Bowditch and Ida Jackson apartments cater to re-entry students, while the 58-acre [Village](University)(UC Village), located some northwest of campus, provides housing for students with families.
#### Cooperative housing
Berkeley students, and those of other local schools, have the option of living in one of the twenty cooperative houses participating in the Berkeley Student Cooperative (BSC), a [nonprofit](nonprofit) [cooperative](housing)(housing cooperative) network consisting of 20 residences and 1250 member-owners. Notable BCS alumni include [Mineta](Norman)(Norman Mineta), [Wozniak](Steve)(Steve Wozniak), [Moore](Gordon)(Gordon Moore), [Huggins](Nathan)(Nathan Huggins), [Nestle](Marion)(Marion Nestle), and [Cleary](Beverly)(Beverly Cleary). Notable co-ops include [Court Hotel](Cloyne)(Cloyne Court Hotel), [Hall](Stebbins)(Stebbins Hall), [Hall](Kingman)(Kingman Hall), [Zimbabwe](Casa)(Casa Zimbabwe), [Lothlorien](Lothlorien (co-op)), and [Village](Rochdale)(Rochdale Village (Berkeley, California)).
#### Fraternities and sororities
About three percent of undergraduate men and nine percent of undergraduate women—or 3,400 of total undergraduates—are active in Berkeley's Greek system. University-sanctioned fraternities and sororities comprise over 60 houses affiliated with four Greek councils.
### Student-run organizations
#### Associated Students of the University of California (ASUC)
[[Room.jpg|thumb|Wellness Room sleep pods: part of a program created by the ASUC, UC Berkeley's official student association](File:Wellness)]
The [Students of the University of California](Associated)(Associated Students of the University of California) (ASUC) is the official [association](student)(student association) that controls funding for student groups and organizes on-campus student events. It is considered the most autonomous student government at any university in the U.S. due to its independent funding model, level of university involvement and resources. The two main political parties are "Student Action" and "CalSERVE". The organization was founded in 1887 and has an annual operating budget of $1.7 million (excluding the budget of the Graduate Assembly of the ASUC), in addition to various investment assets. Its alumni include multiple State Senators, Assemblymembers, and White House Administration officials.[Students of the University of California#List of executive officers](Associated)(Associated Students of the University of California#List of executive officers)
The ASUC's Student Union Program, Entertainment, and Recreation Board (SUPERB) is a student-run, non-profit branch dedicated to providing entertainment for the campus and community. Founded in 1964, SUPERB's programming includes the Friday Film Series, free Noon Concerts on Lower Sproul Plaza, Comedy Competitions, Poker Tournaments, free Sneak Previews of upcoming movies, and more.
#### Media and publications
Berkeley's student-run online television station, [CalTV](CalTV), was formed in 2005 and broadcasts online. It is run by students with a variety of backgrounds and majors. Since the mid-2010s, it has been a program of the [ASUC](Associated Students of the University of California).
Berkeley's independent student-run newspaper is *[Daily Californian](The)(The Daily Californian)*. Founded in 1871, *The Daily Cal* became independent in 1971 after the campus administration fired three senior editors for encouraging readers to take back [Park](People's)(People's Park (Berkeley)). The Daily Californian has both a print and online edition. Print circulation is about 10,000. The newspaper is an important source of information for students, faculty, staff, and the surrounding City of Berkeley.
Berkeley's FM [radio station](Student)(Student radio station), [KALX](KALX), broadcasts on 90.7 MHz. It is run largely by volunteers, including both students and community members.
Berkeley also features an assortment of student-run publications:
* *[Law Review](California)(California Law Review)*, [journal](law)(law journal) published by [Law](Berkeley)(UC Berkeley School of Law), est. 1912.
* *[Fiction Review](Berkeley)(Berkeley Fiction Review)*, American [magazine](literary)(literary magazine), est. 1981.
* *[Poetry Review](Berkeley)(Berkeley Poetry Review)*, national [ poetry journal](poetry ), est. 1974.
* *[Political Review](Berkeley)(Berkeley Political Review)*, [nonpartisan](Nonpartisanism) political magazine, est. 2001.
* *[Economic Review](Berkeley)(Berkeley Economic Review)*, [economics](economics) journal, est. 2016.
* *[Berkeley](Business)(Business Berkeley)*, [Haas](Haas School of Business) undergraduate journal.
* *[Magazine](Caliber)(Caliber Magazine)*, an "everything magazine", featuring articles and blogs on a wide range of topics, est. 2008.
* *[Squelch](Heuristic)(Heuristic Squelch)*, [newspaper](satirical)(News satire), est. 1991.
* *[B-Side](B-Side (UC Berkeley))*, music magazine, est. 2013.
* *[Patriot](California)(California Patriot)*, [conservative](conservative) political magazine, est. 2000.
* *[Ass](Smart)(Smart Ass (UC Berkeley))*, [liberal](College Democrats of America) magazine, est. 2015.
#### Student groups
[[File:Berkeley DM 2009.JPG|thumb|Berkeley Dance [Marathon](Marathon), one of the campus's student-led fundraising events]]
[[Hall, home of the Cal Performances theater group](File:Zellerbach01.jpg|thumb|Zellerbach)]
There are some 94 political student groups on campus, including MEChXA de UC Berkeley, Berkeley [ACLU](American Civil Liberties Union), Berkeley Students for Life, Campus Greens, The Sustainability Team (STEAM), the [Student Food Collective](Berkeley)(Berkeley Student Food Collective), Students for Sensible Drug Policy, Cal Berkeley Democrats, and the Berkeley College Republicans.
The Residence Hall Assembly (RHA) is the student-led umbrella organization that oversees event planning, legislation, sponsorships and other activities for over 7,2000 on-campus undergraduate residents.
Berkeley students also run a number of consulting groups, including the Berkeley Group, founded in 2003 and affiliated with the Haas School. Students from various concentrations are recruited and trained to work on pro-bono consulting engagements with actual nonprofit clients. Berkeley Consulting, founded in 1996, has served over 140 companies across the high-tech, retail, banking, and non-profit sectors.
ImagiCal has been the college chapter of the [Advertising Federation](American)(American Advertising Federation) at Berkeley since the late 1980s. The team competes annually in the National Student Advertising Competition, with students from disparate majors working together on a marketing case underwritten by a corporate sponsor.
The [Forum](Berkeley)(Berkeley Forum) is a nonpartisan student organization that hosts panels, debates, and speeches across a variety of fields. Past speakers include [Senator](United States Senate) [Paul](Rand)(Rand Paul), entrepreneur and venture capitalist [Thiel](Peter)(Peter Thiel), and [Academy](Khan)(Khan Academy) founder [Khan](Salman)(Salman Khan (educator)).
[[Berkeley Symphony Orchestra](File:UCSO.jpg|thumb|UC)]
Democratic Education at Cal, or DeCal, is a program that promotes the creation of professor-sponsored, student-facilitated classes. DeCal arose out of the 1960s [Speech movement](Free)(Free Speech movement) and was officially established in 1981. The program offers around 150 courses on a vast range of subjects that appeal to the student community, including classes on the [Cube](Rubik's)(Rubik's Cube), [blockchain](blockchain), [design](web)(web design), metamodernism, [cooking](cooking), Jewish art, [animation](3D)(3D animation), and [bioprinting](3D bioprinting).
The campus is home to several [cappella](a)(a cappella) groups, including Drawn to Scale, Artists in Resonance, Berkeley Dil Se, the [Men's Octet](UC)(UC Men's Octet), the [Golden Overtones](California)(California Golden Overtones), DeCadence, and Noteworthy. The [of California Men's Octet](University)(University of California Men's Octet) was founded in 1948 and features a repertoire of barbershop, doo-wop, contemporary pop, modern alternative, and fight songs. Hewing to tradition, the groups perform weekly under Sather Gate on alternating days. Berkeley hosts a myriad other performing arts groups in comedy, dance, acting and instrumental music, and include jericho!, Improv & Sketch Comedy, The Movement, Taiko drumming, BareStage student musical theater, the Remedy Music Project, Main Stacks, AFX Dance, and TruElement.
Since 1967, students and staff jazz musicians have had an opportunity to perform and study with the [of California Jazz Ensembles](University)(University of California Jazz Ensembles). Under the direction of David W. Tucker, who was hired by the [Band](Cal)(Cal Band) as a composer, arranger, and associate director, but was later asked to direct the jazz ensembles as it grew in popularity and membership, the group grew rapidly from one big band to multiple big bands, numerous combos, and numerous instrumental classes with multiple instructors. For several decades it hosted the Pacific Coast Collegiate Jazz Festival, part of the American Collegiate Jazz Festival, a competitive forum for student musicians. PCCJF brought jazz artists including [Laws](Hubert)(Hubert Laws), [Rollins](Sonny)(Sonny Rollins), [Hubbard](Freddie)(Freddie Hubbard), and [Shaughnessy](Ed)(Ed Shaughnessy) to the Berkeley campus as performers, clinicians, and adjudicators. The festival later included high school musicians. [Wolff](Michael)(Michael Wolff (musician)) and [Narell](Andy)(Andy Narell) are just a couple of its more famous alumni.
Berkeley student organizations also hosts many other conferences, seminars, and musical and theatrical performances, including the annual Sociological Research Symposium.
#### Engineering Student Teams
Given UC Berkeley's [STEM](Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education and its proximity to Silicon Valley, there are a variety of student-run engineering teams that focus on winning design and engineering competitions.
Berkeley has two prominent [rocketry](amateur)(amateur rocketry) teams: Space Enterprise at Berkeley (SEB) and Space Technologies and Rocketry (STAR). Both have launched solid-fuel [rocket](sounding)(sounding rocket)s and are currently developing [propellant rockets](liquid)(Liquid-propellant rocket).
The university also has two [SAE](Formula)(Formula SAE) teams: Berkeley Formula Racing and Formula Electric Berkeley. Both of these teams participate in Formula SAE–run competitions, with the former focusing on internal combustion engines and the latter on electric motors. Berkeley has a number of other vehicle teams, including CalSol, CalSMV, and Human Powered Vehicle.
### Athletics
[[File:California Memorial Stadium 2015.jpg|thumb|The base of the [Memorial Stadium](California)(California Memorial Stadium).]]
[[File:Haas Pavilion Court.jpg|thumb|The interior of [Pavilion](Haas)(Haas Pavilion) during a [Basketball](Cal)(California Golden Bears men's basketball) game.]]
[[File:Stanford vs Cal.jpg|thumb|The [Bears](Cal)(California Golden Bears football) face off against the [Cardinal](Stanford)(Stanford Cardinals football) in the [Game](Big)(Big Game (American football)).]]
The university's athletic teams are known as the [Golden Bears](California)(California Golden Bears) (often shortened to "Cal Bears" or just "Cal") and are primarily members of the [Division I](NCAA)(NCAA Division I) [Conference](Pac-12)(Pac-12 Conference) (Pac-12). Cal is also a member of the [Pacific Sports Federation](Mountain)(Mountain Pacific Sports Federation) in several sports not sponsored by the Pac-12 and the [East Conference](America)(America East Conference) in women's [hockey](field)(field hockey). The first school colors, established in 1873 by a committee of students, were blue (specifically Yale Blue) and gold. Yale Blue was originally chosen because many of the university's inaugural faculty were Yale graduates, including Henry Durant, its first president. Blue and gold were specified and made the official colors of the university and the state colors of California in 1955. In 2014, the athletic department specified a darker blue.
The California Golden Bears have won national titles in football, men's basketball, baseball, softball, men's and women's crew, men's gymnastics, men's tennis, men's and women's swimming, men's water polo, men's Judo, men's track, and men's rugby. In addition, Cal athletes have won individual NCAA titles in track, gymnastics, swimming and tennis. On January 31, 2009, the university's [Hurling](Hurling) club made athletic history by defeating Stanford in the first collegiate hurling match ever played on American soil. Berkeley teams have won national championships in baseball (2), men's basketball (2), men's crew (15), women's crew (3), football (5), men's golf (1), men's gymnastics (4), men's lacrosse (1), men's rugby (26), softball (1), men's swimming & diving (4), women's swimming & diving (3), men's tennis (1), men's track & field (1), and men's water polo (13).
[[Rugby.jpg|thumb|Cal Rugby football team has not only won at least 26 national championships but many more 'Scrum Axe' competitions (where a ceremonial Native American battle axe affixed to a trophy is awarded to winner) such that by the 1930s it was designated as the annual trophy exchanged between Cal and Stanford Rugby teams](File:Cal)]
Cal students and alumni have also won [Olympic medals](207)(List of American universities with Olympic medals).
California finished in first place in the 2007–08 Fall U.S. Sports Academy Directors' Cup standings (Now the [Directors' Cup](NACDA)(NACDA Directors' Cup)), a competition measuring the best overall collegiate athletic programs in the country, with points awarded for national finishes in NCAA sports. Cal finished the 2007–08 competition in seventh place with 1119 points.
Most recently, California finished in third place in the 2010–11 NACDA Directors' Cup with 1219.50 points, finishing behind Stanford and Ohio State. This is California's highest ever finish in the Director's Cup.
The Golden Bears' traditional arch-rival is the [Cardinal](Stanford)(Stanford Cardinal), and the most anticipated sporting event between the two universities is the annual football match dubbed the [Game](Big)(Big Game (American football)), celebrated with spirit events on both campuses. Since 1933, the winner of the Big Game has been awarded custody of [Stanford Axe](the)(the Stanford Axe). Other sporting games between these rivals have related names such as the Big Splash (water polo) or the Big Kick (soccer).
One of the most famous moments in college football history occurred during the 85th Big Game on November 20, 1982. In what has become known as "the band play" or simply [Play](The)(The Play (American football)), Cal scored the winning touchdown in the final seconds with a kickoff return that involved a series of laterals and the Stanford marching band rushing onto the field.
## Notable alumni, faculty, and staff
[alumni](Berkeley)(List of University of California, Berkeley alumni), [faculty](List of University of California, Berkeley faculty) and staff have distinguished themselves in a wide range of endeavors and include 114 Nobel laureates (35 alumni), 25 Turing Award winners (11 alumni), 14 Fields Medalists, 30 [Prize](Wolf)(Wolf Prize) winners, 108 [Fellows](MacArthur)(MacArthur Fellowship) (65 alumni) , 30 [Prize](Pulitzer)(Pulitzer Prize) recipients, 19 [Award](Academy)(Academy Award) winners, five foreign [of state](heads)(head of state), chief justices of the [States](United)(Chief Justice of the United States) and [California](Supreme Court of California), 22 [cabinet](Cabinet (government)) members, ten [governors](state)(Governor (United States)), numerous [of Congress](members)(Member of Congress), 36 general and flag officers of the [States Armed Forces](United)(United States Armed Forces), 40 billionaires, and the founders or co-founders of [world-renowned companies](many)(List of companies founded by UC Berkeley alumni).
File:Earl Warren.jpg|[Warren](Earl)(Earl Warren), BA 1912, JD 1914, 14th [Justice of the United States](Chief)(Chief Justice of the United States), 30th [of California](Governor)(Governor of California)
File:Steven Chu official DOE portrait crop.jpg|[Chu](Steven)(Steven Chu), PhD 1976, [Nobel](Nobel Prize) laureate, 12th [States Secretary of Energy](United)(United States Secretary of Energy)
File:Secretary Jennifer Granholm.jpg|[Granholm](Jennifer)(Jennifer Granholm), BA 1984, 16th [States Secretary of Energy](United)(United States Secretary of Energy), 47th [of Michigan](Governor)(Governor of Michigan)
File:Z A Bhutto (President of Pakistan).jpg|[Ali Bhutto](Zulfikar)(Zulfikar Ali Bhutto), BA 1950, 4th [of Pakistan](President)(President of Pakistan), 9th [Minister of Pakistan](Prime)(Prime Minister of Pakistan)
File:Robert Reich, Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics (cropped).jpg|[Reich](Robert)(Robert Reich), Professor of Public Policy, 22nd [States Secretary of Labor](United)(United States Secretary of Labor)
File:Christina Romer, Commonwealth Club (cropped).jpg|[Romer](Christina)(Christina Romer), Professor of Economics, 25th [of the President's Council of Economic Advisers](Chairperson)(Council of Economic Advisers)
File:Steve Wozniak by Gage Skidmore.jpg|[Wozniak](Steve)(Steve Wozniak), BS 1986, cofounder of [Inc.](Apple)(Apple Inc.)
File:Rajiv L Gupta George Barclay Gordon Moore ID2004 (cropped, Moore).JPG|[Moore](Gordon)(Gordon Moore), BS 1950, cofounder of [semiconductor](semiconductor) company [Intel](Intel)
File:Eric E Schmidt, 2005 (looking left).jpg|[Schmidt](Eric)(Eric Schmidt), MS 1979, PhD 1982, Executive Chairman of [Alphabet](Alphabet Inc)
File:JerryBrownByPhilKonstantin.jpg|[Gerald "Jerry" Brown Jr.](Edmund)(Jerry Brown), BA 1961, 34th & 39th [of California](Governor)(Governor of California)
File:Dean Blake Van Leer.jpg|[R. Van Leer](Blake)(Blake R. Van Leer), MS 1920, inventor, civil rights advocate, president of [Tech](Georgia)(Georgia Tech)
File:Gregory Peck in Roman Holiday trailer cropped.jpg|[Peck](Gregory)(Gregory Peck), BA 1939, [Award](Academy)(Academy Award)–winning actor
File:Natalie Coughlin, 2018 (cropped).jpg|[Coughlin](Natalie)(Natalie Coughlin), BA 2005, multiple gold medal-winning Olympic swimmer
File:Gen._Pedro_Nel_Ospina,_Pres._Colombia_(LOC).jpg|[Nel Ospina Vázquez](Pedro)(Pedro Nel Ospina Vázquez), BA 1878, [of Colombia](President)(President of Colombia) 1922–1926
File:Crown Prince Haakon of Norway 2012-03-26 001.jpg|[Crown Prince of Norway](Haakon,)(Haakon, Crown Prince of Norway), [apparent](heir)(heir apparent) to the [of Norway](throne)(throne of Norway), BA 1999"Her Norwegian heritage drew her to projects with the Norwegian Consulate in San Francisco and the Norwegian American Cultural Society, and she hosted a party for Crown Prince Haakon Magnus when he graduated from UC Berkeley in 1999."
File:Robert McNamara official portrait.jpg|[McNamara](Robert)(Robert McNamara), BA 1937, 5th President of [Bank](World)(World Bank), 8th [States Secretary of Defense](United)(United States Secretary of Defense), President of [Motor Company](Ford)(Ford Motor Company)
File:Edwin Meese publicity shot (cropped).jpg|[Meese](Ed)(Ed Meese), LL.B. 1958, 75th [States Attorney General](United)(United States Attorney General)
File:Daniel Kahneman (3283955327) (cropped).jpg|[Kahneman](Daniel)(Daniel Kahneman), PhD 1961, awarded the 2002 [Memorial Prize in Economics](Nobel)(Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics) for his work in [theory](Prospect)(Prospect theory)
File:HD.3F.004 (11086396296).jpg|[Urey](Harold)(Harold Urey), PhD 1923, [Nobel](Nobel Prize) laureate and discoverer of [deuterium](deuterium)
### Faculty and staff
* [Chern](Shiing-Shen)(Shiing-Shen Chern), a leading geometer of the 20th century, co-founded the renowned [Sciences Research Institute](Mathematical)(Mathematical Sciences Research Institute) and served as its founding Director until 1984.
* Physicist [Robert Oppenheimer](J.)(J. Robert Oppenheimer) was scientific director of the [Project](Manhattan)(Manhattan Project) and was the founder of the Berkeley Center for Theoretical Physics.
* Faculty member [Teller](Edward)(Edward Teller) was (together with [Ulam](Stanislaw)(Stanislaw Ulam)) the "father of the [bomb](hydrogen)(Thermonuclear weapon)", who laid important foundations for the establishment of [Sciences Laboratory](Space)(Space Sciences Laboratory) at Berkeley.
* [Lawrence](Ernest)(Ernest Lawrence), a Nobel laureate in physics who invented the [cyclotron](cyclotron) at Berkeley, and founded the Radiation Laboratory on campus, which later became the [Berkeley National Laboratory](Lawrence)(Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory).
* [N. Lewis](Gilbert)(Gilbert N. Lewis), former Dean of the College of Chemistry, was nominated 41 times for [Prize in Chemistry](Nobel)(Nobel Prize in Chemistry). He mentored and influenced numerous Berkeley Nobel laureates, including [Urey](Harold)(Harold Urey) (1934 Nobel Prize), [F. Giauque](William)(William F. Giauque) (1949 Nobel Prize), [T. Seaborg](Glenn)(Glenn T. Seaborg) (1951 Nobel Prize), [Libby](Willard)(Willard Libby) (1960 Nobel Prize), and [Calvin](Melvin)(Melvin Calvin) (1961 Nobel Prize). Lemelson-MIT Program|website=lemelson.mit.edu|access-date=2019-03-09|archive-date=April 11, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411010110/https://lemelson.mit.edu/resources/gilbert-newton-lewis|url-status=dead}}
* [T. Seaborg](Glenn)(Glenn T. Seaborg), a Nobel laureate in chemistry who discovered or co-discovered 10 chemical elements at Berkeley and served as Chancellor from 1958 to 1961. Glenn T. Seaborg|website=vm136.lib.berkeley.edu|access-date=March 8, 2016|archive-date=March 8, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308164352/http://vm136.lib.berkeley.edu/BANC/CalHistory/chancellor.seaborg.html|url-status=dead}}
* [Albert Einstein](Hans)(Hans Albert Einstein), the first son of [Einstein](Albert)(Albert Einstein) and a world's leading scholar in [engineering](hydraulic)(hydraulic engineering), was a long-time faculty member at Berkeley.
* [Chu](Steven)(Steven Chu) (PhD 1976), the 12th [States Secretary of Energy](United)(United States Secretary of Energy) and Nobel laureate in physics, was Director of [Lab](Berkeley)(Berkeley Lab) from 2004 to 2009.
* [Yellen](Janet)(Janet Yellen), 78th [States Secretary of Treasury](United)(United States Secretary of Treasury) and the 15th [of the Federal Reserve](Chair)(Chair of the Federal Reserve), is a professor emeritus at Berkeley [School of Business](Haas)(Haas School of Business) and the Department of Economics. Faculty Directory Berkeley-Haas|website=facultybio.haas.berkeley.edu|access-date=March 8, 2016|archive-date=October 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009084700/http://facultybio.haas.berkeley.edu/faculty-list/yellen-janet/|url-status=dead}} Department of Economics|website=www.econ.berkeley.edu|access-date=March 8, 2016}}
### Alumni
Berkeley alumni have served in a range of prominent government offices, both domestic and foreign, including [Justice of the United States Supreme Court](Chief)(Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court) ([Warren](Earl)(Earl Warren), BA, JD); [States Attorney General](United)(United States Attorney General) ([Meese](Edwin)(Edwin Meese) III, JD); [States Secretary of State](United)(United States Secretary of State) ([Rusk](Dean)(Dean Rusk), LLB); [States Secretary of the Treasury](United)(United States Secretary of the Treasury) ([Michael Blumenthal](W.)(W. Michael Blumenthal), BA, and [William Miller](G.)(G. William Miller), JD); [States Secretary of Defense](United)(United States Secretary of Defense) ([McNamara](Robert)(Robert McNamara), BS); [States Secretary of the Interior](United)(United States Secretary of the Interior) ([Knight Lane](Franklin)(Franklin Knight Lane), 1887); [States Secretary of Transportation](United)(United States Secretary of Transportation) and [States Secretary of Commerce](United)(United States Secretary of Commerce) ([Mineta](Norman)(Norman Mineta), BS); [States Secretary of Agriculture](United)(United States Secretary of Agriculture) ([Veneman](Ann)(Ann Veneman), MPP); [Security Advisor](National)(National Security Advisor (United States)) ([C. O'Brien](Robert)(Robert C. O'Brien), JD); scores of federal judges and members of the [States Congress](United)(United States Congress) ([currently serving](10)(List of current members of the United States House of Representatives)) and [States Foreign Service](United)(United States Foreign Service); governors of California ([C. Pardee](George)(George C. Pardee); [W. Johnson](Hiram)(Hiram W. Johnson); [Warren](Earl)(Earl Warren), BA and LLB; [Brown](Jerry)(Jerry Brown), BA; and [Wilson](Pete)(Pete Wilson), JD), Michigan ([Granholm](Jennifer)(Jennifer Granholm), BA), and the United States Virgin Islands ([A. Gordon](Walter)(Walter A. Gordon), BA); Chief of Staff of the United States Army ([C. Weyand](Frederick)(Frederick C. Weyand), Class of 1938); Lieutenant General of the United States Army ([Doolittle](Jimmy)(Jimmy Doolittle)); Vice Admiral of the United States Navy (Murry L. Royar, Class of 1916); Major General of the United States Marine Corps ([Prince Smith](Oliver)(Oliver Prince Smith)); Brigadier General of the United States Marine Corps ([A. Bone](Bertram)(Bertram A. Bone)); [of the Central Intelligence Agency](Director)(Director of the Central Intelligence Agency) and Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission ([A. McCone](John)(John A. McCone), BS); chair and members of the [of Economic Advisers](Council)(Council of Economic Advisers) ([Boskin](Michael)(Michael Boskin), BA, PhD.; Sandra Black, BA; Jesse Rothstein, PhD; Robert Seamans, PhD; Jay Shambaugh, PhD; James Stock, MA, PhD); Governor of the Federal Reserve System ([Robert Heller](H.)(H. Robert Heller), PhD) and President and CEO of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York ([C. Dudley](William)(William C. Dudley), PhD); Commissioners of the [SEC](Securities and Exchange Commission) ([A. Paredes](Troy)(Troy A. Paredes), BA) and the [FCC](Federal Communications Commission) (Rachelle Chong, BA); and [States Surgeon General](United)(United States Surgeon General) ([P. Moritsugu](Kenneth)(Kenneth P. Moritsugu), MPH).
Foreign alumni include the [of Colombia](President)(President of Colombia) 1922–1926, ([Nel Ospina Vázquez](Pedro)(Pedro Nel Ospina Vázquez), BA, Mining Engineering); the [of Mexico](President)(President of Mexico) ([I. Madero](Francisco)(Francisco I. Madero), attended 1892–93); the President and Prime Minister of Pakistan; the Premier of the Republic of China ([Fo](Sun)(Sun Fo), BA); the President of Costa Rica (Miguel Angel Rodriguez, MA, PhD); and members of parliament of the United Kingdom ([of Lords](House)(House of Lords), [Dunn, Baroness Dunn](Lydia)(Lydia Dunn, Baroness Dunn), BS), India ([Sabha](Rajya)(Rajya Sabha), the upper house, [Chavan](Prithviraj)(Prithviraj Chavan), MS); Iran ([Javad Larijani](Mohammad)(Mohammad Javad Larijani), PhD); Nigerian Minister of Science and Technology and first Executive Governor of Abia State ([Onu](Ogbonnaya)(Ogbonnaya Onu), PhD Chemical Engineering); Barbados' Ambassador to Brazil ([Sealy-Thompson](Tonika)(Tonika Sealy-Thompson)).
Alumni have also served in many supranational posts, notable among which are President of the [Bank](World)(World Bank Group) ([McNamara](Robert)(Robert McNamara), BS); Deputy Prime Minister of Spain and managing director of the [Monetary Fund](International)(International Monetary Fund) ([Rato](Rodrigo)(Rodrigo Rato), MBA); executive director of [UNICEF](UNICEF) ([Veneman](Ann)(Ann Veneman), MPP); member of the [Parliament](European)(European Parliament) ([Megret](Bruno)(Bruno Megret), MS); and judge of the [Court](World)(International Court of Justice) ([Donoghue](Joan)(Joan Donoghue), JD).
Alumni have made important contributions to science. Some have concentrated their studies on the very small universe of atoms and molecules. [laureate](Nobel)(Nobel Prize) [F. Giauque](William)(William F. Giauque) (BS 1920, PhD 1922) investigated [thermodynamics](chemical)(chemical thermodynamics), Nobel laureate [Libby](Willard)(Willard Libby) (BS 1931, PhD 1933) pioneered [dating](radiocarbon)(radiocarbon dating), Nobel laureate [Lamb](Willis)(Willis Lamb) (BS 1934, PhD 1938) examined the [hydrogen](hydrogen) [spectrum](spectrum), Nobel laureate [O. Smith](Hamilton)(Hamilton O. Smith) (BA 1952) applied [enzymes](restriction)(restriction enzymes) to [genetics](molecular)(molecular genetics), Nobel laureate [Laughlin](Robert)(Robert Laughlin) (BA math 1972) explored the [quantum Hall effect](fractional)(fractional quantum Hall effect), and Nobel laureate [Fire](Andrew)(Andrew Fire) (BA math 1978) helped to discover [interference](RNA)(RNA interference)-[silencing](gene)(gene silencing) by double-stranded [RNA](RNA). Nobel laureate [T. Seaborg](Glenn)(Glenn T. Seaborg) (PhD 1937) collaborated with [Ghiorso](Albert)(Albert Ghiorso) (BS 1913) to discover 12 chemical elements, such as *[americium](americium)*, *[berkelium](berkelium)*, and *[californium](californium)*. [Bohm](David)(David Bohm) (PhD 1943) discovered [diffusion](Bohm)(Bohm diffusion). Nobel laureate [T. Lee](Yuan)(Yuan T. Lee) (PhD 1965) developed the [molecular beam](crossed)(crossed molecular beam) technique for studying chemical reactions. [Greider](Carol)(Carol Greider) (PhD 1987), professor of molecular biology and genetics at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, was awarded the 2009 [Prize in medicine](Nobel)(Nobel Prize in medicine) for discovering a key mechanism in the genetic operations of cells, an insight that has inspired new lines of research into cancer. [Itano](Harvey)(Harvey Itano) (BS 1942) conducted breakthrough work on [cell anemia](sickle)(sickle cell anemia) that marked the first time a disease was linked to a molecular origin. While he was valedictorian of Berkeley's class of 1942, he was unable to attend commencement exercises due to [internment](Japanese-American internment). [Karmarkar](Narendra)(Narendra Karmarkar) (PhD 1983) is known for the interior point method, a polynomial algorithm for linear programming known as [algorithm](Karmarkar's)(Karmarkar's algorithm). [Medal of Science](National)(National Medal of Science) laureate [Wu](Chien-Shiung)(Chien-Shiung Wu) (PhD 1940), often known as the "Chinese Madame Curie", disproved the Law of Conservation of [Parity](Parity (physics)) for which she was awarded the inaugural [Prize in Physics](Wolf)(Wolf Prize in Physics). [Mullis](Kary)(Kary Mullis) (PhD 1973) was awarded the 1993 [Prize in Chemistry](Nobel)(Nobel Prize in Chemistry) for his role in developing the [chain reaction](polymerase)(polymerase chain reaction), a method for amplifying [DNA](DNA) sequences. [Kahneman](Daniel)(Daniel Kahneman) was awarded the 2002 [Memorial Prize in Economics](Nobel)(Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics) for his work in [theory](Prospect)(Prospect theory). [O. Buckius](Richard)(Richard O. Buckius), engineer, Bachelor's in Mechanical Engineering '72, Masters '73, PhD '75, currently Chief Operating Officer of the [Science Foundation](National)(National Science Foundation). [P. Tryon](Edward)(Edward P. Tryon) (PhD 1967) is the physicist who first said our universe originated from a quantum fluctuation of the vacuum.
[N. Bahcall](John)(John N. Bahcall) (BS 1956) worked on the [Solar Model](Standard)(Standard Solar Model) and the [Space Telescope](Hubble)(Hubble Space Telescope), resulting in a [Medal of Science](National)(National Medal of Science). [Smith](Peter)(Peter Smith (physicist)) (BS 1969) was the [investigator](principal)(principal investigator) and project leader for the [NASA](NASA) robotic explorer *[Phoenix](Phoenix (spacecraft))*, which physically confirmed the presence of water on the planet [Mars](Mars) for the first time. Astronauts [van Hoften](James)(James van Hoften) (BS 1966), [Rhea Seddon](Margaret)(Margaret Rhea Seddon) (BA 1970), [Chiao](Leroy)(Leroy Chiao) (BS 1983), and [Walheim](Rex)(Rex Walheim) (BS 1984) have orbited the Earth in NASA's fleet of [Shuttle](Space)(Space Shuttle)s.
Undergraduate alumni have founded or cofounded such companies as [Computer](Apple)(Apple Computer),Apple Computer was co-founded by [Wozniak](Steve)(Steve Wozniak)( BS 1986). [Intel](Intel),Intel was co-founded by [Moore](Gordon)(Gordon Moore) (BS 1950). [Logic](LSI)(LSI Logic)LSI Logic was cofounded by Robert Walker (BS EE 1958). [Gap](The)(Gap (clothing retailer)),The Gap was founded by [Fisher](Donald)(Donald Fisher) (BS 1951), who served as its inaugural president and chairman of the board. [MySpace](MySpace),MySpace was cofounded by [Anderson](Tom)(Tom Anderson (MySpace)) (BA 1998). [PowerBar](PowerBar),PowerBar was cofounded by [Maxwell](Brian)(Brian Maxwell) (BA 1975) and his wife Jennifer Maxwell (BS 1988). [Systems](Berkeley)(Berkeley Systems),Berkeley Systems and [MoveOn.org](MoveOn.org) were cofounded by [Blades](Joan)(Joan Blades) (BA 1977). [Beranek and Newman](Bolt,)(Bolt, Beranek and Newman)Bolt, Beranek and Newman was cofounded by [Bolt](Richard)(Richard Bolt) (BA 1933, MA 1937, PhD 1939). (which created a number of underlying technologies that govern the [Internet](Internet)), [Panisse](Chez)(Chez Panisse),Chez Panisse was founded by [Waters](Alice)(Alice Waters) (BA 1967). ; and [GrandCentral](GrandCentral) (known now as [Voice](Google)(Google Voice)),[GrandCentral](GrandCentral) (known now as Google Voice) was cofounded by Craig Walker (BA 1988, JD 1995). [Corporation](HTC)(HTC Corporation),HTC Corporation and VIA Technologies were cofounded by [Wang](Cher)(Cher Wang) (BA 1980, MA 1981). [Technologies](VIA)(VIA Technologies), [Technology Group](Marvell)(Marvell Technology Group),Marvell Technology Group was founded by Weili Dai, (BA Computer Science 1984) and her husband Sehat Sutardja (MS 1983, PhD 1988 EECS) and brother-in-law Pantas Sutardjai (MS 1983, PhD 1988 ). MoveOn.org, [Opsware](Opsware),Opsware was cofounded by In Sik Rhee (BS EECS 1993). [RedOctane](RedOctane),RedOctane was cofounded by brothers Charles Huang (BA 1992 ) and Kai Huang (BA CS 1994). Rimon Law P.C., [SanDisk](SanDisk),SanDisk was cofounded by Sanjay Mehrotra (BS 1978, MS EE 1980). [Berger Chocolate Maker](Scharffen)(Scharffen Berger Chocolate Maker),Scharffen Berger Chocolate Maker was cofounded by John Scharffenberger (BA 1973). [VMware](VMware)VMware was cofounded by Edward Wang (BS EECS 1983, MS 1988, PhD 1994), along with Diane Greene (MS CS 1988) and her husband Mendel Rosenblum (MS 1989, PhD 1992). and [Zilog](Zilog),Zilog was cofounded by Ralph Ungermannn (BSEE 1964). while graduate school alumni have cofounded companies such as [DHL](DHL Express),DHL was cofounded by [Hillblom](Larry)(Larry Hillblom) (Law 1969). [Inc](KeyHole)(Google Earth) (known now as Google Earth),KeyHole Inc (known now as Google Earth) was cofounded by John Hanke (MBA 1996). [Microsystems](Sun)(Sun Microsystems),Sun Microsystems was cofounded by [Joy](Bill)(Bill Joy) (MS 1982). and [Learning Company](The)(The Learning Company).The Learning Company was cofounded by [Robinett](Warren)(Warren Robinett) (MS 1976). Berkeley alumni have also led various technology companies such as [Arts](Electronic)(Electronic Arts),[Riccitiello](John)(John Riccitiello) (BS 1981) has served as the CEO of Electronic Arts since 2007, and previously served as the president and COO of the company from 1996 to 2003. He is also the cofounder of [Partners](Elevation)(Elevation Partners) (with [U2](U2 (band)) singer [Bono](Bono)). [Google](Google),[Schmidt](Eric)(Eric Schmidt) (MS 1979, PhD 1982) has been the CEO of [Google](Google) since 2001. [Systems](Adobe)(Adobe Systems),[Narayen](Shantanu)(Shantanu Narayen) (MBA 1993) has been the CEO of [Systems](Adobe)(Adobe Systems) since 2007. [Softbank](Softbank) ([Son](Masayoshi)(Masayoshi Son)) and [Qualcomm](Qualcomm).Paul Jacobs (BS 1984, MS 1986, PhD 1989 EECS) has been the CEO of Qualcomm since 2005.
Berkeley alumni have developed a number of key technologies associated with the [computer](personal)(personal computer) and the Internet."Berkeley Unix worked so well that [DARPA](DARPA) chose it for the preferred 'universal computing environment' to link [ARPANET](ARPANET) research nodes, thus setting in place an essential piece of infrastructure for the later growth of the Internet. An entire generation of computer scientists cut their teeth on Berkeley Unix. Without it, the Net might well have evolved into a shape similar to what it is today, but with it, the Net exploded." [Unix](Unix) was created by alumnus [Thompson](Ken)(Ken Thompson) (BS 1965, MS 1966) along with colleague [Ritchie](Dennis)(Dennis Ritchie). Alumni such as [Peter Deutsch](L.)(L. Peter Deutsch)Deutsch was awarded a 1992 citation by the [for Computing Machinery](Association)(Association for Computing Machinery) for his work on [Interlisp](Interlisp)()L. Peter Deutsch is profiled on pages 30, 31, 43, 53, 54, 66 (which mentions Deutsch beginning his freshman year at Berkeley), and page 87 in the following book: L. Peter Deutsch is profiled in pages 69, 70–72, 118, 146, 227, 230, 280, 399 of the following book: (PhD 1973), [Lampson](Butler)(Butler Lampson) (PhD 1967), and [P. Thacker](Charles)(Charles P. Thacker) (BS 1967) worked with Ken Thompson on [Genie](Project)(Project Genie) and then formed the ill-fated [Department of Defense](US)(United States Department of Defense)-funded Berkeley Computer Corporation (BCC), which was scattered throughout the Berkeley campus in non-descript offices to avoid anti-war protestors. After BCC failed, Deutsch, Lampson, and Thacker joined [PARC](Xerox)(Xerox PARC), where they developed a number of pioneering computer technologies, culminating in the [Alto](Xerox)(Xerox Alto) that inspired the [Macintosh](Apple)(Apple Macintosh). In particular, the Alto used a [mouse](computer)(computer mouse), which had been invented by [Engelbart](Doug)(Doug Engelbart) (BEng 1952, PhD 1955). Thompson, Lampson, Engelbart, and Thacker all later received a Turing Award. Also at Xerox PARC was Ronald V. Schmidt (BS 1966, MS 1968, PhD 1971), who became known as "the man who brought [Ethernet](Ethernet) to the masses". Another Xerox PARC researcher, [Simonyi](Charles)(Charles Simonyi) (BS 1972), pioneered the first [WYSIWIG](WYSIWIG) [processor](word)(word processor) program and was recruited personally by [Gates](Bill)(Bill Gates) to join the fledgling company known as [Microsoft](Microsoft) to create [Word](Microsoft)(Microsoft Word). Simonyi later became the first repeat [tourist](space)(space tourist), blasting off on Russian [Soyuz](Soyuz (rocket)) rockets to work at the [Space Station](International)(International Space Station) orbiting the earth.
In 1977, a graduate student in the computer science department named Bill Joy (MS 1982) assembled the original [Software Distribution](Berkeley)(Berkeley Software Distribution), commonly known as [Unix](BSD)(BSD Unix). Joy, who went on to co-found Sun Microsystems, also developed the original version of the [terminal](Computer display) console editor [vi](vi), while [Arnold](Ken)(Ken Arnold) (BA 1985) created [Curses](Curses (programming library)), a terminal control [library](Library (computer science)) for [Unix-like](Unix-like) systems that enables the construction of [user interface (TUI)](text)(Text user interface) applications. Working alongside Joy at Berkeley were undergraduates [Jolitz](William)(William Jolitz) (BS 1997) and his future wife [Jolitz](Lynne)(Lynne Jolitz) (BA 1989), who together created [386BSD](386BSD), a version of BSD Unix that runs on Intel CPUs and evolved into the [family of free operating systems](BSD)(Comparison of BSD operating systems) and the [operating system](Darwin)(Darwin (operating system)) underlying [Apple](Apple Inc.) [OS X](Mac)(Mac OS X). [Allman](Eric)(Eric Allman) (BS 1977, MS 1980) created [SendMail](SendMail), a Unix [transfer agent](mail)(mail transfer agent) that delivers about 12 percent of the [email](email) in the world.
The [XCF](EXperimental Computing Facility), an undergraduate research group located in [Hall](Soda)(Soda Hall), has been responsible for a number of notable software projects, including [GTK+](GTK+) (created by [Mattis](Peter)(Peter Mattis), BS 1997), [GIMP](The)(The GIMP) ([Kimball](Spencer)(Spencer Kimball (computer programmer)), BS 1996), and the initial diagnosis of the [worm](Morris)(Morris worm). In 1992, [Wei](Pei-Yuan)(Pei-Yuan Wei),Pei-Yuan Wei's contributions are profiled on pages 56, 64, 68, and 83, in the [Wide Web](World)(World Wide Web) creator's autobiography () an undergraduate at the XCF, created [ViolaWWW](ViolaWWW), one of the first graphical web browsers. ViolaWWW was the first browser to have embedded scriptable objects, stylesheets, and tables. In the spirit of Open Source, he donated the code to Sun Microsystems, inspiring [Java](Java (programming language)) applets( [Polese](Kim)(Kim Polese) (BS 1984) was the original product manager for Java at Sun Microsystems.) ViolaWWW also inspired researchers at the [Center for Supercomputing Applications](National)(National Center for Supercomputing Applications) to create the [web browser](Mosaic)(Mosaic web browser), a pioneering [browser](web)(web browser) that became Microsoft [Explorer](Internet)(Internet Explorer).
Alumni collectively have won at least twenty-five Pulitzer Prizes. Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist [Higgins](Marguerite)(Marguerite Higgins) (BA 1941) was a pioneering female war correspondent"General Walton H. Walker had ordered her out of [Korea](Korea)..... Like many another soldier, old and young, General Walker was convinced that women do not belong in a combat zone... General [MacArthur](Douglas)(Douglas MacArthur) reversed Walker's ruling. To the Herald Tribune, MacArthur sent a soothing telegram: 'Ban on women correspondents in Korea has been lifted. Marguerite Higgins is held in highest professional esteem by everyone.'" who covered World War II, the [War](Korean)(Korean War), and the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War). Novelist [Penn Warren](Robert)(Robert Penn Warren) (MA 1927) won three Pulitzer Prizes, including one for his novel ''[the King's Men](All)(All the King's Men)*, which was later made into an Academy Award-winningNominated for seven Academy Awards, *[the King's Men](All)(All the King's Men (1949 film))'' won Oscars for [Picture](Best)(Academy Award for Best Picture) of 1949, [Actor](Best)(Academy Award for Best Actor) ([Crawford](Broderick)(Broderick Crawford)), and [Supporting Actress](Best)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress) ([McCambridge](Mercedes)(Mercedes McCambridge)) [movie](All the King's Men (1949 film)). Pulitzer Prize–winning cartoonist [Goldberg](Rube)(Rube Goldberg) (BS 1904) invented the comically complex—yet ultimately trivial—contraptions known as [Goldberg machine](Rube)(Rube Goldberg machine)s. Journalist Alexandra Berzon (MA 2006) won a Pulitzer Prize in 2009, and journalist [Richtel](Matt)(Matt Richtel) (BA 1989), who also coauthors the comic strip *[Park](Rudy)(Rudy Park)* under the pen name of "Theron Heir", won the 2010 [Prize for National Reporting](Pulitzer)(Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting). Pulitzer Prize–winning historian [Litwack](Leon)(Leon Litwack) (BA 1951, PhD 1958) taught as a professor at UC Berkeley for 43 years; [other](three)(List of University of California, Berkeley faculty#Pulitzer Prize) UC Berkeley professors have also received the Pulitzer Prize. Alumna and professor [Rasky](Susan)(Susan Rasky) won the [Award](Polk)(George Polk Awards) for journalism in 1991. USC Professor and Berkeley alumnus [Thanh Nguyen](Viet)(Viet Thanh Nguyen)'s (PhD 1997) first novel *[Sympathizer](The)(The Sympathizer)* won the 2016 [Prize for Fiction](Pulitzer)(Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)
Alumni have also written novels and screenplays that have attracted Oscar-caliber talent, including *[Call of the Wild](The)(The Call of the Wild)* author [London](Jack)(Jack London). [Stone](Irving)(Irving Stone) (BA 1923) wrote the novel *[for Life](Lust)(Lust for Life (novel))*, which was later made into an Academy Award-winning [of the same name](film)(Lust for Life (1956 film)) starring [Douglas](Kirk)(Kirk Douglas) as [van Gogh](Vincent)(Vincent van Gogh). Stone also wrote *[Agony and the Ecstasy](The)(The Agony and the Ecstasy (novel))*, which was later made into a [of the same name](film)(The Agony and the Ecstasy (film)) starring Oscar winner [Heston](Charlton)(Charlton Heston) as [Michelangelo](Michelangelo). [Simpson](Mona)(Mona Simpson (novelist)) (BA 1979) wrote the novel *[But Here](Anywhere)(Anywhere But Here (film))*, which was later made into a film of the same name starring Oscar-winning actress [Sarandon](Susan)(Susan Sarandon). [McMillan](Terry)(Terry McMillan) (BA 1986) wrote *[Stella Got Her Groove Back](How)(How Stella Got Her Groove Back)*, which was later made into a film of the same name starring Oscar-nominated actress [Bassett](Angela)(Angela Bassett). [Mayem Singer](Randi)(Randi Mayem Singer) (BA 1979) wrote the screenplay for *[Doubtfire](Mrs.)(Mrs. Doubtfire)*, which starred Oscar-winning actor [Williams](Robin)(Robin Williams) and Oscar-winning actress [Field](Sally)(Sally Field). [Wells](Audrey)(Audrey Wells) (BA 1981) wrote the screenplay *[Truth About Cats & Dogs](The)(The Truth About Cats & Dogs)*, which starred Oscar-nominated actress [Thurman](Uma)(Uma Thurman). [Schamus](James)(James Schamus) (BA 1982, MA 1987, PhD 2003) has collaborated on screenplays with Oscar-winning director [Lee](Ang)(Ang Lee) on the Academy Award-winning movies *[Tiger, Hidden Dragon](Crouching)(Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon)* and *[Mountain](Brokeback)(Brokeback Mountain)*.
Collectively, alumni have won at least 20 [Awards](Academy)(Academy Awards). [Peck](Gregory)(Gregory Peck) (BA 1939), nominated for four Oscars during his career, won an Oscar for acting in *[Kill a Mockingbird](To)(To Kill a Mockingbird (film))*. [Innis](Chris)(Chris Innis) (BA 1991) won the 2010 Oscar for film editing for her work on best picture winner, *[Hurt Locker](The)(The Hurt Locker)*. [Plunkett](Walter)(Walter Plunkett) (BA 1923) won an Oscar for costume design (for *[American in Paris](An)(An American in Paris)*). [Lee Mock](Freida)(Freida Lee Mock) (BA 1961) and [H. Ferguson](Charles)(Charles H. Ferguson) (BA 1978) have eachFreida Lee Mock (BA 1961) won an Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature in 1995 for *[Lin: A Strong Clear Vision](Maya)(Maya Lin: A Strong Clear Vision)*. Charles H. Ferguson (BA 1978) won an Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature in 2011 for *[Job](Inside)(Inside Job (2010 film))*. won an Oscar for documentary filmmaking. Mark Berger (BA 1964) has won four Oscars for sound mixing and is an adjunct professor at UC Berkeley. [Head](Edith)(Edith Head) (BA 1918), who was nominated for 34 Oscars during her career, won eight Oscars for costume design. [Letteri](Joe)(Joe Letteri) (BA 1981) has won four Oscars for Best Visual Effects in the [Cameron](James)(James Cameron) film *[Avatar](Avatar (2009 film))* and the [Jackson](Peter)(Peter Jackson) films *[Kong](King)(King Kong (2005 film))*, *[Two Towers](The)(The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers)*, and *[Return of the King](The)(The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King)*.
Alumni have collectively won at least 25 [Awards](Emmy)(Emmy Awards): Jon Else (BA 1968) for cinematography; [Schneider](Andrew)(Andrew Schneider) (BA 1973) for screenwriting; Linda Schacht (BA 1966, MA 1981), two for broadcast journalism; Christine Chen (dual BA's 1990), two for broadcast journalism; Kristen Sze (BA), two for broadcast journalism; [Baker](Kathy)(Kathy Baker) (BA 1977), three for acting; Ken Milnes (BS 1977), four for broadcasting technology; and [Sievers](Leroy)(Leroy Sievers) (BA), twelve for production. [Leamy](Elisabeth)(Elisabeth Leamy) is the recipient of 13 [awards](Emmy)(Emmy Award).
Alumni have acted in classic television series that are still broadcast on TV today. [Grassle](Karen)(Karen Grassle) (BA 1965) played the mother [Ingalls](Caroline)(Caroline Ingalls) in *[House on the Prairie](Little)(Little House on the Prairie (TV series))*, [Mathers](Jerry)(Jerry Mathers) (BA 1974) starred in *[it to Beaver](Leave)(Leave it to Beaver)*, and [Dawson](Roxann)(Roxann Dawson) (BA 1980) portrayed [Torres](B'Elanna)(B'Elanna Torres) on *[Trek: Voyager](Star)(Star Trek: Voyager)*.
Former undergraduates have participated in the contemporary music industry, such as *[Dead](Grateful)(Grateful Dead)* bass guitarist [Lesh](Phil)(Phil Lesh), *[Police](The)(The Police)* drummer [Copeland](Stewart)(Stewart Copeland), *[Stone Magazine](Rolling)(Rolling Stone Magazine)* founder [Wenner](Jann)(Jann Wenner), *[Bangles](The)(The Bangles)* lead singer [Hoffs](Susanna)(Susanna Hoffs) (BA 1980), *[Crows](Counting)(Counting Crows)* lead singer [Duritz](Adam)(Adam Duritz), electronic music producer [Giraffage](Giraffage), [MTV](MTV) correspondent [Pak](Suchin)(Suchin Pak) (BA 1997), *[AFI](AFI (band))* musicians [Havok](Davey)(Davey Havok) and [Puget](Jade)(Jade Puget) (BA 1996), and solo artist [Digby](Marié)(Marié Digby) (*[It Again](Say)(Say It Again (Digby song))*). *[Magazine](People)(People Magazine)* included *[Eye Blind](Third)(Third Eye Blind)* lead singer and songwriter [Jenkins](Stephan)(Stephan Jenkins) (BA 1987) in the magazine's list of *50 Most Beautiful People*.
Alumni have also participated in the world of sports. Tennis athlete [Wills Moody](Helen)(Helen Wills Moody) (BA 1925) won 31 [Slam](Grand)(Grand Slam (tennis)) titles, including eight singles titles at [Wimbledon](The Championships, Wimbledon). [Glenn](Tarik)(Tarik Glenn) (BA 1999) is a [Bowl XLI](Super)(Super Bowl XLI) champion, and [Schwartz](Mitchell)(Mitchell Schwartz) (2011) is an All-Pro NFL offensive tackle. [Tafoya](Michele)(Michele Tafoya) (BA 1988) is a sports television reporter for [Sports](ABC)(ABC Sports) and [ESPN](ESPN). [agent](Sports)(Sports agent) [Steinberg](Leigh)(Leigh Steinberg) ( BA 1970, JD 1973) has represented professional athletes such as [Young](Steve)(Steve Young (American football)), [Aikman](Troy)(Troy Aikman), and [De La Hoya](Oscar)(Oscar De La Hoya); Steinberg has been called the real-life inspiration for the title character in the Oscar-winning*Jerry Maguire* was nominated for 5 Academy Awards, and won for Best Supporting Actor ([Gooding, Jr.](Cuba)(Cuba Gooding, Jr.)). film *[Maguire](Jerry)(Jerry Maguire)* (portrayed by [Cruise](Tom)(Tom Cruise)). [Biondi](Matt)(Matt Biondi) (BA 1988) won eight Olympic gold medals during his swimming career, in which he participated in three different Olympics. At the [Olympics](Beijing)(2008 Summer Olympics) in 2008, [Coughlin](Natalie)(Natalie Coughlin) (BA 2005) became the first American female athlete in modern Olympic history"The six medals she won are the most by an American woman in any sport, breaking the record she tied four years ago. Her career total matches the third-most by any U.S. athlete." to win six medals in one Olympics.
Berkeley alumni—often generous benefactors—have long been among the billionaire ranks, their largess giving rise to many of the campus' eponymous schools, pavilions, centers, institutes, and halls, and with some of the more prominent being [Paul Getty](J.)(J. Paul Getty), [Getty](Ann)(Ann Getty), [Diller](Sanford)(Sanford Diller) and Helen Diller, [Fisher](Donald)(Donald Fisher), [Lamson Hewlett](Flora)(Flora Lamson Hewlett), David Schwartz ([Bio-Rad](Bio-Rad)) and members of the Haas ([A. Haas](Walter)(Walter A. Haas), [Haas Goldman](Rhoda)(Rhoda Haas Goldman), [A. Haas Jr.](Walter)(Walter A. Haas Jr.), [E. Haas](Peter)(Peter E. Haas), [Haas](Bob)(Bob Haas)), Hearst, and Bechtel families. There are at least 30 living alumni billionaires: [Moore](Gordon)(Gordon Moore) (Intel founder), [Harris Simons](James)(James Harris Simons) ([Technologies](Renaissance)(Renaissance Technologies)), [Son](Masayoshi)(Masayoshi Son) (SoftBank), Jon Stryker (Stryker Medical Equipment), [Schmidt](Eric)(Eric Schmidt) (former Google Chairman) and [Schmidt](Wendy)(Wendy Schmidt), [Milken](Michael)(Michael Milken), Bassam Alghanim, Kutayba Alghanim, [Simonyi](Charles)(Charles Simonyi) (Microsoft), [Wang](Cher)(Cher Wang) (HTC), [Haas](Robert)(Bob Haas) ([Strauss & Co.](Levi)(Levi Strauss & Co.)), [Rodriguez-Pastor](Carlos)(Carlos Rodriguez-Pastor) (Interbank, Peru), [Sarofim](Fayez)(Fayez Sarofim), [S. Loeb](Daniel)(Daniel S. Loeb), [Merage](Paul)(Paul Merage), [Hindawi](David)(David Hindawi), [Hindawi](Orion)(Orion Hindawi), [Joy](Bill)(Bill Joy) (Sun Microsystems founder), [Koo](Victor)(Victor Koo), [Xu](Tony)(Tony Xu) (DoorDash), [Milken](Lowell)(Lowell Milken), [Simons](Nathaniel)(Nathaniel Simons) and Laura Baxter-Simons, Elizabeth Simons and Mark Heising, [Tinkov](Oleg)(Oleg Tinkov), Liong Tek Kwee (BS 1968), Liong Seen Kwee (BS 1974) and [Schwartz](Alice)(Alice Schwartz).
File:Douglas Engelbart in 2008.jpg|The [mouse](computer)(computer mouse) was invented by Turing Award laureate [Engelbart](Doug)(Doug Engelbart), BEng 1952, PhD 1955
File:Pedro_Nel_Ospina.jpg|President of Colombia, [Nel Ospina Vázquez](Pedro)(Pedro Nel Ospina Vázquez)
File:Robert Laughlin, Stanford University.jpg|[Laughlin](Robert)(Robert Laughlin), BA 1972, Nobel laureate
File:Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie.jpg|Turing Award laureate [Thompson](Ken)(Ken Thompson) (left), BS 1965, MS 1966, and fellow laureate and colleague [Ritchie](Dennis)(Dennis Ritchie) (right), created [Unix](Unix) together
File:Robert Penn Warren.jpg|[Penn Warren](Robert)(Robert Penn Warren), MA 1927 – novelist and poet, who received the Pulitzer Prize three times
File:KathyBaker_(cropped).jpg|[Emmy](Emmy) and [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award)–winning actress [Baker](Kathy)(Kathy Baker), BA 1977
## Controversies
* Various research ethics, human rights, and animal rights advocates have been in conflict with Berkeley. [Americans](Native)(Native Americans in the United States) contended with the school over repatriation of remains from the [A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology](Phoebe)(Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology). [Alternate URL](http://pages.ucsd.edu/~rfrank/class_web/UnivHouse/UCBs%20bones%20of%20contention.pdf). Student activists have urged the university to cut financial ties with [Foods](Tyson)(Tyson Foods) and [PepsiCo](PepsiCo). Faculty member [Chapela](Ignacio)(Ignacio Chapela) prominently criticized the university's financial ties to [Novartis](Novartis). [PETA](PETA) has challenged the university's use of animals for research and argued that it may violate the [Welfare Act](Animal)(Animal Welfare Act of 1966). |date=2022-05-17 |title='Unchecked pain and misery': PETA files complaint against campus labs |url=https://www.dailycal.org/2022/05/16/unchecked-pain-and-misery-peta-files-complaint-against-berkeley-labs/ |access-date=2022-06-23 |website=The Daily Californian |language=en-US}}
* Cal's seismically unsafe [Stadium](Memorial)(California Memorial Stadium) reopened in September 2012 after a $321 million renovation. The university incurred a controversial $445 million of debt for the stadium and a new $153 million student athletic center, which it financed with the sale of special stadium endowment seats. The roughly $18 million interest-only annual payments on the debt consumes 20 percent of Cal's athletics' budget; principal repayment begins in 2032 and is scheduled to conclude in 2113.
* On May 1, 2014, Berkeley was named one of fifty-five higher education institutions under investigation by the [Department of Education](U.S.)(U.S. Department of Education)'s [of Civil Rights](Office)(Office of Civil Rights) "for possible violations of federal law over the handling of sexual violence and harassment complaints" by the [House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault](White)(White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault). Investigations continued into 2016, with hundreds of pages of records released in April 2016, showing a pattern of documented sexual harassment and firings of non-tenured staff.
* On July 25, 2019, Berkeley was removed from the [News* Best Colleges Ranking](*U.S.)(U.S. News & World Report Best Colleges Ranking) for misreporting statistics. Berkeley had originally reported that its two-year average alumni giving rate for fiscal years 2017 and 2016 was 11.6 percent, *[News](U.S.)(U.S. News & World Report)* said. The school later told *U.S. News* the correct average alumni giving rate for the 2016 fiscal year was just 7.9 percent. The school incorrectly overstated its alumni giving data to *U.S. News* since at least 2014. The alumni giving rate accounts for five percent of the Best Colleges ranking.
* Berkeley community members have criticized UC Berkeley's increasing enrollment. Berkeley residents filed a lawsuit alleging that the university's expanding enrollment violated [Environmental Quality Act](California)(California Environmental Quality Act) and that the area lacked the infrastructure to support more students. Critics of the lawsuit accused these community members of [NIMBYism](NIMBYism). In August 2021, a judge from the [Court of Alameda County](Superior)(Superior Court of Alameda County) ruled in favor of the residents, and on March 3, 2022, the [Supreme Court](California)(California Supreme Court) also ruled in favor of the residents, saying that the university needed to freeze its admission rates at 2020–2021 levels. On March 11, 2022, state legislators released a proposal to change CEQA to exempt the university from its restrictions. On March 14, Gavin Newsom signed the bill into law. Berkeley has continued to face a housing shortage.
## See also
* [Blockeley](Blockeley)
* [Education Recruitment Consortium](Higher)(Higher Education Recruitment Consortium)
* [Shenzhen Institute](Tsinghua-Berkeley)(Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute)
## Notes
## References
## Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
## External links
*
* [California Bears Athletics website](http://www.calbears.com/)
*
*
*
is for sports colors***-->background:#003262; color:#FFFFFF;
|list =
}}
[ ](Category:University of California, Berkeley)
[establishments in California](Category:1868)(Category:1868 establishments in California)
[in Berkeley, California](Category:Education)(Category:Education in Berkeley, California)
[institutions established in 1868](Category:Educational)(Category:Educational institutions established in 1868)
[universities in the United States](Category:Flagship)(Category:Flagship universities in the United States)
[universities and colleges](Category:Land-grant)(Category:Land-grant universities and colleges)
[of California, Berkeley](University)(Category:Public universities and colleges in California)
[accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges](Category:Schools)(Category:Schools accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges)
[and colleges in Alameda County, California](Category:Universities)(Category:Universities and colleges in Alameda County, California)
[Berkeley](Category:University of California campuses)
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Lee–Enfield
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lee–enfield
|
# Lee–Enfield
*Revision ID: 1160332193 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T20:29:28Z*
---
Lee rifle|and|Enfield rifle (disambiguation)}}
| used_by = See *[Users](#Users)*
| wars = |[Crisis](Suez)(Suez Crisis)|[War](Algerian)(Algerian War)|[Colonial War](Portuguese)(Portuguese Colonial War)|[Crisis](Congo)(Congo Crisis)|[of Mengo Hill](Battle)(Battle of Mengo Hill)|[La and Cho La clashes](Nathu)(Nathu La and Cho La clashes)|[Civil War](Nigerian)(Nigerian Civil War)|[War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War)|
[Bush War](Rhodesian)(Rhodesian Bush War)|[intercommunal violence](Cypriot)(Cypriot intercommunal violence)|[Troubles](The)(The Troubles)|[War](Sino-Indian)(Sino-Indian War)|[Rebellion](Dhofar)(Dhofar Rebellion)|[Revolution](Zanzibar)(Zanzibar Revolution)|[Civil War](Chadian)(Chadian Civil War (1965–79))| [Liberation War](Bangladesh)(Bangladesh Liberation War)|[invasion of Cyprus](Turkish)(Turkish invasion of Cyprus)|[War](Uganda–Tanzania)(Uganda–Tanzania War)|[War](Soviet–Afghan)(Soviet–Afghan War)|[Civil War](Nepalese)(Nepalese Civil War)|[conflict](Afghanistan)(War in Afghanistan (2001–present))|[War](Iraq)(Iraq War)}}
| designer = [Paris Lee](James)(James Paris Lee), [Enfield](RSAF)(Royal Small Arms Factory)
| production_date =
| number = 17,000,000+
| variants = See [Models/marks](#Models/marks of Lee–Enfield rifle and service periods)
| weight = (Mk I)
* (Mk III)
* (No. 4)}}
| length =
* **SMLE No. 1 Mk III:**
* **Rifle No. 4 Mk I:**
* **LEC:**
* **Rifle No. 5 Mk I:** }}
| part_length =
* **SMLE No. 1 Mk III:**
* **Rifle No. 4 Mk I:**
* **LEC:**
* **Rifle No. 5 Mk I:** }}
| cartridge = [Mk VII SAA Ball](.303)(.303 British)
| action = [Bolt-action](Bolt-action)
| rate = 20–30 aimed shots per minute
| velocity =
| range =
| max_range =
| feed = 10-round magazine, loaded with 5-round charger clips
| sights = Sliding ramp rear sights, fixed-post front sights, "dial" long-range volley; telescopic sights on sniper models. Fixed and adjustable aperture sights incorporated onto later variants
}}
The **Lee–Enfield** or **Enfield**[Britannica.com](https://www.britannica.com/technology/Enfield-rifle) is a [bolt-action](Bolt action), [magazine](Magazine (firearms))-fed [rifle](repeating)(repeating rifle) that served as the main [firearm](firearm) of the military forces of the [Empire](British)(British Empire) and [Commonwealth](Commonwealth of Nations) during the first half of the 20th century, and was the [Army](British)(British Army)'s standard rifle from its official adoption in 1895 until 1957. The WWI versions are often referred to as the "SMLE", which is short for the common "Short, Magazine, Lee–Enfield" variant.
A redesign of the [Lee–Metford](Lee–Metford) (adopted by the British Army in 1888), the Lee–Enfield superseded the earlier [Martini–Henry](Martini–Henry), [Martini–Enfield](Martini–Enfield), and [Lee-Metford](Lee-Metford) rifles. It featured a ten-round box magazine which was loaded with the [British](.303)(.303 British) [cartridge](Cartridge (firearms)) manually from the top, either one round at a time or by means of five-round [chargers](stripper clip). The Lee–Enfield was the standard issue weapon to rifle companies of the British Army, colonial armies (such as India and parts of Africa), and other Commonwealth nations in both the [First](World War I) and [World Wars](Second)(World War II) (such as Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Canada). Although officially replaced in the UK with the [SLR](L1A1)(L1A1 Self-Loading Rifle) in 1957, it remained in widespread British service until the early/mid-1960s and the [mm](7.62)(7.62x51mm NATO) [L42A1](L42A1) sniper variant remained in service until the 1990s. As a standard-issue infantry rifle, it is still found in service in the armed forces of some Commonwealth nations, notably with the Bangladesh Police, which makes it the second longest-serving military bolt-action rifle still in official service, after the [Mosin–Nagant](Mosin–Nagant) (Mosin-Nagant [receivers](Receiver (firearms)) are used in the Finnish [Tkiv 85](7.62)(7.62 Tkiv 85)). Total production of all Lee–Enfields is estimated at over 17 million rifles.
The Lee–Enfield takes its name from the designer of the rifle's bolt system—[Paris Lee](James)(James Paris Lee)—and the location where its [rifling](rifling) design was created—the [Small Arms Factory](Royal)(Royal Small Arms Factory) in [Enfield](London Borough of Enfield).
## Design and history
The Lee–Enfield rifle was derived from the earlier Lee–Metford, a mechanically similar [black-powder](Black powder) rifle, which combined [Paris Lee](James)(James Paris Lee)'s rear-locking bolt system that had a barrel featuring rifling designed by [Ellis Metford](William)(William Ellis Metford). The bolt has a relatively short bolt throw and features rear-mounted lugs, and the bolt operating handle places the bolt knob just rearwards of the trigger at a favourable ergonomic position close to the operator's hand. The action features helical locking surfaces (the technical term is [threading](interrupted)(Interrupted screw)). This means that final [headspace](Headspace (firearms)) is not achieved until the bolt handle is turned down all the way. Helical locking lugs were probably used both to allow the chambering of imperfect or dirty ammunition and also so that the closing cam action is distributed over the entire mating faces of both bolt and receiver lugs. This is one reason the bolt closure feels smooth. The rifle was also equipped with a detachable sheet-steel, 10-round, double-column magazine, a very modern development in its day. Originally, the concept of a detachable magazine was opposed in some [Army](British)(British Army) circles, as some feared that the private soldier might be likely to lose the magazine during field campaigns. Early models of the Lee–Metford and Lee–Enfield even used a short length of chain to secure the magazine to the rifle. To further facilitate rapid aimed fire the rifle can be cycled by most riflemen without loss of sight picture.
These design features facilitate rapid cycling and fire compared to other bolt-action designs like the Mauser. The Lee bolt-action and 10-round [magazine](Magazine (firearms)) capacity enabled a well-trained rifleman to perform the "[minute](mad)(mad minute)" firing 20 to 30 aimed rounds in 60 seconds, making the Lee–Enfield the fastest military bolt-action rifle of the day. The current world record for aimed bolt-action fire was set in 1914 by a musketry instructor in the British Army—Sergeant Instructor Snoxall—who placed 38 rounds into a target at in one minute. Some straight-pull bolt-action rifles were thought faster but lacked the simplicity, reliability, and generous magazine capacity of the Lee–Enfield. Several First World War accounts tell of British troops repelling German attackers who subsequently reported that they had encountered machine guns, when in fact it was simply a group of well-trained riflemen armed with SMLE Mk III rifles.
[[File:.303ammunition.jpeg|thumb|right|Standard Mk VII [cartridge](.303-inch)(.303 British) for Lee–Enfield rifle]]
The Lee–Enfield was adapted to fire the .303 British service cartridge, a rimmed, high-powered rifle round. Experiments with [powder](smokeless)(smokeless powder) in the existing Lee–Metford [cartridge](Cartridge (firearms)) seemed at first to be a simple upgrade, but the greater heat and pressure generated by the new smokeless powder wore away the shallow and rounded Metford rifling after approximately 6,000 rounds. Replacing this with a new square-shaped rifling system designed at the [Small Arms Factory](Royal)(Royal Small Arms Factory) (RSAF) [Enfield](London Borough of Enfield) solved the problem, and the Lee–Enfield was born.
### Models/marks of Lee–Enfield rifle and service periods
## Magazine Lee–Enfield
[[bolt-action (AM 1962.132-1).jpg|thumb|right|A Magazine Lee Enfield Mk I* rifle ("Long Tom"), used in the Second Boer War by the New Zealand Mounted Rifles](File:Rifle,)]
The Lee–Enfield rifle was introduced in November 1895 as the *.303 calibre, Rifle, Magazine, Lee–Enfield*, or more commonly *Magazine Lee–Enfield*, or *MLE* (sometimes spoken as "emily" instead of M, L, E). The next year, a shorter version was introduced as the *Lee–Enfield cavalry carbine Mk I*, or **LEC**, with a barrel as opposed to the one in the "long" version. Both underwent a minor upgrade series in 1899 (the omission of the cleaning / clearing rod), becoming the Mk I*. Many LECs (and LMCs in smaller numbers) were converted to special patterns, namely the *New Zealand carbine* and the *Royal Irish Constabulary carbine*, or NZ and RIC [carbine](carbine)s, respectively. Some of the MLEs (and MLMs) were converted to load from [chargers](stripper clip), and designated *Charger Loading Lee–Enfields*, or *CLLEs*.
## Short Magazine Lee–Enfield Mk I
A shorter and lighter version of the original MLE—the *Rifle, Short, Magazine, Lee–Enfield* or *SMLE* (sometimes spoken as "Smelly," rather than "S-M-L-E")—was introduced on 1 January 1904. The barrel was now halfway in length between the original long rifle and the carbine, at 25.2 inches (640 mm). The SMLE's visual trademark was its blunt nose, with only the bayonet boss protruding a small fraction of an inch beyond the nosecap, being modelled on the Swedish Model 1894 cavalry carbine. The new rifle also incorporated a charger loading system,LOC § 11715 another innovation borrowed from the Mauser rifle and notably different from the fixed "bridge" that later became the standard: a charger clip (stripper clip) guide on the face of the bolt head. The shorter length was controversial at the time; many rifle association members and gunsmiths were concerned that the shorter barrel would not be as accurate as the longer MLE barrels, that the recoil would be much greater and the sighting radius would be too short.
## Short Magazine Lee–Enfield Mk III
[[Mk III (No 1 Mk 3) - AM.032056.jpg|thumb|Short Magazine Lee–Enfield No. 1 Mk. III](File:Lee-Enfield)]
[[Forces in North Africa E53.jpg|thumb|An Indian rifleman with an SMLE Mk III, Egypt, 16 May 1940](File:Commonwealth)]
[[File:Mishmar HaEmek.JPG|thumb|Women training at Mishmar HaEmek kibbutz with SMLE Mk IIIs during the [Arab–Israeli War](1948)(1948 Arab–Israeli War)]]
[[cut-off on an SMLE Mk III rifle. This feature was removed on the Mk III* rifle.](File:SMLEAction.jpg|thumb|Magazine)]
The best-known Lee–Enfield rifle, the *SMLE Mk III*, was introduced on 26 January 1907, along with a [1907 bayonet](Pattern)(Pattern 1907 bayonet) and featured a simplified rear sight arrangement and a fixed, rather than a bolt-head-mounted sliding, charger guide. The design of the handguards and the magazine were also improved and the chamber was adapted to fire the new Mk VII high velocity [spitzer](spitzer (bullet)) .303 ammunition. Many early models, Magazine Lee–Enfields (MLEs), Magazine Lee–Metfords (MLMs) and SMLEs, were rebuilt to the Mk III standard. These are called "Mk IV Cond.", with various asterisks denoting subtypes.
During the First World War, the SMLE Mk III was found to be too complicated to manufacture (an SMLE Mk III rifle cost the British government [£3/15/–](£sd) = £), and demand outstripped supply; in late 1915 the *Mk III** was introduced incorporating several changes, the most prominent of which were the deletion of the [cut-off](magazine)(Magazine (firearms)#Magazine cut-off) mechanism, which when engaged permits the feeding and extraction of single cartridges only while keeping the cartridges in the magazine in reserve, and the long-range volley sights. The windage adjustment of the rear sight was also dispensed with, and the cocking piece was changed from a round knob to a serrated slab. Rifles with some or all of these features present are found, as the changes were implemented at different times in different factories and as stocks of parts were depleted. The magazine cut-off was reinstated after the First World War ended, and not entirely dispensed with in manufacturing until 1933; some rifles with cut-offs remained into the 1960s.
The inability of the principal manufacturers ([Enfield](RSAF)(Royal Small Arms Factory), [Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited](the)(Birmingham Small Arms) and [Small Arms Co. Ltd](London)(London Small Arms Co. Ltd)) to meet military production demands led to the development of the "peddled scheme", which contracted out the production of whole rifles and rifle components to several shell companies. As a result, the production was quadrupled in the first year of the war from slightly over 100 thousands annually before the war.
The SMLE Mk III* (renamed Rifle No.1 Mk III* in 1926) saw extensive service throughout the Second World War, especially in the North African, Italian, Pacific and Burmese theatres in the hands of British and Commonwealth forces. Australia and India retained and manufactured the SMLE Mk III* as their standard rifle during the conflict, and the rifle remained in Australian military service through the [War](Korean)(Korean War), until it was replaced by the [SLR](L1A1)(L1A1 Self-Loading Rifle#Australia) in the late 1950s. The [Small Arms Factory](Lithgow)(Lithgow Small Arms Factory) finally ceased production of the SMLE Mk III* in 1953.
The [Factory Ishapore](Rifle)(Rifle Factory Ishapore) at Ishapore in India produced the Mk III* in .303 British, and then the model 2A, with strength increased by heat treatment of the receiver and bolt to fire [NATO](7.62×51mm)(7.62×51mm NATO) ammunition, retaining the 2,000-yard rear sight as the metric conversion of distance was very close to the flatter trajectory of the new ammunition. The model 2|A1 changed the rear sight to 800 m, and was manufactured until at least the 1980s; a sporting rifle based on the Mk III* action remained in production.
The rifle became known simply as the "three-oh-three".
### Pattern 1913 Enfield
Due to the poor performance of the [British](.303)(.303 British) cartridge during the [Boer War](Second)(Second Boer War) from 1899 to 1902, the British attempted to replace the round and the Lee–Enfield rifle that fired it. The main deficiency of the rounds at the time was that they used heavy, round-nosed bullets that had low muzzle velocities and poor ballistic performance. The [Mauser](7×57mm)(7×57mm Mauser) rounds fired from the [Model 1895](Mauser)(Mauser Model 1895) rifle had a higher velocity, flatter trajectory and longer range, making them superior for the open plains of South Africa. Work on a long-range replacement cartridge began in 1910 and resulted in the [Enfield](.276)(.276 Enfield) in 1912. A new rifle based on the Mauser design was created to fire the round, called the [1913 Enfield](Pattern)(Pattern 1913 Enfield). Although the .276 Enfield had better ballistics, trials by British Army soldiers in 1913 revealed problems including excessive recoil, muzzle flash, barrel wear and overheating. It was hoped that a propellant with a lower burning temperature would be an improvement, but the onset of the [World War](First)(First World War) in 1914 ended development before a suitable propellant could be found. Wartime demand and the improved Mk VII loading of the .303 round caused the Lee–Enfield to be retained for service.[THE .256 INCH BRITISH: A LOST OPPORTUNITY by Anthony G Williams](http://www.quarry.nildram.co.uk/256brit.htm)
## Inter-war period
[[No4 Mk1 Longbranch rear sights.JPG|thumb|Lee–Enfield No. 4 Mk I Long Branch aperture sights](File:Enfield)]
In 1926, the British Army changed its nomenclature; the SMLE became known as the *Rifle No. 1 Mk III* or *III**, with the original MLE and LEC becoming obsolete along with the earlier SMLE models. Many Mk III and III* rifles were converted to [rimfire](.22)(.22 rimfire) calibre training rifles, and designated *Rifle No. 2*, of varying marks. (The Pattern 1914 became the *Rifle No. 3*.)
## Lee–Enfield No. 1 Mk V
The SMLE design was relatively expensive to manufacture, because of the many [forging](forging) and [machining](machining) operations required. In the 1920s, a series of experiments were carried out to help with these problems, resulting in design changes which reduced the number of complex parts and refining manufacturing processes. The *SMLE Mk V* (later *Rifle No. 1 Mk V*), adopted a new [receiver](Receiver (firearms))-mounted aperture sighting system, which moved the rear sight from its former position on the barrel. The increased gap resulted in an improved sighting radius, improving sighting accuracy and the aperture improved speed of sighting over various distances. In the stowed position, a fixed distance aperture battle sight calibrated for protruded saving further precious seconds when laying the sight to a target. An alternative developed during this period was to be used on the No. 4 variant, a "battle sight" was developed that allowed for two set distances of 300 yards and 600 yards to be quickly deployed and was cheaper to produce than the "ladder sight". The magazine cutoff was also reintroduced and an additional band was added near the muzzle for additional strength during bayonet use.
Long before the No. 4 Mk I, Britain had obviously settled on the rear aperture sight prior to WWI, with modifications to the SMLE being tested as early as 1911, as well as later on the No. 1 Mk III pattern rifle. These unusual rifles have something of a mysterious service history, but represent a missing link in SMLE development. The primary distinguishing feature of the No. 1 Mk V is the rear aperture sight. Like the No. 1 Mk III* it lacked a volley sight and had the wire loop in place of the sling swivel at the front of magazine well along with the simplified cocking piece. The Mk V did retain a magazine cut-off, but without a spotting hole, the piling swivel was kept attached to a forward barrel band, which was wrapped over and attached to the rear of the nose cap to reinforce the rifle for use with the standard Pattern 1907 bayonet. Other distinctive features include a nose cap screw was slotted for the width of a coin for easy removal, a safety lever on the left side of the receiver was slightly modified with a unique angular groove pattern, and the two-piece hand guard being extended from the nose cap to the receiver, omitting the barrel mounted leaf sight. The design was found to be even more complicated and expensive to manufacture than the Mk III and was not developed or issued, beyond a trial production of about 20,000 rifles between 1922 and 1924 at [Enfield](RSAF)(Royal Small Arms Factory) all of which marked with a "V".
The *No. 1 Mk VI* also introduced a heavier "floating barrel" that was independent of the forearm, allowing the barrel to expand and contract without contacting the forearm and interfering with the "zero", the correlation between the alignment of the barrel and the sights. The floating barrel increased the accuracy of the rifle by allowing it to vibrate freely and consistently, whereas wooden forends in contact with barrels, if not properly fitted, affected the harmonic vibrations of the barrel. The receiver-mounted rear sights and magazine cutoff were also present and 1,025 units were produced in the 1930 period.
## Rifle No. 4
[[No 4 Mk I (1943) - AM.032027.jpg|thumb|300px|Lee–Enfield No. 4 Mk I](File:Lee-Enfield)]
[[File:EnfieldNo4Mk2-303Brit.jpg|thumb|300px|Lee–Enfield No. 4 Mk 2 with the ladder aperture sight flipped up and 5-round [charger](stripper clip)]]
In the early 1930s, a batch of 2,500 No. 4 Mk. I rifles was made for trials. These were similar to the No. 1 Mk. VI but had a flat left side and did away with the chequering on the furniture. Observed examples are dated 1931 and 1933. Roughly 1,400 of these were converted to No. 4 MK. I (T) sniper rifles in 1941–1942 at RSAF Enfield.
By the late 1930s, the need for new rifles grew and the *Rifle, No. 4 Mk I* was officially adopted in 1941. The No. 4 action was similar to the No.1 Mk VI but stronger and easier to mass-produce. Unlike the SMLE, that had a nose cap, the No 4 Lee–Enfield barrel protruded from the end of the forestock. For easier machining, the charger bridge was no longer rounded.
The [sight](iron)(iron sight) line was redesigned and featured a rear receiver aperture battle sight calibrated for with an additional ladder aperture sight that could be flipped up and was calibrated for in increments. This sight, like other aperture sights, proved to be faster and more accurate than the typical mid-barrel open rear sight elements sight lines offered by Mauser, previous Lee–Enfields or the Buffington battle sight of the [Springfield](M1903)(M1903 Springfield).
The No. 4 rifle was heavier than the No. 1 Mk. III, largely due to its heavier barrel. A new bayonet was designed to go with the rifle: a [bayonet](spike)(spike bayonet) the [4 bayonet](No.)(No. 4 Bayonet), essentially a steel rod with a sharp point, nicknamed "pigsticker" by soldiers. Towards the end of the Second World War, a bladed bayonet was developed for the No.5 Mk.I rifle ("jungle carbine"). Post-war versions were made that would fit No. 4 rifles and were designated No. 7 and No. 9 blade bayonets.
During the course of the Second World War, the No. 4 rifle was further simplified for mass-production with the creation of the *No. 4 Mk I** in 1942, with the bolt release catch replaced by a simpler notch on the bolt track of the rifle's receiver. It was produced only by Small Arms Limited at Long Branch in Canada, and Stevens-Savage Firearms in the US. The No.4 rifle was primarily produced for the United Kingdom, Canada and some other Commonwealth countries including New Zealand. In 1943 it cost £7 15s (£) to produce By comparison, a [Sten](Sten) Mk II submachine gun cost £2 10s (£).
In the years after the Second World War, the British produced the *No. 4 Mk 2* (Arabic numerals replaced Roman numerals in official names in 1944) rifle, a refined and improved No. 4 rifle with the trigger hung forward from the butt collar and not from the trigger guard, beech wood stocks (with the original reinforcing strap and centre piece of wood in the rear of the forestock on the No.4 Mk I/Mk I* being removed in favour of a tie screw and nut) and brass "gunmetal" buttplates (during the war the British, Americans and Canadians replaced the brass buttplates on the No.4 rifles with a zinc alloy ([Zamak](Zamak)) type to reduce costs and speed production). Near the end of the war and after, Canada made blued steel buttplates. With the introduction of the No. 4 Mk 2 rifle, the British refurbished many of their No. 4 rifles and brought them up to the same standard as the No. 4 Mk 2. The No. 4 Mk 1 rifles were renamed *No. 4 Mk I/2*, while No. 4 Mk I* rifles that were brought up to Mk 2 standard were renamed *No. 4 Mk I/3*.
The refurbishment of the No.4 MkIs and No.4 MkI*s to the No.4 Mk2 specifications were done during the 1950s at ROF Fazakerley and BSA Shirley. The No.4 rifles refurbished at ROF Fazakerley were for British military use while No.4 rifles refurbished at BSA Shirley were for commercial sale to various British Commonwealth countries and to civilian rifle shooters in the UK and the Commonwealth.
## Rifle No. 5 Mk I—the "jungle carbine"
[[File:Lee-Enfield no 5-IMG 6559-white.jpg|thumb|Rifle No. 5 on display at the [Regiment and Airborne Forces Museum](Parachute)(Parachute Regiment and Airborne Forces Museum)]]
Later in the war, the need for a shorter, lighter rifle forced the development of the *Rifle, No. 5 Mk I* (the "[carbine](jungle)(Jungle Carbine)"). With a cut-down stock, a prominent [hider](flash)(flash hider), and a "lightening-cut" receiver machined to remove all unnecessary metal, reduced barrel length of the No. 5 was shorter and lighter. Despite a rubber butt-pad, the .303 round produced excessive recoil due to the shorter barrel. It was unsuitable for general issue and production ceased in 1947, due to an "inherent fault in the design", often claimed to be a "[zero](wandering)(Jungle Carbine#Wandering Zero)" and accuracy problems.
The No. 5 [sight](iron)(iron sight) line was similar to the No. 4 Mark I and featured a rear receiver aperture battle sight calibrated for with an additional ladder aperture sight that could be flipped up and was calibrated for in increments. The No. 5 Mk I was popular with soldiers owing to its light weight, portability and shorter length than a standard Lee–Enfield rifle. The No. 5 was first issued to the British [Airborne Division](1st)(1st Airborne Division (United Kingdom)) and used during its liberation of Denmark [Norway](and)(Operation Doomsday) in 1945. BSA-Shirley, Birmingham produced 81,329 rifles and ROF Fazakerley, Liverpool 169,807 rifles. It was equipped with a [5 Mk. I blade bayonet](No.)(No. 5 Bayonet) which had a large muzzle ring to fit over the flash hider. The No. 7 Mk. I/L bayonet, which has a rotating handle and a large ring on the cross-guard was not for the No. 5 Mk. I rifle as many collectors believe.
An Australian experimental version of the No. 5 Mk I, designated *Rifle, No. 6, Mk I* was also developed, using an SMLE MK III* as a starting point (as opposed to the No. 4 Mk I used to develop the No. 5 Mk I). The Australian military was not permitted to manufacture the No. 4 Mk I, because the [Small Arms Factory](Lithgow)(Lithgow Small Arms Factory) was producing the SMLE Mk III. The No. 6 Mk I never entered full production and examples are rare and valuable to collectors. A "shortened and lightened" version of the SMLE Mk III* rifle was also tested by the Australian military and a very small number were manufactured at SAF Lithgow during the course of the Second World War.
The term "jungle carbine" was popularised in the 1950s by the [Fe Arms Corporation](Santa)(Santa Fe Arms Corporation), a U.S. importer which refurbished many surplus rifles, converting many of the No. 4 marks, in the hope of increasing sales of a rifle that had little U.S. market penetration. It was never an official military designation but British and Commonwealth troops serving in the [Burmese](Burma campaign) and Pacific theatres during World War II had been known to unofficially refer to the No. 5 Mk I as a "jungle carbine". The No. 4 and No. 5 rifles served in the [War](Korean)(Korean War) (as did the No.1 Mk III* SMLE and sniper "T" variants, mostly with Australian troops).
## Lee–Enfield conversions and training models
### Sniper rifles
[[File:Sergeant H.A. Marshall of the Sniper Section, The Calgary Highlanders.jpg|thumb|Canadian [sniper](sniper) [Harold Marshall](Sergeant)(Harold Marshall (Canadian sniper)) carries a No. 4 Mk. I (T) chambered in .303 British]]
[[sniper rifle chambered in 7.62×51mm NATO](File:L42A1-Large.png|thumb|L42A1)]
During both World Wars and the Korean War, a number of Lee–Enfield rifles were modified for use as [rifle](sniper)(sniper rifle)s. The [Army](Australian)(Australian Army) modified 1,612 Lithgow SMLE No. 1 Mk. III* rifles by adding a heavy target barrel, cheek-piece, and a World War I era Pattern 1918 telescope, creating the *SMLE No. 1 Mk. III* (HT)*. (HT standing for "heavy barrel, telescopic sight), which saw service in the Second World War, Korea, and Malaya and was used for sniper training through to the late 1970s.
During the Second World War, standard No. 4 rifles, selected for their accuracy during factory tests, were modified by the addition of a wooden cheek rising-piece, and telescopic sight mounts designed to accept a No. 32 3.5× telescopic sight. The telescopic sight had a field of view of 8 degrees 20 minutes and featured a [drop compensation](bullet)(telescopic sight#Bullet drop compensation) range drum on top of the sight graduated in increments from 0 to . Side adjustments in 2 [MOA](Minute and second of arc#Firearms) increments were made by the drum mounted at the side of the sight. These rifles were designated as the No. 4 Mk. I (T). The accuracy requirement was ability to place seven of seven shots in a circle at and six of seven shots in a circle at . The wooden cheek-piece was attached with two screws. The rear "battle sight" was ground off to make room to attach the No. 32 telescope sight to the left side of the receiver. Each No. 32 and its bracket (mount) were matched and serial numbered to a specific rifle.
In British service, the No. 32 telescope progressed through three marks with the Mk. I introduced in 1942, the Mk. II in 1943 which offered side adjustments in finer 1 MOA increments, and finally the Mk. III (Mk. 3) in 1944 which had an improved field of view of 8 degrees 30 minutes.[The Lee-Enfield Rifle, London, Reading and Fakenham,Cox and Wyman Limited, 1960, Major E. G. B. Reynold, p. 170-172](http://www.nzha.co.nz/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/The-Lee-Enfield-Rifle-Major-E-G-B-Reynolds-19601.pdf) A transitional model the No. 32 Mk. 2/1 was also made. The Canadian scopes made by Research Enterprises Limited and were prefixed with a letter *C* and went through C No. 32 Mk. I, Mk. I A (a transitional model), Mk. II and Mk. 3. Many Mk. 3s and Mk. 2/1s (Mk. 2s Modified to Mk. 3 standard) were later modified for use with the 7.62×51mm NATO [L42A1](L42A1) sniper rifle. They were then known by the designation *Telescope Straight, Sighting L1A1*.
Initial production was 1,403 conversions of 1931–1933 troop trials No. 4 Mk. I rifles at RSAF Enfield and a few others including Stevens-Savage No. 4s. These were converted in late 1941 and into the later part of 1942. Then, the work was assigned to [& Holland](Holland)(Holland & Holland), the famous British sporting gun manufacturers, which converted about 23,000 No. 4 Mk. I (T) and No. 4 Mk. I* (T) sniper rifles. The Holland & Holland conversions usually have the contractor code "S51" on the underside of the buttstock. BSA Shirley undertook 100 conversions to .22". James Purdey and Sons fitted special buttstocks later in the war. About 3,000 rifles, mostly Stevens-Savage, appear to have been partially converted by Holland & Holland but never received brackets, scopes of the final "T" mark. Canada converted about 1,588 rifles at Small Arms Limited (to the end of 1945) and, in 1946, at Canadian Arsenals Limited. Both were located at Long Branch, Ontario. Most of the Canadian made No.4 Mk.I* (T) sniper equipments went into British service. The No.4 (T) rifles were extensively employed in various conflicts until the late 1960s.
The British military switched over to the [NATO](7.62×51mm)(7.62×51mm NATO) round in the 1950s; starting in 1970, over 1,000 of the No. 4 Mk I (T) and No. 4 Mk. I* (T) sniper rifles were converted to this new calibre and designated *[L42A1](L42A1)*. The L42A1 sniper rifle continued as the British Army's standard sniper weapon being phased out by 1993, and replaced by [International's L96](Accuracy)(Accuracy International Arctic Warfare).
### .22 training rifles
Numbers of Lee–Enfield rifles were converted to [calibre](.22)(.22 calibre) training rifles, in order to teach cadets and new recruits the various aspects of shooting, firearms safety, and marksmanship at a markedly reduced cost per round. Initially, rifles were converted from obsolete Magazine Lee–Metford and Magazine Lee–Enfield rifles but from the First World War onwards SMLE rifles were used instead. These were known as *.22 Pattern 1914 short rifles* during The First World War and *Rifle, No. 2 Mk. IV*[http://www.rifleman.org.uk/Enfield_Rifle_No.2.html] from 1921 onwards. They were generally single-shot affairs, originally using Morris tubes chambered for the cheap .22L cartridge and some larger types, circa 1907. Some were later modified with special adaptors to enable magazine loading. In 1914, Enfield produced complete .22 barrels and bolts specifically for converting .303 units, and these soon became the most common conversion. A five-round .22 cal Parker-Hiscock magazine was also developed and in service for a relatively short period during the later period of the First World War, but was subsequently withdrawn from issue due to reliability problems with its quite complicated loading and feeding mechanisms. No. 2 Mk. IV rifles are externally identical to .303 calibre SMLE Mk III* rifles, the only difference being the .22 calibre barrel, empty magazine case, bolthead and extractor which have been modified to fire .22 calibre rimfire cartridges.
After the Second World War, the *Rifle, No. 7*, *[No. 8](Rifle,)(No.8 rifle)* and *Rifle, No. 9*, all .22 rimfire trainers and target rifles based on the Lee action, were adopted or in use with cadet units and target shooters throughout the Commonwealth, the No.8 as of 2017 has been replaced among cadet forces due to obsolescence.
In Britain, a .22RF version of the No.5 rifle was prototyped by BSA and trialled with a view to it becoming the British Service training rifle when the .303" CF No.5 was initially mooted as being a potential replacement for the No.4 rifle.
The *C No.7 22" MK.I rifle* is a .22 single-shot, manually fed, training version of the No.4 Mk I* rifle manufactured at Long Branch. Production of this model was 1944–1946 and a few in 1950 to 1953.
### Muskets and shotguns
Conversion of rifles to smoothbore guns was carried out in several locations, at various times, for varying reasons.
SAF Lithgow, in Australia, produced shotguns based on the MkIII action under the "Slazenger" name, chambering the common commercial .410 shotgun shell. Commercial gunsmiths in Australia and Britain converted both MkIII and No. 4 rifles to .410 shotguns. These conversions were prompted by firearms legislation that made possession of a rifle chambered in a military cartridge both difficult and expensive. Smoothbore shotguns could be legally held with far less trouble.
RFI, in India, converted a large number of MkIII rifles to single-shot muskets, chambered for the .410 Indian musket cartridge. These conversions were for issue to police and prison guards, to provide a firearm with a much-reduced power and range in comparison to the .303 cartridge. A further likely consideration was the difficulty of obtaining replacement ammunition in the event of the rifle's theft or the carrier's desertion.
While British and Australian conversions were to the standard commercially available .410 shotgun cartridge (though of varying chamber lengths) the Indian conversions have been the source of considerable confusion. The Indian conversions were originally chambered for the .410 Indian musket cartridge, which is based on the .303 British cartridge, and will not chamber the common .410 shotgun cartridge. Many of these muskets were rechambered, after being sold as surplus, and can now be used with commercially available ammunition. Unmodified muskets require handloading of ammunition, as the .410 Indian Musket cartridge was not commercially distributed and does not appear to have been manufactured since the 1950s.
Numerous attempts have been made to convert the various single-shot .410 shotgun models to a bolt-action repeating model by removing the wooden magazine plug and replacing it with a standard 10-round SMLE magazine. None of these is known to have been successful, though some owners have adapted three-round magazines for Savage and Stevens shotguns to function in a converted SMLE shotgun, or even placing such a magazine inside a gutted SMLE magazine.
### Civilian conversions and variants
From the late 1940s, legislation in New South Wales, Australia, heavily restricted .303 British calibre (and other "military calibre") rifles, so large numbers of SMLEs were converted to "wildcat" calibres such as [.303/25](.303/25), [.303/22](.303/22), .303/270 and the popular [7.7×54mm](7.7×54mm) round. 303/25 calibre sporterised SMLEs are very common in Australia today, although ammunition for them has been very scarce since the 1980s. The restrictions placed on "military calibre" rifles in New South Wales were lifted in 1975, and many people who had converted their Lee–Enfields to the "wildcat" rounds converted their rifles back to .303 British. Post-Second World War, SAF Lithgow converted a number of SMLE rifles to commercial sporting rifles- notably the .22 Hornet model- under the "Slazenger" brand.
In the early 1950s Essential Agencies Ltd. (E.A.L.), of Toronto, Ontario, produced a run of several thousand survival rifles based on the No. 4 action, but lightened and shortened, chambered in .303 British. Serial numbers below 6000 were for civilian sale, serial numbers 6000 and higher were built under contract to the Canadian government. The Royal Canadian Air Force also used these as a survival rifle in the remote parts of Canada.
### L59A1 Drill Rifle
The L59A1 was a conversion of the No. 4 rifle (all marks) to a [purpose rifle](drill)(drill purpose rifle) that was incapable of being restored to a firing configuration. It was introduced in service in the 1970s. A conversion specification of No. 1 rifles to L59A2 drill purpose was also prepared but was abandoned due to the greater difficulty of machining involved and the negligible numbers still in the hands of cadet units.
The L59A1 arose from British government concerns over the vulnerability of the Army Cadet Force and school [Cadet Force](Combined)(Combined Cadet Force)s' (CCF) stocks of small arms to theft by terrorists, in particular the [Republican Army](Irish)(Irish Republican Army) following raids on CCF armouries in the 1950s and 1960s. Previous conversions to drill purpose (DP) of otherwise serviceable rifles were not considered to be sufficiently incapable of restoration to fireable state and were a potential source of reconversion spares.
L59A1 drill rifles were rendered incapable of being fired, and of being restored to a fireable form, by extensive modifications that included the welding of the barrel to the receiver, modifications to the receiver that removed the supporting structures for the bolt's locking lugs and blocking the installation of an unaltered bolt, the removal of the striker's tip, the blocking of the striker's hole in the bolt head and the removal of most of the bolt body's locking lugs. Most bolts were copper plated for identification. A plug was welded in place forward of the chamber, and a window was cut in the side of the barrel. The stock and fore end were marked with broad white painted bands (often with red bands, and also rarely seen blue bands or stripes) and the letters *DP* for easy identification.
## Special service Lee–Enfields: Commando and automatic models
### De Lisle commando carbine
[[File:De Lisle Rifle.jpg|thumb|left|The initial wooden-[stocked](Stock (firearm)) De Lisle with a [suppressor](suppressor)]]
The [commando](British Commandos) units of the British military requested a suppressed rifle for killing sentries, guard dogs and other clandestine operational uses during the Second World War. The resulting weapon, designed by Godfray de Lisle, was effectively an SMLE Mk III* receiver redesigned to take a [ACP](.45)(.45 ACP) cartridge and associated magazine, with a barrel from a [submachine gun](Thompson)(Thompson submachine gun) and an integrated suppressor. It was produced in very limited numbers and an experimental folding stock version was made.
### Ekins automatic rifle
The Ekins automatic rifle was one of the numerous attempts to convert a Lee–Enfield SMLE to an automatic rifle.Ian Skennerton *Special Service Lee Enfields: Commando and Auto Models* Published by Ian D Skennerton, PO Box 80, Labrador 4215, Australia, 2001. . Paperback, 48 pp, 50 plus b & w drawings and photos, 210 × 274 mm Similar developments were the South African [automatic rifle](Rieder)(Rieder automatic rifle) and the New Zealand and Australian [automatic rifle](Charlton)(Charlton automatic rifle)s.
### Howard Francis carbine
| length =
| part_length =
| cartridge = [Mauser](7.63×25mm)(7.63×25mm Mauser)
| action =
| rate = [Semi-automatic](Semi-automatic firearm)
| velocity =
| range =
| max_range =
| feed = 12-round [magazine](box)(Magazine (firearms)#Box)
| sights = [sights](Iron)(Iron sights)
}}
The Howard Francis self-loading carbine was a conversion of a No. 1 Mk III to the [Mauser](7.63×25mm)(7.63×25mm Mauser) pistol cartridge.*Special Service Lee Enfields: Commando and Auto Models* by Ian Skennerton. Published by Ian D Skennerton, 2001. . It fired in semi-automatic only and suffered some feeding and extraction problems and, despite meeting accuracy and soundness of design concept, never made it past the prototype stage.
### Howell automatic rifle
The Howell automatic rifle was the first attempt to convert the Lee–Enfield SMLE into a semi-automatic rifle. The weapon was reliable but unergonomic for the user as the force of the recoiling bolt interfered with handling.
### Rieder automatic rifle
The Rieder automatic rifle was an automatic (full automatic only) Lee–Enfield SMLE rifle of [Africa](South)(South Africa)n origin. The Rieder device could be installed straight away without the use of tools.
## Conversion to 7.62×51mm NATO
In 1954, the [Office](War)(War Office) adopted the [NATO](7.62×51mm)(7.62×51mm NATO)-calibre [Self-Loading Rifle](L1A1)(L1A1 Self-Loading Rifle) for use by frontline infantry units. While it was intended that rear-echelon and reserve units would continue to use the Lee-Enfield No. 4 in order to avoid the expense of rearming those units with the L1A1 as well, Britain's commitments as a [NATO](NATO) member meant that the .303in cartridge could no longer be used; thus, the early 1960s saw the approval of a plan to convert the Lee–Enfield No. 4 to the newer NATO cartridge. Rifles that were thus converted were re-designated as the *L8* series of rifles and refitted with 7.62×51mm NATO barrels, new bolt faces and extractor claws, new rear sights, and 7.62×51mm NATO magazines. The appearance of the L8 series rifles was no different from the original No. 4 rifles, except for the new barrel (which still retained the original No. 4 rifle bayonet lugs) and magazine. The L8 series of rifles consisted of *L8A1* rifles (converted No. 4 Mk2 rifles), *L8A1 (T)* rifles (converted No .4 Mk 1 (T) rifles), *L8A2* rifles (converted No. 4 Mk1/2 rifles), *L8A3* rifles (converted No. 4 Mk1/3 rifles), *L8A4* rifles (converted No. 4 Mk1 rifles), and *L8A5* rifles (converted No. 4 Mk1* rifles).
The results of the trials that were conducted on the L8 series rifles were mixed; the L8A1 (T) rifles fired test groups that bore no relation to those fired while they were still No. 4 Mk 1 (T) rifles nor was there any consistent accuracy between those rifles that had been chosen for conversion, while the regular L8 rifles gave a better performance but with little or no improvement over .303in weapons; consequently, the conversion programme was abandoned and what was now known as the Ministry of Defence was forced to expand the issue of L1A1 rifles to non-frontline units. However, experience from the programme, including the magazine design, was used to aid the later [L42A1](L42A1) conversion programme.
In the late 1960s, RSAF Enfield entered the commercial market by producing No. 4-based 7.62×51mm rifles for sale. The products were marketed under alliterative names e.g. Enfield Envoy, a rifle intended for civilian competition target shooting and Enfield Enforcer, a rifle fitted with a Pecar telescopic sight to suit the requirements of police firearms teams.
[Armaments](Sterling)(Sterling Armaments Company) of Dagenham, Essex. produced a conversion kit comprising a new 7.62 mm barrel, magazine, extractor and ejector for commercial sale. The main difference between the two conversions was in the cartridge ejection arrangement; the Enfield magazine carried a hardened steel projection that struck the rim of the extracted case to eject it, the Sterling system employed a spring-loaded plunger inserted into the receiver wall.
### Ishapore 2A/2A1
[[Rifle 7.62mm 2A1.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Ishapore 2A1](File:RFI)]
At some point just after the [War](Sino-Indian)(Sino-Indian War) of 1962, the Rifle Factory Ishapore in India began producing a new type of rifle known as the *Rifle 7.62 mm 2A*, which was based on the SMLE Mk III* and was slightly redesigned to use the 7.62×51mm NATO round. Externally the new rifle is very similar to the classic Mk III*, with the exception of the buttplate (the buttplate from the 1A SLR is fitted) and magazine, which is more "square" than the SMLE magazine, and usually carries twelve rounds instead of ten, although a number of 2A1s have been noted with 10-round magazines.
Ishapore 2A and Ishapore 2A1 receivers are made with improved (EN) steel (to handle the increased pressures of the 7.62×51mm round) and the extractor is redesigned to suit the rimless cartridge. From 1965 to 1975 (when production is believed to have been discontinued), the sight ranging graduations were changed from 2,000 to 800, and the rifle re-designated *Rifle 7.62 mm 2A1*. The original rear sight arm was found to be suitable for the ballistics of the 7.62×51mm, which is around 10% more powerful and equates to a flatter trajectory than that of the .303 British MkVII ammunition, so it was a simple matter to think of the *2,000* as representing metres rather than yards. It was then decided that the limit of the effective range was a more realistic proposition at 800 m.
The Ishapore 2A and 2A1 rifles are often incorrectly described as ".308 conversions". The 2A/2A1 rifles are not conversions of .303 calibre SMLE Mk III* rifles. Rather, they are newly manufactured firearms and are not technically chambered for commercial .308 Winchester ammunition. However, many 2A/2A1 owners shoot such ammunition in their rifles with no problems, although some factory loaded .308 Winchester cartridges may appear to generate higher pressures than 7.62×51mm NATO, even though the rounds are otherwise interchangeable – this is due to the different systems of pressure measurement used for NATO and commercial cartridges.
[[Delhi Police marching contingent passes through the Rajpath during the rehearsal for the celebration of 60th Republic Day -2009, in New Delhi on January 06, 2009.jpg|thumb|A Delhi Police marching contingent passes through the Rajpath during the rehearsal for the celebration of 60th Republic Day -2009 carrying the Indian version of the Lee Enfield SMLE](File:A)]
## Production and manufacturers
In total, over 16 million Lee–Enfields had been produced in several factories on different continents when production in Britain ended in 1956 at the [Ordnance Factory](Royal)(Royal Ordnance Factory) [Fazakerley](ROF)(ROF Fazakerley) in Liverpool, after that factory had been plagued with industrial unrest. The machinery from ROF Fazakerley was sold to Pakistan Ordnance Factories (POF) in [Rawalpindi](Rawalpindi) where production and repair of the No.4 Mk I started from 1952 till 1957 and then production changed over to No.4 Mk II from 1957. Also contributing to the total was the Rifle Factory Ishapore (RFI) at [Ishapore](Ishapore) in India, which continued to produce the SMLE in both .303 and 7.62×51mm NATO until the 1980s, and is still manufacturing a sporting rifle based on the SMLE Mk III action, chambered for a .315 calibre cartridge, the [Small Arms Company](Birmingham)(Birmingham Small Arms Company) factory at Shirley near [Birmingham](Birmingham), and SAF Lithgow in Australia, who finally discontinued production of the SMLE Mk III* with a final 'machinery proving' batch of 1000 rifles in early 1956, using 1953-dated receivers. During the First World War alone, 3.8 million SMLE rifles were produced in the UK by RSAF Enfield, BSA, and LSA.
[[File:LSA SMLE Band Markings smaller.jpg|thumb|right|The wristguard markings on a 1918-dated Short Magazine Lee–Enfield Mk III* rifle manufactured by the London Small Arms Co. Ltd. The "G.R." under [crown](the)(The Crown) stands for [Rex"]("George)(George V) and refers to the reigning monarch at the time the rifle was manufactured.]]
### List of manufacturers
"SSA" and "NRF" markings are sometimes encountered on First World War-dated SMLE Mk III* rifles. These stand for "Standard Small Arms" and "National Rifle Factory", respectively. Rifles so marked were assembled using parts from various other manufacturers, as part of a scheme during the First World War to boost rifle production in the UK. Only SMLE Mk III* rifles are known to have been assembled under this program.
GRI stands for "Georgius Rex, Imperator" (Latin for 'King George, Emperor (of India)', denoting a rifle made during the [Raj](British)(British Raj). RFI stands for "Rifle Factory, Ishapore", denoting a rifle made after the [of India](Partition)(Partition of India) in 1947.
Second World War UK production rifles had manufacturer codes for security reasons. For example, BSA Shirley is denoted by M47C, ROF(M) is often simply stamped "M", and BSA is simply stamped "B".
Savage-made Lee–Enfield No. 4 Mk I and No. 4 Mk I* rifles are all stamped "US property". They were supplied to the UK under the [Lend-Lease](Lend-Lease) programme during the Second World War. No Savage Lee–Enfields were ever issued to the US military; the markings existed solely to maintain the pretense that American equipment was being lent to the UK rather than permanently sold to them.
#### Australian International Arms No. 4 Mk IV
[[M10-B2 7.62 Match Rifle.jpg|thumb|alt=A rifle laid out on a cloth|AIA M10-B2 match rifle](File:AIA)]
The Brisbane-based Australian International Arms also manufactured a modern reproduction of the No. 4 Mk II rifle, which they marketed as the *AIA No. 4 Mk IV*. The rifles were manufactured by parts outsourcing and were assembled and finished in Australia, chambered in [NATO](7.62×51mm)(7.62×51mm NATO) and fed from modified [M14](M14 rifle) magazines. The No. 4 Mk IV was designed with the modern shooter in mind, and has the ability to mount a telescopic sight without drilling and tapping the receiver. AIA also offered the *AIA M10-A1* rifle, a jungle carbine-styled version chambered in [7.62×39mm](7.62×39mm) Russian, which uses [AK-47](AK-47) magazines. Magazine supply and importation (M14 and AK 10 single stack mag) whilst legal in Australia, has been spasmodically curtailed by Australian Federal Customs (for more information, see [politics in Australia](Gun)(Gun politics in Australia)). It is possible to obtain a 10-round (the maximum allowed by law) M14 magazines for the M10-B2 match rifles in particular, provided an import permit from the appropriate licensing services division can be obtained in some states, yet Australian Federal Customs may still refuse importation on no valid grounds.[Firearms Act, SCHEDULE 2, Part (8)(b)](http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/fa1996102/sch2.html), accessed 11 January 2010
### Khyber Pass copies
A number of British Service Rifles, predominantly the [Martini–Henry](Martini–Henry) and [Martini–Enfield](Martini–Enfield), but also the various Lee–Enfield rifles, have been produced by small manufacturers in the [Pass](Khyber)(Khyber Pass) region of the Pakistani-Afghan border.
"[Pass copies](Khyber)(Khyber Pass Copy)", as they are known, tend to be copied exactly from a "master" rifle, which may itself be a Khyber Pass copy, markings and all, which is why it's not uncommon to see Khyber Pass rifles with the *N* in "Enfield" reversed, amongst other things.
The quality on such rifles varies from "as good as a factory-produced example" to "dangerously unsafe", tending towards the latter end of the scale. Khyber Pass copy rifles cannot generally stand up to the pressures generated by modern commercial ammunition, and are generally considered unsafe to fire under any circumstances.
Khyber Pass copies can be recognised by a number of factors, notably:
* Spelling errors in the markings; as noted the most common of which is a reversed "N" in "Enfield")
* V.R. (Victoria Regina) cyphers dated after 1901; Queen Victoria died in 1901, so any rifles made after 1901 should be stamped "E.R" (*Edwardius Rex*—[Edward VII](King)(King Edward VII) or [Edward VIII](King)(King Edward VIII)) or "G.R" (*Georgius Rex*—[George V](King)(George V of the United Kingdom) or [George VI](King)(King George VI)).
* Generally inferior workmanship, including weak or soft metal, poorly finished wood, and badly struck markings.
### Armalon
British company Armalon LtdThe Armalon Web Site. developed a number of rifles based on the Lee Enfield No. 4. The PC gallery rifle is a carbine in pistol and revolver calibres, the AL42 is a 5.56 mm rifle and the AL30C, a carbine in [Carbine](.30)(.30 Carbine).
## Contemporary service
[[File:Kunar August85 with Enfield.png|thumb|190px|An Afghan [mujahid](mujahideen) carries a Lee–Enfield in August 1985]]
[[Rwandan soldier trains with a Lee-Enfield rifle, 2011.jpg|thumb|left|A Rwandan soldier trains with a Lee-Enfield, 2011](File:A)]
[[File:Canadian Rangers.jpg|thumb|[Rangers](Canadian)(Canadian Rangers), photographed in [Nunavut](Nunavut), June 2011]]
The Lee–Enfield family of rifles is the second oldest bolt-action rifle design still in official service, after the [Mosin–Nagant](Mosin–Nagant). Lee–Enfield rifles are used by reserve forces and police forces in many Commonwealth countries, including [Malawi](Malawi). In Canada the .303 and .22 models were being phased out between 2016 and 2019. The Indian Army phased them out in 1990–92, replacing them with AKM-type rifles (see [Rifles](Indo-Russia)(Indo-Russia Rifles)). Indian police officers carrying SMLE Mk III* and [2A1 rifle](Ishapore)(Ishapore 2A1 rifle)s were a familiar sight throughout railway stations in India after [train bombings of 2006](Mumbai)(11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings) and the [2008 Mumbai attacks](November)(November 2008 Mumbai attacks). They are also still seen in the hands of Pakistani and [Bangladesh](Bangladesh)i second-line police units. However, the Lee–Enfield was mainly replaced in main-line service in the Pakistani Police in the mid-1980s by the [47](AK)(AK 47), in response to increasing proliferation of the Kalashnikov in the black market and civilian use. In [Jordan](Jordan), the Lee–Enfield was in use with the Police and Gendarmerie until 1971, and with the Armed Forces until 1965. In [Iraq](Iraq) and Egypt, the Lee–Enfield was replaced by the Kalashnikov as the standard issue rifle in the Armed Forces by the late 1950s, and in Police Forces by the late 1970s.
In the UK, the single-shot .22 calibre Rifle No. 8 is in regular use with UK Cadet Forces as a light target rifle. Enfields continue to be used as drill weapons by the National Ceremonial Guard of the [African National Defence Force](South)(South African National Defence Force) (SANDF) as well as the [Defence Force Cadets](Australian)(Australian Defence Force Cadets).
Many Afghans resisting the [invasion of Afghanistan](Soviet)(Soviet–Afghan War) were armed with Lee–Enfields.Modern Warfare, Published by Mark Dartford, Marshall Cavendish (London) 1985 The CIA's [Cyclone](Operation)(Operation Cyclone) provided hundreds of thousands of Enfields to the [mujahideen](Afghan)(Afghan mujahideen), funneling them through Pakistan's [ISI](Inter Services Intelligence). CIA officer [Avrakotos](Gust)(Gust Avrakotos) later arranged for the [Ministry of Defence](Egyptian)(Ministry of Defence and Military Production) to set up production lines of Enfield .303 ammunition specifically for the conflict. Later on when Avrakotos asked [Vickers](Michael)(Michael G. Vickers) to revamp their strategy, he stopped the Enfield system and, with the large amounts of money available thanks to [Wilson](Charlie)(Charlie Nesbitt Wilson), replaced them with a mix of modern weapons like [AK-47](AK-47)s and mortars.
[[PLA Fighters.JPG|thumb|left|An SMLE owned by Maoist rebels in Nepal, 2005](File:014)]
[[File:Change of command ceremony in Indonesian Army.jpg|thumb|[of command](Change)(Change of command) ceremony in [Army](Indonesian)(Indonesian Army) with [guard](colour)(colour guard) holding Lee-Enfield rifles, 2013]]
[Pass Copies](Khyber)(Khyber Pass Copies) patterned after the Lee–Enfield are still manufactured in the [Pass](Khyber)(Khyber Pass) region, as bolt-action rifles remain effective weapons in desert and mountain environments where long-range accuracy is more important than rate of fire. Lee–Enfield rifles are still popular in the region, despite the presence and ready availability of more modern weapons such as the [SKS-45](SKS-45), the [AKM](AKM), the [Type 56 assault rifle](Chinese)(Type 56 assault rifle), and the [AK-74](AK-74). , Lee–Enfield rifles are still being used by the Taliban.
During the recent [war in Nepal](civil)(Nepalese Civil War), the government troops were issued Lee–Enfield rifles to fight the [Maoist](Maoism) rebels, and the Maoists were also armed with SMLE rifles, amongst other weapons. Nepalese Police [constable](constable)s may also be usually seen equipped with SMLE rifles. Lee–Enfield rifles have also been seen in the hands of both the [Naxalite](Naxalite)s and the Indian police in the ongoing [insurgency in rural India](Maoist)(Naxalite-Maoist insurgency).
Police forces in both the [Islands](Solomon)(Solomon Islands) and [Vanuatu](Vanuatu) continue to operate and maintain stocks of No.4 rifles. The [security forces](Tongan)(His Majesty's Armed Forces (Tonga)) also retain a substantial number of No.4 rifles donated from New Zealand's reserve stocks.
Lee Enfield rifles are used by the Jamaica Constabulary force for training recruits during field-craft exercises and drills.
## Civilian use
Lee–Enfields are very popular as hunting rifles and target shooting rifles. Many surplus Lee–Enfield rifles were sold in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, the United Kingdom and the United States after the Second World War, and a fair number have been '[sporterised](Sporterising)', having had the front furniture reduced or removed and a scope fitted so that they resemble a bolt-action sporting rifle. Top-notch accuracy is difficult to achieve with the Lee–Enfield design, as it was intended to be a battle rifle rather than a sharpshooter's weapon, and thus the Enfield is nowadays overshadowed by derivatives of [Mauser](Paul)(Paul Mauser)'s design as a target shooting arm. They did, however, continue to be used at [Bisley](Bisley, Surrey) up into the 1970s with some success, and continue to perform extremely well at Military Service Rifle Competitions throughout the world.
Many people still hunt with as-issued Lee–Enfield rifles, with commercial .303 British ammunition proving especially effective on medium-sized game. Soft-point .303 ammunition is widely available for hunting purposes, though the [7 military cartridge design](Mark)(.303 British#Mark VII) often proves adequate because its tail-heavy design makes the bullet [yaw](Yaw (rotation)) violently and deform after hitting the target.
The Lee–Enfield rifle is a popular gun for historic rifle enthusiasts and those who find the 10-round magazine, loading by charger clips, and the rapid bolt-action useful for Practical Rifle events. Since formation in 1998, organisations such as the Lee Enfield Rifle Association have assisted in not just preserving rifles in shooting condition (many Lee–Enfields are being deactivated and sold as "wall-hangers" to collectors who do not hold a Firearms Licence in countries where they are required), but holding events and competitions. Lee–Enfields are also popular with competitors in service rifle competitions in many Commonwealth countries.
The Lee–Enfield series is very popular for service rifle shooting competitions in the UK and Australia due to the prohibitions on the legal ownership of semi-automatic centrefire rifles in Great Britain and restrictions on the legal ownership of semi-automatic centrefire rifles in Australia. (For more information see [politics in the United Kingdom](Gun)(Gun politics in the United Kingdom) and [politics in Australia](Gun)(Gun politics in Australia).)
Rhineland Arms produces [ACP](.45)(.45 ACP) conversion kits for the Lee–Enfield action using [pistol](M1911)(M1911 pistol) magazines.
The [Sporter](Lee–Speed)(Lee–Speed) was a higher quality British made version of the Lee–Enfield.
Rifle Factory Ishapore of India still manufactures a sporting/hunting rifle chambered in .315 with a Lee–Enfield action.
## Variants
* **Magazine Lee–Enfield (MLE)**, .303, introduced 1895.
* **Lee–Enfield Cavalry Carbine Mk I (LEC)**, .303, introduced 1896.
* **Magazine Lee–Enfield Mk I***, .303, introduced 1899.
* **Lee–Enfield Cavalry Carbine Mk I***, .303, introduced 1899.
* **New Zealand Carbine**, .303
* **Royal Irish Constabulary Carbine**, .303
* **Short Magazine Lee–Enfield Mk I (SMLE)**, .303, introduced 1904.
* **Short Magazine Lee–Enfield Mk II**, .303, introduced 1906.
* **Charger Loading Lee–Enfield (CLLE)**, .303, introduced 1906.
* **No. 1 Short Magazine Lee–Enfield Mk III**, .303, introduced 1907.
* **No. 1 Short Magazine Lee–Enfield Mk III***, .303, introduced 1915.
* **No. 1 Short Magazine Lee–Enfield Mk III* (HT)**, .303, "Heavy Barrel, Telescopic Sight" Australian sniper rifle.
* **No. 1 Short Magazine Lee–Enfield Mk V**, .303, introduced 1922.
* **No. 1 Short Magazine Lee–Enfield Mk VI**, .303, introduced 1930.
* **No. 2**, .22, converted from .303 SMLE Mk III and Mk III*.
* **No. 2 Mk IV**, .22
* **No. 2 Mk IV***, .22
* **No. 4 Mk I**, .303, introduced 1931.
* **No. 4 Mk I (T)**, .303, sniper rifle converted from No. 4 Mk I, introduced 1941.
* **No. 4 Mk I***, .303, introduced 1941.
* **No. 4 Mk I* (T)**, .303, Sniper rifle converted from No. 4 Mk I*, introduced 1941.
* **No. 4 Mk 2**, .303, introduced 1949.
* **No. 4 Mk I/2**, .303, converted from No. 4 Mk I to No. 4 Mk 2 standard.
* **No. 4 Mk I/3**, .303, converted from No. 4 Mk I* to No. 4 Mk 2 standard.
* **No. 5 Mk I**, Jungle Carbine, .303, introduced 1944.
* **No. 6 Mk I**, .303, Australian experimental version of the No. 5 Mk I.
* **No. 7**, .22
* **No. 8 Mk I**, .22
* **No. 9**, .22
* **RCAF Survival rifle**
* **L8A1**, 7.62mm, converted from No. 4 Mk 2
* **L8A2**, 7.62mm, converted from No. 4 Mk I/3
* **L8A3**, 7.62mm, converted from No. 4 Mk I/3
* **L8A4**, 7.62mm, converted from No. 4 Mk I
* **L8A5**, 7.62mm, converted from No. 4 Mk I*
* **L39A1**, 7.62mm
* **L42A1**, 7.62mm
* **L59A1**, Drill Rifle, converted from No. 4.
* **E.A.L. Rifle**, built by Essential Agencies Limited (E.A.L.)
* **BA 93**, a rifle grenade launcher made from surplus Lee–Enfield parts, which consist of stocks and receiver with a rifle grenade launcher in the chamber and a sheet metal buttstock while attaching a G3-type pistol grip.
## Users
[[File:Enfauser.JPG|thumb|Turkish [8×57mm](7.92×57mm Mauser) conversion of a Lee–Enfield captured during [War I](World)(World War I)]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-720-0318-04, Frankreich, Parade der Milice Francaise.jpg|thumb|right|Members of the *[Milice](Milice)* of Vichy France, armed with captured British [4 Lee–Enfield Rifles](No.)(Lee–Enfield#Rifle No. 4) and [gun](Bren)(Bren gun)s]]
[[File:Lee-Enflield Cyprus.jpg|thumb|right|Unit of Cypriot National Guard with Sten Submachine guns and [4 Lee–Enfield Rifles](No.)(Lee–Enfield#Rifle No. 4) in 1967]]
*
*
* : No.1 MkIII/MkIII* manufactured at Lithgow Arsenal in Lithgow, New South WalesHogg, Ian (2002). ''Jane's Guns Recognition Guide''. Jane's Information Group. .
* : used post-war by the [Gendarmerie](Gendarmerie (Austria)).
* : Extensively used during [war](1971)(Bangladesh Liberation War). Used by [Police](Bangladesh Police), [Ansar](Bangladesh Ansar) and [BNCC](Bangladesh National Cadet Corps) personnel for several years. No longer in active service.
* : post-WW2 British and Canadian donations were used by [soldiers in the Korean War](Belgian)(Belgian United Nations Command) until 1952. post WW2 used by the Belgian "Gendarmerie" until the 1980s, when it was replaced by the [FAL](FN)(FN FAL).
*
* : used by the [Volunteer Rifle Corps](Bermuda)(Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps)|author=Bonn International Center for Conversion|author-link=Bonn International Center for Conversion}}
* : used by the [Brunei Armed Forces](Royal)(Royal Brunei Armed Forces) and [Brunei Police Force](Royal)(Royal Brunei Police Force) during the early days, replaced by [series](M16)(M16 rifle).
*
* : The No.4 rifle was manufactured starting in 1941 by Small Arms Limited and later by Canadian Arsenals Limited, in Long Branch, Ontario, Canada. The Canadian Militia received the MK. I Long Lee Enfield rifle in 1896. They used this rifle in the Boer War 1899 to 1902. They used the MK.III & MK.III* in WWI as well as the No.4 Lee Enfield in WWII, the Korean War and into the late 1950s in general is due. The No.4 rifle is still used for drill and was used for range shooting by the [Canadian Army Cadets](Royal)(Royal Canadian Army Cadets), [Canadian Sea Cadets](Royal)(Royal Canadian Sea Cadets) and the [Canadian Air Cadets](Royal)(Royal Canadian Air Cadets). Most units are stripped of the mechanism that fires the round but at many Cadet Training Centres the rifles are in full working order, the rifle is used at the Vernon Summer Training Center for Feu du joix. The No.4 was being phased out by the [Rangers](Canadian)(Canadian Rangers) as a service rifle starting in 2016.
* : used by the [Khmer Army](Royal)(Royal Cambodian Armed Forces).
*
* [Chad](Chad)ian [FROLINAT](FROLINAT)
* : used during [Era](Warlord)(Warlord Era). Some [soldiers in Burma](Chinese)(Chinese Expeditionary Force) also received British Lee–Enfield No. 4 Mk Is.
* : The Lee–Enfield was the main rifle of the [National Guard](Cypriot)(Cypriot National Guard) from 1960 when the [of Cyprus](Republic)(Cyprus) was established until 1980 when it was replaced by the G3A3.
* : used as Rifle M/45E by the Danish brigade in occupied Germany from 1945, eventually replaced by the US M1 rifle as Rifle M/50 in 1950.
*
* : acquired after World War I.
* : some stored in depots after the [Civil War](Finnish)(Finnish Civil War)
*
* :
** [French Forces](Free)(Free French Forces) and [Resistance](French)(French Resistance) used it during WW2.
** Some captured from the Resistance were used by the pro-Nazi French militia [française](Milice)(Milice française) (see picture).
** Some were used in [Indochina](French Indochina).
*
* : some captured No. 1 Mk. III* Lee–Enfields were used by the *[Volkssturm](Volkssturm)* in 1944 and 1945 The German designation was *Gewehr 281 (e)*.Heber, Dr Thorsten (2008), [*Kennblätter fremden Geräts: Heft 1, Handwaffen*](https://books.google.com/books?id=35We_Y2pgg0C&pg=PA4), Books on Demand, p. 85 (in German)
* : replaced in the 1960s by L1A1s.
* : Used by Hellenic armed forces during World War II and post-World War II period. Greece used the Lee–Enfield and British small arms until they were replaced by the [Garand](M1)(M1 Garand) and American small arms.
*
* : Used by the [Kong Defence Force](Hong)(Royal Hong Kong Regiment).
*
* :
* : In service with [Indian Army](British)(British Indian Army) throughout First and Second World Wars.
* : In service during the [War of 1965](Indo-Pakistani)(Indo-Pakistani War of 1965). Now made under licence by [Factory Ishapore](Rifle)(Rifle Factory Ishapore) as the [2A1](Ishapore)(Ishapore 2A1) rifle, the rifle is still used by the Indian police
* : Used by republicans in [National Revolution](Indonesian)(Indonesian National Revolution); some were handed from the Dutch after they left Indonesia.
* : post-World War II Italian Army and Navy
* [of Iraq](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Iraq). Still used in small numbers in 2004 by [insurgents](Iraqi)(Iraqi insurgency (2003–11)).
* : No1 MkIII/III* used as the service rifle by the [Army](National)(National Army (Ireland)) during the Civil War and later by [Forces](Defence)(Irish Defence Forces), replaced by No4 Lee–Enfields in 1950's until replaced by the [FAL](FN)(FN FAL) in 1961. The second line reserve, the *[Cosanta Áitiúil](Fórsa)(Army Reserve (Ireland))* (*FCÁ*) continued using the Lee-Enfield as its primary service rifle until 1990, when the FN FAL began to replace it. Also captured from British forces etc. and used by [Republican Army](Irish)(Irish Republican Army) during [of Independence](War)(Irish War of Independence). Lee–Enfield rifles were still in the arsenal of the [IRA](Provisional)(Provisional IRA) at the outset of [Troubles](The)(The Troubles) in [Ireland](Northern)(Northern Ireland) and were reportedly used in at least one [INLA](Irish National Liberation Army) sniper attack as late as 1989.*Sunday Life* 12 November 1989.
* : used during the first few years of independence.
* : still used by the Jamaica Constabulary Force, Correctional Services and Jamaica Combined Cadet Force
* : Captured from British Army during World War II.
* : [Legion](Arab)(Arab Legion) used Mk III and No. 4 variants
* : bought for police force but also used by army
*
*
*
*
* : used by the [detachment in the Korean War](Luxembourg)(Belgian United Nations Command)
*
* also used by the [National Liberation Army](Malayan)(Malayan National Liberation Army)
*
*
* : used by the [Army](Myanmar)(Myanmar Army) [the Burmese Independence](after)(Post-independence Burma, 1948–62) and also by the [Police Force](Myanmar)(Myanmar Police Force) for ceremonial purposes
* : Non-governmental armed groups
*
* : Both the Lee–Enfield No. 1 Mark III and No. 4 Mark I would be adopted in 1941 and serve until 1952, until replaced by the M1 Garand.Talens, Martien. De ransel op de rug deel 2. Brabantia Nostra. p. 372.
*
* : Used by the [Regiment](Nigeria)(Nigeria Regiment) and then by [Army](Nigerian)(Nigerian Army).
:* : Used by militias and Army
* : Received from Allied airdrops to the resistance during WW2 and given by Britain to the Norwegian Brigade during the occupation of Germany in 1947. Returned to Britain in 1952 in exchange for P-17 rifles. A total of 24992 .303 rifles were in Norwegian inventory at the time. Replaced by M-1 Garand and M-1 Carbines.Karl Egil Hanevik (1998). *Norske Militærgeværer etter 1867*.Hanevik Våpen. p. 371.
*
* : Captured rifles, used as reserve weapons.
*
*
* : used by the [Armed Forces in the West](Polish)(Polish Armed Forces in the West)
* : used by the [Expeditionary Corps](Portuguese)(Portuguese Expeditionary Corps), during the First World War The SMLE Mk III was still in service as *m/917* during the 1940s.
*
*
*
* : reserve units until the late 1960s. Still used by [Armed Forces Military Police Command](Singapore)(Singapore Armed Forces Military Police Command) for ceremonial purposes.
* : used by the [Solomon Islands Police Force](Royal)(Royal Solomon Islands Police Force).
*
*
*
*
*
*
* : Phased out in the late 1960s with the arrival of the [SLR](L1A1)(L1A1 SLR).
*
*
*
* : (the contract was concluded on 10 December 1920 when the king received shipment of 10,000 rifles.)
*
* : Trinidad & Tobago Cadet Force
* : converted Ottoman-captured rifles to [Mauser](7.92×57mm)(7.92×57mm Mauser).
*
*
* Miller, David (2001). *The Illustrated Directory of 20th century Guns*. Salamander Books Ltd. .
* : Used by units of the [Expeditionary Force](American)(American Expeditionary Force) attached to British and Australian units during the First World War. No.4 MkI/MkI* rifles manufactured by Savage-Stevens Firearms under [Lend-Lease](Lend-Lease) for the British and Commonwealth forces during WWII. Some US Army units attached to British Commonwealth [in Burma](units)(Burma Campaign) during WWII were issued Lee–Enfield rifles on logistics grounds.
*
* : [Minh](Việt)(Việt Minh) captured Lee–Enfields from French forces
*
*
* [Partisans](Yugoslav)(Yugoslav Partisans)
*
* : Used by ISIL insurgents in 2019
## See also
* [of handgun and rifle cartridges](Table)(Table of handgun and rifle cartridges)
*[Videos on Lee-Enfield rifles](https://m.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL9e3UCcU00TQcsFJD07MOb2M7ewZ_OSMF)
## Notes
## References
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
## External links
[mm rifles](Category:7.62)(Category:7.62 mm rifles)
[British rifles](Category:.303)(Category:.303 British rifles)
[rifles of the United Kingdom](Category:Bolt-action)(Category:Bolt-action rifles of the United Kingdom)
[of the London Borough of Enfield](Category:History)(Category:History of the London Borough of Enfield)
[rifles of the United Kingdom](Category:Sniper)(Category:Sniper rifles of the United Kingdom)
[weapons of the United Kingdom](Category:Victorian-era)(Category:Victorian-era weapons of the United Kingdom)
[War I British infantry weapons](Category:World)(Category:World War I British infantry weapons)
[War II infantry weapons of the United Kingdom](Category:World)(Category:World War II infantry weapons of the United Kingdom)
[of the Cold War](Category:Rifles)(Category:Rifles of the Cold War)
[War II rifles](Category:World)(Category:World War II rifles)
[and ammunition introduced in 1895](Category:Weapons)(Category:Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1895)
|
List of Star Wars television series
|
list_of_star_wars_television_series
|
# List of Star Wars television series
*Revision ID: 1160130303 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T15:53:18Z*
---
The *[Wars](Star)(Star Wars)* franchise has spawned [films](multiple)(List of Star Wars films) and television series. Two animated series were released in the mid-1980s. Further animated series began to be released in the 2000s, the first two of which focused on the [trilogy](prequel)(Star Wars prequel trilogy)-era [Wars](Clone)(Clone Wars (Star Wars)). After Disney's acquisition of Lucasfilm, only *[Clone Wars](The)(Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008 TV series))* was kept in the canon of continuity of the episodic *Star Wars* films. Two additional half-hour animated series were created: *[Rebels](Star Wars Rebels)*, which ties into the [trilogy](original)(Star Wars original trilogy), and *[Resistance](Star Wars Resistance)*, which ties into the [trilogy](sequel)(Star Wars sequel trilogy). An additional spin-off series from *The Clone Wars*, titled *[Bad Batch](The)(Star Wars: The Bad Batch)*, debuted on [Disney+](Disney+) in 2021. Two animated anthology series have been produced: *[Visions](Star Wars: Visions)* in 2021 and *[of the Jedi](Tales)(Tales of the Jedi (TV series))* in 2022. The first young audience animated series, *[Jedi Adventures](Young)(Star Wars: Young Jedi Adventures)*, set during the [Republic](High)(Star Wars: The High Republic) era, premiered in May 2023.
The first live-action series in the franchise, *[Mandalorian](The)(The Mandalorian)*, premiered on Disney+ in November 2019 and spawned two spin-offs set in the same timeline, *[Book of Boba Fett](The)(The Book of Boba Fett)* and *[Ahsoka](Ahsoka (TV series))*, as well as another set around the same era, *[Crew](Skeleton)(Star Wars: Skeleton Crew)*. Additional live-action series include *[Kenobi](Obi-Wan)(Obi-Wan Kenobi (TV series))*, *[Andor](Andor (TV series))*, *[Acolyte](The)(The Acolyte (TV series))*, and *Lando*.
## Animated series
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| end0S =
| network0S = [XD](Disney)(Disney XD)
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| end0S =
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| start1 =
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| network1 = Disney+[Junior](Disney)(Disney Junior)
| infoB1 = Streaming
}}
}}
### *Droids* and *Ewoks* (1985–1986)
[Nelvana](Nelvana), the animation studio that produced the animated segment of the *[Special](Holiday)(Star Wars Holiday Special)*, was hired to create two animated series which aired together on ABC: *[Droids](Star Wars: Droids)* (1985–86) follows the adventures of and [R2-D2](R2-D2), and its sister series *[Ewoks](Ewoks (TV series))* (1985–86) features [Wicket](Wicket W. Warrick) and other members of the [species](titular)(Ewok) from *[of the Jedi](Return)(Return of the Jedi)*, both set before the events of the [trilogy](original)(Star Wars original trilogy). One reviewer calls *Droids* "rudimentary" and *Ewoks* "unremarkable", but writes that both "marked the first major effort to expand the *Star Wars* 'brand' beyond its original live-action film existence."
### *The Clone Wars* (2008–2020)
[[File:Dave Filoni.jpg|thumb|upright|[Filoni](Dave)(Dave Filoni) served as supervising director for both *The Clone Wars* and seasons 1, 2, and 4 of *Rebels*, before being promoted to oversee the development of all future [Animation](Lucasfilm)(Lucasfilm Animation) projects in 2016.]]
[Lucas](George)(George Lucas) created his own animation company, [Animation](Lucasfilm)(Lucasfilm Animation), and used it to produce his first in-house *Star Wars* [CGI](Computer-generated imagery)-animated series, using [Network](Cartoon)(Cartoon Network)'s 2003 *[Wars](Clone)(Star Wars: Clone Wars (2003 TV series))* micro-series as a "pilot". *The Clone Wars* (2008–2020) was introduced through a [animated film of the same name](2008)(Star Wars: The Clone Wars (film)). The series is set between *[of the Clones](Attack)(Attack of the Clones)* and *[of the Sith](Revenge)(Revenge of the Sith)* of the [trilogy](prequel)(prequel trilogy). It focuses mainly on the [Jedi](Jedi) characters of [Skywalker](Anakin)(Anakin Skywalker) and [Kenobi](Obi-Wan)(Obi-Wan Kenobi), as well as Anakin's [Padawan](Jedi#Padawan) apprentice, [Tano](Ahsoka)(Ahsoka Tano) (an original character created by Filoni for the series), with other characters from the live-action films in supporting roles. The series marked the beginning of [Filoni](Dave)(Dave Filoni)'s involvement in *Star Wars* animation projects.
After Disney's acquisition of the *Star Wars* franchise, *The Clone Wars* was cancelled in 2014 before its intended final episodes were completed. The remaining unaired episodes were released on [Netflix](Netflix) as "The Lost Missions". The chronological storyline order was released after the series had initially finished airing. The film and series were included in the canon established in 2014. The show was later revived for an additional final season that premiered on February 21, 2020, on the streaming service Disney+.
### *Rebels* (2014–2018)
In 2014, [XD](Disney)(Disney XD) began airing *Star Wars Rebels*, the first CGI-animated series produced following the Disney acquisition. It follows a band of rebels as they fight the [Empire](Galactic)(Galactic Empire (Star Wars)) in the years leading up to *[New Hope](A)(A New Hope)*. It closed some of the arcs introduced in *The Clone Wars*. Due to the film *[One](Rogue)(Rogue One)* being produced at the same time, the film and the series acknowledged each other. The series also included an [in-canon](Star Wars canon) version of [Admiral Thrawn](Grand)(Grand Admiral Thrawn) from the *[Legends](Star Wars Legends) * [trilogy](Thrawn)(Thrawn trilogy).
### *Resistance* (2018–2020)
The animated series *Star Wars Resistance* debuted in late 2018, shifting the animation style towards [anime](anime)-inspired [cel-shading](cel-shading) visuals, and focuses on a young Resistance pilot Kazuda Xiono before and during *[Force Awakens](The)(The Force Awakens)* and *[Last Jedi](The)(The Last Jedi)*, leading up to *[Rise of Skywalker](The)(The Rise of Skywalker)*. [trilogy](Sequel)(Sequel trilogy) characters such as [Phasma](Captain)(Captain Phasma), [Hux](General)(General Hux), and [Ren](Kylo)(Kylo Ren) appear. The second and final season premiered on October 6, 2019.
### *The Bad Batch* (2021–present)
Set after the events of *The Clone Wars*, *The Bad Batch* follows [titular squad](the)(Clone trooper#Clone Force 99) making their way through the galaxy as mercenaries in the early days of the Empire. The series was announced in July 2020, and premiered on Disney+ on May 4, 2021. Dave Filoni, Athena Portillo, Brad Rau, and Jennifer Corbett serve as executive producers, with Carrie Beck as co-executive producer and Josh Rimes as producer. Rau also serves as supervising director with Corbett the head writer. The second season debuted on January 4, 2023, and consists of 16 episodes, concluding on March 29, 2023. A third and final season will premiere in 2024.
### *Visions* (2021–present)
Announced on December 10, 2020, *Visions* is an anthology [anime](anime) series of nine short films by different creators, set in the *Star Wars* universe but not restricted to the canonical timeline. It released on Disney+ on September 22, 2021. Footage from the project was first revealed at [Expo](Anime)(Anime Expo) on July 3. The anthology featured short films produced by Kamikaze Douga, [Studio](Geno)(Geno Studio), [Colorido](Studio)(Studio Colorido), [Trigger](Studio)(Studio Trigger), [Citrus](Kinema)(Kinema Citrus), [SARU](Science)(Science SARU), and [I.G](Production)(Production I.G). A second volume of shorts from animation studios based in Japan, Chile, the United Kingdom, France, South Africa, South Korea, India, Ireland, and Spain, as well as Lucasfilm, was released on May 4, 2023.
### *Tales of the Jedi* (2022–present)
In April 2022, an animated anthology series titled *Tales of the Jedi* was revealed to be in development, with Filoni involved. The series was officially revealed in May 2022 as a six-episode series, with three episodes focusing on Ahsoka Tano throughout her life, and the other three focusing on a young [Dooku](Count)(Count Dooku) and his padawan [Jinn](Qui-Gon)(Qui-Gon Jinn). It was released on October 26, 2022, on Disney+. A second season was announced in April 2023.
### *Young Jedi Adventures* (2023–present)
In May 2022, a *Young Jedi Adventures* animated series was announced at *Star Wars* Celebration. The series is targeted at young audiences and their families, and is set during the [Republic](High)(Star Wars: The High Republic) era, following a group of younglings as they learn the ways of [Force](the)(the Force), including compassion, self-discipline, team work and patience, to become [Knights](Jedi)(Jedi). Three animated shorts introducing the characters of the series premiered on the [Junior](Disney)(Disney Junior) [YouTube](YouTube) channel on March 27, 2023, with an additional three releasing at a later point, before all six will be released on Disney+ on April 26. The series was released on May 4, 2023, on Disney+ and on Disney Junior.
## Animated micro-series and shorts
|allseasons=
}}
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### *Clone Wars* (2003–2005)
After the release of *Attack of the Clones*, developed and drawn by [Tartakovsky](Genndy)(Genndy Tartakovsky). Cartoon Network produced and aired the micro-series *Clone Wars* from 2003 to weeks before the 2005 release of *Revenge of the Sith*, as the series featured events set between those films. return to TV |last=Granshaw |first=Lisa |website=Syfy Wire |date=April 29, 2015 |access-date=March 1, 2017 |archive-date=August 12, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170812061203/http://www.syfy.com/syfywire/how-clone-wars-microseries-led-way-star-wars-return-tv |url-status=live }}
The plot in the series was intended as prequel to then upcoming *Revenge of The Sith* and directly leads to the starting point in the movie.
It won the [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award)s for [Animated Program](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program) in 2004 and 2005.
### *Blips* (2017)
*Star Wars Blips* is an animated micro-series created to promote *The Last Jedi*. It features [droids](Droid (Star Wars)) such as [BB-8](BB-8) and R2-D2, in addition to [porgs](porgs).
### *Forces of Destiny* (2017–2018)
The animated micro-series *Star Wars Forces of Destiny* debuted in 2017; it focuses on the female characters of the franchise and is set in various eras.
### *Galaxy of Adventures* (2018–2020)
*Star Wars Galaxy of Adventures* debuted on the "Star Wars Kids" YouTube channel and website in late 2018. Using stylized animation, the series of shorts reimagine key scenes from the saga, initially leading up the release of *The Rise of Skywalker*. The shorts feature audio from the original films (with narration by [Basco](Dante)(Dante Basco)) and are animated by [Inc.](Titmouse,)(Titmouse, Inc.)The score is composed by [Shore](Ryan)(Ryan Shore).
### *Roll Out* (2019–2020)
*Star Wars Roll Out* debuted on the Star Wars Kids YouTube channel and website in August 2019. The shorts depict the main characters from the franchise as ball-shaped, similar to BB-8, and utilize a kid-friendly [animation](cutout)(cutout animation) style. [io9](io9) calls the design of the series "adorable".
### *Galaxy of Creatures* (2021–2023)
*Star Wars Galaxy of Creatures* debuted on the Star Wars Kids YouTube channel and website in October 2021. The shorts depict the droid SF-R3 ("Aree") as he journeys across the galaxy learning about various wildlife.
### *Galactic Pals* (2022)
*Star Wars Galactic Pals* is an animated micro-series that premiered on April 12, 2022, on StarWarsKids.com and YouTube. A spinoff of the adventures of the droid SF-R3 ("Aree") in Star Wars Galaxy of Creatures, Galactic Pals joins M1-RE ("Miree"), another member of the Galactic Society of Creature Enthusiasts, as she looks after and studies ornery Ortolans, fussy Hutts, scavenging Jawas, and more creatures and aliens aboard the Youngling Care Space Station.
### "Zen – Grogu and Dust Bunnies" (2022)
"Zen – Grogu and Dust Bunnies" is a hand-drawn animated short by [Ghibli](Studio)(Studio Ghibli) that featured [Grogu](Grogu) and the "[bunnies](dust)(Susuwatari)" from *[Neighbor Totoro](My)(My Neighbor Totoro)*. It was released on Disney+ on November 12, 2022.
## Live-action series
All of the released and announced live-action series are being released on [Disney+](Disney+).
| end1 =
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### *The Mandalorian* (2019–present)
In March 2018, [Favreau](Jon)(Jon Favreau) was hired to write and produce a live-action *Star Wars* series for Disney+. The series follows "a lone gunfighter in the outer reaches of the galaxy far from the authority of the [Republic](New)(New Republic (Star Wars))" a few years after the events of *Return of the Jedi*. In August 2018, it was reported that the series would cost about "$100 million for 10 episodes". [Pascal](Pedro)(Pedro Pascal) stars as the titular character, and is joined by supporting actors [Carano](Gina)(Gina Carano), [Nolte](Nick)(Nick Nolte), [Esposito](Giancarlo)(Giancarlo Esposito), [Swallow](Emily)(Emily Swallow), [Weathers](Carl)(Carl Weathers), [Abtahi](Omid)(Omid Abtahi), and [Herzog](Werner)(Werner Herzog). The series premiered on November 12, 2019, with the launch of Disney+. The second season premiered on October 30, 2020, while the third season premiered on March 1, 2023. The fourth season is in development.
### *The Book of Boba Fett* (2021–2022)
In November 2020, *[Hollywood](Deadline)(Deadline Hollywood)* reported that a miniseries focused on [Fett](Boba)(Boba Fett) could begin filming before the end of the year, before a third season of *The Mandalorian* went into production. The series, known as *The Book of Boba Fett*, was revealed the following month, and confirmed to be in production ahead of *The Mandalorian* season three. Favreau and Filoni executive produce along with [Rodriguez](Robert)(Robert Rodriguez), with [Morrison](Temuera)(Temuera Morrison) and [Wen](Ming-Na)(Ming-Na Wen) reprising their roles as Boba Fett and [Shand](Fennec)(Fennec Shand), respectively. It premiered on December 29, 2021, and consisted of seven episodes.
### *Obi-Wan Kenobi* (2022)
In August 2019, it was reported that a series focused on Obi-Wan Kenobi was in development, with [McGregor](Ewan)(Ewan McGregor) in talks to reprise his role from the prequel trilogy. The series was initially thought to have been developing as a standalone film, which was ultimately scrapped due to the performance of *[Solo](Solo: A Star Wars Story)* at the box office. During the 2019 [Expo](D23)(D23 (Disney)), Lucasfilm officially announced that the series was in development, with McGregor confirmed to reprise his role as the titular character. It will take place ten years after *Revenge of the Sith*, thus exploring the time during Kenobi's exile prior to the events of *A New Hope*. In September 2019, [Chow](Deborah)(Deborah Chow) and [Amini](Hossein)(Hossein Amini) were announced as the series' director and writer, respectively, who will also serve as executive producers alongside McGregor. In April 2020, it was announced that [Harold](Joby)(Joby Harold) would officially be taking over writing duties from Amini. In August 2020, [Kennedy](Kathleen)(Kathleen Kennedy (producer)) told *[TheWrap](TheWrap)* that it would be a limited series. Filming had begun by May 2021.
On Disney Investor Day 2020, it was revealed that [Christensen](Hayden)(Hayden Christensen) would reprise his role as Darth Vader, and that the series would be titled *Obi-Wan Kenobi*. The series premiered on May 27, 2022, with its first two episodes, and consisted of six episodes, airing the remaining four weekly on Wednesdays until June 22.
### *Andor* (2022–present)
The series follows rebel spy [Andor](Cassian)(Cassian Andor), five years before the events of *Rogue One* during the formative years of the [Rebellion](Rebel Alliance).
In November 2018, a prequel series to the 2016 film *Rogue One* centered on Andor was confirmed to be in development, described as a "rousing spy thriller" with [Luna](Diego)(Diego Luna) reprising his role for the series. [Schiff](Stephen)(Stephen Schiff) was hired to serve as showrunner and executive producer of the series, which was developed by [Bush](Jared)(Jared Bush), who wrote a [bible](series)(Bible (screenwriting)) and a draft of the pilot episode. In April 2019, [Tudyk](Alan)(Alan Tudyk) was confirmed to be reprising his role of . In April 2020, [Gilroy](Tony)(Tony Gilroy), who worked on the reshoots of *Rogue One*, replaced Schiff as showrunner. Gilroy was going to write and direct the pilot, and direct other episodes as well. It was also revealed in April 2020 that [Skarsgård](Stellan)(Stellan Skarsgård), [Soller](Kyle)(Kyle Soller), and [Gough](Denise)(Denise Gough) had joined the cast in undisclosed roles, along with [O'Reilly](Genevieve)(Genevieve O'Reilly) reprising her role of [Mothma](Mon)(Mon Mothma). In September 2020, it was announced that Gilroy would step down from his directing duties in light of the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic) and would be replaced by [Haynes](Toby)(Toby Haynes), who was set to direct the first three episodes. Filming began in late November 2020 in London. *Andor* premiered on September 21, 2022, and the first season consisted of 12 episodes. A second and final season is in development, and is expected to release in August 2024.
### *Ahsoka*
In December 2020, *Ahsoka* was announced. Developed by Favreau and Filoni, with Filoni serving as its writer and showrunner, it exists alongside *The Mandalorian* and *The Book of Boba Fett* through a [event](crossover)(crossover event). [Dawson](Rosario)(Rosario Dawson) headlines the limited series, reprising her role as Ahsoka Tano. [Liu Bordizzo](Natasha)(Natasha Liu Bordizzo), [Elizabeth Winstead](Mary)(Mary Elizabeth Winstead), and Eman Esfandi have been cast as [Wren](Sabine)(Sabine Wren), [Syndulla](Hera)(Hera Syndulla), and [Bridger](Ezra)(Ezra Bridger), characters first introduced in *Rebels*. Hayden Christensen, Genevieve O'Reilly, [Mikkelsen](Lars)(Lars Mikkelsen), [Lee Inosanto](Diana)(Diana Lee Inosanto), and [Tennant](David)(David Tennant) reprise their roles as Anakin Skywalker, Mon Mothma, [Admiral Thrawn](Grand)(Grand Admiral Thrawn), [Elsbeth](Morgan)(Morgan Elsbeth), and Huyang from previous media. [Stevenson](Ray)(Ray Stevenson) and [Sakhno](Ivanna)(Ivanna Sakhno) have been cast as new characters Baylan Skoll and Shin Hati. Filming began in May 2022. *Ahsoka* is scheduled to be released on August 23, 2023, and will consist of eight episodes.
### *Skeleton Crew*
In February 2022, *Production Weekly* revealed the existence of an upcoming, untitled *Star Wars* series that was using the working title *Grammar Rodeo*. It was later reported that [Watts](Jon)(Jon Watts) was being considered to direct at least one episode of the series, along with Favreau as an executive producer. Casting was set to include four teenage actors and one 30-to-40-year old actor as its series regulars. Filming was set to begin as early as June 2022 and last until December 2022 at Manhattan Beach Studios, with a formal announcement planned for the series at *Star Wars* Celebration in May 2022. In mid-May 2022, it was further revealed that the series was being created and written by [Ford](Christopher)(Christopher Ford (screenwriter)), who would also executive produce with Watts. The series would be set after the events of *[of the Jedi](Return)(Return of the Jedi)* (1983) and was being described as a "galactic version of classic [Amblin](Amblin Entertainment) coming-of-age adventure films of the '80s". At *Star Wars* Celebration it was revealed that the series was titled *Skeleton Crew* and that it would star [Law](Jude)(Jude Law). Filming had been happening for a "few weeks" by early September 2022. It is set to be released in 2023.
### *The Acolyte*
In April 2020, *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* reported that a female-centric live-action *Star Wars* series is in development for Disney+ with *[Doll](Russian)(Russian Doll (TV series))* co-creator [Headland](Leslye)(Leslye Headland) serving as a writer and showrunner. In early November, Headland expounded that the series would be set "in a pocket of the universe and a pocket of the timeline that we don't know much about," elaborating that she was more engaged creatively with the geography of the *Star Wars* universe than its existing visuals. On November 5, *Deadline* reported that the series was expected to be an "action thriller with martial arts elements". On Disney Investor Day 2020, it was revealed that the series would be titled *The Acolyte* and take place during the late High Republic era. In , it was reported that the series would consist of eight episodes. In May 2022, Headland said the series would be a "mystery thriller" set about 100 years before *[Phantom Menace](The)(The Phantom Menace)*, that writing was almost complete, and that the series was casting; In 2022, [Stenberg](Amandla)(Amandla Stenberg), [Jung-jae](Lee)(Lee Jung-jae), and [Jacinto](Manny)(Manny Jacinto) were confirmed to be playing major roles. The eight-episode series will be released on Disney+ in 2024.
### *Lando*
In December 2020, *Lando* was announced as a Disney+ limited series focusing on [titular character](the)(Lando Calrissian), with a story by [Simien](Justin)(Justin Simien). In May 2022, Kennedy stated the series was still in development and that they were having discussions with [Glover](Donald)(Donald Glover) about reprising the role from *[A Star Wars Story](Solo:)(Solo: A Star Wars Story)* (2018) in the series.
## Game show
| end1 =
| network1 = StarWarsKids.com
| infoA1 = [Best](Ahmed)(Ahmed Best)
}}
}}
### *Jedi Temple Challenge* (2020)
*Star Wars: Jedi Temple Challenge* is a [web-based](web television) [children's](children's television series) [show](game)(game show) developed by Lucasfilm. First announced in December 2019, the series debuted on the *Star Wars* Kids website and YouTube channel on June 10, 2020. The series features young contestants competing as Jedi Padawans in a series of [course](obstacle)(obstacle course)s and knowledge tests in the attempt to gain [rank of Jedi Knight](the)(Jedi#Knight). The show is hosted by [Best](Ahmed)(Ahmed Best), who plays the character of Kelleran Beq, the [Master](Jedi)(Jedi Master) mentor of the contestants who is joined by his droid companions, (voiced by [Holland](Mary)(Mary Holland) and performed by Gordon Tarpley) and LX-R5. [Witwer](Sam)(Sam Witwer) provides the voice of an unknown character of the dark side of the Force during the final challenge of each episode.
## Documentaries
### *Disney Gallery: The Mandalorian* (2020–present)
A [making-of](making-of) documentary series about *The Mandalorian* debuted on Disney+ with an eight-episode season on May 4, 2020. A second season was split into two longer episodes.
### *Vehicle Flythroughs* (2021)
*Vehicle Flythroughs* is a Disney+ series of tours through vehicles, with one episode for the *Millennium Falcon* and one for a [Order](First)(First Order (Star Wars)) *[Destroyer](Star)(Star Destroyer)*. It was released on May 4, 2021, along with the *Biomes* short film.
### *Biomes* (2021)
A short depicting various biomes of the *Star Wars* universe debuted on [Disney+](Disney+) on May 4, 2021, along with the *Vehicle Flythroughs* shorts.
### *Galaxy of Sounds* (2021)
*Galaxy of Sounds* is a Disney+ series of seven short compilations focusing on the [effects](sound)(sound effects) from various *Star Wars* films, grouped into thematic episodes.
### *Disney Gallery: The Book of Boba Fett* (2022)
A making-of documentary series about *The Book of Boba Fett* debuted on Disney+ with a single hour-long episode in May 2022.
## Reception
### Ratings
| startrating1 = 3.99
| end1 =
| endrating1 = 3.29
| viewers1 = –
| link2 = List of Star Wars: The Clone Wars episodes#Season 2: Rise of the Bounty Hunters (2009–10)
| episodes2 = 22
| start2 =
| startrating2 = 2.58
| end2 =
| endrating2 = 2.76
| viewers2 = –
| link3 = List of Star Wars: The Clone Wars episodes#Season 3: Secrets Revealed (2010–11)
| episodes3 = 22
| start3 =
| startrating3 = 2.42
| end3 =
| endrating3 = 2.31
| viewers3 = –
| link4 = List of Star Wars: The Clone Wars episodes#Season 4: Battle Lines (2011–12)
| episodes4 = 22
| start4 =
| startrating4 = 1.93
| end4 =
| endrating4 = 2.03
| viewers4 = –
| link5 = List of Star Wars: The Clone Wars episodes#Season 5 (2012–13)
| episodes5 = 20
| start5 =
| startrating5 = 1.94
| end5 =
| endrating5 = 2.18
| viewers5 = –
| series6 = *[Rebels](Star Wars Rebels#Ratings)*
| series_length6 = 4
| n6 = 1
| link6 = List of Star Wars Rebels episodes#Season 1 (2014–15)
| episodes6 = 15
| start6 =
| startrating6 = 2.74
| end6 =
| endrating6 = 0.72
| viewers6 = 0.68
| n7 = 2
| link7 = List of Star Wars Rebels episodes#Season 2 (2015–16)
| episodes7 = 22
| start7 =
| startrating7 = 0.59
| end7 =
| endrating7 = 0.69
| viewers7 = 0.81
| n8 = 3
| link8 = List of Star Wars Rebels episodes#Season 3 (2016–17)
| episodes8 = 22
| start8 =
| startrating8 = 0.56
| end8 =
| endrating8 = 0.50
| viewers8 = 0.66
| n9 = 4
| link9 = List of Star Wars Rebels episodes#Season 4 (2017–18)
| episodes9 = 16
| start9 =
| startrating9 = –
| end9 =
| endrating9 = 0.46
| viewers9 = –
| series10 = *[Resistance](Star Wars Resistance)*
| series_length10 = 1
| n10 = 1
| link10 = Star Wars Resistance#Season 1 (2018–19)
| episodes10 = 21
| start10 =
| startrating10 = 0.33
| end10 =
| endrating10 = 0.36
| viewers10 = –
| series11 = *[Jedi Adventures](Young)(Star Wars: Young Jedi Adventures)*
| series_length11 = 1
| n11 = 1
| link11 = Star Wars: Young Jedi Adventures#Season 1 (2023)
| episodes11 =
| start11 =
| startrating11 = 0.133
| end11 =
| endrating11 =
| viewers11 =
}}
### Critical response
| metacritic1 = 64 (9 reviews)
| rotten_tomatoes3 = 100% (5 reviews)
| rotten_tomatoes5 = 100% (5 reviews)
| rotten_tomatoes6 = 100% (13 reviews)
| rotten_tomatoes7 = 100% (24 reviews)
}}
| metacritic1 = 78 (4 reviews)
| rotten_tomatoes2 = 100% (6 reviews)
| rotten_tomatoes3 = 100% (6 reviews)
| rotten_tomatoes4 = 100% (10 reviews)
}}
}}
| metacritic1 = 67 (9 reviews)
| rotten_tomatoes2 = 90% (20 reviews)
}}
| metacritic1 = 79 (15 reviews)
| rotten_tomatoes2 = 100% (18 reviews)
}}
| metacritic1 = 78 (6 reviews)
}}
}}
| metacritic1 = 70 (29 reviews)
| link2 = The Mandalorian (season 2)#Critical response
| rotten_tomatoes2 = 93% (450 reviews)
| metacritic2 = 76 (14 reviews)
| link3 = The Mandalorian (season 3)#Critical response
| rotten_tomatoes3 = 87% (159 reviews)
| metacritic3 = 70 (14 reviews)
}}
| metacritic1 = 59 (19 reviews)
}}
| metacritic1 = 73 (19 reviews)
}}
| metacritic1 = 74 (31 reviews)
}}
}}
### Emmy Awards
## Abandoned projects
### *Underworld*
In 2005, plans for a live-action television series set between the prequel and original trilogies were announced at [Wars* Celebration](*Star)(Star Wars Celebration#Celebration III). In 2007, Lucas described the project as "one show that will split into four shows, focusing on different characters." It entered development in early 2009. The series was described as "gritty and dark" and was expected to feature characters such as Han Solo, Chewbacca, Lando Calrissian, Boba Fett, C-3PO, and Emperor [Palpatine](Palpatine). Lucas described the series as "more talky. It's more of what I would call a [opera](soap)(soap opera) with a bunch of personal dramas in it. It's not really based on action-adventure films from the '30s—it's actually more based on [noir](film)(film noir) movies from the '40s!" Producer [McCallum](Rick)(Rick McCallum) revealed the working title, *Star Wars: Underworld*, in 2012, and that it would focus on criminal and political power struggles in the "period when the Empire is trying to take things over."
Over one hundred 42-minute episodes were planned, with 50 scripts written. These were mostly second drafts, but due to their complex content, were too expensive to produce. [D. Moore](Ronald)(Ronald D. Moore) was one of the writers, and extensive artwork including character, costume, and set designs were developed at Skywalker Ranch under the close supervision of Lucas and McCallum. The project was still being considered after Lucasfilm was sold to Disney, including by ABC, with stories being reviewed . According to Kathleen Kennedy,
The plot of the anthology film *Rogue One* was originally pitched as an episode of the series. The story of Han winning the *[Falcon](Millennium)(Millennium Falcon)* from Lando was planned to be featured and later developed as *[A Star Wars Story](Solo:)(Solo: A Star Wars Story)*. The planet Daiyu portrayed in *[Kenobi](Obi-Wan)(Obi-Wan Kenobi (TV series))* is similar to the atmosphere of level 1313 of Coruscant which George Lucas wanted to show. Boba Fett was also reported to appear in the show; *Star Wars* author, [Traviss](Karen)(Karen Traviss), was to write a novel involving Boba Fett, but the project was reportedly canceled because of possible conflicts with the TV series. In early 2020, [Studios](Stargate)(Stargate Studios) shared test footage made to promote the series to networks, as well as a [Doc](Google)(Google Doc) listing production details for the series.
### *Detours*
*Star Wars Detours* is an unaired animated parody series from the creators of *[Chicken](Robot)(Robot Chicken)*, which was postponed in 2013 and ultimately unaired. Production began in 2012 prior to the Disney acquisition, with 39 episodes completed and 62 additional scripts finished.
### *Rangers of the New Republic*
In December 2020, *Rangers of the New Republic* was announced. Developed by Favreau and Filoni, it was planned to tie into *The Mandalorian*, *The Book of Boba Fett* and *Ahsoka*. *Variety* reported in May 2021 that the series was not in active development. In an interview with [*Empire*](Empire (film magazine)) published in November 2021, Kathleen Kennedy said development had not reached a point where scripts were written and that she felt some of the ideas for the series would "figure into future episodes ... of the next iteration of *Mandalorian*". *Empire* cited Gina Carano's departure from Lucasfilm as a possible reason for the halting of the series, implying that her character, [Dune](Cara)(Cara Dune), was intended to star in it. A *Mandalorian* spin-off series centered on Dune had been rumored by late 2020, but after Carano [controversial social media statements](posted)(Gina Carano#Political views) in November 2020 and February 2021, Disney severed ties with the actress.
## See also
* [of Star Wars films](List)(List of Star Wars films)
* [*Star Wars* § Films and videos](Lego)(Lego Star Wars#Films and videos)
* [of *Star Wars* cast members](List)(List of Star Wars cast members)
* [of *Star Wars* characters](List)(List of Star Wars characters)
## Notes
## References
}}
## External links
*
[Wars](Star)(Category:Lists of television series)
[series](Television)(Category:Star Wars lists)
[*](Category:Star Wars television series)
|
Felicity Huffman
|
felicity_huffman
|
# Felicity Huffman
*Revision ID: 1158555127 | Timestamp: 2023-06-04T20:24:40Z*
---
| birth_place = [New York](Bedford,)(Bedford (town), New York), U.S.
| years_active = 1978–present
| alma_mater =
| spouse =
| children = 2
| occupation = Actress
}}
**Felicity Kendall Huffman** (born December 9, 1962) is an American actress best known for her role as [Scavo](Lynette)(Lynette Scavo) in the ABC comedy-drama *[Housewives](Desperate)(Desperate Housewives)* and her performance as a [woman](transgender)(transgender woman) in the independent film *[Transamerica](Transamerica (film))*.
Huffman began her acting career in theatre, and in the 1990s also had many supporting roles in film and television. She starred as Dana Whitaker in the comedy-drama *[Night](Sports)(Sports Night)* from 1998 to 2000, which earned her a [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award) nomination. She is best known for her role as Lynette Scavo in the ABC comedy-drama *[Housewives](Desperate)(Desperate Housewives)* (2004–2012), for which she earned the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series) for the debut season of the series, three [Actors Guild Awards](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Awards), and three consecutive Golden Globe nominations.
Huffman drew critical praise for her performance as a [woman](transgender)(transgender woman) in the independent film *[Transamerica](Transamerica (film))* (2005). The role earned her a Golden Globe Award, [Spirit Award](Independent)(Film Independent Spirit Awards), [Board of Review](National)(National Board of Review), and an [Award](Academy)(Academy Awards) nomination for Best Actress. Huffman has also starred in such films as *[of Fortune](Reversal)(Reversal of Fortune)* (1990), *[Spanish Prisoner](The)(The Spanish Prisoner)* (1997), *[Magnolia](Magnolia (film))* (1999), *[to War](Path)(Path to War)* (2002), *[Rule](Georgia)(Georgia Rule)* (2007), *[in Wonderland](Phoebe)(Phoebe in Wonderland)* (2008), *[Rudderless](Rudderless)* (2014), and *[Cake](Cake (2014 film))* (2014). From 2015 to 2017, she starred in a third ABC series, the anthology crime drama *[Crime](American)(American Crime (TV series))*, for which she received critical acclaim including three Primetime Emmy Award nominations, two Golden Globe nominations and a Screen Actors Guild nomination.
Huffman was arrested on March 12, 2019, for her involvement with a [college entrance exam cheating scandal](nationwide)(2019 college admissions bribery scandal). Charged with conspiracy to commit [fraud](mail)(mail and wire fraud) and [services mail fraud](honest)(honest services mail fraud), she was released on $250,000 bail. On May 13, she pleaded guilty to federal charges for paying $15,000 to have a [proctor](proctor) correct [SAT](SAT) questions answered incorrectly by her daughter. On September 13, she was sentenced to 14 days in prison, a $30,000 fine, 250 hours of community service and one year supervised release for her part in the scandal.
## Early life and education
Huffman was born in [New York](Bedford,)(Bedford (town), New York), into a wealthy family, the daughter of Grace Valle ([née](married and maiden names) Ewing) and Moore Peters Huffman, a banker and partner at [Stanley](Morgan)(Morgan Stanley). Her parents divorced a year after her birth, and she was raised by both of them.Stated on *[Your Roots](Finding)(Finding Your Roots)*, January 15, 2019Derschowitz, Jessica. "[Felicity Huffman on Family: It's a Community](https://www.cbsnews.com/8301-504744_162-20022537-10391703.html)." [News](CBS)(CBS News): *[Early Show](The)(The Early Show)*. November 12, 2010. When Huffman was a young teenager, she discovered that her biological father was Roger Tallman Maher, who was a family friend. She has six sisters[Jane Huffman Obituary](http://www.tributes.com/show/Jane-E.-Huffman-96595218) retrieved February 20, 2015. and a brother. In the 1970s, Huffman's mother left New York and bought property in [Colorado](Snowmass,)(Snowmass, Colorado), where Felicity and her siblings spent their youth.[Grace Ewing Public Record](https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:K5LK-BV3) retrieved February 21, 2015.[Felicity Huffman's favorite pastime](http://www.oprahmag.co.za/books/reviews/felicity-huffman%E2%80%99s-favourite-pastime) retrieved February 20, 2015. Her great-grandfather was Gershom Moore Peters, founder of the [Cartridge Company](Peters)(Peters Cartridge Company) and prominent Baptist minister, author of *The Master*.[The Master at Amazon](https://www.amazon.com/The-Master-Gershom-Moore-Peters/dp/1279456744) retrieved 2/20/2015 Her other great-grandfather, Frederick Berthold Ewing, graduated from [University](Yale)(Yale University) and became a prominent [Louis](St.)(St. Louis) businessman. Huffman's great-great-grandfather was Joseph Warren King, founder of the King Mills Powder Company.[King Mills History](http://weeklyview.net/2013/05/23/the-ghosts-of-kings-island-part-2/) retrieved 2/20/2015 She has German, English, Scots-Irish, Scottish, French-Canadian, and Irish ancestry.
Huffman attended [Putney School](The)(The Putney School), a private boarding high school in [Vermont](Putney,)(Putney, Vermont), and graduated from [Arts Academy](Interlochen)(Interlochen Arts Academy) in [Michigan](Michigan) in 1981. She attended [York University](New)(New York University), [in the Square Theatre School](Circle)(Circle in the Square Theatre School) and the [Academy of Dramatic Art](Royal)(Royal Academy of Dramatic Art) in London, England.
## Career
### Early career
Huffman made her debut on stage in 1982 and in the 1980s and 1990s worked as a rule on stage productions. In 1988, she debuted on [Broadway](Broadway theatre) in the role as Karen in [Mamet](David)(David Mamet)'s play *[the Plow](Speed)(Speed-the-Plow)*. In 1995, Huffman won [Award](Obie)(Obie Award) for her performance in the play *[Cryptogram](The)(The Cryptogram)* by David Mamet. In 1999 she starred in the premiere of David Mamet's play *[Marriage](Boston)(Boston Marriage (play))*, about the daringly intimate relationship between two turn-of-the-century women, as well as in several other major theatrical productions.[Boston Marriage](http://mamet.eserver.org/review/1999/brucher.html) , David Mamet Society, June 1999
### 1991–2003: Earliest television and film roles
[[File:Felicity Huffman in Oscar de la Renta.jpg|left|180px|thumb|Huffman and Macy at [Heart Truth](The)(The Heart Truth) in February 2010]]
Huffman debuted on the big screen in 1988 with a small role in Mamet's film *[Change](Things)(Things Change (film))*. Two years later, she appeared as Minnie, a Harvard law school student in the courtroom drama *[of Fortune](Reversal)(Reversal of Fortune)*. Her other credits include 1992 thriller *[No Escape](Quicksand:)(Quicksand: No Escape)* with [Sutherland](Donald)(Donald Sutherland) and [Matheson](Tim)(Tim Matheson), *[Water Engine](The)(The Water Engine)* opposite William H. Macy, and supporting roles on *The Heart of Justice* (1992), *[Hackers](Hackers (film))* (1995), *Harrison: Cry of the City* (1996) and *The Underworld* (1997).
Huffman starred on the television mini-series *[Years](Golden)(Golden Years (TV series))*, based on the novel by [King](Stephen)(Stephen King) in 1991. In 1994, she starred in the ABC pilot *[Alley](Thunder)(Thunder Alley (TV series))* as [Asner](Ed)(Ed Asner)'s daughter, but was replaced in subsequent episodes by [Venora](Diane)(Diane Venora) when the series began. During the 1990s, she appeared mostly in guest roles on such shows as *[X-Files](The)(The X-Files)*, *[Edition](Early)(Early Edition)*, *[Hope](Chicago)(Chicago Hope)* and *[& Order](Law)(Law & Order)*. In 1997, she starred in Mamet's film *[Spanish Prisoner](The)(The Spanish Prisoner)*.[The Spanish Prisoner at Rotten Tomatoes](https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/spanish_prisoner/). *[Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes)*. Accessed February 5, 2008.
From 1998 to 2000, she portrayed Dana Whitaker in the series *[Night](Sports)(Sports Night)*, for which she received several awards and nominations, including a [Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy). After the completion of *[Night](Sports)(Sports Night)*, she gave birth to her first child and soon returned to work. In 2001, she starred on the not picked up [CBS](CBS) pilot *Heart Department* In 2003, she starred in [Showtime](Showtime (TV network))'s miniseries *[of Order](Out)(Out of Order (TV show))*.
In 1999, she appeared in the [Thomas Anderson](Paul)(Paul Thomas Anderson)'s ensemble drama *[Magnolia](Magnolia (film))* and television adaptation of 1938 movie *[Slight Case of Murder](A)(A Slight Case of Murder)* along with William H. Macy. In 2002 she played [Bird Johnson](Lady)(Lady Bird Johnson) in the [HBO](HBO) award-winning movie *[to War](Path)(Path to War)* and made a cameo appearance in *[to Door](Door)(Door to Door (film))*, which starred, and was written by, her husband. She also starred in *Snap Decision* (2001) with [Winningham](Mare)(Mare Winningham), *[Helen](Raising)(Raising Helen)* (2004) as [Hudson](Kate)(Kate Hudson)'s character's older sister, and *[with the Kranks](Christmas)(Christmas with the Kranks)* (2004), as the best friend of [Lee Curtis](Jamie)(Jamie Lee Curtis)'s character.
### 2004–2012: *Desperate Housewives* and *Transamerica*
[[File:Kathryn Joosten and Felicity Huffman.jpg|thumb|Felicity Huffman with [Joosten](Kathryn)(Kathryn Joosten) in 2009]]
After a recurring role on the NBC sitcom *[Frasier](Frasier)*, Huffman landed a leading role in an ABC comedy series *[Housewives](Desperate)(Desperate Housewives)*, co-starring with [Cross](Marcia)(Marcia Cross), [Hatcher](Teri)(Teri Hatcher), and [Longoria](Eva)(Eva Longoria). Huffman won an [Award](Emmy)(Emmy Award) for her work on *[Housewives](Desperate)(Desperate Housewives)* ([Lead Actress in a Comedy Series](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress - Comedy Series)) in 2005, as well as two [Screen Actors Guild Awards](2006)(2006 Screen Actors Guild Awards) (Best Actress - Comedy Series and part of Best Ensemble - Comedy Series) in 2006 and received several other awards. A report in November 2010 suggested that Huffman, along with co-star [Hatcher](Teri)(Teri Hatcher), would be quitting *Desperate Housewives*, but ABC denied the claim. The series ended in May 2012, after eight seasons.
In 2005, Huffman starred in the independent drama *[Transamerica](Transamerica (film))*, playing Bree, a pre-operative transgender woman who, on the brink of her transforming surgery, discovered that in her youth he had fathered a son - who is now a troubled teen hustler on the run. Huffman's performance in *[Transamerica](Transamerica (film))* was praised by many critics and garnered her a [Globe Award for Best Actress](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Drama), as well as nominations for [Actress (Screen Actors Guild)](Best)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture) and [Actress (Academy Awards)](Best)(Academy Award for Best Actress), and several other awards and nominations. Huffman is now a voting member of the [of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences](Academy)(Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences).
In 2007, Huffman starred in [Marshall](Garry)(Garry Marshall)'s *[Rule](Georgia)(Georgia Rule)* with [Fonda](Jane)(Jane Fonda) and [Lohan](Lindsay)(Lindsay Lohan), and 2008 on independent drama *[in Wonderland](Phoebe)(Phoebe in Wonderland)*. She made a film, *Lesster*, as a writer, director and actress in 2010.
### 2013–present: Subsequent career and *American Crime*
Huffman said that after seeing her as Lynette Scavo on *Housewives* for eight years it was difficult for audiences to think of her as anything else. She said that's why she was eager for a role that's a distinctive departure. After *Desperate Housewives* finale, Huffman reunited with playwright David Mamet in the comedy play *November*. The play debuted on September 26 and ended on November 4, 2012. In 2012, she also appeared in the ensemble cast independent movie, *[Me](Trust)(Trust Me (2013 film))*, opposite [Gregg](Clark)(Clark Gregg).
On February 15, 2013, Huffman signed on for the lead role of the [Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company) drama pilot *Boomerang*, directed by [Brewer](Craig)(Craig Brewer). The show centers on Margie Hamilton, a spy and master of disguise, who is the matriarch of the Hamilton clan, a "briskly professional assassin who can kill and dispose of a suspected terrorist in the afternoon – then switch to wife and mother mode without a hitch". However, Fox did not pick up *Boomerang* as a new series.
In 2013, Huffman starred in the independent drama *[Rudderless](Rudderless)*, and in the adventure film *Big Game* opposite [L. Jackson](Samuel)(Samuel L. Jackson). She also starred in another independent drama *Stealing Cars*, and was cast in the comedy film *Zendog*. In April 2014 she appeared in the independent film *[Cake](Cake (2014 film))* opposite [Aniston](Jennifer)(Jennifer Aniston).[[cropped.jpg|thumb|160px|Huffman at the 2006 Malibu Triathlon](File:Huffman)]In 2014, Huffman was cast as the lead in the ABC anthology legal drama pilot *[Crime](American)(American Crime (TV series))* created by [Ridley](John)(John Ridley). The pilot was picked up to series in May 2014. On October 2, 2014, it was announced that Huffman would be star and executive producer alongside [Mendelsohn](Carol)(Carol Mendelsohn) in her untitled drama about a special agent (Huffman) who is the fearless leader of a team of young agents on the New York City Joint Terrorism Task Force. The project was developed for ABC, but was not green-lighted for 2015–16 television season. *American Crime* debuted on ABC in March, 2015 and Huffman received critical acclaim for her performance as an antagonistic character. Robert Bianco from *[Today](USA)(USA Today)* said in his review "A triumph for Oscar winner John Ridley, who created, produced and directed *American Crime*, and a reconfirmation that Felicity Huffman is one of the best actors we have... In no case is that truer than with Huffman's Barb, who is the morally questionable center of the story. Barb is a Lifetime movie heroine: a tough, divorced mother who raised her children alone, and is fighting now to bring her son's murderer to justice. Except this isn't that kind of show, and Barb's battles have not just made her stronger; they've made her hate all the people she's felt she had to fight. Which is why Huffman's gut-wrenching performance is so startling. A bundle of barely concealed fury, Huffman forces us to invest in a woman who thinks her bigotry makes her not just right, but noble."
In 2018, Huffman starred in the second season of the [Epix](Epix (TV channel)) comedy-drama *[Shorty](Get)(Get Shorty (TV series))*.
In 2019, Huffman starred in two Netflix projects: the [DuVernay](Ava)(Ava DuVernay) miniseries *[They See Us](When)(When They See Us)* about the famous [Park jogger case](Central)(Central Park jogger case) from 1989 in which a jogger was attacked in [Park](Central)(Central Park) in [York City](New)(New York City) and in the comedy-drama film *[Otherhood](Otherhood)* based on the novel *Whatever Makes You Happy* by [Sutcliffe](William)(William Sutcliffe), She also starred in the drama film ''[Always Dying](Tammy's)(Tammy's Always Dying)'' directed by [Jo Johnson](Amy)(Amy Jo Johnson). which had its world premiere at the [International Film Festival](Toronto)(Toronto International Film Festival) in September 2019. It received generally positive reviews from critics, particularly for Huffman's and Phillips' performances. It was released through [on demand](video)(video on demand) on May 1, 2020, by [Distribution](Quiver)(Quiver Distribution).
In November 2020, it was reported that Huffman would star in an [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) comedy television series pertaining to minor league baseball. As of December 2022, no further announcements on this project had been made.
## Personal life
Huffman dated actor [H. Macy](William)(William H. Macy) on and off for 15 years before they married on September 6, 1997. They have two daughters, Sophia and Georgia. She has appeared on television, in movies and on stage many times with her husband. The couple each received a star on the [Walk of Fame](Hollywood)(Hollywood Walk of Fame) on March 7, 2012.
In 2005, Huffman revealed that she had suffered from both [anorexia](anorexia nervosa) and [bulimia](bulimia nervosa) in her late teens and twenties.
Huffman is the co-author of the self-help book *A Practical Handbook for the Boyfriend*. On March 1, 2012, Huffman launched What The Flicka, a website dedicated to women and mothers where she was a regular contributor. In March 2019, the website was reportedly deactivated.
In 2016, Huffman voiced support for [Rodham Clinton](Hillary)(Hillary Rodham Clinton) in the [U.S. presidential election](2016)(2016 United States presidential election). In 2018, Huffman donated $400 to [Harris](Kamala)(Kamala Harris)'s campaign in the [U.S. presidential election](2020)(2020 United States Presidential Election).
Felicity Huffman has been a member of the [of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences](Academy)(Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences) in the Actors Branch since 2006.
### Involvement in 2019 college admissions bribery scandal
Huffman was among dozens charged by the FBI and IRS and U.S. Attorney's Office on March 12, 2019 in a [college entrance exam cheating scandal](nationwide)(2019 college admissions bribery scandal). Prosecutors alleged that Huffman's $15,000 donation to the Key Worldwide Foundation, ostensibly a charitable contribution, was in fact payment to someone who posed as Huffman's daughter Sophia to take the [SAT](SAT), receiving a score that showed significant improvement over Sophia's score on the [SAT](Preliminary)(Preliminary SAT) (PSAT). Huffman was arrested at her California home on March 12 by [FBI](FBI) agents and [IRS](IRS) agents and charged with conspiracy to commit [fraud](mail)(mail and wire fraud) and [services fraud](honest)(honest services fraud). She appeared on March 13 in Los Angeles Federal Court, where federal agents took her passport and the court released her on $250,000 bail. At her [appearance](court)(John Joseph Moakley United States Courthouse) in [Boston](Boston) on April 3, she acknowledged her rights, charges and maximum possible penalties then waived a pretrial hearing, signed conditions of her release and was allowed to leave. On April 8, she agreed to plead guilty to one count of conspiracy to commit mail fraud and honest services mail fraud.
Huffman formally pled guilty to honest services fraud on May 13. On September 13, she was sentenced to 14 days in jail and one year of supervised release, fined $30,000 and ordered to do 250 hours of [service](community)(community service). She reported to the [Correctional Institution](Federal)(Federal Correctional Institution, Dublin) in [California](Dublin,)(Dublin, California) on October 15 to begin her sentence. She was released on October 25, two days early, because October 27 fell on a weekend. As of October 2020, when Huffman completed her full sentence, no charges have been filed against her husband and Sophia's father, actor and director [H. Macy](William)(William H. Macy).
## Credits
### Film
### Television
### Theatre
## Honors
* 1998: Honored with the Grand Jury Award – Comedy (Performance) by the [Comedy Arts Festival](US)(The Comedy Festival).
*2005: Best Actress Award - [Diego Film Festival](San)(List of San Diego International Film Festival award winners)
* 2012: Inducted into the [Walk of Fame](Hollywood)(Hollywood Walk of Fame) receiving a star for her contribution to Television — received the 2,463rd star located at [Hollywood, Blvd](7072)(List of stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame).
## References
## External links
* [What The Flicka](http://www.whattheflicka.com)
*
*
* [Felicity Huffman](https://web.archive.org/web/20130116210436/http://www.lortel.org/LLA_archive/index.cfm?search_by=people&first=Felicity&middle=&last=Huffman) at [Off-Broadway Database](Internet)(Lortel Archives)
*
}}
[births](Category:1962)(Category:1962 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[American actresses](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American actresses)
[American actresses](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American actresses)
[from Michigan](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from Michigan)
[from New York (state)](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from New York (state))
[from Vermont](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from Vermont)
[of RADA](Category:Alumni)(Category:Alumni of RADA)
[film actresses](Category:American)(Category:American film actresses)
[abortion-rights activists](Category:American)(Category:American abortion-rights activists)
[stage actresses](Category:American)(Category:American stage actresses)
[television actresses](Category:American)(Category:American television actresses)
[Drama Actress Golden Globe (film) winners](Category:Best)(Category:Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (film) winners)
[in the Square Theatre School alumni](Category:Circle)(Category:Circle in the Square Theatre School alumni)
[Spirit Award for Best Female Lead winners](Category:Independent)(Category:Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead winners)
[York (state) Democrats](Category:New)(Category:New York (state) Democrats)
[Award recipients](Category:Obie)(Category:Obie Award recipients)
[Performance by a Lead Actress in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award winners](Category:Outstanding)(Category:Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award winners)
[Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners](Category:Outstanding)(Category:Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners)
[people convicted of fraud](Category:American)(Category:American people convicted of fraud)
[from Grand Traverse County, Michigan](Category:People)(Category:People from Grand Traverse County, Michigan)
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[School of the Arts alumni](Category:Tisch)(Category:Tisch School of the Arts alumni)
[Putney School alumni](Category:The)(Category:The Putney School alumni)
|
American English
|
american_english
|
# American English
*Revision ID: 1159846032 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T22:17:44Z*
---
| speakers2 = 25.6 million [speakers](L2)(L2 speakers) of English in the United States (2003)
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [Germanic](Germanic languages)
| fam3 = [Germanic](West)(West Germanic languages)
| fam4 = [Sea Germanic](North)(North Sea Germanic)
| fam5 = [Anglo–Frisian](Anglo-Frisian languages)
| fam6 = [Anglic](Anglic languages)
| fam7 = [English](English language)
| fam8 = [American English](North)(North American English)
| ancestor = [English](Old)(Old English)
| ancestor2 = [English](Middle)(Middle English)
| ancestor3 = [century Modern English](17th)(Early Modern English)
| nation =
| script =
| [English Braille](Unified)(Unified English Braille)
}}
| isoexception = dialect
| glotto = none
| ietf =
| notice = IPA
}}
**American English**, sometimes called **United States English** or **U.S. English**,}} is the set of [varieties](variety (linguistics)) of the [language](English)(English language) native to the [States](United)(United States). English is the [widely spoken language in the United States](most)(Languages of the United States) and in most circumstances is the *[facto](de)(de facto)* common language used in government, education and commerce. Since the late 20th century, American English has become the most influential form of English worldwide.
American English varieties include many patterns of pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and particularly spelling that are unified nationwide but distinct from other English dialects around the world. Any [or Canadian](American)(North American English) accent perceived as lacking noticeably local, ethnic or cultural [markers](markedness) is known in [linguistics](linguistics) as [American](General)(General American), a fairly uniform [continuum](accent)(dialect continuum) native to certain regions of the U.S. and associated nationally with broadcast mass media and highly educated speech. However, historical and present linguistic evidence does not support the notion of there being one single mainstream American [accent](Accent (sociolinguistics)). The sound of American English continues to evolve, with some local accents disappearing, but several larger regional accents having emerged in the 20th century.
## History
The use of English in the United States is a result of [colonization of the Americas](British)(British colonization of the Americas). The first wave of English-speaking settlers arrived in North America during the early 17th century, followed by further migrations in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 17th and 18th centuries, dialects from many different regions of England and the British Isles existed in every American colony, allowing a process of [dialect mixture](extensive)(koineization) and [leveling](dialect leveling) in which English varieties across the colonies became more homogeneous compared with the varieties in Britain. English thus predominated in the colonies even by the end of the 17th century's first immigration of non-English speakers from Western Europe and Africa. Additionally, firsthand descriptions of a fairly uniform American English (particularly in contrast to the diverse regional dialects of British English) became common after the mid-18th century, while at the same time speakers' identification with this new variety increased.
Since the 18th century, American English has developed into some new varieties, including regional dialects that retain minor influences from waves of immigrant speakers of diverse languages, primarily European languages.Hickey, R. (2014). *Dictionary of varieties of English*. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 25.
Some racial and regional variation in American English reflects these groups' geographic settlement, their [jure](de)(de jure) or [facto](de)(de facto) segregation, and patterns in their resettlement. This can be seen, for example, in the influence of the [immigration](Scotch-Irish)(Scotch-Irish Americans) in [Appalachia](Appalachia) developing [English](Appalachian)(Appalachian English) and the [Migration](Great)(Great Migration (African American)) bringing [Vernacular English](African-American)(African-American Vernacular English) to the [Lakes](Great)(Great Lakes region) urban centers.Mufwene, Salikoko S. (1999). "North American Varieties of English as Byproducts of Population Contacts." *The Workings of Language: From Prescriptions to Perspectives.* Ed. Rebecca Wheeler Westport, CT: Praeger, 15-37.
## Phonology
Any phonologically [unmarked](markedness) North American accent is known as "[American](General)(General American)" (akin to [Pronunciation](Received)(Received Pronunciation#Alternative names) in British English, which has been referred to as "General British"). This section mostly refers to such General American features.
### Conservative phonology
Studies on historical usage of English in both the United States and the United Kingdom suggest that spoken American English did not simply deviate away from [British English](period)(Early Modern English), but is [conservative](Linguistic conservatism) in some ways, preserving certain features contemporary [English](British)(British English) has since lost.
Full [rhoticity](Rhoticity in English) (or R-fulness) is typical of American accents, pronouncing the phoneme (corresponding to the letter ) in all environments, including after vowels, such as in *pearl*, *car* and *court*. Non-rhotic American accents, those that do not pronounce except before a vowel, such as some [New England](Eastern)(Eastern New England English), [York](New)(New York City English), a specific few (often [older](older Southern American English)) [Southern](Southern American English), and [American vernacular accents](African)(African American Vernacular English), are often quickly noticed by General American listeners and perceived to sound especially ethnic, regional or "old-fashioned".Wolchover, Natalie (2012). "[Why Do Americans and Brits Have Different Accents?](http://www.livescience.com/33652-americans-brits-accents.html)" *LiveScience*. Purch.
Rhoticity is common in most American accents, although it is now rare in England because during the 17th-century British colonization nearly all dialects of English were rhotic, and most North American English simply remained that way. The preservation of rhoticity in North America was also supported by continuing waves of rhotic-accented [Scotch-Irish](Scotch-Irish Americans) immigrants, most intensely during the 18th century (and moderately during the following two centuries) when the Scotch-Irish eventually made up one-seventh of the colonial population. Scotch-Irish settlers spread from Delaware and Pennsylvania throughout the larger Mid-Atlantic region, the inland regions of both the South and North and throughout the West: American dialect areas that were all uninfluenced by upper-class non-rhoticity and that consequently have remained consistently rhotic.Wolfram, Walt; Schilling, Natalie (2015). *[American English: Dialects and Variation](https://books.google.com/books?id=fOPLCgAAQBAJ&q=scots-irish+one+in+seven)*. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 103–104. The pronunciation of is a [approximant](postalveolar)(postalveolar approximant) or [approximant](retroflex)(retroflex approximant) , but a unique "bunched tongue" variant of the approximant *r* sound is also associated with the United States, perhaps mostly in the Midwest and the South.
American accents that have not undergone the [merger](*cot–caught*)(cot-caught merger) (the [set](lexical)(lexical set)s and ) have instead retained a [[split|– split](Lot-cloth)]: a 17th-century distinction in which certain words (labeled as the [set](lexical)(lexical set)) separated away from the set. The split, which has now reversed in most British English, simultaneously shifts this relatively recent set into a merger with the (*caught*) set. Having taken place prior to the unrounding of the *cot* vowel, it results in lengthening and perhaps raising, merging the more recently separated vowel into the vowel in the following environments: before many instances of , , and particularly (as in *Austria, cloth, cost, loss, off, often,* etc.), a few instances before (as in *strong, long, wrong*), and variably by region or speaker in *gone*, *on*, and certain other words.
The standard accent of southern England, [Pronunciation](Received)(Received Pronunciation) (RP), has evolved in other ways compared to which General American has remained relatively conservative. Examples include the modern RP features of a [trap–bath* split](*)(trap–bath split) and the fronting of , neither of which is typical of General American accents. Moreover, American dialects do not participate in [H-dropping](H-dropping), an innovative feature that now characterizes perhaps a majority of the regional dialects of England.
### Innovative phonology
However, General American is also innovative in a number of ways:
* [[history of the low back vowels#Father–bother merger|Unrounded ](Phonological)]: The American phenomenon of the vowel (often spelled in words like *box, don, clock, notch, pot,* etc.) being produced without [lips](rounded)(rounded vowel), like the vowel, allows *father* and *bother* to rhyme, the two vowels now unified as the single [phoneme](phoneme) . The *father–bother* vowel merger is in a transitional or completed stage in nearly all North American English. Exceptions are in northeastern [England English](New)(New England English) (such as the [accent](Boston)(Boston accent)), the [accent](Pittsburgh)(Western Pennsylvania English), and variably in some older [York accent](New)(New York accent)s, which may retain a rounded articulation.
*[merger](*Cot–caught*)(cot–caught merger) in transition: There is no single American way to pronounce the vowels in words like *cot* (the *ah* vowel) versus *caught* (the *aw* vowel), largely because of a merger occurring between the two sounds in some parts of North America, but not others. American speakers with a completed merger pronounce the two historically separate vowels with the [sound](same)(Homophone) (especially in the [West](American West), northern [England](New)(New England), [Virginia](West)(West Virginia), [Pennsylvania](western)(western Pennsylvania), and the [Midwest](Upper)(Upper Midwest)), but other speakers have no trace of a merger at all (especially in the [South](American South), the [Lakes region](Great)(Great Lakes region), southern [England](New)(New England), and the [Mid-Atlantic](Mid-Atlantic United States) and [York metropolitan area](New)(New York metropolitan area)s) and so pronounce each vowel with distinct sounds . Among speakers who distinguish between the two, the vowel of *cot* (usually transcribed in American English as ), is often a [central](central vowel) or advanced [back](back vowel) , while is pronounced with more rounded lips and/or phonetically higher in the mouth, close to or , but with only slight rounding. Among speakers who do not distinguish between them, thus producing a *cot–caught* merger, usually remains a back vowel, , sometimes showing lip rounding as . Therefore, even mainstream Americans vary greatly with this speech feature, with possibilities ranging from a full merger to no merger at all. A transitional stage of the merger is also common in scatterings throughout the United States, most consistently in the [Midlands](American)(Midland American English) lying between the historical dialect regions of the North and the South, while younger Americans, in general, tend to be transitioning toward the merger. According to a 2003 dialect survey carried out across the United States, about 61% of participants perceive themselves as keeping the two vowels distinct and 39% do not.Vaux, Bert; Golder, Scott (2003). "[Do you pronounce 'cot' and 'çaught' the same?](http://www4.uwm.edu/FLL/linguistics/dialect/staticmaps/q_28.html)" The Harvard Dialect Survey. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Linguistics Department. A 2009 follow-up survey put the percentages at 58% non-merging speakers and 41% merging.Vaux, Bert; Jøhndal, Marius L. (2009). "[Do you pronounce "cot" and "caught" the same?](http://survey.johndal.com/results/268/)" *Cambridge Online Survey of World Englishes*. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
* in special words: The vowel, rather than the one in or (as in Britain), is used in [words](function)(function words) and certain other words like *was, of, from, what, everybody, nobody, somebody, anybody*, and, for many speakers *because* and rarely even *want*, when stressed.According to *Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition*.
* [mergers](Vowel)(English-language vowel changes before historic r) before intervocalic : The mergers of certain vowels before are typical throughout North America, the only exceptions existing primarily along the East Coast:
**[merger](*Mary–marry–merry*)(Mary-marry-merry merger) in transition: According to the 2003 dialect survey, nearly 57% of participants from around the country self-identified as merging the sounds (as in the first syllable of *parish*), (as in the first syllable of *perish*), and (as in *pear* or *pair*).Vaux, Bert and Scott Golder (2003). "[How do you pronounce Mary / merry / marry?](http://www4.uwm.edu/FLL/linguistics/dialect/staticmaps/q_15.html)" The Harvard Dialect Survey. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Linguistics Department. The merger is already complete everywhere except along some areas of the Atlantic Coast.
**[merger](*Hurry–furry*)(hurry-furry merger): The pre- vowels in words like *hurry* and *furry* are merged in most American accents to or a syllabic consonant . Roughly only 10% of American English speakers acknowledge the distinct *hurry* vowel before , according to the same dialect survey aforementioned.Vaux, Bert and Scott Golder (2003). "[fl*ou*rish](http://dialect.redlog.net/staticmaps/q_12.html) ". The Harvard Dialect Survey. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Linguistics Department.
**[merger](*Mirror–nearer*)(Mirror–nearer merger) in transition: The pre- vowels in words like *mirror* and *nearer* are merged or very similar in most American accents. The quality of the historic *mirror* vowel in the word *miracle* is quite variable.Vaux, Bert and Scott Golder (2003). "[the first vowel in "m*i*racle"](http://www4.uwm.edu/FLL/linguistics/dialect/staticmaps/q_17.html)". The Harvard Dialect Survey. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Linguistics Department.
*Americans vary slightly in their pronunciations of [vowels](R-colored)(R-colored vowel#Rhotacization) such as those in and , which sometimes monophthongizes towards and or [tensing](tenseness) towards and respectively. That causes pronunciations like for *pair*/*pear* and for *peer*/*pier*. Also, is often reduced to , so that *cure*, *pure*, and *mature* may all end with the sound , thus rhyming with *blur* and *sir*. The word *sure* is also part of the rhyming set as it is commonly pronounced .
* [Yod-dropping](Yod-dropping): Dropping of after a consonant is much more extensive than in most of England. In most North American accents, is "dropped" or "deleted" after all [alveolar](alveolar consonant) and interdental consonants (that is: everywhere except after /p/, /b/, /f/, /h/, /k/, and /m/) and so *new, duke, Tuesday, assume* are pronounced , , , (compare with Standard British , , , ).
| filename2 = en-us-partner.ogg
| title2 = *partner* (glottalized *t*)
| description2 =
| filename3 = en-us-leader.ogg
| title3 = *leader* (*d*-flapping)
| description3 =
| filename4 = en-us-cattle.ogg
| title4 = *cattle* (*t*-flapping)
| description4 =
| filename5 = en-us-party.ogg
| title5 = *party* (*t*-flapping)
| description5 =
}}
| filename2 = En-US relatively (flapped).ogg
| title2 = *relatively* with flapping
| description2 =
}}
* [T-glottalization](T-glottalization): is normally pronounced as a [stop](glottal)(glottal stop) when both after a vowel or a [liquid](liquid consonant) and before a [syllabic](syllabic consonant) or any non-syllabic consonant, as in *button* or *fruitcake* . In absolute final position after a vowel or liquid, is also replaced by, or simultaneously articulated with, glottal constriction:Seyfarth, Scott; [Marc](Garellek,)(Marc Garellek) (2015). "[Coda glottalization in American English](https://pages.ucsd.edu/~mgarellek/files/Seyfarth_Garellek_2015_ICPhS.pdf)". In ICPhS. University of California, San Diego, p. 1. thus, *what* or *fruit* . (This innovation of [glottal stopping](/t/)(T-glottalization) may occur in British English as well.)
* [Flapping](Flapping): or becomes a [flap](alveolar flap) both after a vowel or and before an unstressed vowel or a syllabic consonant other than , including *water* , *party* and *model* . This results in pairs such as *ladder/latter, metal/medal,* and *coating/coding* being pronounced the same. Flapping of or before a full stressed vowel is also possible but only if that vowel begins a new word or morpheme, as in *what is it?* and twice in *not at all* . Other rules apply to flapping to such a complex degree in fact that flapping has been analyzed as being required in certain contexts, prohibited in others, and optional in still others.Vaux, Bert (2000_. "Flapping in English." *Linguistic Society of America*, Chicago, IL. p .6. For instance, flapping is prohibited in words like *seduce* , *retail* , and *monotone* , yet optional in *impotence* .
*Both intervocalic and may commonly be realized as (a nasalized [flap](alveolar)(alveolar flap)) ([flapping](flapping)) or simply , making *winter* and *winner* homophones in fast or informal speech.
* L-velarization: England's typical distinction between a "clear L" (i.e. ) and a "dark L" (i.e. ) is much less noticeable in nearly all dialects of American English; it is often altogether absent, with all "L" sounds tending to be "dark," meaning having some degree of [velarization](velarization), perhaps even as dark as (though in the initial position, perhaps less dark than elsewhere among some speakers). The only notable exceptions to this velarization are in some Spanish-influenced American English varieties (such as [Coast Latino English](East)(New York Latino English), which typically shows a clear "L" in [onset](syllable)(syllable onset)s) and in [moribund Southern speech](older,)(older Southern American English), where "L" is clear in an [intervocalic](intervocalic consonant) environment between [vowel](front)(front vowel)s.*A Handbook of Varieties of English*, Bernd Kortmann & Edgar W. Schneider, Walter de Gruyter, 2004, p. 319.
* [vowel merger](Weak)(Weak vowel merger): The vowel in unstressed syllables generally merges with and so *effect* is pronounced like *affect*, and *abbot* and *rabbit* rhyme. The quality of the merged vowel varies considerably based on the environment but is typically more open, like [ə], in word-initial or word-final position, but more close, like [ɪ~ɨ], elsewhere.
* [Raising](Raising (sound change)) of pre-voiceless : Many speakers split the sound based on whether it occurs before a voiceless consonant and so in *rider*, it is pronounced , but in *writer*, it is raised to (because is a voiceless consonant while is not). Thus, words like *bright, hike, price, wipe,* etc. with a following voiceless consonant (such as ) use a more raised vowel sound compared to *bride, high, prize, wide*, etc. Because of this sound change, the words *rider* and *writer* , for instance, remain distinct from one another by virtue of their difference in height (and length) of the diphthong's starting point (unrelated to both the letters *d* and *t* being pronounced in these words as alveolar flaps ). The sound change also applies across word boundaries, though the position of a word or phrase's stress may prevent the raising from taking place. For instance, a *high school* in the sense of "secondary school" is generally pronounced ; however, a *high school* in the literal sense of "a tall school" would be pronounced . The [change](sound)(sound change) began in the [Northern](Northern American English), [England](New)(New England English), and [Mid-Atlantic](Mid-Atlantic American English) regions of the country, and is becoming more common across the nation.
** Many speakers in the [North](Inland)(Inland Northern American English), [Midwestern](Upper)(North Central American English), and [dialect areas](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia English) raise before voiced consonants in certain words as well, particularly , and . Hence, words like *tiny*, *spider*, *cider*, *tiger*, *dinosaur*, *beside*, *idle* (but sometimes not *idol*), and *fire* may contain a raised nucleus. The use of , rather than , in such words is unpredictable from the phonetic environment alone, but it may have to do with their acoustic similarity to other words that with before a voiceless consonant, per the traditional Canadian-raising system. Some researchers have argued that there has been a [split](phonemic)(phonemic split) in those dialects, and the distribution of the two sounds is becoming more unpredictable among younger speakers.
* Some speakers from [California](California English), other [states](Western)(Western American English) including those in the [Northwest](Pacific)(Pacific Northwest English), and the [Midwest](Upper)(North-Central American English) realize final as when ("short *i*") is raised to become ("long *ee*") before the underlying is converted to , so that *coding*, for example, is pronounced , homophonous with *codeine*.
* Conditioned [raising](/æ/)(/æ/ raising) (especially before and ): The raising of the or vowel occurs in specific environments that vary widely from region to region but most commonly before and . With most American speakers for whom the phoneme operates under a somewhat-continuous system, has both a tense and a lax [allophone](allophone) (with a kind of "continuum" of possible sounds between both extremes, rather than a definitive split). In those accents, is overall realized before [stop](nasal)(nasal stop)s as tenser (approximately ), while other environments are laxer (approximately the standard ); for example, note the vowel sound in for *mass*, but for *man*). In the following audio clip, the first pronunciation is the tensed one for the word *camp*, much more common in American English than the second .
**In some American accents, however, specifically those from [Baltimore](Baltimore), [Philadelphia](Philadelphia), and [York City](New)(New York City), and are indeed entirely separate (or "split") phonemes, for example, in *planet* vs. *plan it* . They are called Mid-Atlantic [split-*a*](/æ/#Phonemic tensing) systems. The vowels move in the opposite direction (high and forward) in the mouth compared to the backed Standard British "[*a*](broad)(broad a)", but both *a* systems are probably related phonologically, if not phonetically since a British-like phenomenon occurs among some older speakers of the eastern New England (Boston) area for whom changes to before alone or when preceded by a [homorganic](homorganic) nasal.
* [*o*" before *r* before a vowel]("Short)(Mergers of /ɒr-/ and /ɔːr-/): In typical North American accents (both U.S. and Canada), the historical sequence (a short *o* sound followed by *r* and then another vowel, as in *orange*, *forest*, *moral*, and *warrant*) is realized as , thus further merging with the already-merged ([*horse*–*hoarse*](horse–hoarse merger)) set. In the U.S., a small number of words (namely, *tomow, sy, sow, bow,* and *mow*) usually contain the sound instead and thus merge with the set (thus, *sorry* and *[sari](sari)* become [homophone](homophone)s, both rhyming with *starry*).
and followed by a vowel, compared with other dialects|hidden=yes}}
Some mergers found in most varieties of both American and British English include the following:
* [merger](*Horse–hoarse*)(Horse–hoarse merger): This merger makes the vowels and before homophones, with homophonous pairs like *horse/hoarse, corps/core, for/four, morning/mourning, war/wore,* etc. [homophone](homophone)s. Many older varieties of American English still keep the sets of words distinct, particularly in the extreme Northeast, the South (especially along the Gulf Coast), and the central Midlands, but the merger is evidently spreading and younger Americans rarely show the distinction.
* [merger](*Wine–whine*)(Wine–whine merger): This produces pairs like *wine/whine, wet/whet, Wales/whales, wear/where,* etc. [homophone](homophone)s, in most cases eliminating , also transcribed , the [labiovelar fricative](voiceless)(voiceless labiovelar fricative). However, scatterings of older speakers who do not merge these pairs still exist nationwide, perhaps most strongly in the South.
## Vocabulary
The process of coining new lexical items started as soon as English-speaking British-American colonists began borrowing names for unfamiliar flora, fauna, and topography from the [American languages](Native)(Native American languages). Examples of such names are *[opossum](Virginia opossum), [raccoon](raccoon), [squash](squash (fruit))*, *[moose](moose)* (from [Algonquian](Algonquian languages)), *[wigwam](wigwam)*, and *[moccasin](moccasin)*. American English speakers have integrated traditionally non-English terms and expressions into the mainstream cultural lexicon; for instance, *[masse](en)(en masse)*, from [French](French language); *[cookie](cookie)*, from [Dutch](Dutch Language); *[kindergarten](kindergarten)* from [German](German language), and *[rodeo](rodeo)* from [Spanish](Spanish language). Landscape features are often loanwords from French or Spanish, and the word *[corn](wikt:corn)*, used in England to refer to wheat (or any cereal), came to denote the [maize](maize) plant, the [important crop](most)(Corn production in the United States) in the U.S.
Most [Spanish](Mexican)(Mexican Spanish) contributions came after the [of 1812](War)(War of 1812), with the opening of the West, like *[ranch](ranch)* (now a common [style](house)(ranch house)). Due to Mexican culinary influence, many Spanish words are incorporated in general use when talking about certain popular dishes: cilantro (instead of coriander), queso, tacos, quesadillas, enchiladas, tostadas, fajitas, burritos, and guacamole. These words usually lack an English equivalent and are found in popular restaurants. New forms of dwelling created new terms *([lot](Land lot), waterfront)* and types of homes like *[cabin](log)(log cabin), [adobe](adobe)* in the 18th century; *[apartment](apartment), [shanty](Wikt:shanty)* in the 19th century; *project, [condominium](Condominium (living space)), [townhouse](townhouse), [home](mobile)(mobile home)* in the 20th century; and parts thereof *([driveway](driveway), breezeway, [backyard](backyard))*. Industry and material innovations from the 19th century onwards provide distinctive new words, phrases, and idioms through [railroad](railroad)ing (see further at [terminology](rail)(rail terminology)) and [transport](transport)ation terminology, ranging from types of roads (*dirt roads*, *[freeway](freeway)s*) to infrastructure *([lot](parking)(parking lot), [overpass](overpass), [area](rest)(rest area)),* to automotive terminology often now standard in English internationally.A few of these are now chiefly found, or have been more productive, outside the U.S.; for example, *jump,* "to drive past a traffic signal"; *block* meaning "building", and *center,* "central point in a town" or "main area for a particular activity" (cf. Oxford English Dictionary). Already existing English words—such as *[store](General store), [shop](Retailing), [lumber](lumber)*—underwent shifts in meaning; others remained in the U.S. while changing in Britain. Science, urbanization, and democracy have been important factors in bringing about changes in the written and spoken language of the United States. From the world of business and finance came new terms (*[merger](merger), [downsize](Layoff), [line](bottom)(Net income)*), from sports and gambling terminology came, specific jargon aside, common everyday American idioms, including [idioms related to baseball](many)(English language idioms derived from baseball). The names of some American inventions remained largely confined to North America (*[elevator](elevator)* [except [the aeronautical sense](in)(Elevator (aeronautics))], *[gasoline](gasoline)*) as did certain automotive terms (*[truck](truck)*, *[trunk](Trunk (car))*).
New foreign loanwords came with 19th and early 20th century European immigration to the U.S.; notably, from [Yiddish](Yiddish language) *([chutzpah](chutzpah), schmooze, bupkis, [glitch](glitch)*) and [German](German language) (*[hamburger](hamburger), [wiener](Hot dog)*). A large number of English colloquialisms from various periods are American in origin; some have lost their American flavor (from *[OK](OK)* and *cool* to *[nerd](nerd)* and *[24/7](24/7)),* while others have not *([a nice day](have)(have a nice day), for sure);* many are now distinctly old-fashioned *(swell, groovy).* Some English words now in general use, such as *hijacking, [jockey](disc)(disc jockey), boost, bulldoze* and *[jazz](jazz),* originated as American slang.
American English has always shown a marked tendency to [words in different parts of speech](use)(Anthimeria) and nouns are [used as verbs](often)(functional shift). Examples of nouns that are now also verbs are *interview, advocate, vacuum, lobby, pressure, rear-end, transition, feature, profile, hashtag, head, divorce, loan, estimate, X-ray, spearhead, skyrocket, showcase, bad-mouth, [vacation](vacation), major,* and many others. [Compounds](Compound (linguistics)) coined in the U.S. are for instance *[foothill](foothill), [landslide](landslide)* (in all senses), *[backdrop](Wikt:backdrop), [teenager](teenager),* *[brainstorm](brainstorming), [bandwagon](Wikt:bandwagon), [hitchhike](hitchhike), smalltime,* and a huge number of others. Other compound words have been founded based on industrialization and the wave of the automobile: five-passenger car, four-door sedan, two-door sedan, and station-wagon (called an estate car in England). Some are euphemistic *([resources](human)(human resources), [action](affirmative)(affirmative action), [facility](correctional)(correctional facility)).* Many compound nouns have the verb-and-preposition combination: *stopover, lineup, tryout, spin-off, [shootout](shootout), holdup, hideout, comeback, [makeover](makeover),* and many more. Some prepositional and [verb](phrasal)(phrasal verb)s are in fact of American origin (*win out, hold up, back up/off/down/out, face up to* and many others).British author [Orwell](George)(George Orwell) (in *English People*, 1947, cited in OED s.v. *lose)* criticized an alleged "American tendency" to "burden every verb with a preposition that adds nothing to its meaning (*win out*, *lose out*, *face up to*, etc.)".
Noun endings such as *-ee (retiree), -ery (bakery), -ster (gangster)* and *-cian (beautician)* are also particularly productive in the U.S. Several verbs ending in *-ize* are of U.S. origin; for example, *fetishize, prioritize, burglarize, accessorize, [weatherize](weatherization),* etc.; and so are some [back-formation](back-formation)s *(locate, fine-tune, curate, donate, emote, upholster* and *enthuse).* Among syntactical constructions that arose are *outside of, headed for, meet up with, back of,* etc. Americanisms formed by alteration of some existing words include notably *pesky, phony, rambunctious, buddy, [sundae](sundae), skeeter, sashay* and *kitty-corner.* Adjectives that arose in the U.S. are, for example, *lengthy, bossy, [cute](cuteness)* and *cutesy, punk* (in all senses), *sticky* (of the weather), *through* (as in "finished"), and many colloquial forms such as *peppy* or *wacky*.
A number of words and meanings that originated in [English](Middle)(Middle English) or [Modern English](Early)(Early Modern English) and that have been in everyday use in the United States have since disappeared in most varieties of British English; some of these have cognates in [Scots](Lowland)(Scottish Lowlands). Terms such as *[fall](autumn)* ("autumn"), *[faucet](faucet)* ("tap"), *[diaper](diaper)* ("nappy"; itself unused in the U.S.), *[candy](candy)* ("sweets"), *[skillet](Frying pan)*, *[eyeglasses](eyeglasses)*, and *[obligate](obligate)* are often regarded as Americanisms. *Fall* for example came to denote the season in 16th century England, a contraction of Middle English expressions like "fall of the leaf" and "fall of the year." *Gotten* ([participle](past)(past participle) of *get*) is often considered to be largely an Americanism.*A Handbook of Varieties of English*, Bernd Kortmann & Edgar W. Schneider, Walter de Gruyter, 2004, p. 115. Other words and meanings were brought back to Britain from the U.S., especially in the second half of the 20th century; these include *hire* ("to employ"), *I guess* (famously criticized by [W. Fowler](H.)(H. W. Fowler)), *[baggage](baggage)*, *hit* (a place), and the adverbs *overly* and *presently* ("currently"). Some of these, for example, *[wrench](monkey)(monkey wrench)* and *[wastebasket](wastebasket)*, originated in 19th century Britain. The adjectives *mad* meaning "angry," *smart* meaning "intelligent," and *sick* meaning "ill" are also more frequent in American (and Irish) English than British English.
Linguist [Vaux](Bert)(Bert Vaux) created a survey, completed in 2003, polling English speakers across the United States about their specific everyday word choices, hoping to identify regionalisms.Vaux, Bert and Scott Golder. 2003. [The Harvard Dialect Survey](http://dialect.redlog.net/) . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Linguistics Department. The study found that most Americans prefer the term *sub* for a long sandwich, *soda* (but *pop* in the Great Lakes region and generic *coke* in the South) for a sweet and bubbly [drink](soft)(soft drink),Katz, Joshua (2013). "[Beyond 'Soda, Pop, or Coke](http://www4.ncsu.edu/~jakatz2/files/dialectposter.png).' North Carolina State University. *you* or *you guys* for the plural of *you* (but ''y'all* in the South), *[sneakers](Sneakers#Names and etymology)* for athletic shoes (but often *tennis shoes* outside the Northeast), and *[cart](shopping)(shopping cart)* for a cart used for carrying supermarket goods.
## Differences between American and British English
American English and [English](British)(British English) (BrE) often differ at the levels of phonology, phonetics, vocabulary, and, to a much lesser extent, grammar and orthography. The first large American dictionary, *An American Dictionary of the English Language'', known as [Dictionary](Webster's)(Webster's Dictionary), was written by [Webster](Noah)(Noah Webster) in 1828, codifying several of these spellings.
Differences in grammar are relatively minor, and do not normally affect mutual intelligibility; these include: typically a lack of differentiation between adjectives and adverbs, employing the equivalent adjectives as adverbs *he ran quick*/*he ran quickly*; different use of some [verb](auxiliary)(auxiliary verb)s; formal (rather than notional) agreement with [noun](collective)(collective noun)s; different preferences for the past forms of a few verbs (for example, AmE/BrE: *learned*/*learnt*, *burned*/*burnt*, *snuck/sneaked*, *dove/dived*) although the purportedly "British" forms can occasionally be seen in American English writing as well; different prepositions and adverbs in certain contexts (for example, AmE *in school,* BrE *at school*); and whether or not a definite article is used, in very few cases (AmE *to the hospital*, BrE *to hospital*; contrast, however, AmE *actress Elizabeth Taylor*, BrE *the actress Elizabeth Taylor*). Often, these differences are a matter of relative preferences rather than absolute rules; and most are not stable since the two varieties are constantly influencing each other,Algeo, John (2006). *British or American English?*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. . and American English is not a standardized set of dialects.
Differences in [orthography](orthography) are also minor. The main differences are that American English usually uses spellings such as *flavor* for British *flavour*, *fiber* for *fibre*, *defense* for *defence*, *analyze* for *analyse*, *license* for *licence*, *catalog* for *catalogue* and *traveling* for *travelling*. [Webster](Noah)(Noah Webster) popularized such spellings in America, but he did not invent most of them. Rather, "he chose already existing options on such grounds as simplicity, analogy or etymology."Algeo, John. "The Effects of the Revolution on Language," in *A Companion to the American Revolution*. John Wiley & Sons, 2008. p.599 Other differences are due to the [francophile](francophile) tastes of the 19th century [era](Victorian)(Victorian era) Britain (for example they preferred *programme* for *program*, *manoeuvre* for *maneuver*, *cheque* for *check*, etc.).Peters, Pam (2004). *The Cambridge Guide to English Usage*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. , pp. 34 and 511. AmE almost always uses *-ize* in words like *realize*. BrE prefers *-ise*, but also uses *-ize* on occasion (see: [spelling](Oxford)(Oxford spelling)).
There are a few differences in punctuation rules. British English is more tolerant of [sentences](run-on)(run-on sentences), called "[splice](comma)(comma splice)s" in American English, and American English requires that periods and commas be placed inside closing quotation marks even in cases in which British rules would place them outside. American English also favors the double quotation mark ("like this") over the single ('as here').
Vocabulary differences vary by region. For example, *autumn* is used more commonly in the United Kingdom, whereas *fall* is more common in American English. Some other differences include: aerial (United Kingdom) vs. antenna, biscuit (United Kingdom) vs. cookie/cracker, car park (United Kingdom) vs. parking lot, caravan (United Kingdom) vs. trailer, city centre (United Kingdom) vs. downtown, flat (United Kingdom) vs. apartment, fringe (United Kingdom) vs. bangs, and holiday (United Kingdom) vs. vacation.
AmE sometimes favors words that are [morphologically](Morphology (linguistics)) more complex, whereas BrE uses clipped forms, such as AmE *transportation* and BrE *transport* or where the British form is a [back-formation](back-formation), such as AmE *burglarize* and BrE *burgle* (from *burglar*). However, while individuals usually use one or the other, both forms will be widely understood and mostly used alongside each other within the two systems.
## Varieties
|max-width=630
|caption=The map above shows the major regional dialects of American English (in [caps](all)(all caps)) plus smaller and more local dialects, as demarcated primarily by Labov et al.'s *[Atlas of North American English](The)(The Atlas of North American English)*, as well as the related Telsur Project's [regional maps](http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/home.html#regional). Any region may also contain speakers of a "[American](General)(General American)" accent that resists the marked features of their region. Furthermore, this map does not account for speakers of ethnic or cultural varieties (such as [English](African-American)(African-American English), [English](Chicano)(Chicano English), [English](Cajun)(Cajun English), etc.).
|mode=scrollable
}}
While written American English is largely standardized across the country and spoken American English dialects are highly mutually intelligible, there are still several recognizable regional and ethnic accents and lexical distinctions.
### Regional accents
The regional sounds of present-day American English are reportedly engaged in a complex phenomenon of "both convergence and divergence": some accents are homogenizing and [leveling](accent leveling), while others are diversifying and deviating further away from one another.
Having been settled longer than the American West Coast, the East Coast has had more time to develop unique accents, and it currently comprises three or four linguistically significant regions, each of which possesses English varieties both different from each other as well as quite internally diverse: [England](New)(New England), the [states](Mid-Atlantic)(Mid-Atlantic states) (including a [York accent](New)(New York accent) as well as a unique [accent](Philadelphia–Baltimore)(Mid-Atlantic American English)), and the [South](Southern United States). As of the 20th century, the middle and eastern [Lakes area](Great)(Great Lakes area), Chicago being the largest city with these speakers, also ushered in certain unique features, including the [front](fronting (phonetics))ing of the vowel in the mouth toward and [tensing](tenseness) of the vowel wholesale to . These sound changes have triggered a series of other [shift](vowel)(vowel shift)s in the same region, known by linguists as the "[North](Inland)(Inland North)". The Inland North shares with the [New England dialect](Eastern)(Eastern New England English) (including [accent](Boston)(Boston accent)s) a [tongue positioning](backer)(back vowel) of the vowel (to ) and the vowel (to ) in comparison to the rest of the country. Ranging from northern New England across the Great Lakes to Minnesota, another Northern regional marker is the variable fronting of before , for example, appearing four times in the stereotypical Boston [shibboleth](shibboleth) *Park the car in Harvard Yard*.
[[File:Non-RhoticityUSA.png|thumb|upright=1.15|The red dots show every U.S. metropolitan area where over 50% non-rhotic speech was documented among some of that area's white speakers in the 1990s. Non-rhoticity may be heard among [speakers](black)(African-American English) throughout the whole country.Labov, p. 48.]]
Several other phenomena serve to distinguish regional U.S. accents. [Boston](New England English), [Pittsburgh](Western Pennsylvania English), [Midwestern](Upper)(North-Central American English), and [U.S. accents](Western)(Western American English) have fully completed a merger of the vowel with the vowel ( and , respectively): a [merger](*cot–caught*)(cot–caught merger), which is rapidly spreading throughout the whole country. However, the South, Inland North, and a Northeastern coastal corridor passing through Rhode Island, New York City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore typically preserve an older *cot–caught* distinction. For that Northeastern corridor, the realization of the vowel is particularly [marked](markedness), as depicted in humorous spellings, like in *tawk* and *cawfee* (*talk* and *coffee*), which intend to represent it being [tense](tenseness) and [diphthong](diphthong)al: . A [[tensing|split of ](æ)] into two separate [phoneme](phoneme)s, using different *a* pronunciations for example in *gap* versus *gas* , further defines New York City as well as Philadelphia–Baltimore accents.
Most Americans preserve all historical sounds, using what is known as a [accent](rhotic)(Rhoticity in English). The only traditional *r*-dropping (or non-rhoticity) in regional U.S. accents variably appears today in [New England](eastern)(Eastern New England English), [York City](New)(New York City English), and some of the [plantation South](former)(older Southern American English) primarily among older speakers (and, relatedly, some [Vernacular English](African-American)(African-American Vernacular English) across the country), though the vowel-consonant cluster found in "bird," "work," "hurt," "learn," etc. usually retains its *r* pronunciation, even in these non-rhotic American accents. Non-rhoticity among such speakers is presumed to have arisen from their upper classes' close historical contact with England, imitating London's *r*-dropping, a feature that has continued to gain prestige throughout England from the late 18th century onwards, but which has conversely lost prestige in the U.S. since at least the early 20th century. Non-rhoticity makes a word like *car* sound like *cah* or *source* like *sauce*.
New York City and [accents](Southern)(Southern American English) are the most prominent regional accents of the country, as well as the most stigmatized and socially disfavored.Hayes, Dean (2013). "[The Southern Accent and 'Bad English': A Comparative Perceptual Study of the Conceptual Network between Southern Linguistic Features and Identity](http://digitalrepository.unm.edu/ling_etds/15)". UNM Digital Repository: Electronic Theses and Dissertations. pp. 5, 51.Gordon, Matthew J.; Schneider, Edgar W. (2008). "[New York, Philadelphia, and other northern cities: Phonology](https://books.google.com/books?id=bGjixKTt9JcC&pg=PA67)." Varieties of English 2: 67-86.Hartley, Laura (1999). [A View from the West: Perceptions of U.S. Dialects from the Point of View of Oregon](https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/lang_fac/17). Faculty Publications - Department of World Languages, Sociology & Cultural Studies. 17.Yannuar, N.; Azimova, K.; Nguyen, D. (2014). "[Perceptual Dialectology: Northerners and Southerners' View of Different American Dialects](http://kata.petra.ac.id/index.php/ing/article/view/18880)". k@ ta, 16(1), pp. 11, 13 Southern speech, strongest in southern Appalachia and certain areas of Texas, is often identified by Americans as a "country" accent,Hayes, 2013, p. 51. and is defined by the vowel losing its [quality](gliding)(diphthong): , the initiation event for a complicated Southern vowel shift, including a "[drawl](Southern)(Southern drawl)" that makes short [vowel](front)(front vowel)s into distinct-sounding [vowel](gliding)(gliding vowel)s. The fronting of the vowels of , , , and tends to also define Southern accents as well as the accents spoken in the "[Midland](Midland American English)": a vast band of the country that constitutes an intermediate dialect region between the traditional North and South. Western U.S. accents mostly fall under the [American](General)(General American) spectrum.
Below, ten major American English accents are defined by their particular combinations of certain vowel sounds:
### General American
In 2010, [Labov](William)(William Labov) noted that Great Lakes, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and West Coast accents have undergone "vigorous new sound changes" since the mid-nineteenth century onwards, so they "are now more different from each other than they were 50 or 100 years ago", while other accents, like of New York City and Boston, have remained stable in that same time-frame. However, a [American](General)(General American) sound system also has some debated degree of influence nationwide, for example, gradually beginning to oust the regional accent in urban areas of the South and at least some in the Inland North. Rather than one particular accent, General American is best defined as an umbrella covering an American accent that does not incorporate features associated with some particular region, ethnicity, or socioeconomic group. Typical General American features include [rhotic](rhoticity in English)ity, the [merger](*father–bother*)(father–bother merger), [merger](*Mary–marry–merry*)(Mary–marry–merry merger), ["short *a*" tensing](pre-nasal)(/æ/ tensing), and other [vowel sounds](particular)(General American#Phonology). General American features are embraced most by Americans who are highly educated or in the most formal contexts, and regional accents with the most General American native features include North Midland, Western New England, and Western accents.
### Other varieties
Although no longer region-specific, [Vernacular English](African-American)(African-American Vernacular English), which remains the native variety of most working- and middle-class [Americans](African)(African Americans), has a close relationship to Southern dialects and has greatly influenced everyday speech of many Americans, including [hop culture](hip)(hip hop culture). [and Latino Americans](Hispanic)(Hispanic and Latino Americans) have also developed native-speaker varieties of English. The best-studied Latino Englishes are [English](Chicano)(Chicano English), spoken in the West and Midwest, and [York Latino English](New)(New York Latino English), spoken in the [York metropolitan area](New)(New York metropolitan area). Additionally, ethnic varieties such as [English](Yeshiva)(Yeshivish) and "[Yinglish](Yinglish)" are spoken by some [American](American Jews) [Jew](Orthodox)(Orthodox Jew)s, [Vernacular English](Cajun)(Cajun English) by some [Cajun](Cajun)s in southern Louisiana, and [Dutch English](Pennsylvania)(Pennsylvania Dutch English) by some [Dutch](Pennsylvania)(Pennsylvania Dutch) people. [Indian English](American)(American Indian English)es have been documented among diverse Indian tribes. The island state of [Hawaii](Hawaii), though primarily English-speaking, is also home to a [language](creole)(creole language) known commonly as [Pidgin](Hawaiian)(Hawaiian Pidgin), and some Hawaii residents speak English with a Pidgin-influenced accent. American English also gave rise to some dialects outside the country, for example, [English](Philippine)(Philippine English), beginning during the [occupation of the Philippines](American)(United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands) and subsequently the [Government of the Philippine Islands](Insular)(Insular Government of the Philippine Islands); [Thomasites](Thomasites) first established a variation of American English in these islands.
## Statistics on usage
[[speaking English at home by PUMA.png|thumb|upright=2.1|Percentage of Americans aged 5+ speaking English at home in each Public Usage Microdata Area (PUMA) of the fifty states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico according to the 2016-2021 five-year American Community Survey](File:Population)]
In 2020, 243.3 million Americans, aged 5 or above, spoke English at home: a majority of the United States population. The [States](United)(United States) has never had an official language at the federal level, but English is commonly used at the federal level and in states without an official language. Thirty-one of the fifty states, in some cases as part of what has been called the [movement](English-only)(English-only movement), have adopted legislation granting official status to English. Typically only "English" is specified, not a particular variety like American English. (From 1923 to 1969, the state of Illinois recognized its official language as "American", meaning American English.) [Rico](Puerto)(Puerto Rico) is a notable example of a United States territory in which a language other than English – Spanish – is the common language at home, in public, and in government.
## See also
* [and British English spelling differences](American)(American and British English spelling differences)
* [English](Canadian)(Canadian English)
* [of American Regional English](Dictionary)(Dictionary of American Regional English)
* [English](International)(International English)
* [Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects](International)(International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects)
* [Phonetic Alphabet chart for the English Language](International)(Help:IPA/English)
* [of English words from indigenous languages of the Americas](List)(List of English words from indigenous languages of the Americas)
* [history of English](Phonological)(Phonological history of English)
* [accents of English](Regional)(Regional accents of English)
* [accent](Transatlantic)(Mid-Atlantic accent)
## Notes
vowel variant (as in *cot, lot, bother*, etc.) the same as the vowel (as in *spa, haha, Ma*), causing words like *con* and *Kahn* and like *sob* and *[Saab](Saab Automobile)* to [identical](sound)(homophone), with the vowel usually realized in the back or middle of the mouth as . Finally, most of the U.S. participates in a continuous nasal system of the "short *a*" vowel (in *cat, trap, bath*, etc.), causing to be pronounced with the tongue raised and with a glide quality (typically sounding like ) particularly when before a [consonant](nasal)(nasal consonant); thus, *mad* is , but *man* is more like .}}
}}
## References
## Bibliography
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## Further reading
* [Richard W.](Bailey,)(Richard W. Bailey) (2012). *Speaking American: A History of English in the United States* 20th–21st-century usage in different cities
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* [Bryan A.](Garner,)(Bryan A. Garner) (2003). ''Garner's Modern American Usage*. New York: Oxford University Press.
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### History of American English
* Bailey, Richard W. (2004). "American English: Its origins and history". In E. Finegan & J. R. Rickford (Eds.), *Language in the USA: Themes for the twenty-first century* (pp. 3–17). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Finegan, Edward. (2006). "English in North America". In R. Hogg & D. Denison (Eds.), *A history of the English language* (pp. 384–419). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
## External links
* [Do You Speak American](https://www.pbs.org/speak/): PBS special
* [Dialect Survey](http://www4.uwm.edu/FLL/linguistics/dialect/maps.html) of the United States, by Bert Vaux *et al.'', [University](Harvard)(Harvard University).
* [Linguistic Atlas Projects](https://web.archive.org/web/20150713193617/http://us.english.uga.edu/cgi-bin/lapsite.fcgi/)
* [Phonological Atlas of North America](http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/home.html) at the [of Pennsylvania](University)(University of Pennsylvania)
* [Speech Accent Archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20080821121056/http://classweb.gmu.edu/accent/)
* [Dictionary of American Regional English](http://dare.wisc.edu)
* [Dialect maps based on pronunciation](http://aschmann.net/AmEng/)
}}
[ ](Category:American English)
[of English](Category:Dialects)(Category:Dialects of English)
[American English](Category:North)(Category:North American English)
[attested from the 17th century](Category:Languages)(Category:Languages attested from the 17th century)
[establishments in North America](Category:17th-century)(Category:17th-century establishments in North America)
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Kid Cudi
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kid_cudi
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# Kid Cudi
*Revision ID: 1159680287 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T21:32:07Z*
---
| birth_place = [Ohio](Cleveland,)(Cleveland), U.S.
| education = [of Toledo](University)(University of Toledo) (no degree)
| occupation =
| children = 1
| relatives =
| title =
}}
| television =
| years_active = 2003–present
| works =
| agent = Dennis Cummings
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Kid Cudi)
| module =
| label =
| current_member_of =
| past_member_of =
| website =
}}
}}
**Scott Ramon Seguro Mescudi** (born January 30, 1984), also known by his [name](stage)(stage name) **Kid Cudi** ( ), is an American rapper, singer, songwriter, record producer, actor, and fashion designer. Born and raised in [Ohio](Cleveland,)(Cleveland, Ohio), Cudi would move to [York City](New)(New York City) in pursuit of a musical career, where he first gained major recognition following the release of his debut single "['n' Nite](Day)(Day 'n' Nite)", which he initially self-published on his [MySpace](MySpace) page. The song went on to become a [hit](worldwide)(Hit song) and served as the catalyst for Cudi to team with American record producers [Pat](Plain)(Plain Pat) and [Haynie](Emile)(Emile Haynie), to record his first official full-length project, a [mixtape](mixtape) titled *[Kid Named Cudi](A)(A Kid Named Cudi)* (2008). The mixtape helped Cudi rise to prominence and establish a fan base, and it caught the attention of high-profile musician [West](Kanye)(Kanye West), who subsequently signed Cudi to his [Music](GOOD)(GOOD Music) label imprint by late 2008.
Cudi's commercial debut single was later remastered and featured on his debut album, *[on the Moon: The End of Day](Man)(Man on the Moon: The End of Day)* (2009), which was certified [platinum](quadruple)(Music recording certification) by the [Industry Association of America](Recording)(Recording Industry Association of America) (RIAA). The album also included the singles "[Her Say](Make)(Make Her Say)" (featuring Kanye West and [Common](Common (rapper))) and "[of Happiness](Pursuit)(Pursuit of Happiness (song))" (featuring [MGMT](MGMT) and [Ratatat](Ratatat)), the latter of which achieved [status (10x platinum)](diamond)(List of best-selling singles in the United States) by the RIAA. In 2010, Cudi released his second album, *[on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager](Man)(Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager)*, which also attained platinum status and features the singles "[Me](Erase)(Erase Me (song))" (featuring Kanye West) and "[Rager](Mr.)(Mr. Rager)". Later that year he formed [WZRD](WZRD (band)), a [band](rock)(rock band), with his long-time collaborator [da Genius](Dot)(Dot da Genius). Their [debut album](eponymous)(WZRD (album)) (2012) debuted at number one on the [Top Rock Albums](*Billboard*)(Rock Albums) chart.
Cudi would go on to release the self-produced solo album *[Indicud](Indicud)* (2013), which was certified gold by the RIAA and spawned the platinum-selling single "[What I Am](Just)(Just What I Am)" (featuring [Chip](King)(King Chip)). He would continue to produce the bulk of his own records, including the [music](avant-garde)(avant-garde music) albums *[Flight: The Journey to Mother Moon](Satellite)(Satellite Flight: The Journey to Mother Moon)* (2014) and ''[Bullet 2 Heaven](Speedin')(Speedin' Bullet 2 Heaven)* (2015), the latter of which was led by the [grunge](grunge)-inspired single "[Confused!](Confused!)". In 2016, the release of his sixth solo album *[Pain & Demon Slayin'](Passion,)(Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin')'', was supported by the lead single "[Surfin'](Surfin' (Kid Cudi song))" (featuring [Williams](Pharrell)(Pharrell Williams)). Cudi's joint album with Kanye West, under the [name](eponymous)(Kids See Ghosts) *[See Ghosts](Kids)(Kids See Ghosts (album))* (2018), was met with widespread critical acclaim. In April 2020, Cudi earned his first number-one song on the US [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100) chart with "[Scotts](The)(The Scotts)", alongside fellow American rapper [Scott](Travis)(Travis Scott). His seventh album, *[on the Moon III: The Chosen](Man)(Man on the Moon III: The Chosen)* (2020), was highly acclaimed and a commercial success, having been certified gold by the RIAA. Cudi issued his eighth album *[Entergalactic](Entergalactic (album))* (2022), coinciding with the release of a [animated special of the same name](adult)(Entergalactic (TV special)) inspired by the album, which was critically praised.
After signing to GOOD Music, Cudi has since gone on to launch his own [label](vanity)(vanity label)s, the now-dissolved [On](Dream)(Dream On (record label)) and current label imprint [Awesome Records](Wicked)(Wicked Awesome Records). Cudi also ventured into acting in 2010, when he was cast in the [HBO](HBO) series *[to Make It in America](How)(How to Make It in America)*. He has since appeared in several feature films, including *[World](Goodbye)(Goodbye World)* (2013), *[for Speed](Need)(Need for Speed (film))* (2014), *[Entourage](Entourage (film))* (2015), *[& Ted Face the Music](Bill)(Bill & Ted Face the Music)* (2020), ''[Look Up](Don't)(Don't Look Up)* (2021), and *[X](X (2022 film))* (2022). In addition, he has made appearances on television shows such as *[Tree Hill](One)(One Tree Hill (TV series))*, *[Cleveland Show](The)(The Cleveland Show)*, *[Nine-Nine](Brooklyn)(Brooklyn Nine-Nine)*, and *[Westworld](Westworld (TV series))*. In 2015, he was the bandleader on the [IFC](IFC (American TV channel)) series *[Bang! Bang!](Comedy)(Comedy Bang! Bang! (TV series))* and in 2020 was added as a cast member for the HBO mini-series *[Are Who We Are](We)(We Are Who We Are)*. In 2020, he launched [Solar](Mad)(Mad Solar), a production company for film and television, which produced a documentary titled *[Man Named Scott](A)(A Man Named Scott)'' (2021), storying Cudi's music career. Cudi is also founder, creator, and director of the clothing line "[MOTR](#MOTR)", which he launched in 2022.
Kid Cudi has been widely recognized as an influence on several contemporary [hop](hip)(Hip hop music) and [alternative](Alternative hip hop) acts. His lyrics are often autobiographical and describe his childhood hardships of [depression](Depression (mood)), [loneliness](loneliness) and [alienation](social alienation), his struggle with alcohol and drugs into adulthood, and themes of [spirituality](spirituality), [heartbreak](Broken heart), dissipation and celebration. The majority of [impact](his)(#Impact and legacy) stems from his ability to display vulnerability and address bouts with [health](mental)(mental health). He is also noted for his [experimental](Experimental hip hop) nature, combining elements of [psychedelia](Psychedelic music), [R&B](Contemporary R&B), [electronica](electronica), [synthpop](synthpop), [dance](Dance music), [house](House music), [punk](punk rock) and [rock](indie)(indie rock), in his music. Cudi has sold over 22 million certified records in the United States and has won two [Awards](Grammy)(Grammy Awards) from five nominations. He has worked with numerous prominent artists spanning several different genres in the music industry, namely [Jay-Z](Jay-Z), [Drake](Drake (musician)), [Eminem](Eminem), [Lamar](Kendrick)(Kendrick Lamar), [Guetta](David)(David Guetta), [Shakira](Shakira), [Grande](Ariana)(Ariana Grande), and [Bolton](Michael)(Michael Bolton), among others.
## Early life
Kid Cudi was born Scott Ramon Seguro Mescudi in [Ohio](Cleveland,)(Cleveland), on January 30, 1984. He grew up in [Heights](Shaker)(Shaker Heights) and [Solon](Solon, Ohio). He has two older brothers, Domingo and Dean, and an older sister, Maisha. His mother, Elsie Harriet (née Banks), is an African-American school choir teacher at Roxboro Middle School in [Heights, Ohio](Cleveland)(Cleveland Heights, Ohio). His father, Lindberg Styles Mescudi, was a house painter, substitute teacher, and [War II](World)(World War II) [Force](Air)(United States Air Force) veteran of African-American and Mexican descent.
When Cudi was 11 years old, his father died of cancer; his passing had a significant effect on Cudi's personality and music. Cudi attended [Heights High School](Shaker)(Shaker Heights High School) for two years before transferring to [High School](Solon)(Solon High School). He was expelled from the school for threatening to punch the principal, and would later earn his [GED](GED). He studied film at the [of Toledo](University)(University of Toledo), but dropped out after a year. His subsequent plan to join the [Navy](U.S. Navy) did not pan out because of his juvenile police record.
## Musical career
### 2003–08: Beginnings in New York City and *A Kid Named Cudi*
[[File:Kid Cudi Summerstage Central Park.jpg|thumb|Kid Cudi performing at [Summerstage](Summerstage), New York, in July 2008]]
Cudi first began rapping in 2003, towards the end of his time in high school, and was inspired by [hip hop](alternative)(alternative hip hop) groups such as [Pharcyde](the)(the Pharcyde) and [Tribe Called Quest](A)(A Tribe Called Quest). He later moved to [York City](New)(New York City) to pursue a music career. After leaving Cleveland in 2005 with $500 and a demo tape, he moved in with his uncle, accomplished jazz drummer Kalil Madi, in the [Bronx](South)(South Bronx). He worked at a couple of Manhattan clothing stores, before eventually sharing an apartment with friend and collaborator [da Genius](Dot)(Dot da Genius) in Brooklyn.
In 2006, Cudi would run into his future mentor, rapper and producer [West](Kanye)(Kanye West), in a [Megastore](Virgin)(Virgin Megastores). He recounted in a 2009 *[SPIN](Spin (magazine))* interview, "I was looking at [CDs](Compact disc), saw the gleam of a [piece](Jesus)(Jesus piece (jewelry)) in the right side of my eye, looked up, and it was Kanye West." He introduced himself and offered West some of his music. Cudi would later run into West again while working at the [BAPE](A Bathing Ape) store in New York, and recalled: "I remember Kanye coming in one time and I was helping him get a couple things. I forgot to take a sensor off of one of the jackets he bought and I had to run out the store to catch him before he left. Pretty funny me chasing after him in [SoHo](SoHo, Manhattan)."
In 2007, Kid Cudi's song "['n' Nite](Day)(Day 'n' Nite)", began being featured on several music blogs, after having initially uploaded the song to his [MySpace](MySpace) page. This early work would go on to catch the attention of West via his then-manager [Pat](Plain)(Plain Pat), subsequently leading West to sign Cudi to his [Music](GOOD)(GOOD Music) imprint later that year. In July 2008, Kid Cudi released his first mixtape, *[Kid Named Cudi](A)(A Kid Named Cudi)* (executive produced by Plain Pat and [Haynie](Emile)(Emile Haynie)), in collaboration with New York street-wear brand 10.Deep as a free download.
Kanye West first called upon Cudi to reference [hooks](Refrain) for American rapper and mogul [Jay-Z](Jay-Z), and while in the studio Cudi and West went from working on *[Blueprint 3](The)(The Blueprint 3)* (2009) to West's [R&B](Contemporary R&B)-esque *[& Heartbreak](808s)(808s & Heartbreak)* (2008). Cudi's assistance on the latter includes co-writing credits and/or vocals on "[Heartless](Heartless (Kanye West song))," "[to Heartbreak](Welcome)(Welcome to Heartbreak)," "[Paranoid](Paranoid (Kanye West song))" and "RoboCop." Kid Cudi was a prominent [songwriter](songwriter) and featured artist on *808s & Heartbreak*, with "Paranoid" and "Heartless" being released as singles, while "Welcome to Heartbreak" charted as an album cut and peaked at number 87 on the [100](Pop)(Pop 100). |title=Billboard Pop 100 Chart Positions |magazine=Billboard |access-date=January 9, 2009}}
Kid Cudi's first television appearance was at the 2008 [Video Music Awards](MTV)(MTV Video Music Awards), alongside [Barker](Travis)(Travis Barker) and [AM](DJ)(Adam Goldstein). Cudi was promoted as an artist to watch for in media such as *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*, *[Vibe](Vibe (magazine))*, *[Source](The)(The Source)*, *[XXL](XXL (magazine))* and [News](BBC)(BBC News)'s 2009 [of](Sound)(Sound of... (BBC poll)) poll. [News](MTV)(MTV News) reported on Cudi on a series of reports titled "MCs To Watch In 2009".
### 2009–10: *Man on the Moon* and *Man on the Moon II*
[[Cudi Moon2.jpg|thumb|Cudi performing in August 2009, on MTV](File:Kid)]
In late 2008, Cudi was revealed to be included in *[XXL](XXL (magazine))*s 2009 annual Freshman Class. He was featured on the cover alongside fellow up-and-coming rappers [Roth](Asher)(Asher Roth), [Wale](Wale (rapper)), [B.o.B](B.o.B), [Hamilton](Charles)(Charles Hamilton (rapper)), [Gunz](Cory)(Cory Gunz), [Blu](Blu (rapper)), [Factz](Mickey)(Mickey Factz), [Hood](Ace)(Ace Hood) and [Curren$y](Curren$y). On February 17, 2009, he appeared on [Dogg](Snoop)(Snoop Dogg)'s MTV talk show *[After Dark](Dogg)(Dogg After Dark)*, performing "Day 'n' Nite" at the end of the show. Two days later on February 19, 2009, Cudi appeared on [BET](Black Entertainment Television)'s *[& Park](106)(106 & Park)*, alongside Kanye West to debut the music video of "Day 'n' Nite". On February 25, 2009, Cudi [self-leaked](Internet leak) a [trailer](teaser)(teaser trailer) for the upcoming *[Revenge of the Fallen](Transformers:)(Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen)* film, using his song "Sky Might Fall" in the background; later he posted that he made the trailer himself and was in talks to possibly making it official.
In February 2009, Kid Cudi also made a [appearance](cameo)(cameo appearance) next to [Solange](Solange Knowles) in the video for her song "[T.O.N.Y.](T.O.N.Y.)". On March 16, 2009, Kid Cudi performed on [mtvU](mtvU)'s Spring Break special, and the following day he performed three songs on NBC's *[Call with Carson Daly](Last)(Last Call with Carson Daly)*. Cudi teamed up with partner and record producer Emile Haynie, to produce an exclusive single titled "Switchin Lanes", for the video game *[Club: Los Angeles](Midnight)(Midnight Club: Los Angeles)*, part of its "South Central Premium Upgrade" [content (DLC)](downloadable)(Downloadable content), which came out March 19, 2009, for the [3](PlayStation)(PlayStation 3) and March 27, 2009, for the [360](Xbox)(Xbox 360). He has also appeared as a musical guest on the *[Show with David Letterman](Late)(Late Show with David Letterman)* and *[Kimmel Live!](Jimmy)(Jimmy Kimmel Live!)* In June 2009, he made a cameo in [Eyed Peas](Black)(Black Eyed Peas)' video for "[Gotta Feeling](I)(I Gotta Feeling)", alongside [Guetta](David)(David Guetta), where the two met for the first time and subsequently recorded their international hit "[Memories](Memories (David Guetta song))". In 2009, he had also been on two magazine covers, *[Complex](Complex (magazine))* (August/September 2009) and *[URB](URB (magazine))* (August 2009).
[[Cudi MOTM Performance.jpg|thumb|Cudi performing in September 2009](File:Kid)]
He revealed information about his future plans via his blog, saying that a possible collaborative album with [tha Ripper](Chip)(Chip tha Ripper) could be followed with a collaborative project with [rock](electronic)(electronic rock) duo [Ratatat](Ratatat). On May 5, 2009 Iranian-American progressive house DJ [Sharam](Sharam), released "She Came Along", the [single](lead)(lead single) from his debut studio album, *[Wild](Get)(Get Wild (album))* (2009). The song, featuring Cudi, charted for 15 weeks on the Bulgarian Singles Top 40. It entered the chart on position 40 on week 30/2009, and its last appearance was on week 44/2009. It peaked at number 11, where it stayed for one week.
During the summer of 2009, Cudi joined fellow up-and-coming rappers [Roth](Asher)(Asher Roth) and [B.o.B](B.o.B), for 'The Great Hangover' [tour](concert)(concert tour).
In late 2009, Kid Cudi was featured on the highly anticipated [Jay-Z](Jay-Z) album *[Blueprint 3](The)(The Blueprint 3)*, on the song "Already Home". On September 14, 2009, [BET](BET) premiered their *Rising Icons* profile of Kid Cudi. During the 30 minute show Cudi performed "CuDi Zone", "Mr. Solo Dolo", "Day 'n' Nite" and "Make Her Say". Cudi also discussed his childhood, his move to New York to begin his career as an artist and more.
Cudi's debut album *[on the Moon: The End of Day](Man)(Man on the Moon: The End of Day)*, was released on [Motown](Universal)(Universal Motown) Records on September 15, 2009 and sold 104,419 copies in the first week and charted at #4. The album's [single](lead)(lead single) "Day 'n' Nite", Kid Cudi's greatest commercial success thus far, charted well in both the U.S. and in Europe. The second [single](Single (music)) released was "[Her Say](Make)(Make Her Say)" (originally titled "I Poke Her Face"), which features a sample from [Gaga](Lady)(Lady Gaga)'s hit single "[Face](Poker)(Poker Face (Lady Gaga song))" and performances by Kanye West and [Common](Common (rapper)). Common was also featured throughout the album, as the narrator.
In September 2009, Cudi co-headlined [Cent](50)(50 Cent)'s "50 Fest" concert, along with fellow American rapper [Wale](Wale (rapper)). Behind The Scenes 50 Cent |publisher=[50cent](50cent) |via=[YouTube](YouTube) |access-date=January 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916111027/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0AYwm4snUmo |archive-date=September 16, 2018 |url-status=live}} In a late 2009 interview, Cudi announced that the follow-up to his debut album would be a [album](compilation)(compilation album) entitled *Cudder and the Revolution of Evolution*, which would have many collaborations. He stated he had already recorded songs with [Dogg](Snoop)(Snoop Dogg), [Barker](Travis)(Travis Barker), [Clipse](Clipse), [Cage](Cage (rapper)) and [Pharrell](Pharrell Williams), and would also like to work with [Drake](Drake (entertainer)), [Day](Green)(Green Day), [of Leon](Kings)(Kings of Leon), [Thicke](Robin)(Robin Thicke), [Killers](the)(the Killers) and [Postal Service](the)(the Postal Service) on the album. It was also rumored that *Man on the Moon: The End of Day* would be followed up by a sequel titled *Man on the Moon: The Ghost in the Machine* and that the *Man on the Moon* series would be a trilogy. Kid Cudi was nominated for three [Grammy Awards](2010)(2010 Grammy Awards), for his singles "Day 'n' Nite" and "Make Her Say".
[[Cudi 2010 1.jpg|Cudi in April 2010|left|thumb](File:Kid)]
In January 2010, Cudi released *Man on the Moon: The End of Day*s third and final single "[of Happiness](Pursuit)(Pursuit of Happiness (song))", which was eventually certified platinum by the RIAA. In 2010, Cudi was featured on Snoop Dogg's re-release of *Malice n Wonderland*, titled *[Malice](More)(More Malice)*, on the lead single "[Tree](That)(That Tree)". Cudi later teamed up with independent artist [Polygon](Johnny)(Johnny Polygon), to [remix](remix) Polygon's "The Riot Song", which appears on his mixtape *Rebel Without Applause* (2010). He was also invited to be a vocalist for [remake](the)(We Are the World 25 for Haiti) of the [single](charity)(charity record) "[Are the World](We)(We Are the World)" for its 25th anniversary to benefit [Haiti](Haiti) after [earthquake](the)(2010 Haiti earthquake).
On April 20, 2010, Kid Cudi announced that the name of his second album would not be *Cudder and the Revolution of Evolution*, but a direct sequel to his first, titled *[on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager](Man)(Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager)*.
On June 11, 2010, Kid Cudi was arrested in the [Chelsea](Chelsea, Manhattan) neighborhood of the [Manhattan](Manhattan) borough in New York City and charged with felony criminal mischief and possession of a controlled substance. Despite his arrest, he was released and made it to Manchester, Tennessee in time to play at [Bonnaroo](Bonnaroo).
In May 2010, American shoe company [Converse](Converse (shoe company)), launched "You're It", a campaign which highlighted 23 artists from around the world in a series of web shorts. The campaign featured artists from 13 countries including Kid Cudi. In this short, Converse takes a trip back to Cudi's roots as an artist in his hometown of Cleveland, Ohio. The campaign's goal was to tap into the grassroots of Converse's global market and introduce the artists of tomorrow.
In June 2010, Converse was promoting being a catalyst for creativity by bringing together three musicians from different genres to form a unique collaboration known as "Three Artists. One Song." Converse teamed up Cudi, alongside [Weekend](Vampire)(Vampire Weekend)'s [Batmanglij](Rostam)(Rostam Batmanglij) and [Coast](Best)(Best Coast)'s Bethany Cosentino, to produce the song titled "All Summer". In addition to collaborating on the track, each of the artists also participated in the creation of the music video, which was released later that summer.
The lead single from Cudi's second studio album, titled "[Me](Erase)(Erase Me (song))", features Kanye West and was produced by [Jonsin](Jim)(Jim Jonsin). The song debuted on a Cleveland radio station June 30, 2010, and was officially released to Rhythm/Crossover radio on August 17, 2010. The title-track "[Rager](Mr.)(Mr. Rager)", was released as the album's second single, shortly before the album's release. The album, released November 9, 2010, debuted at number three on the US [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200) chart, with first-week sales of 169,000 copies. In its second week it crossed the 200,000 sales mark.
In 2010, Kid Cudi appeared on several songs for his mentor Kanye West's weekly free music giveaway *[Fridays](GOOD)(GOOD Fridays)*; namely "Good Friday", "Christian Dior Denim Flow" and "The Joy", the latter of which later became a [track](bonus)(bonus track) on the [Jay-Z](Jay-Z) and Kanye West collaborative album *[the Throne](Watch)(Watch the Throne)* (2011).
### 2011–12: New direction with WZRD and Wicked Awesome
In October 2010, Cudi had announced that he would be forming a rock band with frequent collaborator [da Genius](Dot)(Dot da Genius), tentatively called [Wizard](WZRD (band)). In early 2011, he announced that he would be releasing a mixtape titled *A Man Named Scott*, reminiscent of his *A Kid Named Cudi* title, prior to the rock album. On February 26, 2011, Cudi took to his Twitter account to announce that Dream On, the record label he launched back in 2009 with partners ["Plain Pat" Reynolds](Patrick)(Plain Pat) and producer [Haynie](Emile)(Emile Haynie), has been dissolved. However, in an interview with *Complex Magazine* Cudi explained they were all still on good terms: "I wanted to try something new, and I wanted to take control of things myself. Those are still my guys, Pat and Emile, and I'm still going to work with them in the future. When we start working on *Man on the Moon III* I'll be calling them up to see if they want to be a part of it. I know Emile is definitely down. We had an issue, but we're men and we were able to figure it out and move forward. There's no hard feelings."
In March 2011, Cudi announced that a music video for "[Marijuana](Marijuana (song))" would be released in the spring, followed by a music video for "[Rager](Mr.)(Mr. Rager)" in the summer, then he would release a [film](short)(short film), directed by [LaBeouf](Shia)(Shia LaBeouf), inspired by his song "Maniac", with [Cage](Cage (rapper)), in October 2011. In April 2011, while performing at New York City's Roseland Ballroom Kid Cudi announced he was launching his own record label. The new label, which he will be releasing his third studio album on is called Wicked Awesome Records. He also renamed his band on the same occasion to 2 Be Continuum, renaming it from the original Wizard. Kid Cudi explained his reasoning saying: "I needed something more original, something different, but it's still wizardry at its finest." In 2011, Cudi landed a songwriting placement on English singer [Kills](Natalia)(Natalia Kills)' debut album *[Perfectionist](Perfectionist (album))*, for the song "[Free](Free (Natalia Kills song))".
[[Dance Fest 2011 @ Red Rocks.jpg|thumb|upright|Cudi performing at the 2011 Global Dance Festival](File:Global)]
On August 12, 2011, Kid Cudi released the music video for "[One Believes Me](No)(No One Believes Me)", directed by [Night](Fright)(Fright Night (2011 film)) director [Gillespie](Craig)(Craig Gillespie). The song, produced by Dot da Genius, features Cudi singing and contains elements of [music](rock)(rock music). On August 21, Cudi announced that he would no longer be releasing the *A Man Named Scott* mixtape, so that he can focus on his rock project and his third solo album *Man on the Moon III*. Kid Cudi released the music video for his second album's title-track "Mr. Rager", on September 8, 2011. The video received all-positive reviews from critics and fans alike.
Despite saying he will not do many more [features](Guest appearance) for other artists in *Complex* magazine's October/November 2011 cover story, Cudi appeared on [Greenberg](Bryan)(Bryan Greenberg)'s second album ''We Don't Have Forever'' (2011), [Barker](Travis)(Travis Barker)'s solo debut *[the Drummer Some](Give)(Give the Drummer Some)* (2011), [Knux](the)(the Knux)'s *[Eraser](Eraser (album))* (2011), and [Wale](Wale (rapper))'s *[Ambition](Ambition (Wale album))* (2011), respectively. On October 30, 2011, Cudi released *[Maniac](Maniac (2011 film))*, a [short](Short film) [film](horror)(horror film) co-starring fellow American rapper [Cage](Cage (rapper)) and directed by American actor [LaBeouf](Shia)(Shia LaBeouf), through his blog. On November 13, 2011, a previously unreleased [tape](demo)(demo (music)) Cudi had recorded from 2002 to 2003, under the [pseudonym](pseudonym) Kid Mesc, titled *Rap Hard*, leaked online. On Twitter, Cudi wrote "I actually never wanted anyone to hear those songs ever, but its cool. Ha"
On November 18, 2011 Cudi renamed his band for the second time to [WZRD](WZRD (band)) (pronounced: w-z-r-d). He also announced that the upcoming rock project would be released on his 28th birthday, January 30, 2012. In late 2011, Cudi was mentioned in a [video](viral)(viral video) by [vlogger](vlogger) [Breedlove](Ben)(Ben Breedlove), about his near death experiences. After Breedlove's death on December 26, 2011, Cudi commented on his thoughts about inspiring the young kid. "I am so sad about Ben Breedlove," Kid Cudi wrote on his Tumblr blog. "I watched the video he left for the world to see, and him seeing me in detail, in his vision really warmed my heart. I broke down, I am to tears because I hate how life is so unfair. This has really touched my heart in a way I cant describe, this is why I do what I do. Why I write my life, and why I love you all so much. Life is really fucked up sometimes, but I know Ben is at Peace, and I hope he gets a chance to sit and talk with my Dad. We love you Ben. Forever. Thank you for loving me. To Ben's family, you raised a real hero, he's definitely mine. You have my love."
In January 2012, Cudi appeared on two songs from Chip tha Ripper's mixtape *Tell Ya Friends*, "Ride 4 You" which also featured [East Movement](Far)(Far East Movement) and "GloryUs", which credited the duo as they are collectively known, The Almighty GloryUs. This led to speculation that a long-awaited project from the two was underway. On January 31, Cudi announced through his Twitter feed that he had completed *[WZRD](WZRD (album))* and that his next album was the collaborative effort with Chip tha Ripper. In 2012, Cudi was featured on the [to the film](soundtrack)(The Hunger Games: Songs from District 12 and Beyond) *[Hunger Games](The)(The Hunger Games (film))*, crafting an original song for the film titled "The Ruler and the Killer". Referring to "The Ruler and the Killer", Cudi wrote on his Twitter feed: "I could not have done it without my producing partners on the project for the film, The legendary and Godly [Bone Burnett](T)(T-Bone Burnett) and [Wells](Greg)(Greg Wells)!"
While working on the band's [debut](self-titled)(WZRD (album)), Cudi claimed he had [block](writer's)(writer's block) for almost five months because of his new [sobriety](sobriety); something that had never happened to him for such an extended period of time. According to Cudi, bands that inspired the album include [Light Orchestra](Electric)(Electric Light Orchestra), [Hendrix](Jimi)(Jimi Hendrix), [Nirvana](Nirvana (band)) and [Floyd](Pink)(Pink Floyd). The album includes a song titled "[Did You Sleep Last Night?](Where)(Where Did You Sleep Last Night?)", a [cover](Cover version) of the same titled song by [Nirvana](Nirvana (band)), who in turn were inspired by blues guitar legend [Belly](Lead)(Lead Belly)'s rendition of the [traditional](Traditional music) [folk](folk music) song. Following *WZRD*s release on February 28, 2012, the album debuted at #3 on the US [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200) chart, with first-week sales of 66,000 physical and [copies](digital)(Online distribution) in the United States. The album also debuted on the [Rock Albums](Top)(Rock Albums) and [Alternative Albums](Top)(Alternative Albums) at number one, and at #9 on the [Albums Chart](Canadian)(Canadian Albums Chart) respectively.
### 2012–13: *Indicud* and departure from GOOD Music
In April 2012, in [New York](Geneseo,)(Geneseo, New York), Cudi performed before a sold-out crowd and premiered a hip hop song, his first since 2010. During his set, he performed a new record, tentatively titled "The Leader of the Delinquents", which he did [cappella](a)(a cappella). On April 25, 2012 Cudi was officially back to rapping with the release of "Dennis, Hook Me Up with Some More of That Whiskey!". The song, the first ever solely produced by Cudi himself, samples his 2010 song "Ghost!". In June 2012, Cudi was seen in the music video for "[Mercy](Mercy (Kanye West song))," the lead single from GOOD Music's [album](compilation)(compilation album) *[Summer](Cruel)(Cruel Summer (GOOD Music album))*, in which he, along with other GOOD Music recording artists were featured on. Cudi was ultimately featured on two songs from the compilation, "The Morning" and a solo track originally meant for *[on the Moon II](Man)(Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager)* (2010), titled "Creepers", produced by [Black](Dan)(Dan Black).
In the summer of 2012, Cudi announced the title of his third studio album to be, *[Indicud](Indicud)* when he [tweeted](Twitter): "My new album is entitled *indicud*, it will be my version of *[Chronic 2001](The)(The Chronic 2001)*, some songs i'll produce, others i'll feat &/or play songwriter". On June 8, 2012, Cudi announced *Indicud*, will be a [album](double-disc)(Double album). On August 12, Kid Cudi released the lead single from *Indicud*, a song titled "[What I Am](Just)(Just What I Am)", featuring his friend and longtime collaborator [Chip](King)(King Chip) (formerly Chip tha Ripper). The album was announced to be released in early 2013 with Cudi focusing on scoring movies, followed by the third installment of the *Man on the Moon* series.
Cudi then added that *Indicud* "will feature more uptempos and that it will consist of at most 17 new songs." The music video for "Just What I Am", which marked Cudi's directorial debut, premiered November 6, 2012 on [VEVO](VEVO) and was shot in Los Angeles with fans invited to participate in the video's shoot. On November 7, he revealed the album's second official single's title to be "[Immortal](Immortal (Kid Cudi song))", and that it again was produced by himself like the two previous releases, "Just What I Am" and "[Wizard](King)(King Wizard)". He claimed the song "will make you feel amazing in the heart and soul." The song was officially released via [iTunes](iTunes) on March 14, 2013.
On March 14, 2013 Kid Cudi performed at [MySpace](MySpace)'s [by Southwest (SXSW)](South)(South by Southwest) secret show in [Texas](Austin,)(Austin, Texas) and after performing his many hits, he previewed a new verse from *Indicud*. He also revealed that the album would feature 18 tracks, while officially confirming ASAP Rocky and [Bolton](Michael)(Michael Bolton) as featured guests. On March 16, Cudi announced that he would release the album's tracklist and [art](cover)(cover art) on April 2. Three days later, Kid Cudi announced via Twitter that the album had officially been completed and turned in to his label, Universal Republic. On March 26, the album's cover art and tracklist was unveiled by [Walmart](Walmart) and later [Complex](Complex (magazine)). Later that day, Cudi appeared on *[Kimmel Live!](Jimmy)(Jimmy Kimmel Live!)* and performed the album's lead singles; "Just What I Am" and "Immortal", as well as premiering "Mad Solar", which he performed a cappella.
On April 2, 2013, Kid Cudi announced on [106](Power)(Power 106), that he was no longer under Kanye West's GOOD Music imprint. Cudi revealed he left the label on good terms, with him saying West respected his decision and will always be "big brother". Cudi's decision to move forward without West, was his desire to focus on his own imprint, Wicked Awesome Records and his friend, fellow rapper King Chip. After *Indicud* [online](leaked)(music leak) in its entirety on April 9, 2013, Kid Cudi decided to push the album's release date up to April 16. The album went on to debut at #2 on the charts by moving 140,000 copies. In late 2013, Kid Cudi went on tour in support of *Indicud* on *The Cud Life Tour 2013*. The tour was announced on July 15 with tickets going on sale the following day. Supporting acts on the tour included fellow American rappers [Sean](Big)(Big Sean), [The Creator](Tyler,)(Tyler, The Creator) and [Logic](Logic (rapper)).
### 2013–14: *Satellite Flight: The Journey to Mother Moon*
While on tour, on October 16, 2013 Kid Cudi announced he would be releasing an [play](extended)(extended play) (EP), sometime in the next three months. Cudi also revealed he would be producing it alongside Dot da Genius and that frequent collaborator King Chip, would appear on the EP. He then called the EP a [prelude](Prelude (music)) to his fourth album *Man on the Moon III*, which he announced would be released in 2015. On October 19, 2013, Cudi revealed "Going to the Ceremony", a song he had released via online audio distribution platform [SoundCloud](SoundCloud), earlier in July, would be included in the EP. Cudi would also go on to reveal a [remix](remix) of his hit single "Day 'n' Nite, which was briefly previewed on the intro of his 2008 breakout mixtape *A Kid Named Cudi*, would also appear on the EP.
[[File:Kid Cudi Coachella 2014 1 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Cudi performing at [Coachella](Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival) in April 2014|244x244px]]
On November 25, 2013, via his Twitter, Cudi revealed the title of the EP to be *[Flight: The Journey to Mother Moon](Satellite)(Satellite Flight: The Journey to Mother Moon)*. On December 16, 2013, Kid Cudi once again utilized SoundCloud to release "Satellite Flight", the EP's [title-track](wikt:title track). On January 27, 2014, Kid Cudi revealed on Twitter that *Satellite Flight: Journey to Mother Moon* would no longer be an EP, but a full-length album instead. In a February 2014 interview with [News](MTV)(MTV News), Cudi discussed the EP's transition to a full-fledged album and called the project his best work yet: "I'm really excited because it's my best work, and it's a surprise. People weren't really expecting it. I've never done two albums within a year of each other."
On February 25, 2014, with only few hours' notice from Cudi, *Satellite Flight: The Journey to Mother Moon* was released exclusively to digital retailers. The album debuted at number four on the [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200) chart, with first-week sales of 87,000 digital copies in the United States. On March 4, 2014 Cudi appeared on *[Lately](Chelsea)(Chelsea Lately)*, where he was interviewed by Oscar-nominated actress [Sidibe](Gabourey)(Gabourey Sidibe), to promote *Satellite Flight* and the 2014 film *[for Speed](Need)(Need for Speed (film))*. On March 12, 2014, Cudi released a song titled "Hero", a collaboration with American singer-songwriter [Grey](Skylar)(Skylar Grey), recorded for the soundtrack to *Need for Speed*. On March 15, 2014, Cudi appeared on *[Arsenio Hall Show](The)(The Arsenio Hall Show)*, where he promoted the album, discussed the state of hip-hop, [thoughts](suicidal)(Suicidal ideation), *Need for Speed*, and performed the song "Internal Bleeding", from the album.
In April 2014, Cudi appeared on the cover of the inaugural issue of *Fat Man* magazine. On April 24, 2014, while being honored as a mental health advocate by Didi Hirsch Mental Health Services, at the Beverly Hilton in Los Angeles, Cudi offered a special performance during their annual Erasing the Stigma Leadership Awards. On May 2, 2014, it was announced Cudi would headline Chicago's [Coast Music Festival](North)(North Coast Music Festival), along with [Coast rapper](West)(West Coast hip hop) [Dogg](Snoop)(Snoop Dogg). On May 11, 2014 Cudi revealed he would be writing and directing a short film for the *Satellite Flight* album cut "Balmain Jeans": "Developing a short film for "Balmain Jeans", a story about a spontaneous electric connection between two strangers."
### 2015–16: ''Speedin' Bullet 2 Heaven''
In a January 2015 interview, at the [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival), Kid Cudi expressed the possibility of releasing another album before the release of *Man on the Moon III*: "I'm always making music. The beauty in that is that I have a lot of material. And I'm actually thinking that it would be good to release something in the meantime, before *[on the Moon III](Man)(Man on the Moon III)* comes out. Another Kid Cudi album, it's just kind of along the lines of what I did with *Indicud* or *Satellite Flight*, which is just its own standalone thing but still a Kid Cudi album. The *Man on the Moon III* album is something that's gonna take some time but I know the fans are gonna be patient and I really appreciate that guys, thank you for your patience. But *Man on the Moon III* is coming, there may be an album before that just to tide you over."
On March 3, 2015, Cudi officially released his first song since his album *Satellite Flight*, was put on the market. The song, which is titled "[Love](Love (Kid Cudi song))," was originally recorded for *Satellite Flight*, and samples Ratatat's "Sunblocks" and has been received with positive reviews. On April 4, 2015, Cudi announced via Twitter that he would be releasing a new album titled ''[Bullet 2 Heaven](Speedin')(Speedin' Bullet 2 Heaven)''. On August 1, 2015, Cudi released "[Confused!](Confused!)," the lead single from his fifth album. On October 27, 2015, Cudi announced the new album will be released on December 4, 2015. He also leaked two songs off the project, "Wedding Tux" and "Judgemental Cunt". In November 2015 Cudi announced an *Especial Tour*, that will bring the rapper to various theaters all across the United States. On December 1, 2015, Cudi announced the cancellation of his *Especial Tour*, due to various reasons, such as production and personal issues. To make up for postponing the concert tour, Cudi released the album's [title-track](wikt:title-track) as the second single.
### 2016–18: ''Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin* and *Kids See Ghosts''
In March 2016, Kid Cudi performed at McDowell Mountain Music Festival in [Arizona](Phoenix,)(Phoenix, Arizona). In an early April 2016 interview with *Billboard*, when asked about *Man on the Moon III*, Cudi responded with: "I came up with *Man on the Moon* when I was a young man. People change their vibe! We can follow the same template and do the five-act split. Sonically, I'm still going to be where I'm at. Honestly, I was ready to live up to the obligation and do *Man on the Moon III*. I haven't been dicking around. I was planning on doing it after ''Speedin' Bullet*. But the *Speedin' Bullet'' response tore me up. It made me realize what's most important. I'm getting back on the bike again and doing what I do best: me." On April 22, 2016, Kid Cudi announced he would be releasing a new studio album, slated for a summer unveiling.
On May 11, 2016, amidst rumors that he was set to release *Man on the Moon III*, Cudi revealed the title of his sixth solo album would be ''[Pain & Demon Slayin'](Passion,)(Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin')*, through online mobile video-sharing and social networking service [Instagram](Instagram). On June 1, 2016, Cudi announced that he had two upcoming albums. One set to be released in the summer, while the other would be released in the fall. He added that one of them was complete. On September 26, 2016, Kid Cudi unveiled the track-list for *Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin'' via Twitter, which revealed guest spots from [Scott](Travis)(Travis Scott), [3000](André)(André 3000), [Williams](Pharrell)(Pharrell Williams) and [Smith](Willow)(Willow Smith).
Although there was a discrepancy between him and [West](Kanye)(Kanye West), West later made an offer of peace and a song featuring him and Cudi subsequently surfaced online. ''Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin'' was announced to be issued first via digital distribution on December 16, 2016, with the physical release on December 23. Cudi has also shared the song "[in Fire](Baptized)(Baptized in Fire)," which features Travis Scott (with whom Cudi collaborated extensively with on 2016's *[in the Trap Sing McKnight](Birds)(Birds in the Trap Sing McKnight)*). On March 1, 2017, Kid Cudi performed the song "Kitchen", with a [orchestra](string)(string orchestra), live on *[Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon](The)(The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon)*. On August 15, 2017, Cudi announced a national concert tour by the name of Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin' Tour; with the first date on September 30 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
In 2018 Cudi and [West](Kanye)(Kanye West) formed a duo known as [See Ghosts](Kids)(Kids See Ghosts), and produced an album with the same name, *[See Ghosts](Kids)(Kids See Ghosts (album))*, which was released on June 8, 2018. On October 23, 2018, in response to a fan on Twitter, Cudi revealed he had begun working on his seventh solo album. Although he said he would be taking his time to create his forthcoming LP, Cudi projected a 2019 release.
### 2019–2022: *Man on the Moon III* and *Entergalactic*
In July 2019, Kid Cudi announced his next album would be titled *[Entergalactic](Entergalactic (soundtrack))*, which he revealed would soundtrack an upcoming [Netflix](Netflix) "adult-focused animated music series" co-created by himself and [Barris](Kenya)(Kenya Barris).
On April 14, 2020, Kid Cudi released "Leader of the Delinquents" as a single via Republic Records. The song, which Cudi had first performed back in 2012, was later released in a limited edition pressing of the track on 7" vinyl, 12" picture disc, and cassette.
On April 24, 2020, Cudi collaborated with Travis Scott under the collective name The Scotts, to release a song under the same name, "[Scotts](The)(The Scotts)". It was hinted that the duo would be releasing more music in the future. The song debuted atop the [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100) chart, becoming Cudi's first number-one hit single in the US.
Later on April 24, Cudi also revealed that he was still working on new music for a future WZRD release, joking that "we take a decade off between albums." On July 9, 2020, Cudi's daughter Vada, announced via social media that he would be releasing a song with multiple Grammy Award-winning artist [Eminem](Eminem), called "[Adventures of Moon Man & Slim Shady](The)(The Adventures of Moon Man & Slim Shady)" the coming Friday. The song was released on July 10, 2020 and also saw success as a hit, as it debuted in the Top 40 of the *Billboard* Hot 100.
On October 26, Cudi released a teaser video on his official Twitter account for *Man on the Moon III*, the final installment in his [on the Moon* series](*Man)(#2009–10: *Man on the Moon* and *Man on the Moon II*), after a decade between releases. The album title and release date were not shared with the video, however on December 7, Cudi announced the album would be titled *[on the Moon III: The Chosen](Man)(Man on the Moon III: The Chosen)*, with a release date of December 11, 2020. The [album](concept)(concept album)'s theme follows Cudi overcoming his darkness, but fighting to win his soul back from his alter-ego "Mr. Rager".
*Man on the Moon III: The Chosen*, received mostly positive reviews from music critics, who praised Cudi's songwriting and generally favored the latter two acts, though some found it derivative of Cudi's earlier albums. It debuted at number two on the Billboard 200, earning 144,000 album-equivalent units of which 15,000 were pure sales, marking Cudi's fifth top 10 album in the US.
Although *Entergalactic* was originally set for a 2020 release, it was pushed back due to Cudi releasing his long-awaited *Man on the Moon III* album instead. In January 2021, when asked by a fan on Twitter why *Entergalatic*s new release date says 2022 on Netflix, Cudi responded, "[Because] that's when it drops. I just gave y'all an album y'all gotta chill and be patient fr man I'm not doin an album every year."
Cudi was the sole musical guest on *[Night Live](Saturday)(Saturday Night Live)* in April 2021, having previously featured alongside Kanye West and [Shake](070)(070 Shake) in "[Town](Ghost)(Ghost Town (Kanye West song))" in 2018. He played "[Shots](Tequila)(Tequila Shots)" and "[People](Sad)(Sad People)" with both performances in tribute to [Nirvana](Nirvana (band)) frontman [Cobain](Kurt)(Kurt Cobain). "Sad People" showcased Cudi in a floral dress designed by [Abloh](Virgil)(Virgil Abloh) in a nod to Cobain.
In June 2021, [Amazon](Amazon (company)) enlisted Kid Cudi for *[Day Show](Prime)(Prime Day)*; a three-part musical event also featuring [Eilish](Billie)(Billie Eilish) and [H.E.R.](H.E.R.) Cudi's performance included a mission to establish a new community on the moon, while performing with the [Space Orchestra](International)(International Space Orchestra), a new group composed of space scientists from [Ames Research Center](NASA)(NASA Ames Research Center), the [Institute](SETI)(SETI Institute) and the [Space University](International)(International Space University).
*[Man Named Scott](A)(A Man Named Scott)*, a documentary film directed by Robert Alexander, was announced in October 2021 via Prime Video. The film was produced by [Solar](Mad)(Mad Solar), Complex Networks and Film 45, set for release in November 2021, and billed as a look at Cudi's journey "over a decade of creative choices, struggles, and breakthroughs."
During his headlining performance at the Rolling Loud music festival, Cudi revealed intentions on releasing two full-length projects in 2022, with plans of releasing an album prior to *Entergalactic* "I have *Entergalactic* coming in the summer, and I wanna drop another album before that. I got some tasty surprises and I'm really excited about all this new shit, this new music, to give to you guys," he said before playing a recording of a song that has since been dubbed "Freshie." "That's why I'm teasing this shit now because it's coming out soon."
On December 3, 2021, a collaboration between Cudi and American pop singer [Grande](Ariana)(Ariana Grande), titled "[Look Up](Just)(Just Look Up)" was released in promotion for the [comedy](black)(black comedy) film ''[Look Up](Don't)(Don't Look Up)*, in which they both star in. That month, *Man on the Moon III: The Chosen'' broke the record for biggest vinyl sales week for both a male artist and a rap album in [Nielsen](MRC Data) history.
On April 9, 2022, Cudi performed a [medley](Medley (music)) of "[in the Sky](Stars)(Stars in the Sky)" (the lead single for the soundtrack to the film *[the Hedgehog 2](Sonic)(Sonic the Hedgehog 2 (film))*) and "[of Happiness](Pursuit)(Pursuit of Happiness (song))" at the [Choice Awards](Kids')(2022 Kids' Choice Awards) for the first time. On June 24, 2022, a collaboration between [da Genius](Dot)(Dot da Genius), [JID](JID), [Curry](Denzel)(Denzel Curry), and Cudi, titled "[About Me](Talk)(Talk About Me)", was released, along with a music video directed by [Bennett](Cole)(Cole Bennett). In June, Cudi announced his first arena tour with [the Moon World Tour](To)(To the Moon World Tour), set to begin in Vancouver on August 16, 2022 and conclude in Milan on November 22, 2022.
On July 4, 2022, Cudi announced a compilation album, *[Boy Who Flew to the Moon, Vol. 1](The)(The Boy Who Flew to the Moon, Vol. 1)*, to be released on July 8, along with the re-release of his debut mixtape *A Kid Named Cudi* on July 15. The compilation features "[Love](Love (Kid Cudi song))", a bonus track which was previously unofficially released due to sample clearance issues. On July 6, American fast food chain [McDonald's](McDonald's), announced the line-up for their 2022 Camp McDonald's virtual experience, led by headliner Kid Cudi. The virtual camp would take place over four weeks only available through the McDonald's app.
Upon *[Entergalactic](Entergalactic (album))*'s release on September 30, the album debuted at number 13 on the US [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200) chart, earning 22,480 [units](album-equivalent)(album-equivalent units) (including 1,791 copies in pure album sales) in its first week. It's [component of the same name](visual)(Entergalactic (TV special)) received an average rating of 8.20/10 on the review aggregator website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), with 96% of 28 critics' reviews being positive.
In October 2022, on an episode of *[Ones](Hot)(Hot Ones)*, Cudi revealed that he didn't know how much longer he would continue making music and that he had an alternative career path in mind. The rapper said he was "kinda nearing the end on all things Kid Cudi." He quoted other rappers including Snoop Dogg, Jay-Z, Eminem and more, saying he didn't think he would have the same longevity at these artists. On November 6, Cudi announced on Twitter he only has one more album left on his recording contract with Republic. He revealed it would not be released in 2023 and that he does not know what he will continue to do following the release.
Kid Cudi's 2010 single "Pursuit of Happiness" was [diamond (10 million units)](certified)(List of best-selling singles in the United States) by the [RIAA](Recording Industry Association of America) in December 2022.
### 2023–present: *Insano*
On February 27, 2023, Cudi announced his last contractual album with Republic Records would be released in autumn; adding that the rollout for the album will begin in the summer, with singles to be released.
## Acting career
### 2010–19: Early venture and minor roles
In 2010, Kid Cudi made a guest appearance on American television drama *[Tree Hill](One)(One Tree Hill (TV series))*, starring as himself and performing his *Man on the Moon II* single "[Me](Erase)(Erase Me (song))", during the episode. In 2010, Kid Cudi also began starring in the [HBO](HBO) comedy series *[to Make It in America](How)(How to Make It in America)*, as part of the main cast, being credited by his birth name Scott Mescudi, until its cancellation after two seasons. On October 31, 2010, Kid Cudi released a [film](short)(short film), directed by [LaBeouf](Shia)(Shia LaBeouf), in which he and fellow American rapper [Cage](Cage (rapper)), star as [French](French language)-speaking [killer](serial)(serial killer)s. The short film, titled *[Maniac](Maniac (2011 film))*, was inspired by Cudi's song of the same name, from his 2010 album *Man on the Moon II* and is an homage to the 1992 [Belgian](Belgium) [comedy](black)(black comedy) crime mockumentary, *[Bites Dog](Man)(Man Bites Dog (film))*. In May 2012, [West](Kanye)(Kanye West) premiered a short film he directed, titled *[Summer](Cruel)(Cruel Summer (film)),* at the [Film Festival](Cannes)(Cannes Film Festival). According to [MTV](MTV), Kid Cudi is the lead character, playing a "car thief who falls for a blind Arabian princess." The film was shown on seven different screens that turned on and off, giving various angles of each shot.
In October 2012, it was announced Cudi would star in an [indie](Independent film) [comedy](romantic)(romantic comedy) titled *[Night Stand](Two)(Two Night Stand)*, alongside [Tipton](Analeigh)(Lio Tipton) and [Teller](Miles)(Miles Teller). Also in 2012, it was revealed Cudi would star in an indie [film](thriller)(thriller film) titled *Tacoma*, alongside [Clarkson](Patricia)(Patricia Clarkson). In 2013, Cudi guest starred in the animated TV series *[Cleveland Show](The)(The Cleveland Show)*, [voicing](Voice actor) a character named Devon, in the Season 4 episode "Brownsized". In 2013, he also guest starred on the [FOX](Fox Broadcasting Company) comedy series *[Nine-Nine](Brooklyn)(Brooklyn Nine-Nine)*, where he played a criminal named Dustin Whitman. In 2013, it was revealed Cudi would then star in *[World](Goodbye)(Goodbye World)*, alongside [Grenier](Adrian)(Adrian Grenier).
In January 2013, Cudi was cast in the film adaptation of *[for Speed](Need)(Need for Speed (film))*. *Need for Speed*, which is Cudi's [film](feature)(feature film) debut, was released by Touchstone Pictures on March 14, 2014. In June 2013, it was revealed Cudi would appear in [Webber](Mark)(Mark Webber (actor))'s film *[Ever After](The)(The Ever After)*, alongside [Palmer](Teresa)(Teresa Palmer) and [Leo](Melissa)(Melissa Leo). On November 10, 2014, Cudi guest starred on the [CBS](CBS) American television series *[Scorpion](Scorpion (TV series))*, as Peyton Temple, a musical prodigy who created a controversial [algorithm](algorithm) that generates the perfect hit pop song, who later helps Scorpion investigate the murder of his friend who was a music industry blogger. In February 2014, it was announced Cudi would appear in *[Entourage](Entourage (film))* (2015), the film adaptation of the popular HBO [series of the same name](TV)(Entourage (U.S. TV series)).
On April 11, 2014, it was announced Cudi would star in a film titled *[White](James)(James White (film))*, alongside [Abbott](Christopher)(Christopher Abbott) and [Nixon](Cynthia)(Cynthia Nixon). In addition to starring in the film, it was revealed Cudi would also be curating the [score](film's)(Film score) as well. In January 2015, Cudi revealed he played a [homosexual](homosexual) character in *James White*: "This was way different than anything else I've ever done. It was dope to do that. I felt like I had a responsibility to present a different walk in life from that world." Although his character's sexuality is not outwardly discussed during the film, the original script included a coming-out scene and a kiss between Cudi and a male friend, played by David Call: "I didn't flinch. I'm secure with mine," Cudi told an audience after the film's premiere. "I'm an artist—it's all about playing characters that are intriguing and stimulating."
Also in January 2015, Cudi revealed he had just finished filming a movie titled *[Vincent-N-Roxxy](Vincent-N-Roxxy)*, alongside [Kravitz](Zoe)(Zoe Kravitz) and [Hirsch](Emile)(Emile Hirsch). When speaking on *Vincent-N-Roxxy*, Cudi said: "this movie that I have coming out soon that's my first [villain](villain) role. It's very violent and very disturbing [...] I play kind of like a [lord](drug)(drug lord)." Cudi took over the mic duties for [Watts](Reggie)(Reggie Watts), on [IFC](IFC (U.S. TV network))'s television series, [Bang! Bang!*](*Comedy)(Comedy Bang! Bang! (TV series)) on July 10, 2015. As the in-house [jockey](disc)(disc jockey), Cudi crafted original music for the show and appeared in several [skits](Sketch comedy) throughout season four. The December 10 Christmas edition of *Comedy Bang! Bang!*, marked the season finale and Cudi's final episode as bandleader.
In July 2016, it was announced Cudi would join the cast of FOX's *[Empire](Empire (2015 TV series))*, debuting in the third season of the series as "an independent musician who is a rival to [Hakeem](Hakeem Lyon) (["Yazz" Gray](Bryshere)(Bryshere Y. Gray)) both in the studio and in life." Cudi later left the project due to creative differences. In 2017, Cudi appeared in the comedy film *[Hasselhoff](Killing)(Killing Hasselhoff)*.
In 2019, Cudi had small roles in *[Parents](Drunk)(Drunk Parents)*, directed by [Wolf](Fred)(Fred Wolf (writer)), and *[Jexi](Jexi)* directed by [Lucas](Jon)(Jon Lucas) and [Moore](Scott)(Scott Moore (screenwriter)), the latter of which he played himself. That year he also had a recurring role in [sci-fi](science fiction) [western](Western (genre)) and [dystopian](dystopian) series *[Westworld](Westworld (TV series))*.
### 2020–present: Recognition and directorial debut
In 2020, he co-starred in *[& Ted Face the Music](Bill)(Bill & Ted Face the Music)*, directed by [Parisot](Dean)(Dean Parisot), opposite [Reeves](Keanu)(Keanu Reeves) and [Winter](Alex)(Alex Winter). In 2020, Cudi also starred in *[Are Who We Are](We)(We Are Who We Are)*, an eight-episode [miniseries](miniseries) for [HBO](HBO) directed by [Guadagnino](Luca)(Luca Guadagnino), alongside [Sevigny](Chloë)(Chloë Sevigny). In January 2021, Cudi revealed he would potentially be partnering with TV producer and fellow American rapper [Cent](50)(50 Cent), for an upcoming series. In 2021, Cudi served as a executive producer on the award winning drama film *[& Marie](Malcolm)(Malcolm & Marie)*.
In early 2021, Kid Cudi appeared in *[Crisis](Crisis (2021 film))*, directed by [Jarecki](Nicholas)(Nicholas Jarecki). In late 2021, Cudi appeared in the [cast](ensemble)(ensemble cast) of ''[Look Up](Don't)(Don't Look Up)'', where he also performed an original song for the film alongside fellow American singer [Grande](Ariana)(Ariana Grande). Cudi starred in [West](Ti)(Ti West)'s slasher film [X](X (2022 film)), released in March 2022 to critical acclaim. Soon after, it was announced that Cudi was cast in his *X* co-star [Snow](Brittany)(Brittany Snow)'s directorial debut, *September 17*. Cudi is also set to star in [Disney](Disney)'s upcoming sci-fi film *[Crater](Crater (film)),* which will be released exclusively on the streaming service, [Disney+](Disney+).
Later in March, Cudi revealed he would be making his feature directorial debut with the Netflix film, *Teddy*, a project he's also written and in which he'll star. Cudi announced the news in a social media post, noting that he'd been working on the project since 2013. Musicians Jay-Z and [Samuel](Jeymes)(Jeymes Samuel) will serve as executive producers, while being co-produced by Bron Studios and Cudi's Mad Solar banner.
In April 2022, Cudi was cast in the [Woo](John)(John Woo)-directed action-thriller *[Night](Silent)(Silent Night (2023 film))*, starring alongside [Kinnaman](Joel)(Joel Kinnaman). Moreover, as announced in 2019, Cudi starred in his own [animated](Animation) TV special, *[Entergalactic](Entergalactic (TV special))*, at [Netflix](Netflix), a companion piece to his [solo album of the same name](eighth)(Entergalactic (album)), release on September 30, 2022, in which he co-produced with [Barris](Kenya)(Kenya Barris), and wrote alongside Ian Edelman and Maurice Williams. In June 2022, the voice cast was announced; Cudi stars alongside [Chalamet](Timothée)(Timothée Chalamet), [Culkin](Macaulay)(Macaulay Culkin), [Harrier](Laura)(Laura Harrier), [Williams](Jessica)(Jessica Williams (actress)), and more.
## Artistry
### Musical style
[[West's 808s & Heartbreak @ The Hollywood Bowl - Night 1 (09-25-15) (21736815375).jpg|thumb|Kanye West and Cudi performing *808s & Heartbreak* at the Hollywood Bowl in September 2015](File:Kanye)]
Cudi's musical style has been described as "an atmospheric take on melodic rap, with a dollop of charming, off-key singing". He has also been called "introspective, with the ability to lay his insecurities on record and expose his fallibility." In 2015, Kris Ex of *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))*, wrote "he's always been an emotional artist, dealing with expansive and nebulous feelings in acute and often destructive ways." Kid Cudi's sound is what inspired and led [West](Kanye)(Kanye West) to create his cathartic *[& Heartbreak](808s)(808s & Heartbreak)* (2008), with West later stating that he and Cudi were "the originators of the style, kinda like what [McQueen](Alexander)(Alexander McQueen) is to [fashion](fashion).... Everything else is just [Zara](Zara (retailer)) and [H&M](H&M)." West also complimented Cudi by saying, "His writing is just so pure and natural and important." In March 2014, Cudi talked about wanting to provide guidance for young listeners with his music: "my mission statement since day one [...] all I wanted to do was help kids not feel alone, and stop committing suicide."In a 2013 article for *The BoomBox*, the author wrote: "On [Kid Named Cudi*](*A), Cudi raps and croons over samples and interpolations of [Barkley](Gnarls)(Gnarls Barkley), [Simon](Paul)(Paul Simon), [of Horses](Band)(Band of Horses), [Dilla](J)(J Dilla), [Thing](Nosaj)(Nosaj Thing), [N.E.R.D.](N.E.R.D.) and [Outkast](Outkast). He melded [rock](indie)(indie rock), [electronica](electronica) and [dubstep](dubstep) seamlessly with hip-hop without pandering or reaching. Before [Drake](Drake (rapper)) broke through with 2009's *[Far Gone](So)(So Far Gone (mixtape))*, rapping and singing over Swedish indie poppers [Li](Lykke)(Lykke Li) and [Bjorn and John](Peter)(Peter Bjorn and John), Cudi tweaked with multi-genre covers and seamless transitions between singing and rapping." In a 2009 interview with [HipHopDX](HipHopDX), when speaking on his debut album Cudi stated: "Well one thing I wanted to do was combine sounds that really bring out intense moods."
His music has also been described as [hop](trip)(trip hop). Furthermore, he is known for [harmonizing](Harmonization) and [humming](humming) in his music, which helps formulate his signature sound.' With Hums Only |date=December 22, 2016 |work=Vashtie.com |access-date=April 5, 2017}} On 2012's *[WZRD](WZRD (album))* and 2015's ''[Bullet 2 Heaven](Speedin')(Speedin' Bullet 2 Heaven)'', Cudi incorporated the use of [vocals](screamed)(screaming (music)), and can be heard [yodeling](yodeling) on his 2016 album ''[Pain & Demon Slayin'](Passion,)(Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin')''. Throughout the years he has also incorporated elements of [psychedelia](Psychedelic music), [R&B](Contemporary R&B), electronica, [synthpop](synthpop), [punk](punk rock) and [grunge](grunge), in his music.
Cudi was gifted a guitar by his manager in 2011, encouraging Cudi to learn. Cudi [himself](taught)(Self-taught) how to play the guitar and went on to utilize the instrument in his [music](rock)(rock music) throughout his career. Cudi is also a self-taught [producer](music)(music producer). In 2021, Cudi appeared on American TV talk show *[Shop](The)(The Shop)*, where he spoke on his writing and recording process. Cudi mentioned for his early albums he would sit down and write entire verses. However, while working on *[See Ghosts](Kids)(Kids See Ghosts (album))* and *[on the Moon III](Man)(Man on the Moon III)*, he adopted Kanye West's writing process. Instead of writing to a beat, he records a reference track for himself, where he freestyles and hums his way through the beat to get a melody, and fills in the lyrics as they come to him.*The Shop: Uninterrupted*, Episode 4-02, first aired 25 June 2021. In 2021, during ''Songwriter's Roundtable* for *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)'', Cudi called his music "[space](space rock) [rock](punk)(punk rock)".
### Stage presence
During his 2013 Cud Life concert tour, Cudi donned a custom made astronaut-esque suit that was designed by noted Hollywood costume designer Jose Hernandez. Officially dubbed the "Satellite Academy Space Suit", Joe La Puma of *[Complex](Complex (magazine))* explained, "It's more than just an interesting clothing choice; the suit represents a transition in his mind-state back to the highly anticipated *Man on the Moon III*."
### Influences
Cudi's earliest influences include [hip hop](alternative)(alternative hip hop) groups such as [Pharcyde](the)(the Pharcyde), [Tribe Called Quest](A)(A Tribe Called Quest) and [Thugs-n-Harmony](Bone)(Bone Thugs-n-Harmony). Cudi also cites rappers such as [Notorious B.I.G.](the)(the Notorious B.I.G.), [Tupac](Tupac), [Jay-Z](Jay-Z), [Dogg](Snoop)(Snoop Dogg), [Run-DMC](Run-DMC), [Blow](Kurtis)(Kurtis Blow), [Cool J](LL)(LL Cool J), [Salt-N-Pepa](Salt-N-Pepa), [Latifah](Queen)(Queen Latifah), ['n Play](Kid)(Kid 'n Play), [N.W.A.](N.W.A.), [By Nature](Naughty)(Naughty By Nature), [Onyx](Onyx (group)) and [Enemy](Public)(Public Enemy (music group)), as his hip hop influences while growing up. Speaking to *Complex* in 2012, Cudi named named *[Doggystyle](Doggystyle)* (1993) as one of his favorite albums of all time, revealing, "Snoop Dogg is my favorite rapper ever […] It was the first time I was introduced to the man and I thought he was the coolest motherfucker alive. His whole cadence, his delivery, his swag—it was real. It was something that I never heard before."
Kid Cudi has also credited fellow Ohio native [Tao](Camu)(Camu Tao), as an influence. He has also been inspired by the sounds of [O'Jays](the)(the O'Jays), [Ratatat](Ratatat), [MGMT](MGMT) and [Postal Service](The)(The Postal Service). In 2010, he began experimenting with [music](rock)(rock music); rock acts that inspired Cudi include the [Light Orchestra](Electric)(Electric Light Orchestra), [Hendrix](Jimi)(Jimi Hendrix), [Nirvana](Nirvana (band)), the [Pixies](Pixies (band)) and [Floyd](Pink)(Pink Floyd). Kid Cudi also credits English singer-songwriter [Bowie](David)(David Bowie) as a "huge inspiration." [Production](Hip hop production) wise, Cudi has named [Dre](Dr.)(Dr. Dre), [Beatz](Swizz)(Swizz Beatz), [Timbaland](Timbaland) and Kanye West, as his top four favorite producers; also naming Emile Haynie and Plain Pat, calling them "geniuses" for seeing his potential before he was even completely aware of it.
## Other ventures
[[(300dpi).jpg|thumb|Cudi performing in July 2009|upright](File:Kidcudi)]
### Fashion
In September 2009, Japanese clothing company [BAPE](A Bathing Ape) printed Cudi's likeness on T-shirts. In 2021, Cudi and BAPE collaborated on a series 20 pieces logos and other things.
In February 2011, Kid Cudi announced a collaboration with Parisian brand Surface to Air. In the fall of 2011, he released a leather jacket collection in collaboration with the fashion label.
In August 2014, [Zanotti](Giuseppe)(Giuseppe Zanotti) designed an exclusive sneaker inspired by Kid Cudi's style.
In February 2019, Kid Cudi partnered with French fashion brand [A.P.C.](A.P.C.) The capsule collection included denim, sneakers, and t-shirts.
Kid Cudi announced a partnership with [Adidas](Adidas) in March 2019. On December 10, 2020, Cudi unveiled his Adidas sneakers. They are the self-named VADAWAM 326's which would be released on December 17, 2020.
On May 20, 2020, Kid Cudi announced he was partnering with American designer [Abloh](Virgil)(Virgil Abloh), to release an exclusive "Leader of the Delinquents" t-shirt. The design on the black and white "PULLING STRINGS" t-shirt features Kid Cudi puppeteering a smaller version of himself, hence the name of the t-shirt release. The art is meant to reference Cudi's infamous [TMZ](TMZ) moment from 2012, in which he posed like the puppet on the shirt. "Leader of the Delinquents" is written across the back of the t-shirt in text reminiscent of [Basquiat](Jean-Michel)(Jean-Michel Basquiat)'s handwriting.
Just hours before releasing his long-awaited *Man on the Moon III* album, Cudi rolled out a small batch of merchandise in support of the album. The range was made in collaboration with [Plant Flea Market](Cactus)(Cactus Plant Flea Market), and consists of short- and long-sleeve T-shirts, pullover hoodies, and sweatpants—all of which feature graphics that reference MOTM3 tracks.
In April 2021, Kid Cudi performed on *Saturday Night Live* wearing a floral-print sundress, created by Virgil Abloh. On April 11, Cudi confirmed that he would have an upcoming collection with Italian luxury fashion label [Off-White](Off-White (company)), with the floral dress serving as one of the pieces.
In late April 2021, it was revealed Kid Cudi had teamed up with the [NFL](NFL) to release a limited-edition [jacket](Starter)(Starter jacket) commemorating the [NFL Draft](2021)(2021 NFL Draft), which took place in Cudi's hometown of Cleveland.
#### MOTR
On January 26, 2021, Kid Cudi announced on Twitter that he would be starting his own clothing line and the first pieces would be available sometime in 2021. In February 2022, Cudi launched his very own clothing line called MOTR; pronounced "motor", it is an acronym for "Members of the RAGE." The clothing line is described as a fusion of "90s grunge with the soul of hip hop and
elements from a distant future." Its UFO logo was co-designed by Cudi and Japanese fashion designer [Nigo](Nigo), while the retro-inspired website was designed by Cudi himself. The first piece that was issued was a t-shirt created in collaboration with Nigo's Human Made. Created for [All-Star Weekend](NBA)(NBA All-Star Weekend), the shirt comes in white and features the MOTR logo in Cleveland Cavaliers colors and the Earth replaced with a basketball. On September 21, 2022, Cudi announced that his MOTR fashion line, will debut at [Fashion Week](Paris)(Paris Fashion Week) 2023. He also revealed the line is all-[pieces](unisex)(Unisex clothing), produced "in Italy and parts of Europe"; additionally the line will also feature sneakers. After launching the line in Paris, *[Vogue](Vogue (magazine))* wrote "hip-hop culture, retro-inflected futurism, [street fashion](Japanese)(Japanese street style) and a general embrace of [grunge](grunge) are all brewing in his extroverted, [Z](Gen)(Gen Z)-leaning lineup."
### Modeling
In 2010, Cudi modeled for a campaign run by American fashion house [Klein](Calvin)(Calvin Klein (company)). In January 2015, [Inc.](Coach,)(Coach, Inc.) announced Kid Cudi as the new face of their brand, along with actress [Grace Moretz](Chloë)(Chloë Grace Moretz), to front its Spring campaign. In September 2021, Cudi partnered with [Cadillac](Cadillac), for the campaign for their 2023 [Lyriq](Cadillac Lyriq). In January 2022, Cudi modeled for the [Strauss & Co.](Levi)(Levi Strauss & Co.) campaign titled "The Number That Changed Everything." In March 2022, Cudi was featured in a jewelry-focused campaign from French fashion house [Vuitton](Louis)(Louis Vuitton). The LV Volt campaign sees Cudi, [Vikander](Alicia)(Alicia Vikander) and Jin Chen, modeling a range of pieces from the unisex collection.
### Dream On
Dream On was an American record label founded in 2009, by Cudi alongside his managers at the time, [Reynolds](Patrick)(Plain Pat) and [Haynie](Emile)(Emile Haynie). In February 2011, Cudi announced the label had been dissolved. The label went on to release the first two installments of Cudi's *Man on the Moon* series.
### Wicked Awesome Records
Wicked Awesome Records is an American record label founded by Cudi in 2011. It is distributed by Republic Records. In a 2013 interview Cudi said "Wicked Awesome was there officially when I did *WZRD.* That was the first project that I did on Wicked Awesome and it was an outlet for me to just branch out on my own, and creatively and business-wise take things to a different space for me. Wicked Awesome..where do I see it going? Right now it's just the music but who knows? Wicked Awesome is maybe gunna be beyond music it could be movies, it could be a lot of things, producing T.V. shows. Just the name I think is really dope it has a ring to it." Cudi continued, explaining the motivation behind his label. "The whole motivation is just bringing authenticity back to the forefront. Bringing real content, bringing real emotion [...] Wicked Awesome is about being a real human being, making real music, talking about real things that people deal with on a day-to-day basis." In January 2021, Cudi [tweeted](tweeted) that he is prepared to sign artists and producers.
### Mad Solar
On November 17, 2020, it was revealed Cudi teamed with Dennis Cummings and Karina Manashil to found production and music management company Mad Solar, with the backing of [Studios](Bron)(Bron Studios), which provides corporate back office and production support, including financing, marketing, and sales. In a statement Cudi said, "Beyond excited to be launching my production company Mad Solar and partnering with Bron, whose creative vision and storytelling has transformed the industry." Mad Solar has produced the Netflix animated special *[Entergalactic](Entergalactic (TV series))*, which Cudi co-created alongside Kenya Barris. Additionally, Mad Solar teamed with [A24](A24) and Bron Studios on the horror film *[X](X (2022 film)).* Written and directed by [West](Ti)(Ti West), *X* stars [Goth](Mia)(Mia Goth), Cudi and [Ortega](Jenna)(Jenna Ortega). Cudi served as an executive producer on the film, which began production in early 2021.
### Encore Music Technologies
In October 2020, it was announced Cudi teamed with screenwriter Ian Edelman and startup veteran Jonathan Gray to launch Encore Music Technologies, a [platform](mobile-based)(Mobile app) to help artists monetize their connections with fans. "The current streaming model puts artists in competition with one another and only rewards the top 1% of artists who collect 90% of the money," a press release announcing the app explains. "Encore offers an all-new format that encourages collaboration amongst artists and makes it easy for up-and-coming and established artists to manage and grow a direct relationship with their fans. Artists can drop new music, chat with fans and host live shows from anywhere in the world." Encore enables live music experiences through smart phones, fan interaction, community centered content and merchandise offerings to give fans new ways to reward the artists they love. "The energy from a concert is undeniable, both for the fans and artists. I am excited to launch Encore to help bring the live music experience back to our fans. Encore is committed to empowering both established and new artists and delivering the best mobile music experience out there," Cudi says. Earlier in 2020, Encore closed a $2 million seed round led by global investment firm [Ventures](Battery)(Battery Ventures).
In 2022, it was revealed Encore Studio was backed by $9 million funding led by Battery Ventures along with investments from 468 Capital, Parade Ventures, Nomad Ventures, Moving Capital, Kayak Ventures, and [Gaingels](Gaingels), with Cudi issuing a statement "My number one priority has always been inspiring others and providing them the space to tell their own stories in an authentic and meaningful way," Cudi said in a press release. "We created Encore as a space for artists to share their art, build community, while also being able to pay their rent."
### Memoir
In September 2022, Cudi revealed that he had begun working on his [memoir](memoir), when he announced he's started writing the first chapter of his first book. "Started writing the first chapter of my book. Its comin together really well," Cudi wrote on Twitter. "Tellin my story in my own words is scary, but I feel like it needs to be told. I feel like everything will make a lil more sense as to why you all met such a troubled boy in the beginning."
## Public image
Kid Cudi has been described by the media as a [visionary](visionary), and a [icon](fashion)(fashion icon).
In his early career, Kid Cudi received criticism in the hip hop community for wearing [jeans](skinny)(skinny jeans), before they became trendy after being worn by mainstream rappers, such as Lil Wayne and Kanye West. Cudi made headlines when he wore a [kilt](kilt) to a 2010 New Year's Eve party in [Miami](Miami). In April 2012, he made headlines again in a now-infamous moment when he gave *[TMZ](TMZ)* paparazzi [finger](the)(the finger), claiming they have never "posted anything to make him look good".
In 2014, Cudi made headlines when he performed in a [top](crop)(crop top) at the annual [Valley Music and Arts Festival](Coachella)(Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival). In April 2021, he appeared as the sole musical guest on *[Night Live](Saturday)(Saturday Night Live)*, where he performed "[Shots](Tequila)(Tequila Shots)" and "[People](Sad)(Sad People)". Both performances were in tribute to [Nirvana](Nirvana (band))'s late frontman [Cobain](Kurt)(Kurt Cobain), however it was his performance of "Sad People" that made headlines because Cudi wore a dress as a statement against social norms much like his idol Cobain had done.
In September 2021, Cudi made headlines twice; first arriving at [York Fashion Week](New)(New York Fashion Week) with electric blue hair, a Nirvana long-sleeve tee and a floor-length black skirt. A few days later, Cudi showed up to the [Gala](Met)(Met Gala) wearing fluorescent green hair and dark eye makeup. At the Gala, Cudi was in head-to-toe [Vuitton](Louis)(Louis Vuitton) (LV), with a blue sweater, another floor-length skirt and blue-and-green LV sneakers.
On November 10, 2021, Kid Cudi posed for photos at the [Fashion Awards](CFDA)(CFDA Fashion Awards) in a custom bridal gown, standing hand-in-hand with its designer, ERL's Eli Russell Linnetz, lace-gloved fingers interlocked, both wearing *[Gothic](American)(American Gothic)* expressions. On the red carpet, Linnetz lifted Cudi's veil. "Be yourself, be free, baby, yeah," Cudi said into a microphone, with a grin; he'd paired the dress with a white tux jacket, crystal-covered sneakers, grungy eyeliner, an icy Black Jesus pendant, and Manic Panic-pink hair. The dress was another homage to Kurt Cobain.
## Personal life
### Drug use
In a January 2013 interview, Cudi revealed that he had stopped smoking [marijuana](Cannabis (drug)) in 2011, both for the sake of his child and due to frustration with constantly being associated with the drug and [culture](stoner)(Stoner culture#Cannabis subculture).
In a March 2013 interview, Cudi talked about how his initial sudden and unexpected fame drove him to alcohol and drugs:
}}
However, in 2022, Cudi tweeted about going to rehab for cocaine addiction in 2016:
}}
### Mental health
In a 2013 interview, Cudi revealed he had suffered an addiction to [medication](anti-depressant)(antidepressants), which had been prescribed to help him deal with an "[breakdown](emotional)(emotional breakdown)" after a failed relationship. Cudi has been open about his addiction to pharmaceuticals in his music, namely the songs "[Pill](Dr.)(WZRD (album))" and "[Nothing](The)(The Nothing (Kid Cudi song))". In a 2014 interview, Cudi spoke on his struggles with [depression](Major depressive disorder) and [ideation](suicidal)(suicidal ideation): "I've dealt with suicide for the past five years. There wasn't a week or a day that didn't go by where I was just like, 'You know, I wanna check out.' I know what that feels like, I know it comes from loneliness, I know it comes from not having self-worth, not loving yourself."
In a July 2016 interview, Kid Cudi revealed he suffered from [guilt](survivor)(survivor guilt): "I didn't like that I had money and success and I had made it. Everybody I had ever met in my life, good people, weren't able to experience the same, and I wasn't able to truly enjoy my success. Even though I worked hard for it, it bothered me that I had just had so much and my friends didn't."
In October 2016, Cudi revealed on his Facebook page that he had checked himself into [rehabilitation](Psychiatric rehabilitation) for [depression](Major depressive disorder) and [urges](suicidal)(Suicidal person).Various sources:
*
*
*
* In a August 2022 interview with *[Esquire](Esquire (magazine))*, Cudi spoke on how two weeks after being admitted to rehab in 2016, he had suffered a [stroke](stroke), revealing the incident forced him to spend the next few months in physical rehabilitation.
### Family
On March 26, 2010, Cudi's daughter, Vada Wamwene Mescudi, was born. Throughout 2012, Cudi was in a [custody](Child custody) battle over his daughter. Reports surfaced that Cudi gave up custody after his child's mother accused him of being an absentee father, as well as having violent tendencies and a "long history of consistent drug and alcohol abuse." These claims were disputed by Cudi and his attorney in a statement, which noted: "Cudi did not give up custody but reached an amicable agreement with the mother; that 'both parents are fit and proper persons to have custody of their child,' as stated in the final custody judgment; results came back negative for drugs in a drug test voluntarily taken by Cudi; and that the court acknowledged Cudi attempted to establish a relationship and visit his child since her birth and "voluntarily provided financial support, including child support, rent and other monthly payments, for his daughter since her birth until the time that a child support order was entered as part of the normal course of the case." Details of the official custody agreement remain private. Cudi has since purchased a property in [Chicago](Chicago) to be close to his daughter.
### Relationships
In 2009, Cudi began dating entertainment attorney Jamie Baratta. They were in an [off-again relationship](on-again,)(on-again, off-again relationship), and were a prominent couple in the music industry. They ultimately broke up in 2012, but not before Cudi dedicated a song to her titled "[2 Me, Jamie](Teleport)(Teleport 2 Me)", which he recorded as a member of the alternative rock duo, WZRD. In 2020, Cudi wrote "Sept. 16", a song titled after the birthdate of his girlfriend at the time, costume designer and actress Raquel Deriane, to whom the song is dedicated.
### Faith
In a January 2013 interview, Cudi said that he believes in God, although considers himself [but not religious](spiritual)(spiritual but not religious).
## Philanthropy
On April 8, 2014, Didi Hirsch Mental Health Services announced that it would recognize mental health advocates Kid Cudi, [Rousey](Ronda)(Ronda Rousey) and Natasha Tracy, during its annual Erasing the Stigma Leadership Awards on April 24, at the Beverly Hilton in Los Angeles. Committed to helping depressed and suicidal youth through the power of music, Cudi joined Didi Hirsch's Erasing the Stigma Efforts as a Mental Health Ambassador.
On February 7, 2015, Kid Cudi partnered with [TED](TED (conference)) to give a TED Talk at his former school, [Heights High School](Shaker)(Shaker Heights High School), to help inspire the students with his story, for the school's independently organized "TEDxSHHS" conference.
Kid Cudi has also been a volunteer for Musicians on Call (MOC), a [charity](Charitable organization) with the mission of bringing live and recorded music to the bedsides of patients in healthcare facilities. In December 2015, Cudi arranged a [party](dance)(dance party) for the teenage participants of the [Hospital At Montefiore](Children's)(Montefiore Medical Center)'s (CHAM) B-N-Fit program, in [Bronx](the)(the Bronx). Kid Cudi also hosted a group of young patients and their families from CHAM, at his sold-out [Ballroom](Roseland)(Roseland Ballroom) shows in April 2016.
In June 2016, 49 celebrities, including Kid Cudi, honored the 49 victims killed in the [nightclub shooting](Orlando)(Orlando nightclub shooting) in a video tribute.
In 2019, Kid Cudi teamed up with delivery service [Postmates](Postmates) to deliver $10,000 worth of [Popeyes](Popeyes) takeout to the Coachella Valley Rescue Mission. Hundreds in need at the Indio shelter were presented with Popeyes' chicken, biscuits, mashed potatoes, and fries the evening before Cudi's second set at Coachella.
In June 2022, at an event organized by [Burch](Tory)(Tory Burch), Brent Saunders, and [Wintour](Anna)(Anna Wintour), supporting the New York-Presbyterian Hospital's Youth Anxiety Center, Cudi led the conversation on youth anxiety, depression, and the importance of self-care and treatment.
## Impact and legacy
A number of publications have noted Kid Cudi's impact on contemporary hip hop music since his mainstream debut in 2009. *[IBTimes](International Business Times)* writer Alex Garofaro states "Since the beginning of Cudi's career, his music has been extremely influential. His unique blend of dark, introspective lyrics, melancholy melody, [instrumentation](psychedelic)(Psychedelic music) and [stoner](Stoner (drug user)) cool made him a [crossover](Crossover music) sensation with rap, R&B and [music](indie)(indie music) fans alike." Luke Hinz of *[HotNewHipHop](HotNewHipHop.com)* said "Cudi has inspired a generation of young artists to be unafraid to explore a wide array of emotions, and many have sought to adapt elements of Cudi's music into their own. Never caring to fit into the conventional boundaries of music, Cudi became a voice for those who felt unrepresented and alone."
In a 2015 article titled "KiD CuDi – A Forgotten Influence on Psychedelic Introspection in Hip-Hop", the author wrote "Cudi helped bring about a new era of electronic, psychedelic driven production. And his dark, drug-riddled approach to introspection has already taken hold in the up-and-comers in the hip-hop world." [*Revolt*](Revolt (TV network)) writer Preezy Brown noted "His knack for displaying vulnerability and addressing bouts with mental health has made him an inspiration for a long list of artists including [WRLD](Juice)(Juice Wrld), [Logic](Logic (musician)), [Yachty](Lil)(Lil Yachty), and other leaders of the new school."
Eric Diep of [*Complex*](Complex (magazine)) said "Cudi is an omnipresent figure in [culture](pop)(pop culture) who has inspired many. He's a voice for young creatives who don't fit in. He's a therapeutic light for people who need a helping hand. He's a [icon](fashion)(Fashion icons). He's more than a cool cameo in television and movies, but a full-fledged actor." *[Uproxx](Uproxx)* stated "Compared to modern icons like [Drake](Drake (musician)), West, and [Wayne](Lil Wayne), Cudi doesn't have a boatload of sales, or a room full of accolades, but his weighty impact is reflected in adulation from the people, which is the intangible, everlasting achievement that most artists live for. He's one of the first artists to be unabashed about his depressive ruminations and did so in a melodically intriguing manner that progressed alternative rock aesthetics into the hip-hop world one cadence at a time."
Paul Thompson of *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* wrote Cudi has "dozens of stylistic children". Several artists have gone on to credit Kid Cudi as influence or inspiration, such as [rapper](rapper)s [West](Kanye)(Kanye West), [Scott](Travis)(Travis Scott), [Lamar](Kendrick)(Kendrick Lamar), [Q](Schoolboy)(Schoolboy Q), [the Rapper](Chance)(Chance the Rapper), [Gambino](Childish)(Childish Gambino), [Logic](Logic (rapper)), [Rocky](ASAP)(ASAP Rocky), [Nast](ASAP)(ASAP Nast), [Kingdom](Allan)(Allan Kingdom), [Kyle](Kyle (musician)), [Rashad](Isaiah)(Isaiah Rashad), [Raury](Raury), [Key!](Two-9), [Curry](Denzel)(Denzel Curry), [Abstract](Kevin)(Kevin Abstract), [Saba](Saba (rapper)) and [Smith](Jaden)(Jaden Smith), as well as singers [Smith](Willow)(Willow Smith), [Aiko](Jhene)(Jhene Aiko), [Lissie](Lissie) and [Tinashe](Tinashe), among others.
In 2009, Canadian recording artist [Drake](Drake (musician)) shared his admiration for Cudi on Twitter with a picture of him holding both his and Cudi's respective projects, stating "We are rarely proud when we are alone. But to have another artist who pushes me and inspires me is a blessing."
In a 2010 interview with *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))*, Kanye West called Cudi his "personal favorite artist in the world right now. His whole take on the game is just unfiltered, uncensored artistry." In 2016, Kanye West went on to call Cudi "the most influential artist of the past 10 years".
[Coast hip hop](West)(West Coast hip hop) duo [Push](Audio)(Audio Push) have also praised Cudi, in 2016, saying "The thing I love about Cudi is he's unapologetically real. He birthed so much of, not even the new generation of artists, but a lot of [your] favorite artists wouldn't be [your] favorite artists if it wasn't for Cudi." In November 2016, [Atlanta](Atlanta)-based rapper [Maco](OG)(OG Maco), who has cited Cudi as a major influence on several occasions, released an [EP](Extended play) titled *For Scott*, as a tribute to Kid Cudi.
In October 2018, American musician and high-profile producer [Williams](Pharrell)(Pharrell Williams), spoke on his collaborations with Cudi in an interview with *[Complex](Complex (magazine)),* saying: "He's so inspiring, and I'm only as good as my collaborations anyway. I love the stuff that we did. Love, love [...] So to me, Cudi is a GOAT. His melodies and his concepts—he's a timeless alien." In another interview with *Complex*, Williams also stated "When they say Cudi is the [of all time](greatest), they're talking about the consistency of his convictions and how that's played out into the choices that he makes, the taste that he has, and the tone that he takes with everything that he does. That's my idea of Cudi."
American comedian and actor [Davidson](Pete)(Pete Davidson), who called Cudi "the best musician that's ever lived" in a 2019 interview on *[Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon](The)(The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon)*, has also shared his own struggles with his mental health and claims Cudi's music has saved his life. Travis Scott, whose stage name is derived from Cudi's first name, has also claimed Cudi's music saved his life and has a tattoo of the word "[rager](Mr. Rager)" in honor of Cudi. American musician [Shake](070)(070 Shake) shared with *[& Planes](Pigeons)(Pigeons & Planes)*, "All my life I grew up listening to […] Kid Cudi. I've cried to their music. They've definitely changed my life, and saved me from a lot of stuff." [Brockhampton](Brockhampton (band))'s [Abstract](Kevin)(Kevin Abstract) has said "I love how he incorporated melody into his raps," Kevin explained. "A kid like me would say, like, Kid Cudi saved my life."
American rapper [Logic](Logic (rapper)), who has [interpolated](interpolation (popular music)) Kid Cudi's records in his own songs, has also spoke about how Cudi's music inspired him to open up about mental health in his own music. "He was the dude that was like, 'It's okay to be sad. It's okay to talk about these things, and go through these things.'" In a 2019 interview, then-up-and-coming rapper [Keem](Baby)(Baby Keem), cited Cudi as a major influence: "I was inspired by Cudi's [cadence](cadence)s and shit like that. Kid Cudi's one of my favorite artists."
In an interview with New York City radio station [97](Hot)(Hot 97), [Smith](Jaden)(Jaden Smith) spoke on Cudi's influence on him: "Cudi would always say things that just would, like, change my life [...] I thought it was just me and my brother for a while. Then I got older and started going to [festivals](Music festival) and then I realized, oh man, everybody has felt that from Cudi. Everybody says that Cudi saved their life. ... Everybody had that same experience listening to Cudi. If someone listened to Cudi, you knew something about them. You could tell certain things about them."
## Discography
**Studio albums**
* *[on the Moon: The End of Day](Man)(Man on the Moon: The End of Day)* (2009)
* *[on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager](Man)(Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager)* (2010)
* *[Indicud](Indicud)* (2013)
* *[Flight: The Journey to Mother Moon](Satellite)(Satellite Flight: The Journey to Mother Moon)* (2014)
* ''[Bullet 2 Heaven](Speedin')(Speedin' Bullet 2 Heaven)* (2015)
* *[Pain & Demon Slayin'](Passion,)(Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin')* (2016)
* *[on the Moon III: The Chosen](Man)(Man on the Moon III: The Chosen)* (2020)
* *[Entergalactic](Entergalactic (album))* (2022)
* *[Insano](Insano (album))* (2023)
**Collaborative albums**
* *[WZRD](WZRD (album))* (2012)
* *[See Ghosts](Kids)(Kids See Ghosts (album))'' (2018)
## Awards and nominations
## Filmography
Kid Cudi has appeared in several [film](feature)(feature film)s and [show](television)(television show)s. He is often credited by his birth name Scott Mescudi.
## Concert tours
[[File:Monster-ball-poker face acoustic.jpg|thumb|[Gaga](Lady)(Lady Gaga) and Cudi performing a piano version of "[Face](Poker)(Poker Face (Lady Gaga song))" and "[Her Say](Make)(Make Her Say)" on [Monster Ball Tour](The)(The Monster Ball Tour) in November 2009]]
**Headlining**
*The Great Hangover Tour (2009)
*The Cud Life Tour (2011, 2013)
*The Especial Tour (2016)
*Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin' Tour (2017)
*[the Moon World Tour](To)(To the Moon World Tour) (2022)
**Supporting**
*[in the Dark Tour](Glow)(Glow in the Dark Tour) (2008)
*[Monster Ball Tour](The)(The Monster Ball Tour) (2009)
## See also
* [See Ghosts](Kids)(Kids See Ghosts)
* [WZRD](WZRD (band))
* [of artists who reached number one in the United States](List)(List of artists who reached number one in the United States)
* [of American Grammy Award winners and nominees](List)(List of American Grammy Award winners and nominees)
* [of neo-psychedelia artists](List)(List of neo-psychedelia artists)
* [of alternative hip hop artists](List)(List of alternative hip hop artists)
## References
## External links
*
*
*
*
*
* [Kid Cudi](https://open.spotify.com/artist/0fA0VVWsXO9YnASrzqfmYu) on [Spotify](Spotify)
}}
[ ](Category:Kid Cudi)
[births](Category:1984)(Category:1984 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[African-American male singers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century African-American male singers)
[African-American writers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century African-American writers)
[American male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American male actors)
[American poets](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American poets)
[American rappers](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American rappers)
[from Shaker Heights, Ohio](Category:Actors)(Category:Actors from Shaker Heights, Ohio)
[fashion designers](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American fashion designers)
[male models](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American male models)
[male rappers](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American male rappers)
[male singer-songwriters](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American male singer-songwriters)
[record producers](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American record producers)
[hip hop musicians](Category:Alternative)(Category:Alternative hip hop musicians)
[alternative rock musicians](Category:American)(Category:American alternative rock musicians)
[fashion businesspeople](Category:American)(Category:American fashion businesspeople)
[hip hop record producers](Category:American)(Category:American hip hop record producers)
[hip hop singers](Category:American)(Category:American hip hop singers)
[male actors of Mexican descent](Category:American)(Category:American male actors of Mexican descent)
[male film actors](Category:American)(Category:American male film actors)
[male television actors](Category:American)(Category:American male television actors)
[male voice actors](Category:American)(Category:American male voice actors)
[music industry executives](Category:American)(Category:American music industry executives)
[music video directors](Category:American)(Category:American music video directors)
[punk rock musicians](Category:American)(Category:American punk rock musicians)
[rappers of Mexican descent](Category:American)(Category:American rappers of Mexican descent)
[Award winners for rap music](Category:Grammy)(Category:Grammy Award winners for rap music)
[musicians](Category:Grunge)(Category:Grunge musicians)
[actors from Cleveland](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Cleveland)
[health activists](Category:Mental)(Category:Mental health activists)
[hip hop musicians](Category:Midwest)(Category:Midwest hip hop musicians)
[artists](Category:Motown)(Category:Motown artists)
[from Shaker Heights, Ohio](Category:Musicians)(Category:Musicians from Shaker Heights, Ohio)
[from Solon, Ohio](Category:People)(Category:People from Solon, Ohio)
[with mood disorders](Category:People)(Category:People with mood disorders)
[from Ohio](Category:Poets)(Category:Poets from Ohio)
[from Cleveland](Category:Rappers)(Category:Rappers from Cleveland)
[producers from Ohio](Category:Record)(Category:Record producers from Ohio)
[Records artists](Category:Republic)(Category:Republic Records artists)
[from Ohio](Category:Singer-songwriters)(Category:Singer-songwriters from Ohio)
[hop musicians](Category:Trip)(Category:Trip hop musicians)
[Motown Records artists](Category:Universal)(Category:Universal Motown Records artists)
[of Toledo alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of Toledo alumni)
[(band) members](Category:WZRD)(Category:WZRD (band) members)
|
List of Caribbean islands
|
list_of_caribbean_islands
|
# List of Caribbean islands
*Revision ID: 1160305802 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T16:44:18Z*
---
[[general map.png|thumb|500px|The Caribbean Sea](File:Caribbean)]
Almost all of the Caribbean [islands](Island) are in the [Sea](Caribbean)(Caribbean Sea), with only a few in inland lakes. The largest island is [Cuba](Cuba). Other sizable islands include [Hispaniola](Hispaniola), [Jamaica](Jamaica), [Rico](Puerto)(Puerto Rico), [Andros](North)(Andros, Bahamas), and [Trinidad](Trinidad). Some of the smaller islands are referred to as a *rock* or *reef.*
*Islands are listed in alphabetical order by country of ownership and/or those with full independence and autonomy. Islands with coordinates can be seen on the map linked to the right.*
## Antigua and Barbuda
There are 54 islands in [and Barbuda](Antigua)(Antigua and Barbuda). There are three main islands, the two populated islands (Antigua and Barbuda) and Redonda. There are 51 off-shore islands. The islands of the country of Antigua and Barbuda include:
***[Antigua](Antigua)**, ,
* [Marine Management Area](Northeast)(Northeast Marine Management Area)
** [Pear Island](Prickly)(Prickly Pear Island)
** [Bird Island](Great)(Great Bird Island, Antigua)
** [Island Major](Galley)(Galley Islands, Antigua and Barbuda)
** [Island Minor](Galley)(Galley Islands, Antigua and Barbuda)
** [Island](Jenny)(Jenny Island, Antigua)
** [Island](Exchange)(Exchange Island)
** [Island](Rabbit)(Rabbit Island, Antigua)
** [Island](Lobster)(Lobster Island)
** [Island](Long)(Long Island, Antigua)
** [Island](Maiden)(Maiden Island, Antigua (North West))
** [Island](Rat)(Rat Island, Antigua and Barbuda)
** [Bird Island](Little)(Little Bird Island, Antigua)
** [Gate Island](Hell's)(Hell's Gate Island)
** [Point Island](Monocle)(Monocle Point Island)
** [Head Island](Red)(Red Head Island)
** [Island](Guiana)(Guana Island, Antigua and Barbuda)
** [Island](Crump)(Crump Island)
** [Island](Nanny)(Nanny Island) (Henry Island)
** [Island](Laviscounts)(Laviscounts Island)
** [Island](Bird)(Bird Island, Antigua and Barbuda)
** [Island](Round)(Round Island, Antigua)
** [Island](Hawes)(Hawes Island)
** [Island](Little)(Little Island, Antigua)
** [Island](Green)(Green Island, Antigua and Barbuda)
** [Island](Pelican)(Pelican Island, Antigua and Barbuda)
** [Island](York)(York Island (Antigua and Barbuda))
** [Island](Codrington)(Codrington Island)
* [Island](Blake)(Blake Island, Antigua and Barbuda)
* [Island](Cinnamon)(Cinnamon Island)
* [Islands](Five)(Five Islands, Antigua and Barbuda)
* [Rock](Hawksbill)(Hawksbill Rock)
* [Island](Johnson)(Johnson Island, Antigua and Barbuda)
* [Island](Maiden)(Maiden Island, Antigua, Five Islands Harbour)
* [Rock](Moor)(Moor Rock (Antigua and Barbuda))
* [Island](Mouse)(Mouse Island, Antigua and Barbuda)
* [of Land](Neck)(Neck of Land, Antigua and Barbuda)
* [Island](Sandy)(Sandy Island, Antigua and Barbuda)
* [Island](Smith)(Smith Island, Antigua and Barbuda)
* [Sisters](The)(The Sisters, Antigua and Barbuda)
* [Island](Vernon's)(Vernon's Island)
* [Will Island](Wicked)(Wicked Will Island)
***[Barbuda](Barbuda)**, ,
** [Island](Goat)(Goat Island, Antigua and Barbuda)
** [Island](Kid)(Kid Island)
** [of War Island](Man)(Man of War Island (Antigua and Barbuda))
** [Island](Rabbit)(Rabbit Island, Barbuda)
***[Redonda](Redonda)** (uninhabited), ,
## The Bahamas
The [of the Bahamas](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth of the Bahamas) is located in the [Archipelago](Lucayan)(Lucayan Archipelago), the portion of the [Caribbean](Caribbean) region in the [Atlantic Ocean](North)(North Atlantic Ocean) rather than in or bordering the [Sea](Caribbean)(Caribbean Sea). There are 700 islands and 2,400 cays in [Bahamas](The)(The Bahamas). There are 30 inhabited islands. Andros Island is the largest island in the Bahamas. Large island groups include [Islands](Berry)(Berry Islands) and [Exuma](Exuma). The following islands are some of the more notable islands (cays) (see the main article for a comprehensive listing of all islands):
*[Island](Abaco)(Abaco Island),
*[Cay](Abner)(Berry Islands) (part of Berry Islands),
*[Acklins](Acklins),
*[Cay](Adderley)(Exuma) (part of [Exuma](Exuma)),
*[Cay](Alder)(Berry Islands),
*[Cay](Ambergris)(Ambergris Cay) (part of Berry Islands),
*[Island](Andros)(Andros, Bahamas),
*[Cay](Anna)(Anna Cay),
*[Cay](Arawak)(Arawak Cay) (Fish Fry),
*[Cay](Archers)(Archers Cay),
*[Island](Athol)(Athol Island),
*[Cay](Atwood)(Samana Cay) (Samana Cay),
*[Island](Barataria)(Exuma) (part of Exuma),
*[Bank](Serranilla)(Serranilla Bank) (Beacon Cay),
*[Island](Bell)(Bell Island (The Bahamas)),
*[Islands District](Berry)(Berry Islands),
*[Major Cay](Big)(Pig Beach) (Pig Beach)
*[Islands](Bimini)(Bimini),
*[Cay](Bird)(Berry Islands) (part of Berry Islands),
*[Guana Cay](Bitter)(Exuma) (part of Exuma),
*[Cat Cay](Bock)(Exuma) (part of Exuma),
*[Cay](Bonds)(Berry Islands) (part of Berry islands),
*[Cay](Booby)(Booby Cay (Bahamas)),
*[Cay](Bowe)(Exuma) (part of Exuma),
*[Cay](Cabbage)(Berry Islands) (part of Berry Islands),
*[Cay](Castaway)(Castaway Cay) (private island and an exclusive port for [Cruise Line](Disney)(Disney Cruise Line)),
*[Island](Cat)(Cat Island, Bahamas),
*[Cays](Cat)(Cat Cays) (part of Bimini),
*[Sal Bank](Cay)(Cay Sal Bank),
*[Bay Cay](Children's)(Exuma) (part of Exuma, also called Williams Cay),
*[Cay](Chub)(Chub Cay),
*[Cay](Cistern)(Berry Islands) (part of Berry Islands),
*[Cay](Coakley)(Coakley Cay),
*[Cay](Cockroach)(Cockroach Cay),
*[Cay](Comfort)(Berry Islands) (part of Berry Islands),
*[Cay](Compass)(Compass Cay),
*[Island](Conception)(Conception Island, Bahamas),
*[Cay](Cormorant)(Berry Islands) (part of Berry Islands),
*[Island](Crooked)(Crooked Island, Bahamas),
*[Cay](Culmer's)(Exuma) (part of Exuma),
*[Cay](Cupids)(Governor's Island) (Governor's Island),
*[Island](Current)(Current Island),
*[Cay](Devils)(Berry Islands) (part of Berry Islands),
*[Rock](Diamond)(Diamond Cay (Bahamas)) (part of Berry Islands),
*[Island](Discovery)(Discovery Island (Bahamas))
*[Cay](Dolly)(Dolly's Cay),
*[Cay](Dove)(Dove Cay),
*[Island](Egg)(Egg Island (Bahamas)),
*[Cay](Elbow)(Elbow Cay),
*[Cays](Elbow)(Elbow Cays) (Cay Sal Bank),
*[Island](Eleuthera)(Eleuthera)
*[Island](Elizabeth)(Exuma),
*[Island](Exuma)(Exuma Island)
*[Island](Fortune)(Long Cay) (Long Cay),
*[Hog Cay](Frazer)(Berry Islands),
*[Cay](Galliot)(Long Island, Bahamas),
*[Cay](Goat)(Goat Cay, Exuma)
*[Cay](Gorda)(Castaway Cay) (Castaway Cay),
*[Bahama](Grand)(Grand Bahama),
*[Exuma Island](Great)(Exuma),
*[Guana Cay](Great)(Great Guana Cay),
*[Harbour Cay](Great)(Great Harbour Cay),
*[Inagua Island](Great)(Inagua),
*[Isaac Cay (Rock)](Great)(Great Isaac Lighthouse),
*[Stirrup Cay](Great)(Great Stirrup Cay)
*[Turtle Cay](Green)(Green Turtle Cay)
*[Pond Cay](Halls)(Exuma)
*[Island](Harbour)(Harbour Island, Bahamas)
*[Cay](Highbourne)(Exuma)
*[Cay](Hoffman)(Berry Islands)
*[Island](Inagua)(Inagua)
*[Cay](Iron)(Iron Cay)
*[Cay](Jewfish)(Jewfish Cay)
*[Cays](Joulter)(Joulter Cays)
*[Stocking Island](Lee)(Lee Stocking Island)
*[Abaco Island](Little)(Abaco Islands)
*[Cistern Cay](Little)(Exuma)
*[Darby Island](Little)(Exuma)
*[Farmer's Cay](Little)(Little Farmer's Cay)
*[Harbour Cay](Little)(Berry Islands)
*Little Inagua,
*[Petit Cay](Little)(Berry Islands)
*[San Salvador Island](Little)(Little San Salvador Island) (*Half Moon Cay*)
*[Stirrup Cay](Little)(Little Stirrup Cay)
*[Wax Cay](Little)(Exuma)
*[Whale Cay](Little)(Little Whale Cay)
*[Cay](Long)(Long Cay)
*[Island](Long)(Long Island, Bahamas),
*[Cay](Lyford)(Lyford Cay)
*[Dau's Cay](Madam)(Exuma)
*[Island](Major's)(Pig Beach)
*[Island](Man)(Man Island (Bahamas))
*[Cay](Man-O-War)(Man-O-War Cay)
*[Cay](Mangrove)(Mangrove Cay)
*[Mayaguana](Mayaguana)
*[Cay](Middle)(Serranilla Bank)
*[Island](Moore's)(Moore's Island)
*[Harbour Cay](Moriah)(Exuma)
*[Cay](Musha)(Musha Cay)
*[Providence](New)(New Providence),
*[Cay](Norman's)(Norman's Cay)
*[Andros](North)(North Andros)
*[Bimini](North)(Bimini)
*[Cat Cay](North)(Cat Cays)
*[Elbow Cay](North)(Elbow Cays)
*[Cay](O'Brien)(O'Brien Cay)
*[Cay](Ocean)(Ocean Cay)
*[Yonder Cay](Over)(Exuma)
*[Island](Paradise)(Paradise Island)
*[Cay](Perpall's)(Exuma)
*[Cay](Prime)(Exuma)
*[Island](Ragged)(Ragged Island, Bahamas)
*[Island](Rose)(Rose Island, Bahamas)
*[Island](Royal)(Spanish Wells)
*[Cay](Rum)(Rum Cay)
*[Island](Russell)(Spanish Wells)
*[Cay](Salt)(Blue Lagoon Island)
*[Cay](Samana)(Samana Cay)
*[Cay](Sampson)(Exuma)
*[Salvador Island](San)(San Salvador Island),
*[Cay](Sandy)(Exuma)
*[Cays](Schooner)(South Eleuthera)
*[Cay](Scotland)(Hope Town)
*[Cay](Seal)(Seal Cay)
*[Bimini](South)(Bimini)
*[Cat Cay](South)(Cat Cays)
*[Stirrup Cay](South)(Berry Islands)
*[Cay](Staniel)(Staniel Cay)
*[Island](Stocking)(Stocking Island)
*[Cay](Stranger)(Jwycesska Island)
*[Loaf Cay](Sugar)(Sugar Loaf Cay)
*[Cay](Sweeting)(Sweeting Cay)
*[Cay](Vigilant)(Berry Islands)
*[Wells Cay](Waderick)(Exuma)
*[Cay](Walker's)(Walker's Cay)
*[Island](Watling)(San Salvador Island)
*[Cay](Wax)(Exuma)
*[Island](Windermere)(Windermere Island)
*[Cay](Wood)(Abaco Islands)
## Barbados
There are currently two islands and two banks in [Barbados](Barbados). An additional historical island that no longer exists as an island is also included in this list.
*[Barbados](Barbados),
*[Island](Culpepper)(Culpepper Island) (uninhabited),
*[Island](Pelican)(Pelican Island (Barbados)) (Historical, uninhabited),
*Trader Bank,
*The Shadows (Bank),
## Belize
[[File:Great Blue Hole.jpg|thumb|right|100px|[Blue Hole](Great)(Great Blue Hole), Lighthouse Reef]]
There are about 180 islands in [Belize](Belize). Some of the larger islands of Belize in the Caribbean Sea include:
*[Atoll](Turneffe)(Turneffe Atoll) (Turneffe Islands), ,
*Ambergris Group, ,
*Douglas Cay, ,
*Drowned Cays, ,
*[Cayes](Hick's)(Hick's Cayes), ,
*[Reef](Lighthouse)(Lighthouse Reef),
## Colombia
Several [Departments](Departments of Colombia) of [Colombia](Colombia) include islands in the Caribbean area.
### Bolívar Department
[[de las Islas del Rosario.svg|thumb|250px|Rosario Islands](File:Mapa)]
Islands of the [Department](Bolívar)(Bolívar Department) of Colombia include:
*[Islands](Rosario)(Rosario Islands) (Islas del Rosario),
**Isla Grande,
**Isla Marina,
**Isla de Roberto,
**Isla Rosario,
**Isla del Tesoro,
**Isla del Pirata,
**Isla Pelicano,
**Isla Rosa,
**Isla Gigi,
*[Island](Fuerte)(Fuerte Island),
*[Bomba Island](Tierra)(Tierra Bomba Island) (Isla Tierra Bomba),
*[Barú](Isla)(Isla Barú),
*Isla de la Manga,
*Isla Diablo,
*Isla de Manzanillo,
*Isla Maparadita,
*Isla Cocosolo,
*Isla Brujas,
*Isla Abanico,
### Córdoba Department
Islands in the [Department](Córdoba)(Córdoba Department) include:
* [Tortuguilla](Islas)(Tortuguilla Island),
### Magdalena Department
Islands in the [Department](Magdalena)(Magdalena Department) include:
*Isla de Salamanca,
*Isla El Morro,
*Isla de La Aguja, ]
*Isla Bóqueron Grande,
### San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina
[[de San Andrés y Providencia.svg|thumb|250px|Islas de San Andrés y Providencia](File:Islas)]
Islands in the [of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina](Archipelago)(Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina) include:
*[Shoal](Alice)(Alice Shoal) (submerged reef),
*[Nuevo Bank](Bajo)(Bajo Nuevo Bank),
*Bayley Islet (Cayo Bayley),
*Basalt Islet
*Brothers Cay (Cayos Hermanos),
*Crab Cay (Cayo Congrejo),
*Cayos de Albuquerque,
**North Cay
**South Cay
*Córdoba Cay (also known as Haynes Cay),
*Easy Cay
*Grunt Cay
*Cayos de Este Sudeste,
**Bolívar Cay (also known as Courtown or West Cay)
**East Cay
*Palm Cay
*[de Providencia](Isla)(Isla de Providencia),
*[Sueño Bank](Quita)(Quita Sueño Bank),
*Rocky Cay,
*[Bank](Roncador)(Roncador Bank),
*[Cay](Roncador)(Roncador Cay),
*[Andrés Island](San)(San Andrés (island)),
*[Catalina Island](Santa)(Santa Catalina Island, Colombia),
*Santander Cay (also known as [Cay](Cotton)(Cotton Cay))
*[Bank](Serrana)(Serrana Bank),
*[Bank](Serranilla)(Serranilla Bank),
*Sucre Islet (also known as Johnny Cay)
}}
### Sucre Department
Islands in the [Department](Sucre)(Sucre Department) include the following islands in the [of San Bernardo](Archipelago)(Archipelago of San Bernardo):[[de las Islas de San Bernardo.svg|250px|right|thumb|Archipelago of San Bernardo.](File:Mapa)]
*[Island](Bóqueron)(Bóqueron Island)
*[Island](Cabruna)(Cabruna Island) (Isla Cabruna),
*[Island](Ceycén)(Ceycén Island) (Isla Ceycen),
*[Island](Mangle)(Mangle Island),
*[Island](Maravilla)(Maravilla Island) (Isla Maravilla),
*[Island](Múcura)(Múcura Island) (Isla Múcura ),
*[Island](Palma)(Palma Island) (Isla Palma),
*[Island](Panda)(Panda Island),
*Salamanquilla Island,
*San Barnardo Island,
*[Cruz del Islote](Santa)(Santa Cruz del Islote),
*[Island](Tintipán)(Tintipán Island),
## Costa Rica
[[Uvita. Limón. Costa Rica.jpg|thumb|250px|Isla Uvita, Costa Rica](File:Isla)]
There are about 79 islands in [Rica](Costa)(Costa Rica). The largest islands in the Caribbean Sea are listed below:
*[Calero](Isla)(Isla Calero), ,
*[Brava](Isla)(Brava, Costa Rica),
*[Uvita](Isla)(Uvita Island), ,
## Cuba
[[- Topografia.png|thumb|center|600px|Cuba, the largest island in the Caribbean](File:Cuba)]
[Cuba](Cuba) consists of over 4,000 islands and [cay](cay)s surrounding the country's main island, many of which make up [archipelago](archipelago)s. Off the south coast are two main archipelagos, [de la Reina](Jardines)(Jardines de la Reina) and the [Archipelago](Canarreos)(Canarreos Archipelago). The [Archipelago](Sabana-Camagüey)(Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago) runs along the northern coast and contains roughly 2,517 cays and islands. The [Archipelago](Colorados)(Colorados Archipelago) is located off the north-western coast. The following islands are some of the major islands in the [country](island)(island country) [Cuba](Cuba):
,
*[Archipelago](Canarreos)(Canarreos Archipelago),
**[de la Juventud](Isla)(Isla de la Juventud) (2nd largest island in Cuba at ),
**[Thälmann Island](Ernst)(Ernst Thälmann Island) (formerly Cayo Blancos del Sur, also called Cayo Ernesto Thaelmann),
**[Largo del Sur](Cayo)(Cayo Largo del Sur),
*[Archipelago](Colorados)(Colorados Archipelago),
**[Levisa](Cayo)(Cayo Levisa),
**Cayo Punta Arenas,
**Cayo Buenavista
**Cayo Ines de Soto,
*[del Rey](Jardines)(Jardines del Rey),
**[Coco](Cayo)(Cayo Coco) (,
**[Esquivel](Cayo)(Cayo Esquivel),
**[Guajaba](Cayo)(Cayo Guajaba),
**[Guillermo](Cayo)(Cayo Guillermo),
**[Romano](Cayo)(Cayo Romano) (,
**[Sabinal](Cayo)(Cayo Sabinal),
**[Saetía](Cayo)(Cayo Saetía),
**[Santa María](Cayo)(Cayo Santa María),
*[de la Reina](Jardines)(Jardines de la Reina),
*[Archipelago](Sabana-Camagüey)(Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago),
**[Cruz del Padre](Cayo)(Cayo Cruz del Padre),
**[Fragoso](Cayo)(Cayo Fragoso), Villa Clara,
}}
## Dominica
[[File:Lesser Antilles 250m.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dominica is an island in the eastern [Sea](Caribbean)(Caribbean Sea) with the [Guadeloupe](Guadeloupe) to the north and [Martinique](Martinique) to the south.]]
The [nation](island)(island nation) of [Dominica](Dominica) with a total area of includes two small, off-shore islands and one disputed island:
*[Dominica](Dominica),
*[L'Ilet](Petit)(Petit L'Ilet),
*[L'Ilet](Gros)(Gros L'Ilet),
*[Island](Bird)(Isla de Aves) (Ile de Aves) - in dispute with [Venezuela](Venezuela),
## Dominican Republic
There are about 73 islands in the [Republic](Dominican)(Dominican Republic), including the following islands:
*Eastern part of the island of [Hispaniola](Hispaniola), )
*[Island](Catalina)(Catalina Island, Dominican Republic),
*[Beata](Isla)(Beata Island),
*[Alto Velo](Isla)(Alto Velo Island),
*[Levantado](Cayo)(Cayo Levantado) (Bacardi Island),
*[Saona](Isla)(Saona Island),
## France
The following sections show the islands of French Departments in the Caribbean.
### Guadeloupe
[Guadeloupe](Guadeloupe) consists of six inhabited islands—[Basse-Terre](Basse-Terre Island), [Grande-Terre](Grande-Terre), [Marie-Galante](Marie-Galante), [Désirade](La)(La Désirade), and the two inhabited islands in the [des Saintes](Îles)(Îles des Saintes)—as well as many uninhabited islands and outcroppings.
* [Basse-Terre](Basse-Terre),
* Grand Îlet
* Grand Îlet ([des Saintes](Îles)(Îles des Saintes)),
* [Grande-Terre](Grande-Terre),
* Îlet à Cabrit (Îles des Saintes),
* Îlet à Caret,
* Îlet à Christophe (Guadeloupe island),
* Îlet à Colas (Guadeloupe island),
* Îlet à Fajou (Guadeloupe island),
* Îlet à Kahouanne (Guadeloupe island),
* Îlet Blanc (Guadeloupe island),
* Îlet Boissard (Guadeloupe island),
* Îlet Brument (Guadeloupe island)
* Îlet Crabière (Guadeloupe island),
* Îlet de Terre-de-Bas (Îles de la Petite Terre, la Désirade),
* Îlet de Terre-de-Haut (Îles de la Petite Terre,la Désirade),
* Îlet de Vieux Fort (Marie-Galante),
* Îlet du Gosier (Guadeloupe island),
* Îlet Duberran (Guadeloupe island),
* Îlet Feuille (Guadeloupe island),
* Îlet Fortune (Guadeloupe island),
* Îlet Frégate de Haut (Guadeloupe island)
* Îlet Macou (Guadeloupe island),
* Îlet Mangue à Laurette (Guadeloupe island),
* Îlets de Carénage (Guadeloupe island),
* Îlets de Pigeon (Guadeloupe island)
* La Biche (Guadeloupe island),
* La Coche (Îles des Saintes),
* [Désirade](La)(La Désirade),
* La Redonde (Îles des Saintes),
* [Pâté](Le)(Le Pâté) (Îles des Saintes),
* Les Augustins (Îles des Saintes)
* [Marie-Galante](Marie-Galante),
* [Terre-de-Bas](Terre-de-Bas) (Îles des Saintes),
* [Terre-de-Haut](Terre-de-Haut) (Îles des Saintes),
* Tête à l'Anglais (Guadeloupe island)
}}
### Martinique
[[Rock and Morne Larcher bay.jpg|thumb|250px|Diamond Rock and the Sleeping Woman, the defining landscape of the southwest peninsula of Martinique](File:Diamond)]
There are about 46 islands in [Martinique](Martinique), including the following:
*Îlet aux Rats (Bats Island),
*Caye Pinsonelle,
*[Rock](Diamond)(Diamond Rock),
*Petit Îlet Duprey,
*[Îlet](Gros)(Gros Îlet) (Îlet Mandoline),
*Îlet Chancel,
*[Petite Grenade](Île)(Île Petite Grenade),
*[à Eaux Rats](Îlet)(Îlet à Eaux Rats) (Rocks),
*[à Ramiers](Îlet)(Îlet à Ramiers),
*[à Toiroux](Îlet)(Îlet à Toiroux) (Îlet Poirier),
*[Aux Rats](Îlet)(Îlet Aux Rats),
*[Baude](Îlet)(Îlet Baude),
*[Boisseau](Îlet)(Îlet Boisseau) (Îlet des Chardons),
*[Cabrits](Îlet)(Îlet Cabrits),
*Îlet Chancel (Ilet Ramville),
*Ilet Chevalier (Ilet Lezard),
*Ilet De La Rose ([Madame](Îlet)(Îlet Madame)),
*[Du Galion](Îlet)(Îlet Du Galion),
*[Duquesnay](Îlet)(Îlet Duquesnay),
*[du Trésor](Îlet)(Îlet du Trésor),
*Ilet Fregate,
*[Hardy](Îlet)(Îlet Hardy),
*[La Perle](Îlet)(Îlet La Perle),
*[Lapin](Îlet)(Îlet Lapin),
*[Lavigne](Îlet)(Îlet Lavigne) (Gros Îlet),
*[Long](Îlet)(Îlet Long),
*[Métrente](Îlet)(Îlet Métrente),
*Îlet Oscar (Bonchard),
*[Pelé](Îlet)(Îlet Pelé),
*[Petit Piton](Îlet)(Îlet Petit Piton) (Rocher de la Grotte),
*Ilet Petit Vincent,
*[Petite Martinique](Îlet)(Îlet Petite Martinique),
*[Ragot](Îlet)(Îlet Ragot) (Îlet de la Grotte, Ilet Duchamp),
*[Saint Aubin](Îlet)(Îlet Saint Aubin),
*[Sainte-Marie](Îlet)(Îlet Sainte-Marie),
*[Tartane](Îlet)(Îlet Tartane),
*[Thierry](Îlet)(Îlet Thierry),
*Ilets Aux Chiens,
*Les Trois Ilets,
*[Martinique](Martinique),
*[Îlet](Petit)(Petit Îlet),
*Petit Ilet Duprey,
*Sugarloaf Rock,
*[du Diable](Table)(Table du Diable),
*Trou Terre Island,
### Saint Barthélemy
[[Barth - Vue aérienne - Octobre 2009.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|View of St. Barthélemy](File:Saint)]
There are 18 islands in [Barthélemy](Saint)(Saint Barthélemy), including the following:
* Île de Boulanger,
* La Chaloupe,
* Île Chevreau,
* Île Coco,
* [Fourche](Île)(Île Fourchue) (Île Fourchue),
* Île Frégate,
* Îles des Grenadins (Rock),
* Les Gros Îlets,
* Île du Pain de sucre,
* Île Pelé,
* La Petite Islette,
* Île de la Pointe,
* Roche le Boeuf,
* Roche Plate,
* [Barthélemy](Saint)(Saint Barthélemy) (also *Saint Barts*),
* Île Toc Vers,
* Îlet au Vent,
* La Tortue,
### Collectivity of Saint Martin
[[Rock.jpg|thumb|250px|Creole Rock](File:Creole)]
There are seven islands and two rocks in the French [of Saint Martin](Collectivity)(Collectivity of Saint Martin), including:
* Northern part of the island of [Martin](Saint)(Saint Martin (island)),
* Caye Chateau,
* Caye Verte,
* [Rock](Creole)(Creole Rock) (Crowl Rock), or
* Grand Îlet,
* Petite Clef,
* Pinel Island,
* Rocher de l'Anse Marcel (rock),
* [Tintamarre](Île)(Île Tintamarre),
## Grenada
[[Regions map.png|thumb|250px|Grenada, Carriacou, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines](File:Grenada)]
There are over 600 islands and islets in [Grenada](Grenada) and the [Grenadines](Grenadines). The notable islands in [Grenada](Grenada) include:|last2=Hornbeck|first2=John F.|entry=Grenada: Geography|editor2-first=Dennis M.|editor2-last=Hanratty}}
*[Island](Calivigny)(Calivigny Island),
*[Island](Caille)(Caille Island),
*[Carriacou](Carriacou and Petite Martinique),
*[Island](Diamond)(Diamond Island (Grenadines)),
*Fota Island,
*[Island](Frigate)(Frigate Island, Grenada),
*[Island](Glover)(Glover Island, Grenada) (Ramier Island),
*Green Island,
*[Grenada](Grenada),
*Hog Island,
*Hope Island (Bacolet Island),
*Jack Adam Island,
*[Island](Large)(Large Island),
*[Island](Levera)(Sugar Loaf Island (Grenada)) (Sugar Loaf Island),
*Mabouya Island,
*Marquis Island (Soubisse Island),
*Mushroom Island,
*Pearls Rock,
*Petite Dominique,
*[Martinique](Petite)(Petite Martinique),
*[and Petite Martinique](Carriacou)(Carriacou and Petite Martinique),
*[Island](Ronde)(Ronde Island),
*[Island](Saline)(Saline Island),
*Sandy Island,
*White Island,
## Haiti
[[Sable 4.png|thumb|250px|Caye Sable with a population of 250 in 0.16 hectares.](File:Caye)]
The most densely populated island in the world is [a Brouee](Ilet)(Ilet a Brouee) in Haiti, at 500 persons in its area of . There are about 59 islands in [Haiti](Haiti), including the following:
*[Sable](Caye)(:it:Caye Sable),
*[Island](Gonâve)(Gonâve Island),
*[Caye](Grosse)(Grosse Caye), [Ile Grosse Caye, Haiti / Sud / Aquin](http://www.wikimapia.org/5414428/Ile-Grosse-Caye.html)
*[Hispaniola](Hispaniola) (Eastern part),
*[a Brouee](Ilet)(Ilet a Brouee),
*[Île-à-Vache](Île-à-Vache) (*Cow Island*),
*[Cacique](Isle)(:fr:Isle Cacique),
*[Cayemites](Les)(Les Cayemites)
**Grand Cayemite,
**Petite Cayemite,
*[Island](Navassa)(Navassa Island) (claimed by both [Haiti](Haiti) and the [States](United)(United States)),
*[Island](Tortuga)(Tortuga (Haiti)) (*Turtle Island*),
## Honduras
There are at least 99 islands in [Honduras](Honduras), including the following Caribbean islands:
*[Cochinos](Cayos)(Cayos Cochinos) (Islas de la Bahía, also called Hog Islands),
*[Gorda](Cayo)(Cayo Gorda),
*Islas de la Bahía,
** [Sur](Cayo)(Cayo Sur),
** [Guanaja](Guanaja),
** [Roatán](Roatán) (Isla Roatan),
** [Utila](Utila),
* [Islands](Swan)(Swan Islands, Honduras)
**Isla Grande,
**Little Swan Island (Isla Pequeña),
* [Bank](Misteriosa)(Misteriosa Bank)
* [Bank](Rosario)(Rosario Bank)
## Jamaica
There are about 49 islands in the [nation](island)(island nation) of [Jamaica](Jamaica), including the following islands:
*[Nuevo Bank](Bajo)(Bajo Nuevo Bank) (uninhabited),
*[Goat Island](Great)(Great Goat Island),
*[Jamaica](Jamaica),
*[Cay](Lime)(Lime Cay),
*[Goat Island](Little)(Little Goat Island),
*[Cays](Morant)(Morant Cays),
*[Island](Navy)(Navy Island, Jamaica),
*[Cays](Pedro)(Pedro Cays),
*[Royal Cays](Port)(Port Royal Cays) (uninhabited),
*[Royal Caribbean Resort & Offshore Island](Sandals)(Sandals Cay),
## Kingdom of the Netherlands
The [Antillean](Antilles) islands in the island countries ([Aruba](Aruba), [Bonaire](Bonaire), [Curaçao](Curaçao), [Saba](Saba (island)), and [Maarten](Sint)(Sint Maarten), as well as the solitary island [Eustatius](Sint)(Sint Eustatius)) of the [of the Netherlands](Kingdom)(Kingdom of the Netherlands) are listed below. Collectively, these islands were formerly considered the [Antilles](Netherlands)(Netherlands Antilles), and still are often referenced as the [Caribbean](Dutch)(Dutch Caribbean).
### Aruba
There are at least five islands in [Aruba](Aruba):
* [Aruba](Aruba),
* [Indiaanskop](Indiaanskop),
* Key Cay
* [Cay](Long)(Long Cay (Aruba))
* [Island](Renaissance)(Oranjestad, Aruba#Renaissance Island),
### Curaçao
There are at least seven islands in [Curaçao](Curaçao), including:
*[Curaçao](Curaçao),
*Kadoesjie,
*[Curaçao](Klein)(Klein Curaçao),
*Eiland Penso,
*Isla Makuaku,
*Kadoesji, [Curaçao](Curaçao),
*Sapaté Eiland,
### Sint Maarten
[[Island topographic map-en.svg|thumb|200px|Sint Maarten Map](File:Saint-Martin)]
There are ten total islands of [Maarten](Sint)(Sint Maarten), including:
*[Martin](Saint)(Saint Martin (island)) (southern part),
*[and Calf Island](Cow)(Cow and Calf Island),
*[Key of Pelikan](Guana)(Guana Key of Pelikan) (Guana Cay),
*[and Chicken](Hen)(Hen and Chicken),
*[Key](Little)(Little Key, Sint maarten),
*Mal Aborder,
*Mollibeday Rots (Molly Beday Rock), Google Maps
*Mona Island,
*[Rock, Sint Maarten](Pelikan)(Pelikan Rock, Sint Maarten) (Pelican Island),
*Pond Island,
*Snoopy Island,
The [islands](Caribbean)(Caribbean Netherlands) ([Bonaire](Bonaire), [Saba](Saba (island)) and [Eustatius](Sint)(Sint Eustatius) special municipalities) in the [of the Netherlands](country)(Netherlands) of the [Kingdom](Kingdom of the Netherlands) are listed below.
### Caribbean Netherlands
[[File:Bonaire highres.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of Bonaire and the small island of [Bonaire](Klein)(Klein Bonaire)]]
[[- Encyclopaedie van Nederlandsch West-Indië-Antilles part 2, bottom right.gif|thumb|right|Map of Saba from the *Encyclopaedie van Nederlandsch West-Indië 1914–1917*](File:Saba)]
* [Bonaire](Bonaire) (special municipality of the Netherlands):
**[Island](Bonaire)(Bonaire), Bonaire,
**Eiland Ranch, Bonaire,
**[Bonaire](Klein)(Klein Bonaire), Bonaire,
**Meeuwtje,
**Willemberg, Google Maps
**Camia,
**Isla Makuka
*[Eustatius](Sint)(Sint Eustatius), Sint Eustatius Special Municipality,
*[Saba](Saba (island)) (special municipality of the Netherlands)
**[Island](Saba)(Saba (island)), Saba,
**[Island, Saba](Green)(Green Island, Saba),
**Little Island, [Saba](Saba (island)),
**Pilot Rots (Rocks),
## Mexico
There are several islands of [Mexico](Mexico) on the Caribbean Sea, including:
*[Cancún](Isla)(Cancún),
*[Cozumel](Isla)(Cozumel),
*[Contoy](Isla)(Isla Contoy),
*[Holbox](Isla)(Isla Holbox),
*[Mujeres](Isla)(Isla Mujeres),
## Nicaragua
[[view of Corn Island](File:CornIsland.JPG|thumb|250px|Aerial)]
There are over 150 islands in [Nicaragua](Nicaragua), including the following islands in the Caribbean Sea:
*[Island](Corn)(Corn Island),
*[Corn Island](Little)(Corn Islands),
*[Cays](Miskito)(Miskito Cays) (reef),
*[Cays](Pearl)(Pearl Cays),
*[Island](Calala)(Calala Island) (private island),
*[Cay](Pigeon)(Pigeon Cay) (Cayo de la Paloma),
## Panama
There are several hundreds of islands in [Panama](Panama), including the following islands in the Caribbean:
*[Bastimentos](Isla)(Bastimentos),
*[Zapatilla](Cayos)(Cayos Zapatilla),
*[Carenero](Isla)(Isla Carenero),
*[Cayo Agua](Isla)(Isla Cayo Agua),
*[Colón](Isla)(Colón Island),
*[Cristóbal](Isla)(Isla Cristóbal),
*[Popa](Isla)(Isla Popa),
*[Solarte](Isla)(Isla Solarte),
*[Escudo de Veraguas](Isla)(Isla Escudo de Veraguas),
*[Island](Galeta)(Galeta Island, Panama),
*[Cabra](Isla)(Isla Cabra),
*[Grande](Isla)(Isla Grande),
*[de Jesús](Corazón)(Corazón de Jesús (island)),
*[Narganá](Narganá),
*[Miria](Soledad)(Soledad Miria),
## Saint Kitts and Nevis
[[File:Stkitts-view-lookingatsea.jpg|thumb|250px|A view of Nevis from the southeastern peninsula of [Kitts](Saint)(Saint Kitts)]]
There are about 20 islands in [Kitts and Nevis](Saint)(Saint Kitts and Nevis), including: (only lists three islands)
*Booby Island,
*Crokus Cay
*Dalzel Island
*Dodan Island
*Dulcina Island
*East Cay
*Eden Island
*Fahie Island
*Friars Bay
*Gardner Island
*Garvey Island
*Golden Cay
*Jessop Island
*Maddens
*Meves Island
*[Nevis](Nevis),
*Otters Island
*[Kitts](Saint)(Saint Kitts) (Saint Christopher),
*Sugar Loaf
*Vambelle Island
## Saint Lucia
There are 15 islands in [Lucia](Saint)(Saint Lucia), including:
*[o' Beef](Barrel)(Barrel o' Beef)
*[Rocks](Burgot)(Burgot Rocks)
*[Island](Dennery)(Dennery Island),
*[Bateaux Island](Des)(Des Bateaux Island),
*[Island](Fous)(Fous Island),
*[Island](Frigate)(Frigate Island, St Lucia),
*[a Ramier](L'Islet)(L'Islet a Ramier)
*[Rocks](Liverpool)(Liverpool Rocks)
*[Islands](Maria)(Maria Islands, St Lucia),
*[Island](Pigeon)(Pigeon Island (Saint Lucia)),
*[Island](Praslin)(Praslin Island (Saint Lucia)),
*[Island](Rat)(Rat Island, St Lucia),
*[Island](Rouche)(Rouche Island),
*[Lucia](Saint)(Saint Lucia),
*[Island](Scorpion)(Scorpion Island, St Lucia),
## Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
[[Cayes](File:TobagoCaysAerial.jpg|thumb|250px|Tobago)]
[[Island International Airport](File:Unionisland.jpg|thumb|250px|Union)]
There are about 49 islands in [Vincent and the Grenadines](Saint)(Saint Vincent and the Grenadines), including:
*[Awash Island](All)(All Awash Island),
*[Island](Baliceaux)(Baliceaux),
*[Bequia](Bequia),
*[Bettowia](Bettowia) (Battowia),
*[Rock](Black)(Black Rock, St Vincent)
*Brooks Rocks
*Bullet Cay,
*[Cay](Cactus)(Cactus Cay)
*[Baleine](Canouan)(Canouan Baleine)
*[Island](Canouan)(Canouan Island),
*[Island](Catholic)(Catholic Island),
*[Islet](Chateaubelair)(Chateaubelair Islet),
*[Cay](Church)(Church Cay),
*[And Calves Islands](Cow)(Cow And Calves Islands)
*Dike Island,
*Double Rock
*Dove Cay,
*Dove Island,
*Ellen Rock
*[Duvernette Island](Fort)(Fort Duvernette Island) (Duvernette Islet),
*Frigate Island,
*L'Islot,
*[Savan](Litte)(Litte Savan),
*[Mayreau](Mayreau),
*Middle Cay (St. Elairs Cay),
*[Cay](Milligan)(Milligan Cay),
*Mopion Islet
*[Mustique](Mustique),
*[Island](Palm)(Palm Island, Grenadines) (Prune Island),
*Pelican Cay
*[Canouan](Petit)(Petit Canouan),
*Petit Cay,
*[Mustique](Petit)(Petit Mustique),
*[Nevis](Petit)(Petit Nevis),
*[Saint Vincent](Petit)(Petit Saint Vincent),
*Petit Tabac
*[Island](Pigeon)(Pigeon Island (Grenadines)),
*Pillories
**Big Pillory,
**Middle Pillory,
**Little Pillory,
*Punaise
*[à Quatre](Isle)(Quatre),
*Rabbit Island,
*Red Island,
*[Elairs Cay](Saint)(Saint Elairs Cay),
*[Vincent](Saint)(Saint Vincent (island)),
*Sand Cay
*[Savan](Savan (island)),
*[Rock](Savan)(Savan Rock) (Little Savan),
*Semplars Cay
*[Cays](Tobago)(Tobago Cays),
**Petit Rameau,
**Petit Bateau,
**Petit Tobac,
**Jamesby,
**Baradal,
*Syrup Cay
*[Island](Union)(Union Island),
*West Cay
*Wilks Island
*Young Island,
## Trinidad and Tobago
[[Island, Trinidad and Tobago.JPG|thumb|250px|Nelson Island](File:Nelson)]
There are 44 islands in [and Tobago](Trinidad)(Trinidad and Tobago), including:
* [Island](Caledonia)(Caledonia Island),
* [Chacachacare](Chacachacare),
* [Island](Craig)(Craig Island) (Craig and Caledonia are joined by a narrow causeway),
* [Island](Cronstadt)(Cronstadt Island) (Kronstadt),
* [Island](Carrera)(Carrera Island),
* [(Flat Rock)](Faralon)(Faralon Rock), off [Fernando](San)(San Fernando, Trinidad and Tobago) Harbour,
* [Grande](Gaspar)(Gaspar Grande) (Gasparee),
* [Gasparillo](Gasparillo Island) (Little Gasparee or Centipede Island),
* [Huevos](Huevos (island))
* [Island](Lenagan)(Lenagan Island),
* [Tobago](Little)(Little Tobago) (Bird of Paradise Island),
* [Monos](Monos),
* [Island](Nelson)(Nelson Island (Trinidad and Tobago)),
* [Island](Pelican)(Pelican Island (Trinidad and Tobago)),
* [Giles Island](St.)(Saint Giles Island),
* [d'Eau](Saut)(Saut d'Eau),
* [Island](Goat)(Goat Island (Trinidad and Tobago)),
* [Rocks](Sisters')(Sisters' Rock),
* [Rock](Soldado)(Soldado Rock),
* [Tobago](Tobago),
* [Trinidad](Trinidad),
## United Kingdom
The following is a list of islands of current island nations of the [Overseas Territories](British)(British Overseas Territories#Current Overseas Territories) that are in the Caribbean.
### Anguilla
There are about 19 islands in [Anguilla](Anguilla), including:
* [Anguillita](Anguillita),
* [Island](Dog)(Dog Island, Anguilla),
* [Cay](East)(East Cay),
* [Island](Little)(Little Island, Anguilla),
* [Scrub Island](Little)(Little Scrub Island),
* [Cay](Mid)(Mid Cay),
* [Cay](North)(North Cay)
* [Pear Cays](Prickly)(Prickly Pear Cays),
* [Island](Rabbit)(Rabbit Island, Anguilla)
* [Island](Sandy)(Sandy Island, Anguilla),
* [Cay](Scilly)(Scilly Cay),
* [Island](Scrub)(Scrub Island, Anguilla),
* [Island](Seal)(Seal Island, Anguilla),
* [Sombrero](Sombrero, Anguilla) (Hat Island),
* [Weneger Island](South)(South Weneger Island)
* [Cay](West)(West Cay),
### British Virgin Islands
[[Virgin Islands.png|thumb|250px|Map of British Virgin Islands](File:GB)]
There are about 51 islands in the [Virgin Islands](British)(British Virgin Islands) (16 inhabited), including:
*[Anegada](Anegada),
*[Island](Beef)(Beef Island),
*[Cay](Bellamy)(Bellamy Cay),
*[Jerusalem](Broken)(Broken Jerusalem) (Rocks),
*[Island](Buck)(Buck Island (British Virgin Islands)),
*[Rock](Carvel)(Carvel Rock (British Virgin Islands)),
*[Island](Cockroach)(Cockroach Island),
*[Island](Cooper)(Cooper Island (British Virgin Islands)),
*[Chest](Dead)(Dead Chest Island, British Virgin Islands),
*[Seal Dog Island](East)(East Seal Dog Island),
*[Island](Eustatia)(Eustatia Island),
*[Jerusalem Island](Fallen)(Fallen Jerusalem Island),
*[Cay](Frenchman's)(Frenchman's Cay),
*[Dog Island](George)(George Dog Island),
*[Island](Ginger)(Ginger Island),
*[Camanoe](Great)(Great Camanoe),
*[Dog Island](Great)(Great Dog Island),
*[Thatch](Great)(Great Thatch),
*[Tobago Island](Great)(Great Tobago Island),
*[Cay](Green)(Green Cay),
*[Island](Guana)(Guana Island),
*[Van Dyke](Jost)(Jost Van Dyke),
*[Camanoe](Little)(Little Camanoe),
*[Jost Van Dyke](Little)(Little Jost Van Dyke),
*[Seal Dog Island](Little)(Little Seal Dog Island)
*[Thatch](Little)(Little Thatch),
*[Cay](Marina)(Marina Cay),
*[Island](Mosquito)(Mosquito Island),
*Mosquito Rock,
*[Cay](Nanny)(Nanny Cay) (land-tied),
*[Island](Necker)(Necker Island (British Virgin Islands)),
*[Island](Norman)(Norman Island),
*[Island](Pelican)(Pelican Island (British Virgin Islands)),
*[Island](Peter)(Peter Island),
*[Pear Island](Prickly)(Prickly Pear (British Virgin Islands)),
*[Rock](Red)(Red Rock (British Virgin Islands)),
*[Rock](Round)(Round Rock, British Virgin Islands),
*[Rock](Saba)(Saba Rock),
*[Island](Salt)(Salt Island, British Virgin Islands),
*[Cay](Sandy)(Sandy Cay),
*[Spit](Sandy)(Sandy Spit),
*[Island](Scrub)(Scrub Island (British Virgin Islands)),
*[Tortola](Tortola) (largest island),
*[Indians](The)(The Indians) (rock),
*[Gorda](Virgin)(Virgin Gorda),
*West Seal Dog Island,
*[Dog Island](West)(West Dog Island),
*[Rocks](Whale)(Whale Rocks),
### Cayman Islands
[[cayman.jpg|thumb|250px|Grand Cayman Island from space](File:Grand)]
The following are the islands of the [Islands](Cayman)(Cayman Islands):
**Little Cayman Brac,
**First Cay
*[Cayman](Grand)(Grand Cayman) (largest island),
**Barkers Cay
**Booby Cay,
**Duck Pond Cay,
**Finger Cay/Dike (now absorbed into Grand Cayman),
**Sand Cay,
**Water Cay (Point, now absorbed into Grand Cayman),
*[Cayman](Little)(Little Cayman),
**Owen Island,
*Bessy Howard Cay,
*Vidal Cay,
}}
### Montserrat
[[eruption.JPG|thumb|250px|Aftermath in town of Plymouth in 1997 of volcanic eruption that began on Montserrat in 1995](File:Montserrat)]
There are only a few islands in [Montserrat](Montserrat), including:
*[Montserrat](Montserrat) (Largest island),
*[Redonda and Virgin](Little)(Little Redonda and Virgin),
*[Rock](Statue)(Statue Rock),
### Turks and Caicos Islands
The [Overseas Territory](British)(British Overseas Territory) of the [and Caicos Islands](Turks)(Turks and Caicos Islands) is located in the [Archipelago](Lucayan)(Lucayan Archipelago), the portion of the [Caribbean](Caribbean) region in the [Atlantic Ocean](North)(North Atlantic Ocean) rather than in or bordering the [Sea](Caribbean)(Caribbean Sea). There are about 75 islands and land-tied islands in [and Caicos Islands](Turks)(Turks and Caicos Islands), including the following notable islands:
*[Ambergris Cay](Big)(Ambergris Cay),
*[Island](Bird)(Bird Island (Turks and Caicos)) (Pear Cay),
*[Caicos](East)(East Caicos),
*[Turk](Grand)(Grand Turk Island),
*[Ambergris Cay](Little)(Amberegris Cay),
*[Cay](Mangrove)(Mangrove Cay),
*[Caicos](Middle)(Middle Caicos),
*[Caicos](North)(North Caicos),
*[Cay](Parrot)(Parrot Cay),
*[Cay](Pear)(Pear Cay),
*[Island](Providenciales)(Providenciales),
*Salt Cay,
*[Caicos](South)(South Caicos),
*West Caicos,
## United States
The following are disputed islands of the United States in the Caribbean:
*[Island](Navassa)(Navassa Island)
*[Bank](Serranilla)(Serranilla Bank)
*[Nuevo Bank](Bajo)(Bajo Nuevo Bank)
The following sections show islands of [territories of the United States](island)(Territories of the United States) in the Caribbean.
### Puerto Rico
There are about 142 island in [Rico](Puerto)(Puerto Rico), including:
*[Alcarraza](Alcarraza (Puerto Rico)),
*Bajo Evelyn (Evelyn Shoal),
*Cabeza de Perro,
*Cayo Ahogado,
*Cayo Alfeñique,
*Cayo Algodones,
*Cayo Arenas,
*Cayo Ballena,
*[Batata](Cayo)(Cayo Batata),
*Cayo Bayo,
*Cayo Berberia,
*Cayo Botella,
*Cayo Cabritas,
*Cayo Caracoles,
*Cayo Caribe,
*Cayo Chiva,
*Cayo Collado,
*Cayo Corral,
*Cayo Diablo, Fajardo,
*Cayo Diable, Vieques,
*Cayo Don Luis,
*Cayo Enrique,
*Cayo Fanduca,
*Cayo Icacos,
*Cayo Jalova,
*Cayo Jalovita,
*[Largo](Cayo)(Cayo Largo (Puerto Rico)) (Largo Shoals),
*Cayo Lobito,
*Cayo Lobo,
*Cayo Lobos,
*Cayo Maria Langa,
*Cayo Mata - [municipality](Guayanilla)(Guayanilla, Puerto Rico),
*Cayo Mata - [municipality](Salinas)(Salinas, Puerto Rico),
*Cayo Mata Seca,
*Cayo Matojo,
*Cayo Morrillo,
*[Norte](Cayo)(Cayo Norte),
*Cayo Palomas,
*Cayo Parguera,
*Cayo Piñerito,
*Cayo Pirata,
*Cayo Puerca,
*Cayo Ratón,
*Cayo Ratones - [municipality](Fajardo)(Fajardo, Puerto Rico),
*Cayo Real,
*Cayo Rio,
*[Santiago](Cayo)(Cayo Santiago),
*Cayo Sombrerito,
*Cayo Terremoto,
*Cayo Tiburón,
*Cayo Tuna,
*Cayo Verde,
*Cayo Vieques,
*Cayo Yerba,
*[Luis Peña](Cayo)(Cayo Luis Peña),
*Cayo de Tierra,
*Cayo del Agua,
*Cayo del Agua,
*Cayos Cabezazos,
*Cayos Caribes,
*Cayos de Barca,
*[de Caña Gorda](Cayos)(Cayos de Caña Gorda),
*Cayos de Caracoles,
*Cayos de Pájaros,
*Cayos de Ratones,
*Cayos Geniqui,
*El Ancón,
*El Mono,
*[Caja de Muertos](Isla)(Caja de Muertos),
*Gata Islets,
*[Culebrita](Isla)(Culebrita),
*Isla de Cardona,
*[de Culebra](Isla)(Culebra, Puerto Rico),
*Isla del Erio
*Isla Cabras,
*Isla Chiva,
*Isla Cueva,
*Isla de Cerro Gordo,
*[de Cabras](Isla)(Isla de Cabras),
*Isla de las Palomas,
*Isla de Ramos,
*[Desecheo](Isla)(Isla Desecheo (Puerto Rico)), - [municipality](Mayagüez)(Mayagüez, Puerto Rico)
*Isla Guachinanga,
*Isla Guayacán,
*Isla La Cancora,
*Isla Magueyes,
*Isla Matei,
*Isla de Mona,
*[Mata la Gata](Isla)(Isla Mata la Gata),
*[Monito](Isla)(Monito Island),
*Isla Morrillito,
*Isla Palominitos,
*Isla Piedra
*Isla Puerca
*Isla San Juan
*Isla Yallis
*Isletas de Garzas
*Islote de Juan Perez
*[de Mona](Isla)(Isla de Mona (Puerto Rico)) - [municipality](Mayagüez)(Mayagüez, Puerto Rico)
*[de Ratones](Isla)(Isla de Ratones (Ponce, Puerto Rico)), Ponce
*[de Ratones](Isla)(Isla de Ratones (Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico)) ([Rojo municipality](Cabo)(Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico))
*[de Vieques](Isla)(Isla de Vieques)
*[Monito](Isla)(Isla Monito (Puerto Rico)) - [municipality](Mayagüez)(Mayagüez, Puerto Rico)
*Islote Numero dos
*Isla Palominitos,
*Isla Palominos,
*Isla Piñeros,
*La Blanquilla
*La Cordillera
*Las Cabritas
*Las Cucarachas
*Las Hermanas
*Las Lavanderas del Este
*Las Lavanderas del Oeste
*Los Farallones
*Los Gemelos
*Los Negritos
*Mata Redonda
*Pela
*Pelaita
*Penon Brusi
*Penon de Afuera
*Penon de San Jorge
*Piedra Stevens
*Piedra del Norte
*Piragua de Adentro
*Piragua de Afuera,
*[Rico](Puerto)(Puerto Rico) (Boriken Island),
*Punta Larga,
*Punta Mosquitos,
*Roca Alcatraz,
*Roca Cocinera,
*Roca Cucaracha,
*Roca Culumna,
*Roca Ola,
*Roca Resuello, |
*Roca Speck,
*Roca Velásquez,
*Tres Hermanas,
*Tres Hermanos,
### United States Virgin Islands
There are about 84 islands in the [States Virgin Islands](United)(United States Virgin Islands), including:
*Barrel of Beef,
*Blinders Rocks,
*Booby Rock,
*Bovoni Cay,
*[Island](Buck)(Buck Island Reef National Monument) - [Croix](Saint)(Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*[Island](Buck)(Buck Island National Wildlife Refuge) - [Thomas](Saint)(Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*Calf Rock,
*[Islands](Capella)(Capella Islands (United States Virgin Islands)),
*[Rock](Carval)(Carvel Rock (United States Virgin Islands)) or Carvel Rock,
*[Cay](Cas)(Cas Cay),
*[Cay](Cinnamon)(Cinnamon Cay, United States Virgin Islands),
*Cockroach Island,
*Coculus Rock,
*Cololoba Cay,
*[Cay](Congo)(Congo Cay, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*Cow Rock,
*Cricket Rock,
*Current Rock,
*[Island](Dog)(Dog Island, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*Dog Rocks,
*Domkirk Rock,
*Dry Rock,
*Durloe Cays,
*Dut Cheap Cay
*Fish Cay,
*[Island](Flanagan)(Flanagan Island),
*Flat Cays,
*Gorret Rock,
*[Cay](Grass)(Grass Cay, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*[Saint James Island](Great)(Great Saint James, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*[Cay](Green)(Green Cay National Wildlife Refuge)[Croix](Saint)(Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*Green Cay - [Thomas](Saint)(Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*[Lollik Island](Hans)(Hans Lollik Island),
*Hans Lollik Rock,
*[Island](Hassel)(Hassel Island, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*[Cay](Henley)(Henley Cay, United States Virgin Islands),
*[Brass Island](Inner)(Inner Brass, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*[Cay](Kalkun)(Kalkun Cay, United States Virgin Islands),
*[Island](Leduck)(Leduck Island),
*Limestone Rock,
*[Hans Lollik Island](Little)(Hans Lollik Island),
*Harvey Island (Saint Croix),
*[Saint James Island](Little)(Little Saint James, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*Lizard Rocks,
*[Cay](Lovango)(Lovango Cay, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*[Cay](Mingo)(Mingo Cay, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*[Brass Island](Outer)(Outer Brass, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*Packet Rock,
*Patricia Cay,
*Pelican Cay,
*Perkins Cay,
*Porpoise Rocks,
*[Cay](Protestant)(Protestant Cay),
*[Cay](Ramgoat)(Ramgoat Cay, United States Virgin Islands),
*Rata Cay,
*Rotto Cay,
*Rupert Rock,
*[Island](Ruth)(Ruth Island),
*[Island](Saba)(Saba Island, United States Virgin Islands),
*[Croix](Saint)(Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*[John](Saint)(Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*[Thomas](Saint)(Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*Salt Cay,
*Saltwater Money Rock,
*Sandy Point Rock,
*[Island](Savana)(Savana Island, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*[Island](Shark)(Shark Island, United States Virgin Islands),
*Skipper Jacob Rock,
*[Cay](Steven)(Steven Cay, United States Virgin Islands),
*The Stragglers,
*Sula Cay,
*[Cay](Thatch)(Thatch Cay, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*Triangle Islands,
*[Cay](Trunk)(Trunk Cay, United States Virgin Islands),
*Turtleback Rock,
*[Cay](Turtledove)(Turtledove Cay, United States Virgin Islands),
*Two Brothers,
*[Island](Water)(Water Island, U.S. Virgin Islands),
*[Cay](Waterlemon)(Waterlemon Cay),
*Welk Rocks,
*West Cay,
*[Cay](Whistling)(Whistling Cay, United States Virgin Islands),
Saint Thomas, Saint Croix, Saint John, and Water Island are the main four United States Virgin Islands. The capital, [Amalie](Charlotte)(Charlotte Amalie, United States Virgin Islands), is on Saint Thomas.
### Islands of the State of Florida
While not technically part of the Caribbean, the islands of the [Florida](Florida) in the [States](United)(United States) are considered by some to be part of the greater Caribbean Region. Regions of Florida include: [Florida](South)(South Florida), [Florida](Southwest)(Southwest Florida), and the [Keys](Florida)(Florida Keys).
*[Key](Geiger)(Geiger Key),
*[West](Key)(Key West),
*[Largo](Key)(Key Largo),
*[Island](Stock)(Stock Island, Florida),
## Venezuela
The following islands of [Venezuela](Venezuela) are in the Caribbean Sea:
*[Las Aves](Archipiélago)(Las Aves archipelago)
**[La Blanquilla](Isla)(Isla La Blanquilla),
*[Los Monjes](Archipiélago)(Los Monjes Archipelago),
*[Los Roques](Archipiélago)(Los Roques archipelago),
*[de Aves](Isla)(Isla de Aves),
*[de Coche](Isla)(Coche Island),
*[de Cubagua](Isla)(Cubagua),
*[de Patos](Isla)(Patos Island (Venezuela)),
*[de Toas](Isla)(Toas island),
*.
*[La Orchila](Isla)(La Orchila),
*[La Sola](Isla)(La Sola Island),
*[La Tortuga](Isla)(La Tortuga Island),
*[Margarita](Isla)(Margarita Island),
*,
*[los Frailes](Islas)(Islas Los Frailes),
*[Caracas](Islas)(Caracas Islands),
*[los Hermanos](Islas)(Los Hermanos Archipelago),
*[los Testigos](Islas)(Los Testigos Islands),
## See also
*[of Caribbean islands by area](List)(List of Caribbean islands by area)
*[of Caribbean island countries by population](List)(List of Caribbean island countries by population)
*[of metropolitan areas in the West Indies](List)(List of metropolitan areas in the West Indies)
*[of Caribbean islands by political affiliation](List)(List of islands in the Caribbean)
*[of islands by population density](List)(List of islands by population density)
*[of West Indian First-level Subdivisions](List)(List of West Indian First-level Subdivisions)
*[island](Low)(Low island) (island of coral origin), [island](Coral)(Coral island)
## References
*
[ ](Category:Caribbean islands)
[Islands](Category:Caribbean-related lists)
[Indies](Category:West)(Category:West Indies)
[Caribbean](Category:Lists of islands by sea)
|
Blazing Saddles
|
blazing_saddles
|
# Blazing Saddles
*Revision ID: 1159643080 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T16:25:10Z*
---
| director = [Brooks](Mel)(Mel Brooks)
| screenplay =
| story = Andrew Bergman
| producer = [Hertzberg](Michael)(Michael Hertzberg)
| starring =
| cinematography = [Biroc](Joseph)(Joseph Biroc)
| editing =
| music = [Morris](John)(John Morris (composer))
| studio = Crossbow Productions
| distributor = [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.)
| released =
| runtime = 93 minutes
| country = United States
| budget = $2.6 million
| gross = $119.6 million
}}
***Blazing Saddles*** is a 1974 American [satirical](Satire (film and television)) [postmodernist](postmodernist film)["Blazing Saddles" as Postmodern Ethnic Carnival on JSTOR](https://www.jstor.org/stable/23610152)[The Mel Brooks Collection|AV Club](https://www.avclub.com/the-mel-brooks-collection-1798201578) [western](Western (genre)) [comedy film](black)(Comedy film#Black comedy) directed by [Brooks](Mel)(Mel Brooks), who co-wrote the screenplay with [Bergman](Andrew)(Andrew Bergman), [Pryor](Richard)(Richard Pryor), [Steinberg](Norman)(Norman Steinberg) and [Uger](Alan)(Alan Uger), based on a story treatment by Bergman. The film stars [Little](Cleavon)(Cleavon Little) and [Wilder](Gene)(Gene Wilder). The film received generally positive reviews from critics and audiences, was nominated for three [Awards](Academy)(Academy Awards) and is ranked No. 6 on the [Film Institute](American)(American Film Institute)'s ''[Years...100 Laughs](100)(AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs)'' list.
Brooks appears in three supporting roles: Governor William J. Le Petomane, a [Yiddish](Yiddish)-speaking [American](Native)(Native Americans in the United States) chief, and "a aviator/director" in line to help invade Rock Ridge (a nod to Howard Hughes); he also dubs lines for one of Lili Von Shtupp's backing troupe and a cranky moviegoer. The supporting cast includes [Pickens](Slim)(Slim Pickens), [Karras](Alex)(Alex Karras) and [Huddleston](David)(David Huddleston), as well as Brooks regulars [DeLuise](Dom)(Dom DeLuise), [Kahn](Madeline)(Madeline Kahn) and [Korman](Harvey)(Harvey Korman). Bandleader [Basie](Count)(Count Basie) has a cameo as himself, appearing with his orchestra.
The film is full of deliberate [anachronism](anachronism)s, from the [Basie Orchestra](Count)(Count Basie Orchestra) playing "[in Paris](April)(April in Paris (song))" in the Wild West, to Pickens' character mentioning the *[World of Sports](Wide)(Wide World of Sports (U.S. TV series))*.
In 2006, *Blazing Saddles* was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress) and was selected for preservation in the [Film Registry](National)(National Film Registry).
## Plot
On the [frontier](American)(American frontier) of 1874, a new railroad under construction will have to be rerouted through the town of Rock Ridge in order to avoid [quicksand](quicksand). Realizing this will make Rock Ridge worth millions, territorial attorney general Hedley Lamarr plans to force Rock Ridge's residents out of the town and sends a gang of thugs, led by his flunky Taggart, to shoot the sheriff and trash the town.
The townspeople demand that Governor William J. [Petomane](Le)(Le Petomane) appoint a new sheriff to protect them. Lamarr persuades dim-witted Le Petomane to appoint Bart, a black railroad worker about to be executed for assaulting Taggart. A Black sheriff, Lamarr reasons, will offend the townspeople, create chaos, and leave Rock Ridge at his mercy.
After an initial hostile reception (Bart takes himself "hostage" to escape), he relies on his quick wits and the assistance of Jim, an alcoholic gunslinger known as the "Waco Kid", to overcome the townspeople's hostility. Bart subdues Mongo, an immensely strong and dim-witted yet philosophical henchman sent to kill him, then outwits German seductress-for-hire Lili Von Shtupp at her own game, with Lili falling in love with him.
Upon release, Mongo vaguely informs Bart of Lamarr's connection to the railroad, so Bart and Jim visit the railroad worksite and discover from Bart's best friend Charlie that the railway is planned to go through Rock Ridge. Taggart and his men arrive to kill Bart, but Jim outshoots them and forces their retreat. Lamarr, furious that his schemes have backfired, recruits an army of thugs, including common criminals, [gangsters](motorcycle)(Outlaw motorcycle club), [Klux Klan](Ku)(Ku Klux Klan)smen, [Nazis](Nazism) and [Methodists](Methodism).
East of Rock Ridge, Bart introduces the white townspeople to the Black, Chinese and Irish railroad workers who have all agreed to help them in exchange for acceptance by the community, and explains his plan to defeat Lamarr's army. They labor all night to build a perfect copy of the town as a diversion. When Bart realizes it will not fool the villains, the townsfolk construct copies of themselves.
Bart, Jim and Mongo buy time by constructing the "Gov. William J. Le Petomane Thruway", forcing the raiding party to send for change to pay the toll. Once through the [tollbooth](tollbooth), the raiders attack the fake town and its population of dummies, which have been [booby-trapped](booby trap) with dynamite. After Jim detonates the bombs with his sharpshooting, launching bad guys and horses skyward, the Rock Ridgers attack the villains.
The resulting brawl between townsfolk, railroad workers, and Lamarr's thugs literally breaks the [wall](fourth)(fourth wall) and bursts onto a neighboring movie set where director Buddy Bizarre is filming a [Berkeley](Busby)(Busby Berkeley)-style top-hat-and-tails musical number; into the studio commissary for a food fight; and spilling out of the [Bros. film lot](Warner)(Warner Bros. Studios, Burbank) onto the streets of [Burbank](Burbank, California).
Lamarr, realizing he has been beaten, hails a taxi and orders the cabbie to "drive me off this picture". He ducks into [Chinese Theatre](Mann's)(Grauman's Chinese Theatre), which is showing the premiere of *Blazing Saddles*. As he settles into his seat, he sees onscreen Bart arriving on horseback outside the theatre. Bart blocks Lamarr's escape and shoots him in the groin. Bart and Jim then enter the theater to watch the end of the film, in which Bart announces to the townspeople that he is moving on because his work is done (and because he is bored).
Riding out of town, he finds Jim, still eating his popcorn, and invites him along to "nowhere special". The two friends briefly ride into the desert before dismounting and boarding a limousine, which drives off into the sunset.
## Cast
* [Gilliam](Burton)(Burton Gilliam) as Lyle
* [Karras](Alex)(Alex Karras) as Mongo
* [Huddleston](David)(David Huddleston) as Olson Johnson
* [Dunn](Liam)(Liam Dunn) as Rev. Johnson
* [Hillerman](John)(John Hillerman) as Howard Johnson
* [Furth](George)(George Furth) as Van Johnson
* [Ennis Starrett, Jr.](Claude)(Jack Starrett) as Gabby Johnson
* [Arthur](Carol)(Carol Arthur) as Harriett Johnson
* Richard Collier as Dr. Sam Johnson
* [McGregor](Charles)(Charles McGregor) as Charlie
* [Hilton](Robyn)(Robyn Hilton) as Miss Stein
* [Megowan](Don)(Don Megowan) as Gum Chewer
* [DeLuise](Dom)(Dom DeLuise) as Buddy Bizarre
* [Basie](Count)(Count Basie) as himself
* [Ridgely](Robert)(Robert Ridgely) as Boris, the hangman (uncredited)
* [Manza](Ralph)(Ralph Manza) as Man dressed as [Hitler](Adolf Hitler) (uncredited)
}}
**Cast notes:**
* [Basie](Count)(Count Basie) and his [orchestra](Count Basie Orchestra) make a cameo, playing "[in Paris](April)(April in Paris (song))" in the middle of the desert as Bart rides toward Rock Ridge to assume the post of sheriff.
* Brooks appears in three on-screen roles: Governor William J. Le Petomane, the [Yiddish](Yiddish)-speaking Native American chief (appearing in [redface](redface)) in Bart's backstory, and an applicant for Hedley Lamarr's thug army (an aviator wearing sunglasses and a [jacket](flight)(flight jacket)). He also has two off-screen voice roles, as one of Lili's German chorus boys during "I'm Tired", and as a grouchy moviegoer.
* "Le Petomane" refers to [Pujol](Joseph)(Le Pétomane), a performer in 19th-century France who was a professional [flatulist](flatulist) using "Le Pétomane" as his stage name.
* Carol Arthur (Harriet Johnson) was DeLuise's wife.
* "Olson Johnson" is a reference to the [vaudeville](vaudeville) comedy team [and Johnson](Olsen)(Olsen and Johnson), "Howard Johnson" to the now-defunct [Johnson's restaurant chain](Howard)(Howard Johnson's), "Van Johnson" to the actor [Johnson](Van)(Van Johnson), and "Dr. Samuel Johnson" to the 18th-century English writer [that name](by)(Samuel Johnson). The character of "Gabby Johnson" is a direct parody of cowboy actor [Hayes](Gabby)(Gabby Hayes).
## Production
### Development
The idea came from a story outline written by [Bergman](Andrew)(Andrew Bergman) that he originally intended to develop and produce himself. "I wrote a first draft called *Tex-X*" (a play on [X](Malcolm)(Malcolm X)'s name), he said. "[Arkin](Alan)(Alan Arkin) was hired to direct and [Earl Jones](James)(James Earl Jones) was going to play the sheriff. That fell apart, as things often do." Brooks was taken with the story, which he described as "hip talk—1974 talk and expressions—happening in 1874 in the Old West", and purchased the film rights from Bergman. Though he had not worked with a writing team since *[Show of Shows](Your)(Your Show of Shows)*, he hired a group of writers (including Bergman) to expand the outline, and posted a large sign: "Please do not write a polite script."
Brooks described the writing process as chaotic: "*Blazing Saddles* was more or less written in the middle of a drunken fistfight. There were five of us all yelling loudly for our ideas to be put into the movie. Not only was I the loudest, but luckily I also had the right as director to decide what was in or out." Bergman remembers the room being just as chaotic, telling *Creative Screenwriting*, "In the beginning, we had five people. One guy left after a couple of weeks. Then, it was basically me, Mel, [Pryor](Richie)(Richard Pryor) and Norman Steinberg. Richie left after the first draft and then Norman, Mel and I wrote the next three or four drafts. It was a riot. It was a rioter’s room!"
### Title
The original title, *Tex X*, was rejected to avoid it being mistaken for an [film](X-rated)(X rating), as were *Black Bart* – a reference to [Bart](Black)(Black Bart (outlaw)), a white [highwayman](highwayman) of the 19th century – and *Purple Sage*. Brooks said he finally conceived *Blazing Saddles* one morning while taking a shower.
### Casting
The casting was problematic. Pryor was Brooks' original choice to play Sheriff Bart, but the studio, claiming his history of drug arrests made him uninsurable, refused to approve financing with Pryor as the star. The role of Sheriff Bart went to Cleavon Little, and Pryor remained as a screenwriter instead. Brooks offered the other leading role, the Waco Kid, to [Wayne](John)(John Wayne); he declined, deeming the film "too [blue](pornographic movie)" for his family-oriented image, but assured Brooks that "he would be the first one in line to see it."Staff (May 20, 2016) ["Mel Brooks on John Wayne, Improv and the Presidential Race"](https://philly.metro.us/mel-brooks-on-john-wayne-improv-and-the-presidential-race/) *Metro Philadelphia* [Young](Gig)(Gig Young) was cast, but he collapsed during his first scene from what was later determined to be [withdrawal syndrome](alcohol)(alcohol withdrawal syndrome), and Wilder was flown in to replace him.
[Carson](Johnny)(Johnny Carson) and Wilder both turned down the Hedley Lamarr role before Korman was cast. Madeline Kahn objected when Brooks asked to see her legs during her audition. "She said, 'So it's THAT kind of an audition? Brooks recalled. "I explained that I was a happily married man and that I needed someone who could straddle a chair with her legs like [Dietrich](Marlene)(Marlene Dietrich) in *[Rides Again](Destry)(Destry Rides Again).* So she lifted her skirt and said, 'No touching.
### Filming
Principal photography began on March 6, 1973, and wrapped in early May 1973. Brooks had numerous conflicts over content with Warner Bros. executives, including frequent use of the word "[nigger](nigger)", Lili Von Shtupp's seduction scene, the cacophony of flatulence around the campfire, and Mongo punching out a horse. Brooks, whose contract gave him final content control, declined to make any substantive changes, with the exception of cutting Bart's final line during Lili's seduction: "I hate to disappoint you, ma'am, but you're sucking my arm." When asked later about the many "nigger" references, Brooks said he received consistent support from Pryor and Little. He added, "If they did a remake of *Blazing Saddles* today [2012], they would leave out the N-word. And then, you've got no movie." Page 36: **Q:** *Blazing Saddles* also makes frequent use of the "N-word." Could you get away with that today? **A:** Never. If they did a remake of *Blazing Saddles* today, they would leave out the N-word. And then, you've got no movie. And I wouldn't have used it so much if I didn't have Richard Pryor with me on the set as one of my writers. And Cleavon Little [Sheriff Bart](as) was great. Even though it was allowed, I kept asking Cleavon, "Is that all right there? Is that too much there? Am I pushing this?" and he'd say, "no, no, no, it's perfect there." Brooks said he received many letters of complaint after the film's release.
### Music
Brooks wrote the music and lyrics for three of *Blazing Saddles* songs, "The Ballad of Rock Ridge", "I'm Tired" and "The French Mistake". Brooks also wrote the lyrics to the title song, with music by composer [Morris](John)(John Morris (composer)). To sing the title song, Brooks advertised in the trade papers for a "[Laine](Frankie)(Frankie Laine)–type" singer; to his surprise, Laine himself offered his services. "Frankie sang his heart out ... and we didn't have the heart to tell him it was a spoof. He never heard the whip cracks; we put those in later. We got so lucky with his serious interpretation of the song."From the libretto of the La-La Land Records soundtrack album
The choreographer for "I'm Tired" and "The French Mistake" was [Johnson](Alan)(Alan Johnson (choreographer)). "I'm Tired" is a homage to and parody of [Dietrich](Marlene)(Marlene Dietrich)'s performance of [Porter](Cole)(Cole Porter)'s song "I'm the Laziest Gal in Town" in [Hitchcock](Alfred)(Alfred Hitchcock)'s 1950 film *[Fright](Stage)(Stage Fright (1950 film))*, as well as "[in Love Again (Can't Help It)](Falling)(Falling in Love Again (Can't Help It))" from *[Blue Angel](The)(The Blue Angel)*.
The orchestrations were by Morris and [Tunick](Jonathan)(Jonathan Tunick).
## Lawsuit
During production, retired longtime film star [Lamarr](Hedy)(Hedy Lamarr) sued Warner Bros. for $100,000, charging that the film's running parody of her name infringed on her right to privacy. Brooks said that he was flattered and chose to not fight it in court; the studio settled out of court for a small sum and an apology for "almost using her name". Brooks said that Lamarr "never got the joke". This lawsuit would be referenced by an in-film joke where Brooks' character, the Governor, tells Lamarr that "This is 1874; you'll be able to sue HER."
## Release
The film was almost unreleased. "When we screened it for executives, there were few laughs," said Brooks. "The head of distribution said, 'Let's dump it and take a loss.' But [president John](studio) Calley insisted they open it in New York, Los Angeles and Chicago as a test. It became the studio's top moneymaker that summer."
The world premiere took place on February 7, 1974, at the Pickwick Drive-In Theater in Burbank; 250 invited guests—including Little and Wilder—watched the film on horseback.
### Response
While *Blazing Saddles* is now considered a classic, critical reaction was mixed upon initial release. [Canby](Vincent)(Vincent Canby) wrote:
[Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) gave the film four stars out of four, calling it a "crazed grab bag of a movie that does everything to keep us laughing except hit us over the head with a [chicken](rubber)(rubber chicken). Mostly, it succeeds. It's an audience picture; it doesn't have a lot of classy polish and its structure is a total mess. But of course! What does that matter while Alex Karras is knocking a horse cold with a right cross to the jaw?" [Siskel](Gene)(Gene Siskel) awarded three stars out of four and called it "bound to rank with the funniest of the year," adding, "Whenever the laughs begin to run dry, Brooks and his quartet of gag writers splash about in a pool of obscenities that score belly laughs if your ears aren't sensitive and if you're hip to western movie conventions being parodied."[Gene](Siskel,)(Gene Siskel) (March 1, 1974). "Shootout at 'Cockeyed Corral'". *[Tribune](Chicago)(Chicago Tribune)*. Section 2, p. 1.
Critics often perceived *Blazing Saddles* as inherently "un-cinematic," defying some expectations for Hollywood filmmaking in the era, often displaying production style associated with Broadway theater and US television variety shows. This was in part due to its "simplistic framing" and the casting of Harvey Korman, known for *[Carol Burnett Show](The)(The Carol Burnett Show)* (CBS, 1967-1978), which was similarly "low on characterization and story, instead opting for a high volume of one-liners and visual gags." Typical to this perception, *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* wrote, "If comedies are measured solely by the number of yocks they generate from audiences, then 'Blazing Saddles' must be counted a success ... Few viewers will have time between laughs to complain that pic is essentially a raunchy, protracted version of a television comedy skit."
[Champlin](Charles)(Charles Champlin) of the *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)* called the film "irreverent, outrageous, improbable, often as blithely tasteless as a stag night at the Friar's Club and almost continuously funny."[Charles](Champlin,)(Charles Champlin) (February 7, 1974). "Was the West Ever Like This?" *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)*. Part IV, p. 1. Gary Arnold of *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)* was negative, writing that "Mel Brooks squanders a snappy title on a stockpile of stale jokes. To say that this slapdash Western spoof lacks freshness and spontaneity and originality is putting it mildly. 'Blazing Saddles' is at once a messy and antiquated gag machine." Jan Dawson of *[Monthly Film Bulletin](The)(The Monthly Film Bulletin)* wrote, "Perhaps it is pedantic to complain that the whole is not up to the sum of its parts when, for the [egg](curate's)(curate's egg) that it is, *Blazing Saddles* contains so many good parts and memorable performances." [Simon](John)(John Simon (critic)) wrote a negative review of *Blazing Saddles*, saying, "All kinds of gags—chiefly anachronisms, irrelevancies, reverse ethnic jokes, and out and out vulgarities—are thrown together pell-mell, batted about insanely in all directions, and usually beaten into the ground."
On review aggregator [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), the film has an 90% approval rating based on 65 reviews, with an average rating of 8.10/10. The site's consensus reads: "Daring, provocative, and laugh-out-loud funny, *Blazing Saddles* is a gleefully vulgar spoof of Westerns that marks a high point in Mel Brooks' storied career." On [Metacritic](Metacritic) it has a score of 73% based on reviews from 12 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
[Reed](Ishmael)(Ishmael Reed)'s 1969 novel *[Back Radio Broke-Down](Yellow)(Yellow Back Radio Broke-Down)* has been cited as an important precursor or influence for *Blazing Saddles*, a connection that Reed himself has made.
### Box office
The film earned [rental](theatrical)(theatrical rental)s of $26.7 million in its initial release in the United States and Canada. In its 1976 reissue, it earned a further $10.5 million and another $8 million in 1979. Its total rentals in the United States and Canada totalled $47.8 million from a gross of $119.5 million, becoming only the tenth film up to that time to pass the $100 million mark.
## Awards and accolades
While addressing his group of bad guys, Harvey Korman's character reminds them that, although they are risking their lives, he is "risking an almost certain [Award](Academy)(Academy Awards) nomination for [Supporting Actor](Best)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor)!" Korman did not receive an Oscar bid, but the film did get three nominations at the [Academy Awards](47th)(47th Academy Awards), including Best Supporting Actress for Madeline Kahn.
In 2006, *Blazing Saddles* was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress) and was selected for preservation in the [Film Registry](National)(National Film Registry).
Upon the release of the 30th anniversary special edition in 2004, *[Today](Today (American TV program))* said that the movie "skewer[ed] just about every aspect of racial prejudice while keeping the laughs coming" and that it was "at the top of a very short list" of comedies still funny after 30 years. In 2014, [NPR](NPR) wrote that four decades after the movie was made it was "still as biting a satire" on racism as ever, although its treatment of gays and women was "not self-aware at all".
The film is recognized by [Film Institute](American)(American Film Institute) in these lists:
* 2000: [100 Years...100 Laughs](AFI's)(AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs) – No. 6
## Adaptations
### TV series
A television pilot titled *Black Bart* was produced for CBS based on Bergman's original story. It featured [Gossett Jr.](Louis)(Louis Gossett Jr.) as Bart and [Landesberg](Steve)(Steve Landesberg) as his drunkard sidekick, a former Confederate officer named "Reb Jordan". Other cast members included Millie Slavin and [Willingham](Noble)(Noble Willingham). Bergman is listed as the sole creator. CBS aired the pilot once on April 4, 1975. The pilot episode of *Black Bart* was later included as a bonus feature on the *Blazing Saddles* 30th Anniversary DVD and the [Blu-ray](Blu-ray) disc.
### Possible stage production
In September 2017, Brooks indicated his desire to do a stage version of *Blazing Saddles* in the future.
## In popular culture
The [Ridge](Rock)(Rock Ridge) standard for CD and DVD media is named after the town in *Blazing Saddles*.
The 2022 animated film *[of Fury: The Legend of Hank](Paws)(Paws of Fury: The Legend of Hank)*, starring [Cera](Michael)(Michael Cera), [L. Jackson](Samuel)(Samuel L. Jackson), [Yeoh](Michelle)(Michelle Yeoh) and [Gervais](Ricky)(Ricky Gervais), was originally titled *Blazing Samurai* and its creators called it "equally inspired by and an homage to *Blazing Saddles*." Brooks served as an executive producer for the production, voiced one of the characters, and received screenplay credit.
## Home media
The film was first released on DVD in 1997, followed by a 30th Anniversary Special Edition DVD in 2004 and a Blu-ray version in 2006. A 40th anniversary Blu-ray set was released in 2014.
## References
## External links
*
* *Blazing Saddles* essay by Michael Schlesinger at [Film Registry](National)(National Film Registry). [https://www.loc.gov/static/programs/national-film-preservation-board/documents/blazing_saddles.pdf]
*
*
*
*
*
[films](Category:1974)(Category:1974 films)
[comedy films](Category:1974)(Category:1974 comedy films)
[Western (genre) films](Category:1974)(Category:1974 Western (genre) films)
[American films](Category:1970s)(Category:1970s American films)
[black comedy films](Category:1970s)(Category:1970s black comedy films)
[English-language films](Category:1970s)(Category:1970s English-language films)
[parody films](Category:1970s)(Category:1970s parody films)
[satirical films](Category:1970s)(Category:1970s satirical films)
[Western (genre) comedy films](Category:1970s)(Category:1970s Western (genre) comedy films)
[Western (genre) films](Category:African-American)(Category:African-American Western (genre) films)
[Western (genre) comedy films](Category:American)(Category:American Western (genre) comedy films)
[black comedy films](Category:American)(Category:American black comedy films)
[parody films](Category:American)(Category:American parody films)
[satirical films](Category:American)(Category:American satirical films)
[humour](Category:Ethnic)(Category:Ethnic humour)
[about racism in the United States](Category:Films)(Category:Films about racism in the United States)
[directed by Mel Brooks](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Mel Brooks)
[scored by John Morris](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by John Morris)
[set in 1856](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 1856)
[set in 1874](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 1874)
[set in a movie theatre](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in a movie theatre)
[shot in California](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in California)
[with screenplays by Andrew Bergman](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Andrew Bergman)
[with screenplays by Mel Brooks](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Mel Brooks)
[with screenplays by Richard Pryor](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Richard Pryor)
[with screenplays by Norman Steinberg](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Norman Steinberg)
[with screenplays by Alan Uger](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Alan Uger)
[films](Category:Self-reflexive)(Category:Self-reflexive films)
[States National Film Registry films](Category:United)(Category:United States National Film Registry films)
[Bros. films](Category:Warner)(Category:Warner Bros. films)
[films](Category:Postmodern)(Category:Postmodern films)
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Kubernetes
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kubernetes
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# Kubernetes
*Revision ID: 1159119461 | Timestamp: 2023-06-08T10:56:27Z*
---
/
| latest release version =
| latest release date = }}
| programming language = [Go](Go (programming language))
| genre = [management software](Cluster)(Computer cluster#Cluster management)
| license = [License 2.0](Apache)(Apache License 2.0)
| website =
}}
**Kubernetes** (, commonly abbreviated **K8s**) is an [open-source](open-source software) [container](Operating-system-level virtualization) [orchestration](orchestration (computing)) system for automating [deployment](software)(software deployment), scaling, and management. Originally designed by [Google](Google), the project is now maintained by the [Native Computing Foundation](Cloud)(Cloud Native Computing Foundation).
The name *Kubernetes* originates from [Greek](Greek language), meaning 'helmsman' or 'pilot'. *Kubernetes* is often abbreviated as *K8s*, counting the eight letters between the *K* and the *s* (a [numeronym](numeronym)).
Kubernetes works with [containerd](containerd) and [CRI-O](Cloud Native Computing Foundation#CRI-O). Its suitability for running and managing large cloud-native workloads has led to widespread adoption of it in the data center. There are multiple distributions of this platform – from [ISVs](Independent Software Vendor) as well as hosted-on cloud offerings from all the major public cloud vendors.
## History
[[Kubernetes Engine talk at Google Cloud Summit](File:GoogleCloudKubernetes.jpg|thumb|Google)]
Kubernetes ([κυβερνήτης](wikt:κυβερνήτης) *kubernḗtēs*, Greek for "steersman, navigator" or "guide", and the etymological root of [cybernetics](cybernetics)) was announced by Google in mid-2014. The project was created by Joe Beda, Brendan Burns, and Craig McLuckie, who were soon joined by other Google engineers, including Brian Grant and Tim Hockin.
The design and development of Kubernetes was influenced by Google's [Borg](Borg (cluster manager)) cluster manager. Many of its top contributors had previously worked on Borg; they codenamed Kubernetes "" after the *Star Trek* ex-[Borg](Borg) character [of Nine](Seven)(Seven of Nine) and gave its logo a seven-spoked wheel. Unlike Borg, which was written in [C++](C++), Kubernetes source code is in the [Go](Go (programming language)) language.
Kubernetes 1.0 was released on July 21, 2015. Google worked with the [Foundation](Linux)(Linux Foundation) to form the [Native Computing Foundation](Cloud)(Cloud Native Computing Foundation) (CNCF) and offered Kubernetes as a seed technology. In February 2016, the Helm package manager for Kubernetes was released.
Google was already offering managed Kubernetes services, while [Hat](Red)(Red Hat) was supporting Kubernetes as part of [OpenShift](OpenShift) since the inception of the Kubernetes project in 2014. In 2017, the principal competitors rallied around Kubernetes and announced adding native support for it:
* [VMWare](VMWare) (proponent of [Cloud Foundry](Pivotal)(Pivotal Cloud Foundry)) in August,
* [Inc.](Mesosphere,)(Mesosphere, Inc.) (proponent of Marathon and [Mesos](Apache Mesos)) in September,
* [Inc.](Docker,)(Docker, Inc.) (proponent of [Docker](Docker (software)#Tools)) in October,
* [Azure](Microsoft)(Microsoft Azure) also in October,
* [AWS](Amazon Web Services) announced support for Kubernetes via the Elastic Kubernetes Service (EKS) in November.
On March 6, 2018, Kubernetes Project reached ninth place in the list of [GitHub](GitHub) projects by the number of [commits](Commit (version control)), and second place in authors and issues, after the [kernel](Linux)(Linux kernel).
Until version 1.18, Kubernetes followed an N-2 support policy, meaning that the three most recent minor versions receive security updates and bug fixes. Starting with version 1.19, Kubernetes follows an N-3 support policy.
Originally, it interfaced exclusively with the [Docker](Docker (software)) runtime through a "Dockershim"; however, from November 2020 up to April 2022, Kubernetes has deprecated the [shim](Shim (computing)) in favor of directly interfacing with the container through Containerd, or replacing Docker with a runtime that is compliant with the Container Runtime Interface (CRI). With the release of v1.24 in May 2022, "Dockershim" has been removed entirely.
## Concepts
[[architecture diagram](File:kubernetes.png|thumb|Kubernetes)]
Kubernetes defines a set of building blocks ("primitives") that collectively provide mechanisms that deploy, maintain, and scale applications based on CPU, memory or custom metrics. Kubernetes is [coupled](loosely)(Loose coupling) and extensible to meet different workloads. The internal components as well as extensions and containers that run on Kubernetes rely on the Kubernetes API. The platform exerts its control over compute and storage resources by defining resources as Objects, which can then be managed as such.
Kubernetes follows the [architecture](primary/replica)(primary/replica architecture). The components of Kubernetes can be divided into those that manage an individual [node](Node (networking)) and those that are part of the control plane.
### Control plane
The Kubernetes master node handles the Kubernetes control plane of the cluster, managing its workload and directing communication across the system. The Kubernetes control plane consists of various components, each its own process, that can run both on a single master node or on multiple masters supporting [cluster](high-availability)(high-availability cluster)s. The various components of the Kubernetes control plane are as follows:
* **[etcd](etcd)**[Linux by CoreOS: Cluster infrastructure](Container)(Container Linux by CoreOS#Cluster infrastructure) is a persistent, lightweight, distributed, [data store](key-value)(key-value data store) that [CoreOS](CoreOS) has developed. It reliably stores the configuration data of the cluster, representing the overall state of the cluster at any given point of time. etcd favors consistency over availability in the event of a network partition (see [theorem](CAP)(CAP theorem)). The consistency is crucial for correctly scheduling and operating services.
* The **API server** serves the Kubernetes [API](Application programming interface) using [JSON](JSON) over [HTTP](Hypertext Transfer Protocol), which provides both the internal and external interface to Kubernetes. The API server processes and validates [REST](Representational state transfer) requests and updates the state of the [API](Application programming interface) objects in etcd, thereby allowing clients to configure workloads and containers across worker nodes. The API server uses etcd's watch API to monitor the cluster, roll out critical configuration changes, or restore any divergences of the state of the cluster back to what the deployer declared. As an example, the deployer may specify that three instances of a particular "pod" (see below) need to be running. etcd stores this fact. If the Deployment Controller finds that only two instances are running (conflicting with the etcd declaration), it schedules the creation of an additional instance of that pod.
* The **scheduler** is the extensible component that selects on which node an unscheduled pod (the basic entity managed by the scheduler) runs, based on resource availability. The scheduler tracks resource use on each node to ensure that workload is not scheduled in excess of available resources. For this purpose, the scheduler must know the resource requirements, resource availability, and other user-provided constraints or policy directives such as quality-of-service, affinity vs. anti-affinity requirements, and data locality. The scheduler's role is to match resource "supply" to workload "demand".
* A **controller** is a reconciliation loop that drives the actual cluster state toward the desired state, communicating with the API server to create, update, and delete the resources it manages (e.g., pods or service endpoints). One kind of controller is a Replication Controller, which handles replication and scaling by running a specified number of copies of a pod across the cluster. It also handles creating replacement pods if the underlying node fails. Other controllers that are part of the core Kubernetes system include a DaemonSet Controller for running exactly one pod on every machine (or some subset of machines), and a Job Controller for running pods that run to completion (e.g., as part of a batch job). Labels selectors that are part of the controller's definition specify the set of pods that a controller manages.
*The **controller manager** is a process that manages a set of core Kubernetes controllers.
### Nodes
A node, also known as a worker or a minion, is a machine where containers (workloads) are deployed. Every node in the cluster must run a container [runtime](Runtime system) such as [containerd](containerd), as well as the below-mentioned components, for communication with the primary for network configuration of these containers.
* **Kubelet** is responsible for the running state of each node, ensuring that all containers on the node are healthy. It takes care of starting, stopping, and maintaining application containers organized into pods as directed by the control plane. Kubelet monitors the state of a pod, and if not in the desired state, the pod re-deploys to the same node. Node status is relayed every few seconds via heartbeat messages to the primary. Once the primary detects a node failure, the Replication Controller observes this state change and launches pods on other healthy nodes. Issues and Best Practices Snyk|url=https://snyk.io/learn/kubernetes-security/|access-date=2021-05-16|website=snyk.io|date=26 July 2020|language=en-US}}
***Kube-proxy** is an implementation of a [proxy](network)(Proxy server) and a [balancer](load)(Load balancing (computing)), and it supports the service abstraction along with other networking operation. It is responsible for routing traffic to the appropriate container based on IP and port number of the incoming request.
* A **container** resides inside a pod. The container is the lowest level of a micro-service, which holds the running application, libraries, and their dependencies. Containers can be exposed to the world through an external IP address. Kubernetes has supported Docker containers since its first version. In July 2016 the [rkt](rkt (software)) container engine was added.
### Namespaces
In Kubernetes, namespaces are utilized to segregate the resources it handles into distinct and non-intersecting collections. They are intended for use in environments with many users spread across multiple teams, or projects, or even separating environments like development, test, and production.
### Pods
The basic scheduling unit in Kubernetes is a pod, which consists of one or more containers that are guaranteed to be co-located on the same node. Each pod in Kubernetes is assigned a unique IP address within the cluster, allowing applications to use ports without the risk of conflict. Within the pod, all containers can reference each other.
A volume, such as a local disk directory or a network disk, can be defined within a pod and made accessible to the containers residing in it. Pods can be managed manually through the Kubernetes API, or their management can be delegated to a controller. Such volumes are also the basis for the Kubernetes features of ConfigMaps (to provide access to configuration through the file system visible to the container) and Secrets (to provide access to credentials needed to access remote resources securely, by providing those credentials on the file system visible only to authorized containers).
#### DaemonSets
Typically, the task of determining the node on which a pod should run is delegated to the Kubernetes Scheduler. However, in certain scenarios, it may be necessary to deploy a pod on every node in the cluster, which is particularly helpful for use cases involving log collection, ingress controllers, and storage services. This specific type of pod scheduling can be achieved by utilizing DaemonSets.
#### ReplicaSets
A ReplicaSet's purpose is to maintain a stable set of replica pods running at any given time. As such, it is often used to guarantee the availability of a specified number of identical Pods.
The ReplicaSets can also be said to be a grouping mechanism that lets Kubernetes maintain the number of instances that have been declared for a given pod. The definition of a ReplicaSet uses a selector, whose evaluation will result in identifying all pods that are associated with it.
### Services
[[view showing how Services interact with Pod networking in a Kubernetes cluster](File:Pod-networking.png|thumb|Simplified)]
A Kubernetes service is a set of pods that work together, such as one tier of a [multi-tier](Multitier architecture) application. The set of pods that constitute a service are defined by a label selector. Kubernetes provides two modes of [discovery](service)(service discovery), using environmental variables or using Kubernetes DNS. Service discovery assigns a stable IP address and [name](DNS)(DNS name) to the service, and load balances traffic in a [round-robin](Round-robin DNS) manner to network connections of that IP address among the pods matching the selector (even as failures cause the pods to move from machine to machine). By default a service is exposed inside a cluster (e.g., [end](back)(Front and back ends) pods might be grouped into a service, with requests from the front-end pods load-balanced among them), but a service can also be exposed outside a cluster (e.g., for clients to reach front-end pods).
### Volumes
File systems in the Kubernetes container provide [storage](ephemeral)(ephemeral storage), by default. This means that a restart of the pod will wipe out any data on such containers, and therefore, this form of storage is quite limiting in anything but trivial applications. A Kubernetes Volume provides persistent storage that exists for the lifetime of the pod itself. This storage can also be used as shared disk space for containers within the pod. Volumes are mounted at specific mount points within the container, which are defined by the pod configuration, and cannot mount onto other volumes or link to other volumes. The same volume can be mounted at different points in the file system tree by different containers.
### ConfigMaps and secrets
A common application challenge is deciding where to store and manage configuration information, some of which may contain sensitive data. Configuration data can be anything as fine-grained as individual properties or coarse-grained information like entire configuration files or JSON / XML documents. Kubernetes provides two closely related mechanisms to deal with this need: "configmaps" and "secrets", both of which allow for configuration changes to be made without requiring an application build. The data from configmaps and secrets will be made available to every single instance of the application to which these objects have been bound via the deployment. A secret and/or a configmap is sent to a node only if a pod on that node requires it. Kubernetes will keep it in memory on that node. Once the pod that depends on the secret or configmap is deleted, the in-memory copy of all bound secrets and configmaps are deleted as well. The data is accessible to the pod through one of two ways:
# as environment variables (which will be created by Kubernetes when the pod is started);
# available on the container file system that is visible only from within the pod.
The data itself is stored on the master which is a highly secured machine which nobody should have login access to. The biggest difference between a secret and a configmap is that the content of the data in a secret is base64 encoded. Recent versions of Kubernetes have introduced support for encryption to be used as well. Secrets are often used to store data like certificates, credentials to work with image registries, passwords, and ssh keys.
### StatefulSets
Scaling stateless applications is only a matter of adding more running pods. Stateful workloads are harder, because the state needs to be preserved if a pod is restarted. If the application is scaled up or down, the state may need to be redistributed. Databases are an example of stateful workloads. When run in high-availability mode, many databases come with the notion of a primary instance and secondary instances. In this case, the notion of ordering of instances is important. Other applications like [Kafka](Apache)(Apache Kafka) distribute the data amongst their brokers; hence, one broker is not the same as another. In this case, the notion of instance uniqueness is important.
StatefulSets are controllers (see above) that enforce the properties of uniqueness and ordering amongst instances of a pod and can be used to run stateful applications.
### Replication controllers and deployments
A *ReplicaSet* declares the number of instances of a pod that is needed, and a Replication Controller manages the system so that the number of healthy pods that are running matches the number of pods declared in the ReplicaSet (determined by evaluating its selector).
Deployments are a higher-level management mechanism for ReplicaSets. While the Replication Controller manages the scale of the ReplicaSet, Deployments will manage what happens to the ReplicaSet whether an update has to be rolled out, or rolled back, etc. When deployments are scaled up or down, this results in the declaration of the ReplicaSet changing - and this change in declared state is managed by the Replication Controller.
### Labels and selectors
Kubernetes enables clients (users or internal components) to attach keys called "labels" to any API object in the system, such as pods and [nodes](#Kubernetes node). Correspondingly, "label selectors" are queries against labels that resolve to matching objects. When a service is defined, one can define the label selectors that will be used by the service router/load balancer to select the pod instances that the traffic will be routed to. Thus, simply changing the labels of the pods or changing the label selectors on the service can be used to control which pods get traffic and which don't, which can be used to support various deployment patterns like [deployment](blue-green)(blue-green deployment)s or [testing](A-B)(A-B testing). This capability to dynamically control how services utilize implementing resources provides a loose coupling within the infrastructure.
For example, if an application's pods have labels for a system tier (with values such as frontend, backend, for example) and a release_track (with values such as [canary](Feature toggle#Canary release), production, for example), then an operation on all of backend and canary nodes can use a label selector, such as:
tier=backend AND release_track=canary
Just like labels, field selectors also let one select Kubernetes resources. Unlike labels, the selection is based on the attribute values inherent to the resource being selected, rather than user-defined categorization. metadata.name and metadata.namespace are field selectors that will be present on all Kubernetes objects. Other selectors that can be used depend on the object/resource type.
### Add-ons
Add-ons operate just like any other application running within the cluster: they are implemented via pods and services, and are only different in that they implement features of the Kubernetes cluster. The pods may be managed by Deployments, ReplicationControllers, and so on. There are many add-ons, and the list is growing. Some of the more important are:
; DNS
: All Kubernetes clusters should have cluster DNS; it is a mandatory feature. Cluster DNS is a DNS server, in addition to the other DNS server(s) in your environment, which serves DNS records for Kubernetes services. Containers started by Kubernetes automatically include this DNS server in their DNS searches.
; Web UI
: This is a general purpose, web-based UI for Kubernetes clusters. It allows users to manage and troubleshoot applications running in the cluster, as well as the cluster itself.
; Container Resource Monitoring
: Providing a reliable application runtime, and being able to scale it up or down in response to workloads, means being able to continuously and effectively monitor workload performance. Container Resource Monitoring provides this capability by recording metrics about containers in a central database, and provides a UI for browsing that data. The cAdvisor is a component on a slave node that provides a limited metric monitoring capability. There are full metrics pipelines as well, such as Prometheus, which can meet most monitoring needs.
; Container Cost Monitoring
: Kubernetes cost monitoring apps allows to break down costs by pods, nodes, namespaces, and labels. Three crucial metrics to track are daily cloud spend, cost per provisioned and requested CPU, historical cost allocation.
; Cluster-level logging
: Logs should have a separate storage and lifecycle independent of nodes, pods, or containers. Otherwise, node or pod failures can cause loss of event data. The ability to do this is called cluster-level logging, and such mechanisms are responsible for saving container logs to a central log store with search/browsing interface. Kubernetes provides no native storage for log data, but one can integrate many existing logging solutions into the Kubernetes cluster.
### Storage
Containers emerged as a way to make software portable. The container contains all the packages you need to run a service. The provided file system makes containers extremely portable and easy to use in development. A container can be moved from development to test or production with no or relatively few configuration changes.
Historically Kubernetes was suitable only for stateless services. However, many applications have a database, which requires persistence, which leads to the creation of persistent storage for Kubernetes. Implementing persistent storage for containers is one of the top challenges of Kubernetes administrators, DevOps and cloud engineers. Containers may be ephemeral, but more and more of their data is not, so one needs to ensure the data's survival in case of container termination or hardware failure. When deploying containers with Kubernetes or containerized applications, companies often realize that they need persistent storage. They need to provide fast and reliable storage for databases, root images and other data used by the containers.
In addition to the landscape, the Cloud Native Computing Foundation (CNCF), has published other information about Kubernetes Persistent Storage including a blog helping to define the container attached storage pattern. This pattern can be thought of as one that uses Kubernetes itself as a component of the storage system or service.
More information about the relative popularity of these and other approaches can be found on the CNCF's landscape survey as well, which showed that OpenEBS from MayaData and Rook a storage orchestration project were the two projects most likely to be in evaluation as of the Fall of 2019.
Container Attached Storage is a type of data storage that emerged as Kubernetes gained prominence. The Container Attached Storage approach or pattern relies on Kubernetes itself for certain capabilities while delivering primarily block, file, object and interfaces to workloads running on Kubernetes.
Common attributes of Container Attached Storage include the use of extensions to Kubernetes, such as custom resource definitions, and the use of Kubernetes itself for functions that otherwise would be separately developed and deployed for storage or data management. Examples of functionality delivered by custom resource definitions or by Kubernetes itself include retry logic, delivered by Kubernetes itself, and the creation and maintenance of an inventory of available storage media and volumes, typically delivered via a custom resource definition. SNIA|url=https://www.snia.org/educational-library/container-attached-storage-2018|access-date=2020-10-09|website=www.snia.org}}
#### Container Storage Interface (CSI)
In Kubernetes version 1.9, the initial Alpha release of Container Storage Interface (CSI) was introduced. Previously, storage volume plug-ins were included in the Kubernetes distribution. By creating a standardized CSI, the code required to interface with external storage systems was separated from the core Kubernetes code base. Just one year later, the CSI feature was made Generally Available (GA) in Kubernetes.
## API
A key component of the Kubernetes control plane is the API Server, which exposes an HTTP API that can be invoked by other parts of the cluster as well as end users and external components. This API is a [REST](REST) API and is declarative in nature. There are two kinds of API resources. Most of the API resources in the Kubernetes API are objects. These represent a concrete instance of a concept on the cluster, like a pod or namespace. A small number of API resource types are "virtual". These represent operations rather than objects, such as a permission check, using the "subjectaccessreviews" resource. API resources that correspond to objects will be represented in the cluster with unique identifiers for the objects. Virtual resources do not have unique identifiers.
### Operators
Kubernetes can be extended using Custom Resources. These API resources represent objects that are not part of the standard Kubernetes product. These resources can appear and disappear in a running cluster through dynamic registration. Cluster administrators can update Custom Resources independently of the cluster.
Custom Controllers are another extension mechanism. These interact with Custom Resources, and allow for a true declarative API that allows for the lifecycle management of Custom Resource that is aligned with the way that Kubernetes itself is designed. The combination of Custom Resources and Custom Controllers are often referred to as an (Kubernetes) Operator. The key use case for Operators are to capture the aim of a human operator who is managing a service or set of services and to implement them using automation, and with a declarative API supporting this automation. Human operators who look after specific applications and services have deep knowledge of how the system ought to behave, how to deploy it, and how to react if there are problems. Examples of problems solved by Operators include taking and restoring backups of that application's state, and
handling upgrades of the application code alongside related changes such as database schemas or extra configuration settings.
### Cluster API
The same API design principles have been used to define an API to programmatically create, configure, and manage Kubernetes clusters. This is called the Cluster API. A key concept embodied in the API is using [as Software](Infrastructure)(Infrastructure as Software), or the notion that the Kubernetes cluster infrastructure is itself a resource / object that can be managed just like any other Kubernetes resources. Similarly, machines that make up the cluster are also treated as a Kubernetes resource. The API has two pieces the core API, and a provider implementation. The provider implementation consists of cloud-provider specific functions that let Kubernetes provide the cluster API in a fashion that is well-integrated with the cloud-provider's services and resources.
## Uses
Kubernetes is commonly used as a way to host a microservice-based implementation, because it and its associated ecosystem of tools provide all the capabilities needed to address key concerns of any [architecture](microservice)(Microservices#A comparison of platforms). It is available in three forms: open source, commercial, and managed. Open source distributions include the original Kubernetes, Amazon EKS-D, [Hat OpenShift](Red)(OpenShift), VMware Tanzu, Mirantis Kubernetes Engine, and D2iQ Kubernetes Platform. Managed offerings include GKE, Microsoft Azure Kubernetes Services, Oracle Container Engine for Kubernetes, [Elastic](Amazon)(Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud) Kubernetes Service, IBM Kubernetes Service, and Platform9 Managed Kubernetes.
## Distributions
Various vendors offer Kubernetes-based platforms or [as a service](infrastructure)(infrastructure as a service) (IaaS) that deploy Kubernetes.
These include:
* [Cloud](Alibaba)(Alibaba Cloud) ACK (Alibaba Cloud Container Service for Kubernetes)
* [Amazon](Amazon (company)) EKS (Elastic Kubernetes Service)
* [Canonical](Canonical (company)) MicroK8s and Charmed Kubernetes
* [DigitalOcean](DigitalOcean) managed Kubernetes Service
* [Google](Google) GKE (Google Kubernetes Engine)
* [IBM](IBM) Cloud Kubernetes Services
* [Microsoft](Microsoft) AKS (Azure Kubernetes Services)
* [Mirantis](Mirantis) K0s
* [Oracle](Oracle Cloud) Container Engine for Kubernetes
* [Hat](Red)(Red Hat) OpenShift
* [SUSE](SUSE) Rancher, Rancher Kubernetes Engine (RKE)
* [VMware](VMware) Tanzu
* [River Systems](Wind)(Wind River Systems) Wind River Studio
## Release timeline
### Support windows
The chart below visualizes the period for which each release is/was supported
ImageSize = width:1000 height:auto barincrement:35
PlotArea = left:100 right:50 bottom:30 top:10
DateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy
Period = from:01/12/2018 till:01/01/2025
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:1 start:2019
ScaleMinor = unit:month increment:1 start:01/01/2019
Define $dx = 25 # shift text to right side of bar
Colors =
id:out_of_support value:rgb(0.992,0.702,0.671) legend:Out_of_support
id:in-support value:rgb(0.996,0.973,0.776) legend:In_support
id:latest value:rgb(0.831,0.957,0.706) legend:Latest_stable_version
id:prerelease value:rgb(0.996,0.82,0.627) legend:Preview_version
PlotData=
mark:(line,black)
fontsize:S
bar:1.27.x from:11/04/2023 till:30/05/2024 text:1.27.x color:latest
bar:1.26.x from:09/12/2022 till:24/02/2024 text:1.26.x color:in-support
bar:1.25.x from:23/08/2022 till:27/10/2023 text:1.25.x color:in-support
bar:1.24.x from:03/05/2022 till:28/07/2023 text:1.24.x color:in-support
bar:1.23.x from:07/12/2021 till:28/02/2023 text:1.23.x color:out_of_support
bar:1.22.x from:04/08/2021 till:28/10/2022 text:1.22.x color:out_of_support
bar:1.21.x from:08/04/2021 till:28/06/2022 text:1.21.x color:out_of_support
bar:1.20.x from:08/12/2020 till:28/02/2022 text:1.20.x color:out_of_support
bar:1.19.x from:26/08/2020 till:28/10/2021 text:1.19.x color:out_of_support
bar:1.18.x from:25/03/2020 till:30/04/2021 text:1.18.x color:out_of_support
bar:1.17.x from:09/12/2019 till:30/01/2021 text:1.17.x color:out_of_support
bar:1.16.x from:18/09/2019 till:25/08/2020 text:1.16.x color:out_of_support
bar:1.15.x from:19/06/2019 till:23/03/2020 text:1.15.x color:out_of_support
bar:1.14.x from:25/03/2019 till:09/12/2019 text:1.14.x color:out_of_support
bar:1.13.x from:03/12/2018 till:18/09/2019 text:1.13.x color:out_of_support
## See also
*[(software)](Docker)(Docker (software))
*[of cluster management software](List)(List of cluster management software)
*[Service Mesh](Open)(Open Service Mesh)
*[OpenShift](OpenShift)
## References
## External links
*
*
[software](Category:2014)(Category:2014 software)
[infrastructure](Category:Cloud)(Category:Cloud infrastructure)
[software](Category:Containerization)(Category:Containerization software)
[software for cloud computing](Category:Free)(Category:Free software for cloud computing)
[software programmed in Go](Category:Free)(Category:Free software programmed in Go)
[containerization](Category:Linux)(Category:Linux containerization)
[Foundation projects](Category:Linux)(Category:Linux Foundation projects)
[using the Apache license](Category:Software)(Category:Software using the Apache license)
[software for Linux](Category:Virtualization)(Category:Virtualization software for Linux)
[software](Category:Orchestration)(Category:Orchestration software)
|
List of Super Dragon Ball Heroes episodes
|
list_of_super_dragon_ball_heroes_episodes
|
# List of Super Dragon Ball Heroes episodes
*Revision ID: 1159660893 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T18:49:25Z*
---
*[Dragon Ball Heroes](Super)(Super Dragon Ball Heroes (web series))* is a Japanese [net animation](original)(original net animation) and promotional [series](anime)(anime series) for the [and video games of the same name](card)(Dragon Ball Heroes). Similar to *[Ball GT](Dragon)(Dragon Ball GT)*, it is a manga-inspired installment of the [Ball* media franchise](*Dragon)(Dragon Ball), created by [Animation](Toei)(Toei Animation) instead of franchise creator [Toriyama](Akira)(Akira Toriyama). The opening theme songs for the season are "Universe Mission Series Theme Song" (episodes 1-20), "Big Bang Mission Series Theme Song" (episodes 21-28 and 30-40), and "Fight Song" (episode 29), all the theme songs are performed by Dragon Soul which is composed of [Tanimoto](Takayoshi)(Takayoshi Tanimoto), [Gojo](Mayumi)(Mayumi Gojo) and YOFFY. It premiered on July 1, 2018. *Super Dragon Ball Heroes* is presented with several alternate scenarios and possible outcomes within the franchise.
The first part of the series from episodes 1-20 is referred to as . The second part from episodes 21-40 is . The third part from episodes 41 onward is .
## Series overview
| end1 =
| color2 = #FFA201
| link2 = #Universal Conflict Arc (2019–20)
| linkT2 = Universal Conflict
| episodes2 = 13
| start2 =
| end2 =
| color3 = #B30B0B
| link3 = #Special Arc I (2020)
| linkT3 = Special I
| episodes3 = 1
| start3 =
| end3 = start
| color4 = #24C5FF
| link4 = #Universe Creation Arc (2020–21)
| linkT4 = Universe Creation
| episodes4 = 11
| start4 =
| end4 =
| color5 = #100037
| link5 = #Special Arc II (2020)
| linkT5 = Special II
| episodes5 = 1
| start5 =
| end5 = start
| color6 = #F763F9
| link6 = #New Space-Time War Arc (2021)
| linkT6 = New Space-Time War
| episodes6 = 8
| start6 =
| end6 =
| color7 = #794049
| link7 = #Supreme Kai of Time Arc (2022–Current)
| linkT7 = Supreme Kai of Time
| episodes7 = 9
| start7 =
| end7 =
}}
## Episode list
### Universe Mission
#### Prison Planet Arc (2018)
|season=4
|seasonT= inarc
|director=
|directorR=
|writer=
|writerR=
|airdate=
|airdateR=
|released=yes
|episodes=
| ShortSummary = Goku and Vegeta's training with Whis and Beerus is interrupted by the arrival of Future Mai, who tells them that Future Trunks has been captured. A mysterious figure emerges, introducing himself as Fu; he tells Goku, Vegeta and Mai that Future Trunks is trapped on a world called the "Prison Planet", a planet where warriors from alternate timelines and dimensions fight as part of an experiment conducted by Fu. The trio arrive on the planet and meet an alternate version of Goku, who is revealed to be part of a group called the Time Patrol. This Goku, referred to as "Xeno Goku", sees Fu and assumes that the trio are working for him; he immediately transforms into Super Saiyan 4 and attacks Goku, who reacts by transforming into Super Saiyan Blue. During the fight, Goku discovers that there is an invisible barrier around the Prison Planet that prevents them from escaping. The two Gokus engage in a Kamehameha clash, but their blasts cancel each other out. Fu deduces that Xeno Goku was trying to use the combined Kamehameha waves to break through the barrier, and explains that the Prison Planet is inescapable unless the group searches for a set of Dragon Balls (one of which is in Xeno Goku's possession) that they can use to escape. Fu disappears, and the two Gokus agree to work with each other to escape the planet. Meanwhile, Future Trunks is in a prison cell elsewhere on the planet. After escaping his cell, Future Trunks is confronted by Cooler, who demands a Dragon Ball from him. As Fu observes the planet, he tells a seemingly evil Saiyan that his time will come.
| LineColor = B4FF00
}}
| ShortSummary = The evil Saiyan escapes his prison cell and attacks Goku, Vegeta and Future Mai. Goku and Vegeta attack the evil Saiyan, but his aura drives Goku berserk, causing him to attack Vegeta. Fu reveals that the evil Saiyan's name is "Cumber", and explains that his energy can turn people into a berserk state by just touching his aura. Goku continues attacking Vegeta; Future Mai is almost caught in the crossfire, but Future Trunks appears and saves her. Vegeta orders Future Trunks to fight Goku while he goes to battle Cumber, but he's interrupted by Cooler, who now appears to be working with Future Trunks. Cooler begins fighting Goku and transforms into his own Golden form, which he calls "Golden Cooler". Using this form, he defeats Goku, snapping him out of his berserk state and returning him to normal. Cooler then launches a Supernova attack at Cumber, but the evil Saiyan survives unscathed, breaks free of his restraints, and attacks the group once again. Future Mai reveals that the Supreme Kai gave her his Potara earrings before they left Beerus' world, and gives them to Goku and Vegeta. Future Trunks and Cooler distract Cumber, who easily defeats Future Trunks; however, this gives Goku and Vegeta enough time to fuse into Vegito. Vegito powers up to Super Saiyan Blue and prepares to fight Cumber.
| LineColor = B4FF00
}}
| ShortSummary = Just before Cumber can kill Future Trunks, Vegito transforms into Super Saiyan Blue and saves Future Trunks from the blast. When Cumber weakens Vegito, he transforms into Super Saiyan Blue Kaio-ken x20 and continues to fight Cumber while Cooler observes, noticing that the chains around the Prison Planet have begun to break due to Vegito and Cumber's fight. As Cumber prepares to fire a ki blast, Vegito attempts to counter it with a Final Kamehameha but fails. Cumber then creates an artificial moon and uses it to transform into a Golden Great Ape. In this transformation, Cumber attacks Vegito, who defuses back into Goku and Vegeta after using up too much energy. Goku and Vegeta then prepare to battle Cumber one last time.
| LineColor = B4FF00
}}
フュー登場！
| NativeTitleLangCode = ja
| DirectedBy = Kana Shinohara
| WrittenBy = Atsuhiro Tomioka
| OriginalAirDate =
| ShortSummary = Having defused back into Goku and Vegeta, Goku suggests cutting off Cumber's tail to revert him back to normal. As Cumber fires yet another blast at the Saiyan pair, Goku and Vegeta avoid it and fly directly upward, transforming into Super Saiyan in the process and attempt to get to Cumber's tail but even at his great size he proves to be swift enough to defend himself. As he steps on Goku, Future Trunks rushes in to help and tries to cut off the Golden Great Ape's tail with his sword but is struck hard to the ground. Vegeta and Future Trunks fire a volley of blasts at Cumber, but they do no damage to him. Even when Golden Cooler fires blasts of his own, Cumber is still unfazed. Meanwhile, Fu continues to watch the battle from his laboratory, smitten by the current events, until a nearby computer informs him of the damage to the Prison Planet's barrier and he decides to go to the battle himself to control matters. Goku still remains under the foot of Cumber, struggling to get free but is them seemingly crushed. However, Goku transforms into a Super Saiyan Blue and throws Cumber's foot off of him. Charging directly towards Cumber, Goku uses the Super Saiyan Blue Kaio-ken x20 and strikes Cumber in the face though he is unmoved. Goku fires a Kamehameha though the move is blocked. The ongoing battle causes the barrier to break down even more when suddenly Fu arrives, telling Cumber to watch what he's doing as he declares that he will rein him in. Fu powers up into an empowered state and gathers the energy from the artificial moon to his sword, before striking at Cumber and causing him to revert to his normal state. Cumber throws a punch at Fu but he easily avoids it. While the others comment on what he just did, Fu tells them to continue their battle as he teleports away, avoiding Cooler's blast in the process. Cumber powers up once more and Goku vows to take him on; he transforms into a Super Saiyan God, and Cumber appears to recognize it.
| LineColor = B4FF00
}}
サイヤ人4ベジット！！
| NativeTitleLangCode = ja
| DirectedBy = Yamazaki Kyōsuke
| WrittenBy = Atsuhiro Tomioka
| OriginalAirDate =
| ShortSummary = Cumber and Goku's battle breaks the seal around the Prison Planet, while Fu is enraged to discover that his laboratory has been destroyed. Cumber defeats Super Saiyan God Goku and knocks him unconscious. Just before Cumber can kill Goku, Xeno Goku and Xeno Vegeta arrive as Super Saiyan 4s and save Goku. They challenge Cumber, who transforms into Super Saiyan 3, so Xeno Vegeta suggests that he and Xeno Goku use Potara fusion. They put on the earrings and fuse into Xeno Vegito. Xeno Vegito battles Cumber and manages to subdue him using a Kamehameha, before separating back into Xeno Goku and Xeno Vegeta. The resulting explosion breaks the seal completely. Fu returns, now furious over the destruction of his lab, and attacks Xeno Goku and Xeno Vegeta, who manage to block the attack. They then charge at Fu.
| LineColor = B4FF00
}}
| ShortSummary = The Prison Planet has been destabilized by the destruction of the shield. Fu battles Xeno Goku and Xeno Vegeta, but their fight is interrupted when Cumber recovers and returns to the battle, attacking everyone on the field. Satisfied that he has achieved his objective, Fu opens a portal and escapes. Cooler pursues him through the portal before it closes, stranding everyone else on the Prison Planet. Cumber launches a massive energy blast at the group; Xeno Goku, Xeno Vegeta, Vegeta and Future Trunks attempt to block it, without success. Suddenly, Goku awakens, reawakens Ultra Instinct, and easily deflects Cumber's blast. Goku begins fighting Cumber again, while Xeno Goku teleports the rest of the group to safety. Goku overpowers Cumber and finally defeats him, knocking him unconscious with a Kamehameha. Five mysterious figures suddenly appear in the sky; one of them reveals himself as Fusion Zamasu, now wearing an eyepatch over his right eye. Zamasu collects the unconscious Cumber before the group teleports away, leaving Goku alone on the Prison Planet as it explodes.
| LineColor = B4FF00
}}
}}
#### Universal Conflict Arc (2019–20)
inarc
|director=
|directorR=
|writer=
|writerR=
|airdate=
|airdateR=
|released=yes
|episodes=
| ShortSummary = The rest of the group from the Prison Planet have made it safely back to Beerus' planet, where they regroup with Whis. Xeno Goku and Xeno Vegeta return to their own universe, wishing the others good luck. Suddenly, the Supreme Kai of Universe 6 appears and informs the group that his universe has been invaded, and that Champa and the other Destroyers have not responded to his attempts to contact them. Vegeta declares that he will take care of these enemies. Meanwhile, in Universe 6, Hit, Cabba, [and Kale](Caulifla)(Caulifla and Kale) find themselves outmatched by the invaders: a pair of Tuffle Neo Machine siblings named Oren and Kamin, who were among the escapees from the Prison Planet. Oren and Kamin have the advantage due to their regeneration and their knowledge of their opponents' abilities, and are overpowering them until Vegeta and Future Trunks join the fray. Elsewhere, Zamasu discusses the situation with the group's leader Hearts, who reveals that their ultimate plan is to defeat the Omni-King. Vegeta and Trunks are able to turn the tables on Oren and Kamin, so they decide to reveal a secret technique.
| LineColor = FFA201
}}
| ShortSummary = Oren and Kamin suddenly convert their bodies into energy and possess Kale and Caulifla, using their bodies to attack the others. Vegeta, Trunks and Hit develop a plan; Trunks and Hit fight and immobilize Oren and Kamin, with the siblings forced to abandon their host bodies when Vegeta fires a Final Flash at them. Before the battle can continue, Hearts appears with a strange crystal and immobilizes all of them with his psychic powers. He reveals that the crystal is a Universe Seed, explaining that it will give him the powers to destroy the Omni-King, the Supreme Kais, and the Gods of Destruction. Hearts creates a strange crystal cube, which he uses to destroy a nearby planet, and prepares to do the same to the group of fighters, but Oren and Kamin insist on fighting them again. Zamasu also reveals himself, which shocks Trunks and Vegeta. Hearts reads Hit's mind, determining that he believes [Jiren](Jiren (Dragon Ball)) to be the strongest fighter in all the universes. Meanwhile, in Universe 11, Jiren and Toppo are facing off against Cumber. Elsewhere, it is revealed that Goku is alive and with the Grand Minister.
| LineColor = FFA201
}}
| ShortSummary = Vegeta and Trunks arrive in Universe 11, and discover that Hearts and his gang are already there attacking. Oren catches the Saiyans off-guard and possesses Vegeta's body, gaining his immense power for himself. Trunks attacks Oren, but he is easily defeated. Meanwhile, Jiren is fighting Cumber: they appear to be evenly matched, so Cumber transforms into a Super Saiyan, but Jiren is still holding his own until Hearts appears and calls off the fight. Oren takes over fighting Jiren, while Hearts sends Cumber to attack Universe 3 instead. Kamin and Zamasu join the battle against Jiren; Trunks tries to help by attacking Zamasu, but Oren swiftly wins him again. Just as Oren is about to finish off Trunks, Goku arrives with the Grand Minister. The Grand Minister departs, and Goku demonstrates that he now has some control over Ultra Instinct. Zamasu tries to attack Goku, but Jiren intercepts him. Goku easily defeats Oren and Kamin, expelling Oren from Vegeta's body in the process, before turning his attention to Hearts.
| LineColor = FFA201
}}
| ShortSummary = After freeing Vegeta's body from Oren's control, Goku confronts Hearts. Oren and Kamin attack Goku again, but he easily overpowers them both. Realizing that they can't beat Goku separately, the two fuse into "Kamioren" to take him on. Meanwhile, Jiren throws a massive energy blast at Zamasu, but Zamasu survives unscathed thanks to his immortality. As Goku is winning against Kamioren, Hearts uses his powers to launch a crystal from the Universe Seed at Goku. Unable to hold its shape under the pressure of Goku's and the Universe Seed's power, the crystal shatters and reveals a being called Lagss, the final member of Hearts' gang. Goku loses Ultra Instinct and reverts to his base form, exhausted by the effort of blocking the crystal. Lagss then uses the broken pieces of the crystal to injure him, slicing him repeatedly and knocking him out. With Goku unconscious and unable to continue the fight, Vegeta powers up to his evolved form of Super Saiyan Blue and gets ready to fight Kamioren.
| LineColor = FFA201
}}
| ShortSummary = Vegeta begins fighting Kamioren, and seems to have the advantage. Lagss attempts to finish off Goku, but Trunks intervenes and takes her on instead. Vegeta begins winning against Kamioren, and defeats them with a Final Flash that forces Kamin and Oren to separate. Meanwhile, Jiren continues to overpower Zamasu and injures him, but Zamasu's injuries quickly heal. Lagss attacks Trunks with her glass crystals, but Goku knocks him out of the way and takes the attack himself. Hearts steps in and sends Lagss to join Cumber in Universe 3, before confronting Goku himself. He reads Goku's mind and discerns that he hasn't perfected Ultra Instinct yet but decides to try and draw out Goku's full power so that he can defeat him at his strongest. Goku, Trunks and Vegeta all attack Hearts, but he uses his psychic powers to immobilize them. Goku begins fighting to resist Hearts' powers, but Universe 7's Supreme Kai suddenly appears and rescues the three Saiyans. Hearts decides that the villains have absorbed enough energy from Universe 11, and that it's time for them to move on to their next target. Jiren tries to intercept them, but Hearts temporarily traps him inside a crystal cube and the villains escape, leaving Jiren and Toppo alone. Elsewhere, Fu is hidden in a new laboratory and has been observing the recent battles; he tells a robotic version of Cooler that it's now his turn to join the fray.
| LineColor = FFA201
}}
| ShortSummary = Hearts, Zamasu, Oren and Kamin arrive in Universe 7 to destroy it, but are confronted by Goku, Vegeta, Future Trunks, Android 17 and Piccolo. Oren and Kamin head for Vegeta, but are intercepted by 17 and Piccolo, while Vegeta and Trunks take on Zamasu. Goku repeatedly attempts to attack Hearts but keeps getting pulled down by Hearts' gravity manipulation before he can get near him. Meanwhile, in Universe 3, Cooler, who is now a "Meta Cooler" cyborg, has defeated Lagss and is fighting Cumber. After having some difficulty with Cumber's Super Saiyan form, Cooler transforms into his Golden form and overpowers Cumber; he begins charging up three Supernova attacks to end the battle, but his systems begin to overheat. Cooler launches the blasts, knocking Cumber out, but his overheating circuits are damaged, and he is forced to retreat before he can finish Cumber off. Back in Universe 7, Oren and Kamin fuse into Kamioren and Hearts powers up as Goku stands up, ready to keep fighting.
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ハーツ参戦！大地揺るがす全開バトル！
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| DirectedBy = Yui Komatsu
| WrittenBy = Atsuhiro Tomioka
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| ShortSummary = After powering up, Hearts attacks Goku and their battle intensifies, with Hearts holding the advantage until Goku powers up to Super Saiyan Blue, after which they appear to be evenly matched. However, they both acknowledge that neither of them is fighting all-out yet. Goku is able to gain the upper hand and overpowers Hearts with a Kamehameha. Meanwhile, Trunks and Vegeta continue their battle with Zamasu, while Android 17 and Piccolo are able to catch Kamioren off guard, with 17 holding off their attacks while Piccolo charges up a Special Beam Cannon that wounds them. However, Kamioren regenerates and powers up wildly, enraged by the possibility that they could lose. Hearts gets back up and powers up again, using his control of gravity against Goku; Goku is able to withstand his attacks, so Hearts powers up even further.
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| ShortSummary = After powering up, Hearts uses his gravity cubes to further enhance his strength and defeats Goku with a single blow. Meanwhile, Piccolo and 17 are able to injure Kamioren again; Kamioren appears to be off-balance, so Hearts decides to assist them as the Universe Seed is nearly ready. He shrinks the Universe Seed to a small size using his gravity cubes and implants it into Kamioren, causing them to undergo a monstrous transformation that increases their power even further. In this state, Kamioren easily defeats Piccolo and 17, so Vegeta and Trunks go to assist them. All four fighters attack Kamioren together, but are unsuccessful. Kamioren is about to finish off Vegeta, but Goku goes to help him and is able to reach Ultra Instinct again, allowing him to withstand Kamioren's attacks.
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| ShortSummary = Goku begins fighting Kamioren, and the two seem to be fairly evenly matched in terms of power, until Goku transforms further into the mastered level of Ultra Instinct and easily deflects Kamioren's attacks. He overwhelms Kamioren with help from the others, damaging them with a Kamehameha and a barrage of energy blasts before shattering their core with a final punch, causing their body to disintegrate. Goku drops out of Ultra Instinct again, while Hearts expresses sorrow over the deaths of Kamin and Oren, before retrieving the now fully-charged Universe Seed from Kamioren's remains. Hearts begins absorbing the power of the Universe Seed, surrounding himself in a huge cloud of gravity cubes, which coalesces into a single gigantic cube. Meanwhile, Zamasu looks on in satisfaction, declaring that he had been waiting for this moment.
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| ShortSummary = Vegeta and the others try to attack Hearts while he is absorbing the Universe Seed, but Zamasu stands in their way as he reveals that he is only aiding Hearts so he can resume his scheme to exterminate all mortal life without the Zenos' interference. Zamasu overpowers Goku after quickly incapacitating the others, before Jiren and Hit arrive to join the fight, having been sent by their universes' Supreme Kais to deal with Hearts and his allies. Goku, Jiren, and Hit are about to attack Zamasu again when Hearts suddenly emerges from his enormous gravity cube, having assimilated the Universe Seed and its power into his body, and gaining a new form in the process. Hearts uses his new power to easily immobilize Zamasu, then traps him in another gravity cube and obliterates him completely after revealing that his goal is to destroy all the gods. The Grand Minister is disturbed after sensing Zamasu's death and Hearts' immense power, as Hearts proclaims himself to be "the Ultimate Godslayer."
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| ShortSummary = Hearts launches a simultaneous attack on all of the Z-Fighters, who struggle to fight back. Goku powers up to Super Saiyan Blue and attacks him, but Hearts easily knocks him away and then uses a massive gravity attack to take down all of the fighters at once. As the others recover, Jiren and Hit go after Hearts again, while Goku suggests that he and Vegeta use the Fusion Dance to make themselves strong enough to take on Hearts' new power. Trunks, Piccolo, and 17 rejoin the battle to buy time, while Goku and Vegeta perform the dance successfully and fuse into Gogeta. The other fighters stand down for the time being, as Gogeta prepares to battle Hearts.
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| ShortSummary = Gogeta powers up to Super Saiyan Blue and launches an attack on Hearts. As the fight gets more intense Hearts powers up to his maximum as well, but Gogeta takes no damage and quickly gains the upper hand. Hearts then uses his powers to pull a gigantic meteor into the Earth's atmosphere, infusing it with his own energy before launching it at Gogeta. Gogeta powers up and prepares to stop the meteor.
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| ShortSummary = Gogeta launches an energy blast at the meteor, slowing it down and temporarily holding it in place. Hearts uses his full strength and overpowers Gogeta's blast, propelling the meteor forwards again, so Gogeta powers up even more, charges up a Kamehameha and fires it at the meteor instead. Trunks is worried that the Earth will be destroyed, as it appears that Gogeta is unable to match Hearts' full power, but Piccolo refuses to give up. Hit and Jiren join Gogeta and add their own blasts to the Kamehameha, increasing its power and ultimately shattering the meteor. Trunks, Piccolo, and 17 shield the Earth from the meteor's fragments, while Gogeta and Hearts engage in a final clash. Gogeta overpowers Hearts and delivers a finishing blow that shatters the Universe Seed embedded in Hearts' chest, causing his body to disintegrate. As he dies, Hearts explains that he was merely trying to free all mortals by defeating the Omni-Kings, as their power to destroy entire universes on a whim prevents mortals from ever being truly free. Hearts congratulates Gogeta and the others on surpassing their limits to defeat him, and then dies peacefully. Meanwhile, it is revealed that the Omni-Kings have been playing hide-and-seek with the Gods of Destruction throughout the battles, but the Grand Minister was observing the fight and thanks the heroes for defeating the threat. Elsewhere, Fu expresses his satisfaction with the outcome of the battle and declares that it is time for his next experiment to begin.
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}}
#### Special Arc I (2020)
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| ShortSummary = In another timeline, a war has been raging between the Time Patrol and an evil army from the Dark Demon Realm, led by the Dark King Mechikabura. The conflict between them has reached its final battle, as the Supreme Kai of Time, Chronoa, and a team of elite Time Patrollers (consisting of the Xeno counterparts of Goku, Vegeta, Gohan, Goten, Pan, and Future Trunks) have invaded the Demon Realm to deal with Mechikabura once and for all. Super Saiyan God Xeno Trunks and Super Saiyan 4 Xeno Vegito are battling against Mechikabura, while the others look on. Xeno Vegito overpowers Mechikabura, while Chronoa empowers Xeno Trunks' mystical Key Sword with her magic, enabling him to strike Mechikabura down. The Supreme Kai of Time then uses her magic to seal Mechikabura away, while her magical bird companion Toki-Toki uses his own magic to wash away the darkness of the Demon Realm and destroys the demons' palace. Chronoa thanks the Time Patrollers for their help, and they return home triumphant. However, it's revealed that just before the destruction of the Demon Realm, the Demon Queen Towa and her servant Mira sent Towa's child off into the timestream to save his life, and the child is revealed to be a young version of Fu.
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### Big Bang Mission
#### Universe Creation Arc (2020–21)
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| ShortSummary = In the Time Nest, headquarters of the Time Patrol, the Supreme Kai of Time informs Xeno Trunks and Xeno Pan that her mystical bird Toki-Toki has disappeared. She sends the two of them to find him, while also being worried about a supposed "Bird of Catastrophe" that has been released. Meanwhile, Toki-Toki has appeared on Earth in the main timeline, where Goku finds him while training with Vegeta, Gohan, Piccolo, Krillin, and Android 17. Xeno Trunks and Xeno Pan arrive and are happy to see that Toki-Toki is safe, with Xeno Pan explaining that his existence is very important for the inner workings of the multiverse. Suddenly, the group is interrupted by the arrival of all twelve Gods of Destruction. Champa identifies Toki-Toki and Beerus promptly attempts to destroy him, but Toki-Toki uses his magic to defuse Beerus' attack. Goku asks Beerus what's going on, and Beerus explains that he has received a premonition that a mysterious bird will appear in Universe 7 and destroy the entire multiverse. Xeno Trunks protests that this couldn't be possible, and Xeno Pan quickly escapes back to the Time Nest with Toki-Toki. Quitela, Champa and the other Gods of Destruction are angered by the mortals' defiance, and immediately prepare to destroy Earth in response, but Beerus tells them to stand down, saying that as Universe 7's God of Destruction, he will discipline the mortals himself. Goku, Vegeta, Xeno Trunks and the others all power up and prepare to fight against Beerus. Meanwhile, Fu observes the scene from an unknown location, saying that this is the start of his new experiment. He now possesses a strange, glowing tree, and a strange bird called "Doki-Doki", the true target of the Gods of Destruction, which appears to be an evil version of Toki-Toki.
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| ShortSummary = Goku, Vegeta and Xeno Trunks are fighting against Beerus, while Gohan, Piccolo, 17, Krillin, and the other Gods of Destruction look on. Beerus has the upper hand, until their battle is interrupted by the arrival of Xeno Goku and Xeno Vegeta, who warn them that they need to stop the fight. Suddenly, a mass of giant tree roots appears in the sky around the Earth and begins draining the planet's energy. The other Gods of Destruction sense that the same thing is happening on other planets all over their own universes, with the affected planets eventually being consumed entirely. The other gods all rush back to their own universes to protect them, leaving Beerus, the Earth's heroes, and the Time Patrollers behind. They are then confronted by Fu, who is accompanied by Doki-Doki. Fu confirms that Doki-Doki is the "Bird of Catastrophe" that Beerus was worried about and explains that the tree roots are part of the Universe Tree, which grew from the Universe Seed that Hearts was developing. By draining energy from all twelve universes using the Tree, he claims that he will be able to create a new universe. Fu and Doki-Doki escape through a portal, while Krillin, Piccolo, and the other inhabitants of Earth begin to weaken as a result of the Tree's draining their energy. Beerus rises into the sky and powers up, shielding the Earth by allowing the Tree to feed on his energy instead; however, he warns the others that he will not be able to keep this up for long, and that he cannot destroy the Tree by himself. Xeno Goku and Xeno Vegeta teleport away to search for Fu elsewhere, while Goku, Vegeta, and Xeno Trunks head out in their own attempt to track him down.
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| ShortSummary = Fu and Towa meet with a group of villains - Meta Cooler, Turles, Bojack, Super Android 17, and a mysterious humanoid scientist known as Dr. W - on the Universe Tree. Fu reveals that he rescued all the villains from the moments before their deaths at the hands of the Z-Fighters and convinces them to help him in exchange for places in the new universe that he is creating. Meanwhile, Goku, Vegeta, Xeno Trunks and Xeno Pan are searching for Fu, when they are attacked by Turles and Bojack. The two villains reveal that Fu has been able to increase their power immensely, as they are now strong enough to fight on par with Goku and Vegeta's Super Saiyan Blue forms and have auras similar to Cumber's. As the battle rages, Xeno Trunks spots Fu observing the fight: Goku and Vegeta try to engage him instead, but Turles and Bojack block their way. Elsewhere, Xeno Goku and Xeno Vegeta arrive in Hell, and are confronted by the mysterious Dr. W.
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| ShortSummary = Dr. W begins what he calls an "analysis" of Xeno Goku and Xeno Vegeta by attacking them with strange, teleporting energy blasts. They both power up to Super Saiyan 3 and engage him in combat, but he is able to hold them both off with his strange attacks and high-speed reflexes. After having difficulty overpowering him, they power up to Super Saiyan 4 and land a powerful combined blast on him; however, Dr. W deliberately takes their attacks head-on, and emerges from the smoke with a glowing golden aura identical to theirs. Having completed his analysis, he then opens a portal and escapes. Meanwhile, Fu is observing the battle between Goku, Vegeta, Turles and Bojack. He releases Doki-Doki, who generates waves of dark energy that immobilize Goku, Vegeta, Xeno Trunks and Xeno Pan. Toki-Toki tries to defuse the dark energy, but Fu traps him and throws him through a portal, before recalling Doki-Doki and escaping through one himself. Turles and Bojack also escape through portals, leaving the four heroes alone. Back in Hell, Dr. W delivers the data that he collected on Xeno Goku and Xeno Vegeta to a strange machine, which he refers to as "Janemba."
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| ShortSummary = In Hell, Xeno Goku & Xeno Vegeta, both at Super Saiyan 4, struggle against the reborn Janemba, who is aware of all of their abilities and tactics, which enables him to easily overwhelm them both. Just when Janemba is about to finish them off, Goku, Vegeta, Xeno Trunks and Xeno Pan arrive in Hell through a portal and join the fight. Xeno Trunks powers up to Super Saiyan 3, while Goku and Vegeta both power up to Super Saiyan Blue. Super Saiyan Blue Goku and Super Saiyan 4 Xeno Goku then team up and drive Janemba back with a series of simultaneous attacks. Janemba is about to continue the battle, but the fight is interrupted when two mysterious figures interfere by knocking him away, enraging Dr. W. Xeno Trunks and Xeno Pan identify the new arrivals as Majin Salsa and Putine.
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| ShortSummary = Xeno Trunks identifies the new arrivals, Majin Salsa and Putine, as demons and old enemies of the Time Patrol. However, the demons offer to help the heroes in their efforts to destroy Fu's Universe Tree, warning that the Tree is continuing its work of consuming countless planets across the multiverse. Janemba attacks them all again before the two groups can come to an agreement, and the battle resumes, with Xeno Trunks powering up to Super Saiyan God. Majin Salsa suggests that Xeno Goku and Xeno Vegeta use a technique that they have employed in the past, so the other Saiyans all power up and channel their energy into the pair while the two demons hold off Janemba. By absorbing the others' energy, Xeno Goku and Xeno Vegeta break through their limits and achieve a higher level of strength, known as Full-Power Super Saiyan 4. They attack Janemba together, succeed in overpowering him, and are finally able to destroy him using their ultimate technique, the Double Dragon Fist. Dr. W flees by teleporting away, while the Saiyans and demons reconvene. Putine teleports the group away, promising to take them to the Universe Tree. Meanwhile, elsewhere in Hell, Hearts' spirit is locked up in a prison cell.
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| ShortSummary = Goku, Vegeta, Xeno Goku, Xeno Vegeta, Xeno Trunks, Xeno Pan, Majin Salsa and Putine arrive on the Universe Tree, which is still absorbing energy from the multiverse. Vegeta attempts to destroy the Tree with a large ki blast, but it absorbs the energy instead. Fu then appears and confronts the group, informing them that he plans to create a new universe using the Tree. Xeno Goku, Xeno Vegeta, Xeno Trunks and Xeno Pan are suddenly teleported away by Towa; she tells Fu that she is doing something for him, and then teleports away along with Majin Salsa and Putine. Vegeta powers up to Super Saiyan Blue and attacks Fu, but Fu reveals that he now has access to Cumber's energy and channels Cumber's aura through his own body, using its effects to corrupt Vegeta's ki and drive him berserk. Goku tries to intervene, but Fu corrupts his ki as well; however, even in their berserk state, Goku and Vegeta refuse to fight each other and continue attacking Fu instead. Fu lands a solid hit on them both with his sword, which negates the effects of Cumber's aura and returns them too normal. As Fu waits for the Tree to finish developing, Goku and Vegeta use a pair of Potara earrings given to them by Majin Salsa and fuse into Vegito. Fu tries to corrupt Vegito too, but Vegito uses a barrier to repel his attack before powering up to Super Saiyan Blue.
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フュー
| NativeTitleLangCode = ja
| DirectedBy =
| WrittenBy = Atsuhiro Tomioka
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| ShortSummary = In another dimension, Towa restrains Xeno Goku, Xeno Vegeta, Xeno Trunks, and Xeno Pan using Cumber's dark ki, and reveals that she created Fu using data from many previous Dragon Ball fighters and villains. She explains that her plan is to make Fu into the new Dark King using Mechikabura's "Dark Factor," which she stored in a dark energy orb upon his death. Xeno Goku manages to break free and attacks Towa, only to be blocked by Mira. Towa teleports Xeno Gohan and Xeno Goten into the dimension, both unconscious as their ki has been drained before, then teleports Mira and herself out before the dimension shatters, pulling all inside into a shadowy vortex. Meanwhile, Super Saiyan Blue Vegito is fighting Fu in the front of Universe Tree and seemingly getting the upper hand. Fu powers up to Super Fu and manages to land a blow, only to be blocked and further beaten by Vegito. Just then, the Universe Tree glows brightly, signifying its mature phase and creation of the universe Fu wanted, but it suddenly starts withering. It is revealed that Beerus, Champa, Whis, and Vados used the Super Dragon Balls to wish for the destruction of the Universe Tree's roots.
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#### Special Arc II (2020)
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| ShortSummary = An isolated special episode, unrelated to the rest of the series. In this special, two normal teenagers, a boy and a girl, compete in the 10th anniversary championship of the game *Super Dragon Ball Heroes*, using a virtual-reality console which transports them into the world of Dragon Ball as their own avatars. Each avatar powers up to Super Saiyan Blue and is backed up by a team of fighters from the world of *Dragon Ball*: the boy is aided by Vegito, Yamcha, Xeno Trunks, Goku, Bardock, and Jiren, while the girl is aided by Gogeta, the Masked Saiyan, Broly, the Dark-Masked King, the Grand Priest, and Demigra. The two teams begin fighting each other; after a lengthy battle, the boys' team emerges victorious, and he is declared to be the new champion. However, three new avatars then appear to challenge the champion, aided by a team of Heles, Champa, Vados, Beerus, Whis, and Belmod. The new arrivals quickly gain the upper hand, but the champion's avatar and his team's version of Goku are both able to access Ultra Instinct, turning the tide. With his team backing him up, the champion is newly inspired and happily prepares to continue the game.
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#### Universe Creation Arc (cont.) (2020–21)
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| ShortSummary = Fu is horrified by the Universe Tree's death, until Towa and Mira arrive to help him. Towa infuses Mechikabura's Dark Factor into Fu, dramatically increasing his power and causing him to undergo a transformation into the new Dark King. However, Fu expresses no interest in this, and begins using his new powers to restore the Tree instead. Vegito tries to stop him and their fight resumes, but Towa and Mira intervene to help Fu and buy time for him by attacking Vegito. Before Fu can finish restoring the Tree, however, a portal opens and Xeno Vegito emerges, now powered up to Full-Power Super Saiyan 4 and accompanied by the Demon God Demigra. Xeno Vegito attacks Fu, and the battle resumes. Meanwhile, in an unknown location, an alternate version of Broly awakens.
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| ShortSummary = Xeno Vegito begins fighting Fu; the two of them seem to be evenly matched, until Fu uses his dark magic to change the area around them. He manifests a large combat arena for them to fight in, and prepares to engage both Vegitos in battle, until the three of them are interrupted by the sudden arrival of the alternate Broly in his Legendary Super Saiyan form. Xeno Vegito overpowers Broly, until Broly also transforms into a Full-Power Super Saiyan 4. The main timeline's Vegito joins the fight, and the two Vegitos battle Broly together, but even the two of them together struggle against his monstrous power. Meanwhile, Fu uses his magic to fully revive the Universe Tree. The main-timeline Vegito continues fighting Broly, while Xeno Vegito goes after Fu, but the Tree suddenly releases a massive wave of light that engulfs Fu, Broly, and the main-timeline Vegito. Xeno Vegito narrowly escapes, while Majin Salsa, Putine, Dr. W, Turles, the captive Cumber, and Hearts' spirit body are all enveloped by the energy wave.
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| ShortSummary = Xeno Vegito outruns the energy wave before it dissipates, leaving the area around the Tree unscathed; he returns to find Fu holding the miniaturized form of the new universe created by the Tree. However, Fu is disappointed by his creation, as the new universe is flawed because Fu had to use his own demonic power to refuel the Tree rather than the pure energy of a normal universe. A furious Xeno Vegito attacks Fu, determined to stop him from doing anything else, and their battle resumes. Towa challenges Demigra, but his female companion Robel takes her on instead, while Demigra uses a mystical technique known as "Time Labyrinth" to freeze both Xeno Vegito and Fu in time. Towa claims that Fu will be able to escape the frozen-time bubble, but Demigra is confident that he will not, and he teleports away with Robel. On Beerus' planet in the Seventh Universe, Whis and Vados sense the creation of the flawed new universe. Meanwhile, in the new universe, Goku awakens alone, in a strange, empty version of West City.
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#### New Space-Time War Arc (2021)
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| ShortSummary = A mysterious figure looks out over the new universe's version of West City. Nearby, Goku has been attacked by Frieza and Meta Cooler. In the process, he is contacted by Xeno Trunks, who is at the Time Nest with Xeno Pan, Xeno Gohan, Xeno Goten, and the Supreme Kai of Time. Xeno Trunks informs Goku that what Fu has actually created is merely a copy of the Seventh Universe; interestingly, any damage inflicted on the buildings in the alternate West City is also transferred over to the real West City. Goku tries to find a way to escape, but he is tracked down and attacked again by Frieza and Cooler. However, Hearts appears and rescues him. Goku is shocked, but Hearts explains that Demigra pulled his spirit body out of Hell, and that he wants Goku to help him destroy Fu for misusing the Universe Seed. Goku and Hearts form a tentative alliance against Frieza and Cooler, who both transform into their Golden forms. Hearts battles Cooler, while Goku briefly taps into Ultra Instinct and uses its power to subdue Frieza. However, a mysterious masked Saiyan with hair similar to Goku's appears and implants two red Dark Dragon Balls into Frieza and Cooler, granting them a significant powerup.
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| ShortSummary = Goku and Hearts struggle against the newly empowered Frieza and Cooler, until their battle is interrupted by the arrival of the alternate Broly in his Legendary Super Saiyan form. Broly attacks all four combatants, overpowering them all, as the masked Saiyan looks on. Suddenly, a mysterious cloaked figure arrives on the scene and attacks both Cooler and Frieza, removing the Dark Dragon Balls from both of them. Broly attacks the cloaked figure, who leads him away. Hearts reveals that he is unable to read the minds of either the cloaked figure or the masked Saiyan, who teleports away. Hearts gives Goku a duplicate Senzu bean to heal his injuries and reveals that duplicates of the normal Dragon Balls also exist in this universe. Goku theorizes that if they gather all of the duplicate Dragon Balls, they may be able to use them to escape. Using a duplicate of the Dragon Radar, they track one of the other Dragon Balls to a nearby planet. On that planet, the masked Saiyan observes Vegeta, Turles and Cumber, and orders them to begin fighting each other.
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| ShortSummary = On the unknown planet, Vegeta, Turles and Cumber begin fighting each other. Cumber temporarily disables Vegeta and continues fighting Turles, while Goku and Hearts arrive to help Vegeta. They are confronted by the masked Saiyan, who reveals himself as Goku Black; he powers up to Super Saiyan Rosé and begins fighting Goku. Turles tries to corrupt Vegeta's ki using the evil energy that he absorbed from Cumber, but Vegeta is able to resist the effects of the corruption and absorbs the dark energy for himself. Using this newly enhanced strength, Vegeta easily defeats Turles and then knocks Cumber unconscious with a Gallick Gun. He advises Turles to leave and train before challenging him again but is then horrified to see that Black has overpowered Goku and Hearts.
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サイヤ人ロゼVS身勝手の極意！惑星激震の大決闘！
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| DirectedBy = Akihiro Nakamura
| WrittenBy = Atsuhiro Tomioka
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| ShortSummary = Vegeta intervenes to protect Goku, but his new power runs out before he can deal with Black. Black reveals to Vegeta that he is an alternate version originating from before he was destroyed by Future Zeno: Fu told Black about his future, which prompted him to study Goku by fighting versions of him in 99 other timelines. Just before Black can kill Vegeta, Goku taps into Ultra Instinct and quickly overpowers Black. However, Black fires an energy blast into the planet, destabilizing it. Goku tries to teleport the others to safety but is unable to do so. Turles returns and attacks Black but is swiftly defeated and is seemingly killed. Suddenly, Cell appears (also in a spirit body) and saves Goku, Vegeta, Hearts, and the unconscious Cumber. Black also teleports away before the planet explodes. Goku and Vegeta interrogate Cell, who explains that he was pulled out of Hell by Demigra for the same reason as Hearts. Before Cell can explain the situation further, several mysterious figures appear that shock Goku and Vegeta.
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| ShortSummary = The new arrivals are revealed to be Gohan, Krillin, Android 17, and Android 18, who have been transported into the new universe. Majin Salsa and Putine also join the group, accompanied by Shurum, a former Demon God and an ally of Demigra, who helped to retrieve Cell and Hearts from Hell. Cell secretly vows to get his vengeance on the Z-Fighters for killing him; Hearts reads his thoughts but doesn't say anything to the others. Goku explains that he and Vegeta could defeat Black with Ultra Instinct and with Vegeta's new power, but that neither of them can properly control those powers yet. Shurum, Majin Salsa, and Putine open a portal to a pocket dimension similar to the Hyperbolic Time Chamber, which will give Goku and Vegeta some time to train and master their new powers. Shurum assures them that he has another partner who will keep Black occupied while they are training. Goku and Vegeta enter the pocket dimension, where they are confronted by shadowy duplicates of some of their past enemies. Elsewhere, Black observes the new universe, until he is ambushed by the cloaked figure from earlier, who reveals himself as a powerful Super Saiyan. The others prepare to go and help, but they are intercepted by Bojack, Super Android 17, and Dr. W, who reveals himself as Dr. Wheelo. Black powers up even further into a form resembling Super Saiyan 3 and defeats the cloaked Super Saiyan, but he is interrupted by the arrival of Goku and Vegeta, who have completed their training and mastered their full powers.
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| ShortSummary = The cloaked Saiyan teleports away as Goku and Vegeta overpower Black; however, Goku drops out of Ultra Instinct, and Black powers up to his full strength by using his mask to absorb more energy from the false universe. In this new state, he swiftly defeats Vegeta. Frieza and Meta-Cooler arrive in their Golden forms and challenge Black, but he uses a mystical scroll to summon a Majin-powered version of Omega Shenron, who easily defeats them. Hearts and Cumber arrive and battle Omega, while Black makes short work of Frieza and Meta-Cooler: however, Goku and Vegeta use the opportunity to fuse into Gogeta and power up to Super Saiyan Blue. Gogeta and Black begin fighting, and Gogeta appears to have the upper hand until Black uses his mask's power to heal his injuries and continues powering up by absorbing more energy. Gogeta then powers up to his own maximum by accessing Super Saiyan Blue Evolved and easily defeats Black, finishing him off by shattering his mask. The destruction of Black's mask causes him to disintegrate, and Omega disappears along with him. The cloaked Saiyan then returns, having used the time the others bought him to assemble all seven of the false universe's Dragon Balls. He activates them, and Goku is suddenly teleported back to the Universe Tree, where he encounters a younger version of Fu.
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| ShortSummary = Fu reveals that his new, youthful appearance is a result of his merging with Doki-Doki, which allowed him to break free of Demigra's Time Labyrinth. Goku is joined by Vegeta, Xeno Goku, and Xeno Vegeta, the latter two having also escaped from the Time Labyrinth. The alternate Broly arrives and attacks the other Saiyans, but Hearts and Cumber arrive to intercept him. Goku and Vegeta fuse back into Gogeta, while Xeno Goku and Xeno Vegeta fuse into Xeno Gogeta; they then power up to Super Saiyan Blue Evolved and Full-Power Super Saiyan 4, respectively, before challenging Fu. They have the advantage at first, until Fu powers up even further and hits them with a massive ki blast that forces them to defuse. Fu then teleports Vegeta and Xeno Vegeta away, preventing the Saiyans from fusing again, before preparing to destroy Goku and Xeno Goku. The Supreme Kai of Time appears and saves the two Gokus from another blast, before using her powers to help them combine their energies. The two Gokus power up to maximum and their energies merge together, giving them a massive power boost as they prepare to battle Fu again.
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| ShortSummary = Fu tries to shield himself with an energy barrier, but the two Gokus blast through it and land a powerful hit on him, although he survives. Fu begins draining energy from the Universe Tree to power himself up even further. Goku blocks one of Fu's attacks when he tries to kill the Supreme Kai of Time, but the Tree's energy begins overwhelming him: however, he's able to use his Spirit Bomb technique to absorb the Tree's energy for himself, cutting Fu off from it. Using the Tree's power, Goku gets the upper hand against Fu, and they engage in a final beam-clash. Thanks to the Tree's energy, Goku is able to overpower Fu's blast, and the resulting explosion kills Fu and drains all the remaining energy from the Tree, destroying the fake universe. Toki-Toki returns with the two Vegetas, while Hearts also returns and reports that both Cumber and Broly have disappeared. With Fu defeated, the Supreme Kai of Time uses Toki-Toki's power to repair the damage done to the multiverse. Elsewhere, the cloaked Saiyan reports back to his master, a mysterious alien woman, who claims that her time has come.
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}}
### Ultra God Mission
#### Supreme Kai of Time Arc (2022–Current)
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| ShortSummary = In the Time Nest, Chronoa (the current Supreme Kai of Time) is confronted by the mysterious alien woman, who is revealed to be Aeos, a former Supreme Kai of Time. On Earth, Goku is visited by a strange being who invites him to participate in the "Super Space-Time Tournament," a grand martial arts tournament involving many other timelines. Goku accepts the invitation and is transported to another realm, where he discovers that Gohan, Piccolo, Vegeta, Hit, Jiren, and Yamcha have also been invited to compete in the tournament as a team. They are introduced to the other teams, and it's revealed that there are twelve teams in total, each with seven members. The tournament announcer explains that the first round of the tournament will last 24 minutes and will be a battle among all twelve teams, where the objective is to either capture one of three Time Fairies, or to defeat all the members of the other teams. As the tournament begins, all seven members of the main timeline's team are transported to different locations on an unknown world. Goku is confronted by Xeno Goku, who reveals that Aeos is hosting the tournament and that the Time Patrol have sent a team to participate because they have business with her. The two Gokus are attacked by a group of fighters from another team, and prepare to deal with them. As many other battles begin across the tournament grounds with 14 minutes remaining in the first round, Aeos observes the proceedings from afar.
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| ShortSummary = With 7 minutes remaining in the first round, many battles continue raging throughout the tournament grounds. After defeating their attackers, the two Gokus begin fighting each other instead, while Yamcha manages to capture one of the three Time Fairies. This automatically qualifies the main timeline's team to move on to the next round, and they are all returned to the starting area, where they are greeted by the teams who managed to capture the two other Time Fairies: the Time Patrol team, and a team that includes Hearts and Cumber. The rest of the participating teams, however, do not return. Several mysterious warriors in black cloaks suddenly appear, and one of them reveals that the losing teams have been erased from existence, along with their entire timelines. The cloaked warrior explains that Aeos is responsible for this, and instructs the remaining teams to prepare for the second round. However, Xeno Trunks is enraged by this revelation and attacks the cloaked warrior, demanding that Aeos return the Scroll of Eternity to the Time Patrol. Xeno Trunks begins fighting the cloaked warrior, while Goku and Piccolo notice that the cloaked warrior seems strangely familiar. Xeno Trunks and the cloaked warrior each fire a powerful ki blast at each other, but Aeos suddenly appears and negates both attacks. Xeno Trunks explains that Aeos is a former Supreme Kai of Time.
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| ShortSummary = Aeos explains that there are now too many timelines, and that she wishes to eliminate most of them to restore balance. She brings in a number of new fighters from other timelines and universes before beginning the next round of the tournament, in which the fighters are scattered across a pocket dimension and confronted by the four cloaked warriors, each of whom possesses another Time Fairy: whoever takes the Fairy from each cloaked warrior will ensure that their team can move on to the next round. The cloaked warriors are revealed to be alternate versions of Piccolo, Future Gohan, and Bardock, as well as an unknown alien woman, who have all been empowered by Aeos using the Dark Dragon Balls. Gohan and Piccolo are challenged by the alternate Piccolo, while Vegeta, Hit and Yamcha face off against the unknown female warrior. Xeno Trunks continues battling the alternate Future Gohan, who reveals that Aeos recruited him from a timeline where Future Bulma and Future Trunks were killed by the androids. Xeno Trunks manages to overpower Future Gohan and tries to reason with him, while Goku and Jiren are confronted by the alternate Bardock, who powers up into an empowered version of Super Saiyan 3.
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| ShortSummary = Goku asks Jiren to let him fight Bardock first, and powers up into Ultra Instinct as they begin fighting. Elsewhere, Vegeta, Hit and Yamcha are battling against the unknown female warrior, who displays the ability to create clones of herself. Vegeta defeats one of the clones, while Hit overpowers the female warrior’s main body and prepares to kill her, but Yamcha intervenes in an act of mercy to spare her life. Touched by Yamcha’s kindness, the female warrior develops a crush on him while continuing her battle with Hit. Goku and Bardock continue their battle and engage in a beam-clash, which Goku wins. However, Bardock seems to be pleased by this and is proud of how strong Goku has become. Meanwhile, Aeos is confronted by Chronoa, who demands that she return the stolen Time Scrolls.
| LineColor = 794049
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| ShortSummary = Aeos places the Time Scrolls into an enchanted box, before she and Chronoa both unleash their true forms and begin fighting each other. Chronoa tries to talk Aeos out of her plan by arguing that while the growing number of timelines does present a problem, many of those timelines are all worthy of existence due to their potential. Aeos refuses to change her mind, declaring that there must only be one timeline, and overpowers Chronoa. Goku arrives with the Time Fairy that he obtained from Bardock, and also asks Aeos not to erase the defeated timelines. When Aeos refuses and attacks him, he taps into Ultra Instinct again and begins fighting her. Goku and Aeos prove to be fairly evenly-matched; Aeos surrounds Goku with energy blasts to keep him from dodging and fires a powerful beam attack at him, but he dodges using Instant Transmission and lands a direct hit on her with a Kamehameha. Aeos is shocked that Goku was able to break through her defenses, so she decides that he must be eliminated and begins to power up. Meanwhile, it's revealed that Mechikabura's spirit is still alive among the remains of the Universe Tree. He declares that he will have his revenge, but he's suddenly ambushed and impaled by Demigra, who begins absorbing Mechikabura's Dark Factor for himself.
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| ShortSummary = As Goku and Aeos prepare to continue their battle, they're suddenly interrupted by the arrival of Demigra, who has become the new Dark King by absorbing Mechikabura's Dark Factor. He launches a massive energy blast that destroys Aeos' headquarters, which is seen by all the fighters across the tournament grounds. Goku, Chronoa and Aeos all survive the blast, but Demigra steals the box containing the Time Scrolls and uses it to summon an alternate version of Omega Shenron. Demigra explains his plan to destroy all other gods and create a new age of terror across all of time and space. Goku challenges Demigra, but Omega steps up to fight first. Fortunately, Xeno Gogeta arrives as a Full-Power Super Saiyan 4 just in time to deflect Omega's first attack, and easily overpowers Omega. Omega uses his strongest technique, the Negative Karma Ball, but Xeno Gogeta counters with a Big Bang Kamehameha that repels Omega's blast and destroys him. Aeos agrees to a truce with Goku, Chronoa and the others so they can deal with Demigra. Undeterred, Demigra summons his demon companion Robel, as well as the alternate Broly.
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}}
| ShortSummary = Demigra changes the entire dimension to resemble Hell and summons several alternate versions of past villains to attack the tournament fighters, empowering the villains with his Dark Factor. Xeno Gogeta and Broly take their fight elsewhere. Despite Broly becoming a Super Saiyan 4, Xeno Gogeta gets the advantage. Demigra savagely strikes Aeos and sends her flying. Angered, Goku powers up to Super Saiyan Blue and fires a Kamehameha, but Demigra uses his Dark Reflector to catch and amplify the attack with Dark Factor before sending it back. To save the still injured Chronoa, Goku counters with another Kamehameha, causing a huge explosion that leaves him injured. Aeos uses her Time Labyrinth to try to freeze Demigra in time, only to be shocked when he is still able to move and shatter the Labyrinth. Demigra says he will show them true despair and powers up.
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}}
| ShortSummary = Now in an armored demonic form, Demigra attacks Chronoa. Goku intercepts, but Demigra easily brutalizes him. Yamcha and the female warrior, Vidro, combine their powers to defeat Chilled, whom she recalls wiped out her race. Vidro then asks Yamcha to marry her, shocking him. Cell, Super Android 13, Bojack, and Lord Slug attack Xeno Trunks, but the alternate Future Gohan saves and reconciles with him before they team up against their enemies. Demigra is about to finish off Goku when Vegeta arrives and forces him back. Chronoa telepathically tells Goku, Vegeta, and Aeos a plan. Aeos distracts Demigra by increasing the gravity around him, but he breaks through it. Before he can attack her, Chronoa gives Goku and Vegeta her Potara earrings to allow them to fuse into Vegito. Vegito as a Super Saiyan Blue knocks Demigra away and says he will defeat him.
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}}
ＶＳ！をえたをきて！
| NativeTitleLangCode = ja
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| ShortSummary = Vegito beats up Demigra for a bit, but then defuses back into Goku and Vegeta. Demigra knocks Vegeta out cold, then transforms further and fires an enormous blast at the ground, intending to wipe out everybody. Goku holds the blast back with a Super Saiyan Blue Kamehameha, but starts losing ground. Demigra claims demons are superior because all other races are selfish, but Bardock and alternate Future Gohan arrive and assist Goku with their own blasts. Chronoa and Aeos are amazed to find all of the tournament members, even ones from different timelines, are assisting each other against the villains. Goku uses Ultra Instinct, Bardock uses Super Saiyan 4, and alternate Future Gohan uses Super Saiyan 2. Together, they start pushing Demigra's blast back, shocking him.
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}}
## Notes
## References
## External links
* [Universe Mission official website](http://www.carddass.com/dbh/sdbh/prison_planet/) (in Japanese)
* [Big Bang Mission official website](http://www.carddass.com/dbh/sdbh_bm/anime/) (in Japanese)
* [Ultra God Mission official website](https://www.carddass.com/dbh/sdbh_ugm/anime/) (in Japanese)
[Heroes](Category:Dragon Ball episode lists)
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Calculator
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calculator
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# Calculator
*Revision ID: 1159523512 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T21:50:36Z*
---
[[File:Casio calculator JS-20WK in 201901 002.jpg|thumb|upright|An electronic pocket calculator with a [seven-segment](seven-segment display) [display](liquid-crystal)(liquid-crystal display) (LCD) that can perform arithmetic operations]]
[[File:Casio fx-991EX.png|thumb|upright|A modern scientific calculator with a [LCD](LCD)]]
An **electronic calculator** is typically a portable [electronic](Electronics) device used to perform [calculation](calculation)s, ranging from basic [arithmetic](arithmetic) to complex [mathematics](mathematics).
The first [electronic](solid-state)(Solid-state electronics) calculator was created in the early 1960s. Pocket-sized devices became available in the 1970s, especially after the [4004](Intel)(Intel 4004), the first [microprocessor](microprocessor), was developed by [Intel](Intel) for the Japanese calculator company [Busicom](Busicom).
Modern electronic calculators vary from cheap, give-away, [credit-card-sized](ISO/IEC 7810) models to sturdy desktop models with built-in printers. They became popular in the mid-1970s as the incorporation of [circuit](integrated)(integrated circuit)s reduced their size and cost. By the end of that decade, prices had dropped to the point where a basic calculator was affordable to most and they became common in schools.
Computer [system](operating)(operating system)s as far back as [Unix](early)(Ancient UNIX) have included interactive calculator [programs](Computer program) such as [dc](dc (computer program)) and [hoc](hoc (programming language)), and interactive [BASIC](BASIC) could be used to do calculations on most 1970s and 1980s home computers. Calculator functions are included in most [smartphone](smartphone)s, [tablets](tablet computer) and [digital assistant](personal)(personal digital assistant) (PDA) type devices.
In addition to general purpose calculators, there are those designed for specific markets. For example, there are [calculator](scientific)(scientific calculator)s which include [trigonometric](trigonometry) and [statistical](statistics) calculations. Some calculators even have the ability to do [algebra](computer)(computer algebra). [calculator](Graphing)(Graphing calculator)s can be used to graph functions defined on the real line, or higher-dimensional [space](Euclidean)(Euclidean space). , basic calculators cost little, but scientific and graphing models tend to cost more.
With the very wide availability of smartphones and the like, dedicated hardware calculators, while still widely used, are less common than they once were. In 1986, calculators still represented an estimated 41% of the world's general-purpose hardware capacity to compute information. By 2007, this had diminished to less than 0.05%.
## Design
[[calculator displays of fractions and decimal equivalents](File:CalculatorFractions-5550x.jpg|thumb|Scientific)]
### Input
[Electronic](Electronics) calculators contain a [keyboard](Computer keyboard) with [buttons](Push-button) for [digit](Numerical digit)s and [arithmetic](arithmetic)al operations; some even contain "00" and "000" buttons to make larger or smaller [number](number)s easier to enter. Most basic calculators assign only one digit or operation on each button; however, in more specific calculators, a button can perform multi-function working with [combination](key)(key combination)s.
### Display output
Calculators usually have [display](liquid-crystal)(liquid-crystal display)s (LCD) as output in place of historical [diode](light-emitting)(light-emitting diode) (LED) displays and [fluorescent display](vacuum)(vacuum fluorescent display)s (VFD); details are provided in the section *[improvements](Technical)(#Technical improvements)*.
Large-sized [figures](Number) are often used to improve readability; while using [separator](decimal)(decimal separator) (usually a point rather than a [comma](comma)) instead of or in addition to [fraction](vulgar)(vulgar fraction)s. Various symbols for [commands](function)(Command (computing)) may also be shown on the display. [Fractions](Fraction (mathematics)) such as }} are displayed as decimal [approximation](approximation)s, for example rounded to . Also, some fractions (such as }}, which is ; to 14 [figures](significant)(significant figures)) can be difficult to recognize in [decimal](decimal) form; as a result, many [scientific](Scientific calculator) calculators are able to work in vulgar fractions or [number](mixed)(mixed number)s.
### Memory
Calculators also have the ability to save numbers into [memory](computer)(computer memory). Basic calculators usually store only one number at a time; more specific types are able to store many numbers represented in [variable](variable (mathematics))s. The variables can also be used for constructing [formula](formula)s. Some models have the ability to extend [memory](Computer memory) capacity to store more numbers; the extended [address](memory)(memory address) is termed an [array](array data structure) index.
### Power source
Power sources of calculators are [batteries](electric battery), [cell](solar)(solar cell)s or [electricity](mains)(mains electricity) (for old models), turning on with a [switch](switch) or button. Some models even have no turn-off button but they provide some way to put off (for example, leaving no operation for a moment, covering [cell](solar)(solar cell) exposure, or closing their [lid](lid)). [Crank](Crank (mechanism))-powered calculators were also common in the early computer era.
### Key layout
The following keys are common to most pocket calculators. While the arrangement of the digits is standard, the positions of other keys vary from model to model; the illustration is an example.
## Internal workings
In general, a basic [electronic](Electronics) calculator consists of the following components:John Lewis, *The Pocket Calculator Book*. (London: Usborne, 1982)
* Power source ([electricity](mains)(mains electricity), [battery](Battery (electricity)) and/or [cell](solar)(Amorphous silicon#Solar cells))
* [Keypad](Keypad) (input device) – consists of keys used to input numbers and function commands ([addition](addition), [multiplication](multiplication), [square-root](Square root), etc.)
* Display panel (output device) – displays input numbers, commands and results. [display](Liquid-crystal)(Liquid-crystal display)s (LCDs), [fluorescent display](vacuum)(vacuum fluorescent display)s (VFDs), and [diode](light-emitting)(light-emitting diode) (LED) displays use [segments](seven)(Seven-segment display) to represent each [digit](Numerical digit) in a basic calculator. Advanced calculators may use [matrix](dot)(dot matrix) displays.
** A printing calculator, in addition to a display panel, has a printing unit that prints results in ink onto a roll of paper, using a printing mechanism.
* Processor [chip](Chipset) ([microprocessor](microprocessor) or [processing unit](central)(central processing unit)).
[[File:Interior of a calculator.jpg|thumb|upright|The interior of a [Casio](Casio) FX-991s calculator]]
[rate](Clock)(Clock rate) of a processor [chip](Chipset) refers to the frequency at which the [processing unit](central)(central processing unit) (CPU) is running. It is used as an indicator of the processor's speed, and is measured in *clock cycles per second* or [(Hz)](hertz)(Hertz). For basic calculators, the speed can vary from a few hundred [hertz](hertz) to the [kilohertz](kilohertz) range.
### Example
[[Walther ETR2034S resized.jpg|thumb|upright|An office calculating machine with a paper printer](File:Tischrechner)]
A basic explanation as to how calculations are performed in a simple four-function calculator:
To perform the calculation , one presses keys in the following sequence on most calculators: }}.
:* When is entered, it is picked up by the scanning unit; the number 25 is encoded and sent to the X register;
:* Next, when the key is pressed, the "[addition](addition)" instruction is also encoded and sent to the flag or the [register](status)(status register);
:* The second number is encoded and sent to the X register. This "pushes" (shifts) the first number out into the Y register;
:* When the }} key is pressed, a "message" (signal) from the flag or [register](status)(status register) tells the permanent or [memory](non-volatile)(non-volatile memory) that the operation to be done is "[addition](addition)";
:* The numbers in the X and Y registers are then loaded into the [ALU](Arithmetic logic unit) and the calculation is carried out following instructions from the permanent or non-volatile memory;
:* The answer, 34 is sent (shifted) back to the X register. From there, it is converted by the [decoder](binary)(binary decoder) unit into a decimal number (usually [decimal](binary-coded)(binary-coded decimal)), and then shown on the display panel.
Other functions are usually performed using repeated additions or subtractions.
#### Numeric representation
Most pocket calculators do all their calculations in [decimal (BCD)](binary-coded)(Binary-coded decimal) rather than binary. BCD is common in electronic systems where a numeric value is to be displayed, especially in systems consisting solely of digital logic, and not containing a microprocessor. By employing BCD, the manipulation of numerical data for display can be greatly simplified by treating each digit as a separate single sub-circuit. This matches much more closely the physical reality of display hardware—a designer might choose to use a series of separate identical [display](seven-segment)(seven-segment display)s to build a metering circuit, for example. If the numeric quantity were stored and manipulated as pure binary, interfacing to such a display would require complex circuitry. Therefore, in cases where the calculations are relatively simple, working throughout with BCD can lead to a simpler overall system than converting to and from binary. (For example, [CD](CD)s keep the track number in BCD, limiting them to 99 tracks.)
The same argument applies when hardware of this type uses an embedded microcontroller or other small processor. Often, smaller code results when representing numbers internally in BCD format, since a conversion from or to binary representation can be expensive on such limited processors. For these applications, some small processors feature BCD arithmetic modes, which assist when writing routines that manipulate BCD quantities.
Where calculators have added functions (such as square root, or [functions](trigonometric)(trigonometric functions)), software [algorithm](algorithm)s are required to produce high precision results. Sometimes significant design effort is needed to fit all the desired functions in the limited memory space available in the calculator [chip](Chipset), with acceptable calculation time.
## History
### Precursors to the electronic calculator
The first known tools used to aid arithmetic calculations were: bones (used to tally items), pebbles, and [board](counting)(counting board)s, and the [abacus](abacus), known to have been used by [Sumer](Sumer)ians and [Egyptians](Ancient Egypt) before 2000 BC. Except for the [mechanism](Antikythera)(Antikythera mechanism) (an "out of the time" [astronomical](Astronomy) device), development of computing tools arrived near the start of the 17th century: the [compass](geometric-military)(Sector (instrument)) (by [Galileo](Galileo Galilei)), [logarithm](logarithm)s and [bones](Napier)(Napier bones) (by [Napier](John Napier)), and the [rule](slide)(slide rule) (by [Gunter](Edmund)(Edmund Gunter)).
[[century mechanical calculators](File:17th-century-mechanical-calculators.jpg|thumb|17th)]
The [Renaissance](Renaissance) saw the invention of the [calculator](mechanical)(mechanical calculator) by [Schickard](Wilhelm)(Wilhelm Schickard) in 1623, and later by [Pascal](Blaise)(Blaise Pascal) in 1642.; "Pascal's invention of the [machine](calculating)(calculating machine). Pascal invented his machine just four hundred years ago, as a youth of nineteen. He was spurred to it by sharing the burden of arithmetical labor involved in his father's official work as supervisor of taxes at Rouen. He conceived the idea of doing the work mechanically, and developed a design appropriate for this purpose ; showing herein the same combination of pure science and mechanical genius that characterized his whole life. But it was one thing to conceive and design the machine, and another to get it made and put into use. Here were needed those practical gifts that he displayed later in his inventions....
In a sense, Pascal's invention was premature, in that the mechanical arts in his time were not sufficiently advanced to enable his machine to be made at an economic price, with the accuracy and strength needed for reasonably long use. This difficulty was not overcome until well on into the nineteenth century, by which time also a renewed stimulus to invention was given by the need for many kinds of calculation more intricate than those considered by Pascal." A device that was at times somewhat over-promoted as being able to perform all four [arithmetic](arithmetic) operations with minimal human intervention. [calculator](Pascal's)(Pascal's calculator) could add and subtract two numbers directly and thus, if the tedium could be borne, multiply and divide by repetition. Schickard's machine, constructed several decades earlier, used a clever set of mechanised multiplication tables to ease the process of multiplication and division with the adding machine as a means of completing this operation. There is a debate about whether Pascal or Shickard should be credited as the known inventor of a calculating machine due to the differences (like the different aims) of both inventions. Schickard and Pascal were followed by [Leibniz](Gottfried)(Gottfried Leibniz) who spent forty years designing a four-operation mechanical calculator, the [reckoner](stepped)(stepped reckoner), inventing in the process his [wheel](leibniz)(leibniz wheel), but who couldn't design a fully operational machine. There were also five unsuccessful attempts to design a calculating clock in the 17th century.see [calculator#Other calculating machines](Mechanical)(Mechanical calculator#Other calculating machines)
[[mechanical calculating machine 1877.jpg|thumb|left|The Grant mechanical calculating machine, 1877](File:Grant)]
The 18th century saw the arrival of some notable improvements, first by [Poleni](Giovanni Poleni) with the first fully functional calculating clock and four-operation machine, but these machines were almost always *one of a kind*. [Torchi](Luigi)(Luigi Torchi (inventor)) invented the first direct multiplication machine in 1834: this was also the second key-driven machine in the world, following that of James White (1822). It was not until the 19th century and the [Revolution](Industrial)(Industrial Revolution) that real developments began to occur. Although machines capable of performing all four arithmetic functions existed prior to the 19th century, the refinement of manufacturing and fabrication processes during the eve of the industrial revolution made large scale production of more compact and modern units possible. The [Arithmometer](Arithmometer), invented in 1820 as a four-operation mechanical calculator, was released to production in 1851 as an adding machine and became the first commercially successful unit; forty years later, by 1890, about 2,500 arithmometers had been sold plus a few hundreds more from two arithmometer clone makers (Burkhardt, Germany, 1878 and Layton, UK, 1883) and Felt and Tarrant, the only other competitor in true commercial production, had sold 100 [comptometer](comptometer)s.
[[image of the Clarke graph-based calculator, 1921](File:EdithClarkeCalculatorUSPatentDrawing.png|thumb|upright|right|Patent)]
It wasn't until 1902 that the familiar push-button user interface was developed, with the introduction of the Dalton Adding Machine, developed by James L. Dalton in the [States](United)(United States).
In 1921, [Clarke](Edith)(Edith Clarke) invented the "Clarke calculator", a simple graph-based calculator for solving line equations involving hyperbolic functions. This allowed electrical engineers to simplify calculations for [inductance](inductance) and [capacitance](capacitance) in [transmission lines](power)(power transmission lines).
The [Curta](Curta) calculator was developed in 1948 and, although costly, became popular for its portability. This purely mechanical hand-held device could do addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. By the early 1970s electronic pocket calculators ended manufacture of mechanical calculators, although the Curta remains a popular collectable item.
### Development of electronic calculators
The first [mainframe](Mainframe computer) computers, using firstly [tube](vacuum)(vacuum tube)s and later [transistor](transistor)s in the logic circuits, appeared in the 1940s and 1950s. This technology was to provide a stepping stone to the development of electronic calculators.
The [Casio](Casio) Computer Company, in [Japan](Japan), released the Model *14-A* calculator in 1957, which was the world's first all-electric (relatively) compact calculator. It did not use electronic logic but was based on [relay](relay) technology, and was built into a desk.
[[File:LED DISP.JPG|thumb|Early calculator [diode](light-emitting)(light-emitting diode) (LED) display from the 1970s ([USSR](USSR))]]
In October 1961, the world's first *all-electronic desktop* calculator, the British [Punch](Bell)(Bell Punch)/Sumlock Comptometer [ANITA](Sumlock ANITA calculator) (**A** **N**ew **I**nspiration **T**o **A**rithmetic/**A**ccounting) was announced. This machine used [tube](vacuum)(vacuum tube)s, cold-cathode tubes and [Dekatron](Dekatron)s in its circuits, with 12 cold-cathode ["Nixie"](Nixie tube) tubes for its display. Two models were displayed, the Mk VII for continental Europe and the Mk VIII for Britain and the rest of the world, both for delivery from early 1962. The Mk VII was a slightly earlier design with a more complicated mode of multiplication, and was soon dropped in favour of the simpler Mark VIII. The ANITA had a full keyboard, similar to mechanical [comptometer](comptometer)s of the time, a feature that was unique to it and the later [Sharp](Sharp Corporation) CS-10A among electronic calculators. The ANITA weighed roughly due to its large tube system. Bell Punch had been producing key-driven mechanical calculators of the comptometer type under the names "Plus" and "Sumlock", and had realised in the mid-1950s that the future of calculators lay in electronics. They employed the young graduate Norbert Kitz, who had worked on the early British [ACE](Pilot)(Pilot ACE) computer project, to lead the development. The ANITA sold well since it was the only electronic desktop calculator available, and was silent and quick.
The tube technology of the ANITA was superseded in June 1963 by the U.S. manufactured [Friden](Friden, Inc.) EC-130, which had an all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a [ray tube](cathode)(cathode ray tube) (CRT), and introduced [Polish Notation](Reverse)(Reverse Polish Notation) (RPN) to the calculator market for a price of $2200, which was about three times the cost of an electromechanical calculator of the time. Like Bell Punch, Friden was a manufacturer of mechanical calculators that had decided that the future lay in electronics. In 1964 more all-transistor electronic calculators were introduced: [Sharp](Sharp Corporation) introduced the [CS-10A](CS-10A), which weighed and cost 500,000 yen ($), and [Macchine Elettroniche](Industria)(Industria Macchine Elettroniche) of Italy introduced the IME 84, to which several extra keyboard and display units could be connected so that several people could make use of it (but apparently not at the same time). The [3900](Victor)(Victor 3900) was the first to use [circuit](integrated)(integrated circuit)s in place of individual [transistor](transistor)s, but production problems delayed sales until 1966.
[[File:Elka-22 (I197211).png|thumb|The Bulgarian [22](ELKA)(ELKA 22) from 1967]]
There followed a series of electronic calculator models from these and other manufacturers, including [Canon](Canon Inc.), [Mathatronics](Mathatronics), [Olivetti](Olivetti), [SCM](SCM Corporation) (Smith-Corona-Marchant), [Sony](Sony), [Toshiba](Toshiba), and [Wang](Wang Laboratories). The early calculators used hundreds of [transistors](germanium)(Bipolar junction transistor#Germanium transistors), which were cheaper than [transistor](silicon)(Transistor#Semiconductor material)s, on multiple circuit boards. Display types used were [CRT](Cathode ray tube), cold-cathode [tube](Nixie)(Nixie tube)s, and [lamp](filament)(filament lamp)s. Memory technology was usually based on the [memory](delay-line)(delay-line memory) or the [memory](magnetic-core)(magnetic-core memory), though the Toshiba "Toscal" BC-1411 appears to have used an early form of [RAM](dynamic)(dynamic RAM) built from discrete components. Already there was a desire for smaller and less power-hungry machines.
[Bulgaria's](People's Republic of Bulgaria) [6521](ELKA)(ELKA#ELKA 6521), introduced in 1965, was developed by the Central Institute for Calculation Technologies and built at the Elektronika factory in [Sofia](Sofia). The name derives from ***EL**ektronen **KA**lkulator*, and it weighed around . It is the first calculator in the world which includes the [root](square)(square root) function. Later that same year were released the [22](ELKA)(ELKA 22) (with a luminescent display) and the ELKA 25, with an built-in printer. Several other models were developed until the first pocket model, the [101](ELKA)(ELKA 101), was released in 1974. The writing on it was in [script](Roman)(Roman script), and it was exported to western countries.
#### Programmable calculators
[[File:Olivetti Programma 101 - Museo scienza e tecnologia Milano.jpg|thumb|left|The Italian [101](Programma)(Programma 101), an early commercial programmable calculator produced by [Olivetti](Olivetti) in 1964]]
The first desktop *programmable calculators* were produced in the mid-1960s. They included the [Mathatron](Mathatronics)(Mathatronics Mathatron) (1964) and the [Olivetti](Olivetti) [101](Programma)(Programma 101) (late 1965) which were solid-state, desktop, printing, floating point, algebraic entry, programmable, stored-program electronic calculators. Both could be programmed by the end user and print out their results. The Programma 101 saw much wider distribution and had the added feature of offline storage of programs via magnetic cards.
Another early programmable desktop calculator (and maybe the first Japanese one) was the [Casio](Casio) (AL-1000) produced in 1967. It featured a [tube](nixie)(nixie tube)s display and had transistor electronics and ferrite core memory.
The *[Epic](Monroe)(Monroe Epic)* programmable calculator came on the market in 1967. A large, printing, desk-top unit, with an attached floor-standing logic tower, it could be programmed to perform many computer-like functions. However, the only *branch* instruction was an implied unconditional branch (GOTO) at the end of the operation stack, returning the program to its starting instruction. Thus, it was not possible to include any [branch](conditional)(conditional branch) (IF-THEN-ELSE) logic. During this era, the absence of the conditional branch was sometimes used to distinguish a programmable calculator from a computer.
The first Soviet programmable desktop calculator [123](ISKRA)(ISKRA 123), powered by the power grid, was released at the start of the 1970s.
### 1970s to mid-1980s
The electronic calculators of the mid-1960s were large and heavy desktop machines due to their use of hundreds of [transistor](transistor)s on several circuit boards with a large power consumption that required an AC power supply. There were great efforts to put the logic required for a calculator into fewer and fewer [circuit](integrated)(integrated circuit)s (chips) and calculator electronics was one of the leading edges of [semiconductor](semiconductor) development. U.S. semiconductor manufacturers led the world in [scale integration](large)(Integrated circuit#SSI, MSI and LSI) (LSI) semiconductor development, squeezing more and more functions into individual integrated circuits. This led to alliances between Japanese calculator manufacturers and U.S. semiconductor companies: [Inc.](Canon)(Canon Inc.) with [Instruments](Texas)(Texas Instruments), [Electric](Hayakawa)(Hayakawa Electric) (later renamed [Corporation](Sharp)(Sharp Corporation)) with North-American Rockwell Microelectronics (later renamed [International](Rockwell)(Rockwell International)), [Busicom](Busicom) with [Mostek](Mostek) and [Intel](Intel), and [Instrument](General)(General Instrument) with [Sanyo](Sanyo).
#### Pocket calculators
By 1970, a calculator could be made using just a few chips of low power consumption, allowing portable models powered from rechargeable batteries. The first handheld calculator was a 1967 prototype called ***Cal Tech***, whose development was led by [Kilby](Jack)(Jack Kilby) at [Instruments](Texas)(Texas Instruments) in a research project to produce a portable calculator. It could add, multiply, subtract, and divide, and its output device was a paper tape. Audio interview with one of the inventors. As a result of the "Cal-Tech" project, Texas Instruments was granted master patents on portable calculators.*Practical Electronics* (British publication), October 1978 p. 1094.}}
The first commercially produced portable calculators appeared in Japan in 1970, and were soon marketed around the world. These included the [Sanyo](Sanyo) ICC-0081 "Mini Calculator", the [Canon](Canon (company)) Pocketronic, and the [QT-8B](Sharp)(Sharp QT-8B) "micro Compet". The Canon Pocketronic was a development from the "Cal-Tech" project. It had no traditional display; numerical output was on thermal paper tape.
Sharp put in great efforts in size and power reduction and introduced in January 1971 the [EL-8](Sharp)(Sharp EL-8), also marketed as the Facit 1111, which was close to being a pocket calculator. It weighed 1.59 pounds (721 grams), had a [fluorescent display](vacuum)(vacuum fluorescent display), rechargeable [NiCad](NiCad) batteries, and initially sold for US$395.
However, [circuit development](integrated)(integrated circuit development) efforts culminated in early 1971 with the introduction of the first "calculator on a chip", the MK6010 by [Mostek](Mostek),"Single Chip Calculator Hits the Finish Line", *Electronics*, February 1, 1971, p. 19. followed by Texas Instruments later in the year. Although these early hand-held calculators were very costly, these advances in electronics, together with developments in display technology (such as the [fluorescent display](vacuum)(vacuum fluorescent display), [LED](Light-emitting diode), and [LCD](Liquid-crystal display)), led within a few years to the cheap pocket calculator available to all.
In 1971, [Electronics](Pico)(Pico Electronics) and [Instrument](General)(General Instrument) also introduced their first collaboration in ICs, a full single chip calculator IC for the Monroe Royal Digital III calculator. Pico was a spinout by five GI design engineers whose vision was to create single chip calculator ICs. Pico and GI went on to have significant success in the burgeoning handheld calculator market.
The first truly pocket-sized electronic calculator was the [Busicom](Busicom) LE-120A "HANDY", which was marketed early in 1971. Made in Japan, this was also the first calculator to use an LED display, the first hand-held calculator to use a single integrated circuit (then proclaimed as a "calculator on a chip"), the [Mostek](Mostek) MK6010, and the first electronic calculator to run off replaceable batteries. Using four AA-size cells the LE-120A measures .
The first European-made pocket-sized calculator, DB 800 was made in May 1971 by [Digitron](Digitron (company)) in [Buje](Buje), [Croatia](Croatia) (former [Yugoslavia](Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia)) with four functions and an eight-digit display and special characters for a negative number and a warning that the calculation has too many digits to display.
The first American-made pocket-sized calculator, the Bowmar 901B (popularly termed *The Bowmar Brain*), measuring , came out in the Autumn of 1971, with four functions and an eight-digit red [LED](light-emitting diode) display, for , while in August 1972 the four-function [Executive](Sinclair)(Sinclair Executive) became the first slimline pocket calculator measuring and weighing . It retailed for around £79 ( at the time). By the end of the decade, similar calculators were priced less than £5 ($). Following protracted development over the course of two years including a botched partnership with Texas Instruments, [Electrodata](Eldorado)(Eldorado Electrodata) released five pocket calculators in 1972. One called the Touch Magic was "no bigger than a pack of cigarettes" according to *Administrative Management*.
The first [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) made pocket-sized calculator, the *Elektronika B3-04* was developed by the end of 1973 and sold at the start of 1974.
One of the first low-cost calculators was the [Cambridge](Sinclair)(Sinclair Cambridge), launched in August 1973. It retailed for £29.95 ($), or £5 ($) less in kit form. The Sinclair calculators were successful because they were far cheaper than the competition; however, their design led to slow and inaccurate computations of [function](transcendental)(transcendental function)s. See in particular the section "Limited performance and accuracy". For more coverage of Shirriff's results, see
### Scientific pocket calculators
Meanwhile, [Hewlett-Packard](Hewlett-Packard) (HP) had been developing a pocket calculator. Launched in early 1972, it was unlike the other basic four-function pocket calculators then available in that it was the first pocket calculator with *scientific* functions that could replace a [rule](slide)(slide rule). The $395 [HP-35](HP-35), along with nearly all later HP engineering calculators, uses [Polish notation](reverse)(reverse Polish notation) (RPN), also called postfix notation. A calculation like "8 plus 5" is, using RPN, performed by pressing , , , and ; instead of the algebraic [notation](infix)(infix notation): , , , }}. It had 35 buttons and was based on Mostek Mk6020 chip.
The first Soviet *scientific* pocket-sized calculator the "B3-18" was completed by the end of 1975.
In 1973, [Instruments](Texas)(Texas Instruments) (TI) introduced the [SR-10](TI SR-10), (*SR* signifying [rule](slide)(slide rule)) an *algebraic entry* pocket calculator using [notation](scientific)(scientific notation) for $150. Shortly after the [SR-11](TI SR-11) featured an added key for entering [pi](pi) (π). It was followed the next year by the [SR-50](TI SR-50) which added log and trig functions to compete with the HP-35, and in 1977 the mass-marketed [TI-30](TI-30) line which is still produced.
In 1978, a new company, [Industries](Calculated)(Calculated Industries) arose which focused on specialized markets. Their first calculator, the Loan Arranger (1978) was a pocket calculator marketed to the Real Estate industry with preprogrammed functions to simplify the process of calculating payments and future values. In 1985, CI launched a calculator for the construction industry called the Construction Master which came preprogrammed with common construction calculations (such as angles, stairs, roofing math, pitch, rise, run, and feet-inch fraction conversions). This would be the first in a line of construction related calculators.
File:Calculator Adler 81S.jpg|Adler 81S pocket calculator with [fluorescent display](vacuum)(vacuum fluorescent display) (VFD) from the mid-1970s.
File:Casio cm602.jpg|The Casio CM-602 Mini electronic calculator provided basic functions in the 1970s.
File:SinclairExecutive-01.jpg|The 1972 [Executive](Sinclair)(Sinclair Executive) pocket calculator.
File:Hp-35 1972.jpg|The [HP-35](HP-35), the world's first scientific pocket calculator by Hewlett Packard (1972).
File:Canon Pocketronic.jpg|Canon Pocketronic calculator prints output using paper tape (1971).
#### Programmable pocket calculators
The first programmable pocket calculator was the [HP-65](HP-65), in 1974; it had a capacity of 100 instructions, and could store and retrieve programs with a built-in magnetic card reader. Two years later the [HP-25C](HP-25C) introduced *[memory](continuous)(continuous memory)*, i.e., programs and data were retained in [CMOS](CMOS) memory during power-off. In 1979, HP released the first *[alphanumeric](alphanumeric)*, programmable, *expandable* calculator, the [HP-41](HP-41)C. It could be expanded with [memory](random-access)(random-access memory) (RAM, for memory) and [memory](read-only)(read-only memory) (ROM, for software) modules, and peripherals like [code](bar)(bar code) readers, [microcassette](microcassette) and [disk](floppy)(floppy disk) drives, paper-roll [printer](thermal)(thermal printer)s, and miscellaneous communication interfaces ([RS-232](RS-232), [HP-IL](HP-IL), [HP-IB](HP-IB)).
[[File:HP-65 white background.jpg|thumb|left|The [HP-65](HP-65), the first programmable pocket calculator (1974)]]
The first Soviet pocket battery-powered programmable calculator, [Elektronika](Elektronika) *[B3-21](B3-21)*, was developed by the end of 1976 and released at the start of 1977. The successor of B3-21, the [B3-34](Elektronika)(Elektronika B3-34) wasn't backward compatible with B3-21, even if it kept the [Polish notation](reverse)(reverse Polish notation) (RPN). Thus B3-34 defined a new command set, which later was used in a series of later programmable Soviet calculators. Despite very limited abilities (98 bytes of instruction memory and about 19 stack and addressable registers), people managed to write all kinds of programs for them, including [game](adventure)(adventure game)s and libraries of calculus-related functions for engineers. Hundreds, perhaps thousands, of programs were written for these machines, from practical scientific and business software, which were used in real-life offices and labs, to fun games for children. The [MK-52](Elektronika)(Elektronika MK-52) calculator (using the extended B3-34 command set, and featuring internal [EEPROM](EEPROM) memory for storing programs and external interface for EEPROM cards and other periphery) was used in Soviet spacecraft program (for [TM-7](Soyuz)(Soyuz TM-7) flight) as a backup of the board computer.
This series of calculators was also noted for a large number of highly counter-intuitive mysterious undocumented features, somewhat similar to "[programming](synthetic)(synthetic programming)" of the American [HP-41](HP-41), which were exploited by applying normal arithmetic operations to error messages, jumping to nonexistent addresses and other methods. A number of respected monthly publications, including the popular science magazine *[i Zhizn](Nauka)(Nauka i Zhizn)* (*Наука и жизнь*, *Science and Life*), featured special columns, dedicated to optimization methods for calculator programmers and updates on undocumented features for hackers, which grew into a whole esoteric science with many branches, named "[yeggogology](yeggogology)" ("еггогология"). The error messages on those calculators appear as a Russian word "YEGGOG" ("ЕГГОГ") which, unsurprisingly, is translated to "Error".
A similar hacker culture in the USA revolved around the [HP-41](HP-41), which was also noted for a large number of undocumented features and was much more powerful than [B3-34](B3-34).
#### Technical improvements
[[calculator which runs on solar and battery power](File:Solar-calculator.jpg|thumb|A)]
Through the 1970s the hand-held electronic calculator underwent rapid development. The red LED and blue/green [fluorescent display](vacuum)(vacuum fluorescent display)s consumed a lot of power and the calculators either had a short battery life (often measured in hours, so rechargeable [batteries](nickel-cadmium)(nickel-cadmium battery) were common) or were large so that they could take larger, higher capacity batteries. In the early 1970s [display](liquid-crystal)(liquid-crystal display)s (LCDs) were in their infancy and there was a great deal of concern that they only had a short operating lifetime. Busicom introduced the Busicom *LE-120A "HANDY"* calculator, the first pocket-sized calculator and the first with an [LED](Light-emitting diode) display, and announced the Busicom *LC* with LCD. However, there were problems with this display and the calculator never went on sale. The first successful calculators with LCDs were manufactured by [International](Rockwell)(Rockwell International) and sold from 1972 by other companies under such names as: Dataking *LC-800*, Harden *DT/12*, Ibico *086*, Lloyds *40*, Lloyds *100*, Prismatic *500* (a.k.a. *P500*), Rapid Data *Rapidman 1208LC*. The LCDs were an early form using the *Dynamic Scattering Mode DSM* with the numbers appearing as bright against a dark background. To present a high-contrast display these models illuminated the LCD using a filament lamp and solid plastic light guide, which negated the low power consumption of the display. These models appear to have been sold only for a year or two.
A more successful series of calculators using a reflective DSM-LCD was launched in 1972 by [Inc](Sharp)(Sharp Inc) with the Sharp *EL-805*, which was a slim pocket calculator. This, and another few similar models, used Sharp's *Calculator On Substrate* (COS) technology. An extension of one glass plate needed for the liquid crystal display was used as a substrate to mount the needed chips based on a new hybrid technology. The COS technology may have been too costly since it was only used in a few models before Sharp reverted to conventional circuit boards.
[[File:Braun 4856 solar card calculator, 2.jpg|thumb|Credit-card-sized, solar-powered calculator by [Braun](Braun (company)) (1987)]]
[[SLD-100NR calculator.jpg|thumb|Modern pocket calculator with solar and battery powering](File:Citizen)]
In the mid-1970s the first calculators appeared with field-effect, *twisted nematic* (TN) LCDs with dark numerals against a grey background, though the early ones often had a yellow filter over them to cut out damaging [ultraviolet](ultraviolet) rays. The advantage of LCDs is that they are passive light modulators reflecting light, which require much less power than light-emitting displays such as LEDs or VFDs. This led the way to the first credit-card-sized calculators, such as the [Casio](Casio) *Mini Card LC-78* of 1978, which could run for months of normal use on button cells.
There were also improvements to the electronics inside the calculators. All of the logic functions of a calculator had been squeezed into the first "calculator on a chip" [circuit](integrated)(integrated circuit)s (ICs) in 1971, but this was leading edge technology of the time and yields were low and costs were high. Many calculators continued to use two or more ICs, especially the scientific and the programmable ones, into the late 1970s.
The power consumption of the integrated circuits was also reduced, especially with the introduction of [CMOS](CMOS) technology. Appearing in the Sharp "EL-801" in 1972, the [transistor](transistor)s in the logic cells of CMOS ICs only used any appreciable power when they changed state. The [LED](Light-emitting diode) and [VFD](Vacuum fluorescent display) displays often required added driver transistors or ICs, whereas the LCDs were more amenable to being driven directly by the calculator IC itself.
With this low power consumption came the possibility of using [cell](solar)(solar cell)s as the power source, realised around 1978 by calculators such as the Royal *Solar 1*, Sharp *EL-8026*, and Teal *Photon*.
File:CasioFX20-inside.jpg|The interior of a Casio fx-20 scientific calculator from the mid-1970s, using a VFD. The processor integrated circuit (IC) is made by [NEC](NEC) (marked μPD978C). Discrete electronic components like [capacitor](capacitor)s and [resistor](resistor)s and the IC are mounted on a [circuit board](printed)(printed circuit board) (PCB). This calculator uses a battery pack as a power source.
File:Sharp el-323 ic 1ae.jpg|The processor chip (integrated circuit package) inside a 1980s Sharp pocket calculator, marked SC6762 1•H. An LCD is directly under the chip. This was a PCB-less design. No discrete components are used. The battery compartment at the top can hold two [cell](button)(button cell)s.
File:Casio fx-992VB interior both aa1.JPG|Inside a Casio scientific calculator from the mid-1990s, showing the processor chip (small square; top-middle; left), keypad contacts, right (with matching contacts on the left), the back of the LCD (top; marked 4L102E), battery compartment, and other components. The solar cell assembly is under the chip.
File:Citizen se-733 int 1ac.jpg|The interior of a newer () pocket calculator. It uses a button battery in combination with a solar cell. The processor is a "Chip on Board" type, covered with dark [epoxy](epoxy).
#### Mass-market phase
At the start of the 1970s, hand-held electronic calculators were very costly, at two or three weeks' wages, and so were a luxury item. The high price was due to their construction requiring many mechanical and electronic components which were costly to produce, and production runs that were too small to exploit [of scale](economies)(economies of scale). Many firms saw that there were good profits to be made in the calculator business with the margin on such high prices. However, the cost of calculators fell as components and their production methods improved, and the effect of economies of scale was felt.
By 1976, the cost of the cheapest four-function pocket calculator had dropped to a few dollars, about 1/20 of the cost five years before. The results of this were that the pocket calculator was affordable, and that it was now difficult for the manufacturers to make a profit from calculators, leading to many firms dropping out of the business or closing. The firms that survived making calculators tended to be those with high outputs of higher quality calculators, or producing high-specification scientific and programmable calculators.
### Mid-1980s to present
[[File:Elektronika MK-52.JPG|thumb|The [MK-52](Elektronika)(Elektronika MK-52) was a programmable RPN-style calculator that accepted extension modules; it was manufactured in the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) from 1985 to 1992]]
The first calculator capable of symbolic computing was the [HP-28C](HP-28C), released in 1987. It could, for example, solve quadratic equations symbolically. The first [calculator](graphing)(graphing calculator) was the [fx-7000G](Casio)(Casio fx-7000G) released in 1985.
The two leading manufacturers, HP and TI, released increasingly feature-laden calculators during the 1980s and 1990s. At the turn of the millennium, the line between a graphing calculator and a [computer](handheld)(handheld computer) was not always clear, as some very advanced calculators such as the [TI-89](TI-89), the [200](Voyage)(TI-92 series) and [HP-49G](HP-49G) could [differentiate](derivative) and [integrate](integral) [function](function (mathematics))s, solve [equation](differential)(differential equation)s, run [processing](word)(word processing) and [PIM](Personal information manager) software, and connect by wire or [IR](infrared) to other calculators/computers.
The [12c](HP)(HP-12C) financial calculator is still produced. It was introduced in 1981 and is still being made with few changes. The HP 12c featured the [Polish notation](reverse)(reverse Polish notation) mode of data entry. In 2003 several new models were released, including an improved version of the HP 12c, the "HP 12c platinum edition" which added more memory, more built-in functions, and the addition of the algebraic mode of data entry.
[Industries](Calculated)(Calculated Industries) competed with the [12c](HP)(HP-12C) in the mortgage and real estate markets by differentiating the key labeling; changing the "I", "PV", "FV" to easier labeling terms such as "Int", "Term", "Pmt", and not using the [Polish notation](reverse)(reverse Polish notation). However, CI's more successful calculators involved a line of construction calculators, which evolved and expanded in the 1990s to present. According to Mark Bollman, a mathematics and calculator historian and associate professor of mathematics at Albion College, the "Construction Master is the first in a long and profitable line of CI construction calculators" which carried them through the 1980s, 1990s, and to the present.
## Use in education
In most countries, [student](student)s use calculators for schoolwork. There was some initial resistance to the idea out of fear that basic or [arithmetic](elementary)(elementary arithmetic) skills would suffer. There remains disagreement about the importance of the ability to perform calculations *in the head*, with some curricula restricting calculator use until a certain level of proficiency has been obtained, while others concentrate more on teaching [estimation](Approximation) methods and problem-solving. Research suggests that inadequate guidance in the use of calculating tools can restrict the kind of mathematical thinking that students engage in. Others have argued that calculator use can even cause core mathematical skills to atrophy, or that such use can prevent understanding of advanced algebraic concepts. In December 2011 the [UK](United Kingdom)'s [of State for Schools](Minister)(Department for Education), [Gibb](Nick)(Nick Gibb), voiced concern that children can become "too dependent" on the use of calculators. As a result, the use of calculators is to be included as part of a review of the [Curriculum](National Curriculum (England, Wales and Northern Ireland)). In the United States, many math educators and boards of education have enthusiastically endorsed the [Council of Teachers of Mathematics](National)(National Council of Teachers of Mathematics) (NCTM) standards and actively promoted the use of classroom calculators from kindergarten through high school.
## Personal computers
[[Calculator Pi 20210113.png|thumb|right|A calculator with a graphical user interface](File:Precise)]
Personal computers often come with a calculator utility program that emulates the appearance and functions of a calculator, using the [user interface](graphical)(graphical user interface) to portray a calculator. Examples include the [Calculator](Windows)(Calculator (Windows)), [Calculator](Apple's)(Calculator (Apple)), and [KCalc](KDE's)(KCalc). Most [data assistant](personal)(personal data assistant)s (PDAs) and [smartphone](smartphone)s also have such a feature.
## Calculators compared to computers
The fundamental difference between a calculator and [computer](computer) is that a computer can be [programmed](Computer programming) in a way that allows the [program](Computer program) to take different [according to intermediate results](branches)(Branch on condition), while calculators are pre-designed with specific functions (such as [addition](addition), [multiplication](multiplication), and [logarithm](logarithm)s) built in. The distinction is not clear-cut: some devices classed as [calculator](programmable)(programmable calculator)s have [programming](Computer programming) functions, sometimes with support for [language](programming)(programming language)s (such as [RPL](RPL (programming language)) or [TI-BASIC](TI-BASIC)).
For instance, instead of a hardware multiplier, a calculator might implement [point](floating)(floating point) mathematics with code in [memory](read-only)(read-only memory) (ROM), and compute [function](trigonometric)(trigonometric function)s with the [CORDIC](CORDIC) algorithm because CORDIC does not require much multiplication. [serial](Bit)(Serial communication) logic designs are more common in calculators whereas [parallel](bit)(Parallel communication) designs dominate general-purpose computers, because a bit serial design minimizes [chip](chipset) complexity, but takes many more [cycles](clock)(clock signal). This distinction blurs with high-end calculators, which use processor chips associated with computer and embedded systems design, more so the [Z80](Zilog Z80), [MC68000](Motorola 68000), and [ARM](ARM architecture) architectures, and some custom designs specialized for the calculator market.
## See also
* [spelling](Calculator)(Calculator spelling)
* [of HP graphing calculators](Comparison)(Comparison of HP graphing calculators)
* [of Texas Instruments graphing calculators](Comparison)(Comparison of Texas Instruments graphing calculators)
* [calculator](Formula)(Formula calculator)
* [calculators](HP)(HP calculators)
* [of computing hardware](History)(History of computing hardware)
* [calculator](Scientific)(Scientific calculator)
* [calculator](Software)(Software calculator)
* [calculator](Solar-powered)(Solar-powered calculator)
* [Photomath](Photomath)
## Notes
## References
### Sources
*
*
*
*
*
## Further reading
* – *Complex computer* – [R. Stibitz](G.)(George Stibitz), [Laboratories](Bell)(Bell Laboratories), 1954 (filed 1941, refiled 1944), electromechanical (relay) device that could calculate complex numbers, record, and print results.
* – *Miniature electronic calculator* – [S. Kilby](J.)(Jack Kilby), [Instruments](Texas)(Texas Instruments), 1974 (originally filed 1967), handheld () battery operated electronic device with thermal printer
* – *Floating Point Calculator With RAM Shift Register* – 1977 (originally filed GB March 1971, US July 1971), very early single chip calculator claim.
* – *Extended Numerical Keyboard with Structured Data-Entry Capability* – [H. Redin](J.)(Jaime Redin), 1997 (originally filed 1996), Usage of Verbal Numerals as a way to enter a number.
* [European Patent Office Database](http://ep.espacenet.com) – Many patents about mechanical calculators are in classifications G06C15/04, G06C15/06, G06G3/02, G06G3/04
* *Collectors Guide to Pocket Calculators*. by Guy Ball and Bruce Flamm, 1997, – includes an extensive history of early pocket calculators and highlights over 1,500 different models from the early 1970s. Book still in print.
* (64 pages)
## External links
* [30th Anniversary of the Calculator](http://sharp-world.com/corporate/info/his/h_company/1994/) – From Sharp's web presentation of its history; including a picture of the CS-10A desktop calculator
* [The Museum of HP calculators](http://www.hpmuseum.org) ([Slide Rules and Mechanical Calculators section](http://www.hpmuseum.org/prehp.htm))
* [Microprocessor and single chip calculator history; foundations in Glenrothes, Scotland](https://web.archive.org/web/20110720142104/http://www.spingal.plus.com/micro/)
* [HP-35](https://web.archive.org/web/20220211065021/http://home.citycable.ch/pierrefleur/Jacques-Laporte/HP%2035%20Saga.htm) – A thorough analysis of the HP-35 firmware including the Cordic algorithms and the bugs in the early ROM
* [Bell Punch Company and the development of the Anita calculator](http://www.anita-calculators.info/) – The story of the first electronic desktop calculator
* [Dentaku-Museum](https://web.archive.org/web/20220121122943/http://www.dentaku-museum.com/) – Shows mainly Japanese calculators but also others.
[ ](Category:Calculators)
[inventions](Category:American)(Category:American inventions)
[tools](Category:Mathematical)(Category:Mathematical tools)
[equipment](Category:Office)(Category:Office equipment)
[inventions](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century inventions)
[calculators](Category:Electronic)(Category:Electronic calculators)
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Asmongold
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asmongold
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# Asmongold
*Revision ID: 1151911612 | Timestamp: 2023-04-27T00:50:21Z*
---
| birth_place = [Texas](Austin,)(Austin, Texas), U.S
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = American
| occupation =
| home_town = [Texas](Austin,)(Austin, Texas), U.S.
| website =
| pseudonym =
| channel_name = Asmongold
| channel_name2 = zackrawrr
| channel_display_name =
| years_active = 2014–present
| genre =
| games =
| teams = [True King](One)(One True King)
| followers =
| views =
| associated_acts =
| catchphrase(s) =
| stats_update =
| module =
|channels = ||||}}
| years_active=2009–present
| subscribers=
| views=
| silver_button=yes
| silver_year=2015, 2019, 2020, 2022
| gold_button=yes
| gold_year=2022
| stats_update = March 7, 2023
}}
}}
**Asmongold**, also known as **ZackRawrr**, is an American [Twitch](Twitch (service)) [streamer](Online streamer), [YouTuber](YouTuber), content creator, [celebrity](internet)(internet celebrity), who is recognized for his *[of Warcraft](World)(World of Warcraft)* gameplay and knowledge of the game, humorous commentary while playing various [MMORPG](MMORPG)s, and his ability to entertain and engage with his audience. Asmongold's content primarily focuses on *World of Warcraft*, but he has covered other video games and topics related to gaming culture. Asmongold is a co-founder and co-owner of the streaming, gaming, and content creation organization [True King](One)(One True King) (OTK), based in [Texas](Austin,)(Austin, Texas). Asmongold is also a co-owner of Starforge Systems, a computer company specialized in selling prebuilt gaming PCs.
## Early life
Asmongold was born and raised in Austin, Texas, United States. He grew up with an interest in video games, particularly [games](role-playing)(role-playing games) (RPGs), and was introduced to *World of Warcraft* by a friend in 2006, at the age of 16. He quickly became captivated by the game and started playing it extensively. Asmongold later attended college but dropped out to focus on his streaming career.
## Career
Asmongold began his online career in 2009 by creating [YouTube](YouTube) videos about *World of Warcraft*, in which he shared his insights, strategies, and game knowledge. His YouTube channel experienced steady growth, and he eventually started live-streaming on Twitch in 2011, initially as a hobby, and he began his active streaming career on Twitch in 2014. Asmongold's content mainly consists of gameplay, guides, discussions, and reviews related to World of Warcraft expansions and patches. Ahead of the 2017 announcement of *[of Warcraft Classic](World)(World of Warcraft Classic)*, he had long wished for and speculated about the game mode's development. His main Twitch account [Asmongold](https://www.twitch.tv/Asmongold) was briefly suspended in August 2017 for a comment he made about survivors displaced by [Katrina](Hurricane)(Hurricane Katrina) which he later addressed in a TwitLonger clarifying his point of view and reached an understanding with Twitch staff.
His unique style, in-depth knowledge of the game, and entertaining commentary earned him a dedicated fanbase and his dedication to the game and candid personality resonated with viewers, leading to a significant increase in his Twitch following. By 2018, Asmongold had become one of the most popular *World of Warcraft* streamers on the platform.
Upon the release of *Classic* in 2019, he surged in overall popularity. He was also one of the platform's most popular *World of Warcraft* streamers during the 2020 release of *[Shadowlands](WoW Shadowlands)*. On July 3, 2021, Asmongold started playing *[Fantasy XIV](Final)(Final Fantasy XIV)* to hundreds of thousands of viewers.
In 2022, Asmongold started to branch out into more variety style streams. Asmongold has expressed his strong interest in continuing to branch out into creating all the different types of content he enjoys. Asmongold opposes [pay-to-win](pay-to-win) mechanics in video games such as *[Immortal](Diablo)(Diablo Immortal)*. In 2022, he reached out to [Republican](Republican Party (United States)) politician [Cruz](Ted)(Ted Cruz) on the possibility of outlawing loot boxes in video games, claiming that they are a loophole to child gambling laws. Cruz agreed with Asmongold's views and expressed interest in meeting him.
In October 2020, Asmongold co-founded *One True King*, a streaming and content creation organization, with other notable streamers and content creators, including [Mizkif](Mizkif), Esfand, and Tips Out. *OTK* focuses on creating a wide range of content, such as game streams, podcasts, and charity events. In August 2022, Asmongold announced ''OTK's'' new PC building company called Starforge Systems in collaboration with fellow content creator [Cr1TiKaL](Moist)(Cr1TiKaL). The company was quickly met with backlash due to the allegedly high prices of their products, to which they responded by decreasing their prices by $100.
## Personal life
Before beginning his streaming career Asmongold worked for the [Revenue Service](Internal)(Internal Revenue Service) for two tax seasons in 2012-2013. Asmongold acquired a business degree and was preparing to transfer to a law school, but had to abandon that plan as he was taking care of his mother.
In October 2021, his mother died after complications from [COPD](advanced)(Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), leading to his temporary hiatus from streaming.
## Awards and nominations
## References
[births](Category:1990)(Category:1990 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[esports players](Category:American)(Category:American esports players)
[YouTubers](Category:American)(Category:American YouTubers)
[YouTubers](Category:Gaming)(Category:Gaming YouTubers)
[from Austin, Texas](Category:People)(Category:People from Austin, Texas)
[Award winners](Category:Streamer)(Category:Streamer Award winners)
[(service) streamers](Category:Twitch)(Category:Twitch (service) streamers)
[of Warcraft players](Category:World)(Category:World of Warcraft players)
[from Texas](Category:YouTubers)(Category:YouTubers from Texas)
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Tool _band
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tool__band
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# Tool (band)
*Revision ID: 1156349470 | Timestamp: 2023-05-22T11:46:08Z*
---
|[metal](progressive)(progressive metal)|[rock](progressive)(progressive rock)}}
| years_active = 1990–present
| label =
| associated_acts =
| website =
| current_members =
* [James Keenan](Maynard)(Maynard James Keenan)
* [Jones](Adam)(Adam Jones (musician))
* [Carey](Danny)(Danny Carey)
* [Chancellor](Justin)(Justin Chancellor)
| past_members =
* [D'Amour](Paul)(Paul D'Amour)
}}
**Tool** is an American [rock](Rock music) band from Los Angeles. Formed in 1990, the group's line-up includes vocalist [James Keenan](Maynard)(Maynard James Keenan), guitarist [Jones](Adam)(Adam Jones (musician)) and drummer [Carey](Danny)(Danny Carey). [Chancellor](Justin)(Justin Chancellor) has been the band's bassist since 1995, replacing its original bassist [D'Amour](Paul)(Paul D'Amour). Tool has won four [Award](Grammy)(Grammy Award)s, performed worldwide tours, and produced albums topping the charts in several countries.
To date, the band has released five studio albums, one [EP](Opiate (EP)) and one [set](box)(Salival). It emerged with a [metal](heavy)(heavy metal music) sound on their first studio album, *[Undertow](Undertow (Tool album))* (1993), and became a dominant act in the [metal](alternative)(alternative metal) movement with the release of their follow-up album *[Ænima](Ænima)* in 1996. The group's efforts to combine musical experimentation, [arts](visual)(visual arts), and a message of personal evolution continued with *[Lateralus](Lateralus)* (2001) and *[Days](10,000)(10,000 Days (Tool album))* (2006), gaining critical acclaim and international commercial success. Its fifth studio album *[Inoculum](Fear)(Fear Inoculum)* was released on August 30, 2019, to widespread critical acclaim. Prior to its release, the band had sold more than 13 million albums in the US alone.
Due to Tool's incorporation of visual arts and very long and complex releases, the band is generally described as a style-transcending act and part of [rock](progressive)(progressive rock), [rock](psychedelic)(psychedelic rock), and [rock](art)(art rock). The relationship between the band and today's [industry](music)(music industry) is ambivalent, at times marked by [censorship](censorship), and the band's insistence on privacy.
## History
### Formation and *Opiate* (1989–1992)
[[logo 2006.svg|thumb|left|Tool logo, 2006](File:Tool)]
During the 1980s, each of the future members of Tool moved to Los Angeles. Both Paul D'Amour and Adam Jones wanted to enter the film industry, while Maynard James Keenan, who had studied visual arts in Michigan, worked as a pet store remodeler. Danny Carey and Keenan performed for [Jellÿ](Green)(Green Jellÿ), and Carey played with [King](Carole)(Carole King) and [Love Circus](Pigmy)(Pigmy Love Circus).
Keenan and Jones met through a mutual friend in 1989. After Keenan played for Jones a tape recording of his previous band project, Jones was so impressed by his voice that he eventually talked his friend into forming a new band. They started [jamming](Jam session) together while searching for a drummer and a bass player. Carey happened to live above Keenan and was introduced to Jones by [Morello](Tom)(Tom Morello), an old high school friend of Jones and former member of Electric Sheep. Carey began playing in their sessions because he "felt kinda sorry for them", as other invited musicians were not showing up. Tool's lineup was completed when a friend of Jones introduced the members to bassist D'Amour. Early on, the band fabricated the story that it formed because of the [pseudophilosophy](pseudophilosophy) "lachrymology". Although "lachrymology" was also cited as an inspiration for the band's name, Keenan later explained the members' intentions differently: "Tool is exactly what it sounds like: It's a big dick. It's a wrench. ... we are ... your tool; use us as a catalyst in your process of finding out whatever it is you need to find out, or whatever it is you're trying to achieve."
After almost two years of practicing and performing locally in the Los Angeles area, the band was approached by record companies, and eventually signed a record deal with [Entertainment](Zoo)(Zoo Entertainment (record label)). In March 1992, Zoo released the band's first effort, *[Opiate](Opiate (album))*. Described by the band as "slam and bang" heavy music and the "hardest sounding" six songs they had written to that point, the [EP](Extended play) included the singles "[Hush](Hush (Tool song))" and "[Opiate](Opiate (song))". The band's first music video, "Hush", promoted their dissenting views about the then-prominent [Music Resource Center](Parents)(Parents Music Resource Center) and its advocacy of the [of music](censorship)(censorship of music). The video featured the band members naked with their genitalia covered by [Advisory](Parental)(Parental Advisory) stickers and their mouths covered by duct tape. The band began touring with [Band](Rollins)(Rollins Band), [Fishbone](Fishbone), [Against the Machine](Rage)(Rage Against the Machine), [Zombie](White)(White Zombie (band)), and [of Conformity](Corrosion)(Corrosion of Conformity), to positive responses, which Janiss Garza of *RIP Magazine* summarized in September 1992 as a "buzz" and "a strong start".
### *Undertow* (1993–1994)
The following year, at a time when [rock](alternative)(alternative rock) and [grunge](grunge) were at their height, Tool released their first full-length album, *[Undertow](Undertow (Tool album))* (1993). It expressed more diverse dynamics than *Opiate* and included songs the band had chosen not to publish on their previous release, when they had opted for a heavier sound. The band began touring again as planned, with an exception in May 1993. Tool was scheduled to play at the Garden Pavilion in Hollywood but learned at the last minute that the venue belonged to the [of Scientology](Church)(Church of Scientology), which was perceived as a clash with "the band's ethics about how a person should not follow a belief system that constricts their development as a human being." Keenan "spent most of the show baa-ing like a sheep at the audience."
[[File:Tool-logo-early.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A band logo created by longtime collaborator [de Leon](Cam)(Cam de Leon), this wrench is an example of "[phallic](phallic) hardware" in Tool's imagery.]]
Tool later played several concerts during the [Lollapalooza](Lollapalooza) festival tour, and was moved from the second stage to the main stage by the group's manager and the festival co-founder [Gardner](Ted)(Ted Gardner). At the last concert of Lollapalooza in Tool's hometown Los Angeles, comedian [Hicks](Bill)(Bill Hicks) introduced the band. Hicks had become a friend of the band members and an influence on them after being mentioned in *Undertow*'s liner notes. He jokingly asked the audience of 10,000 people to stand still and help him look for a lost contact lens. The boost in popularity gained from these concerts helped *Undertow* to be certified [gold](RIAA certification) by the [RIAA](Recording Industry Association of America) in September 1993 and to achieve platinum status in 1995, despite being sold with [censored](Corporate censorship) album artwork by distributors such as [Wal-Mart](Wal-Mart). The single "[Sober](Sober (Tool song))" became a hit single by March 1994 and won the band *Billboard*s "Best Video by a New Artist" award for the accompanying [motion](stop)(stop motion) music video.
With the release of Tool's follow-up single "[Sex](Prison)(Prison Sex (song))", the band again became the target of censorship. The song's lyrics and video dealt with [abuse](child)(child abuse), which sparked controversial reactions; Keenan's lyrics begin with: "It took so long to remember just what happened. I was so young and vestal then, you know it hurt me, but I'm breathing so I guess I'm still alive ... I've got my hands bound and my head down and my eyes closed and my throat wide open." The video was created primarily by guitarist Adam Jones, who saw it as his "surrealistic interpretation" of the subject matter. While some contemporary journalists praised the video and described the lyrics as "metaphoric", the American branch of [MuchMusic](MuchMusic) (which asked Keenan to represent the band in a hearing) deemed the music video too graphic and obscene, and MTV stopped airing it after a few showings.
### *Ænima* and *Salival* (1995–2000)
In September 1995, the band began writing and recording its second studio album. At that time Tool experienced its only lineup change to date, with bassist D'Amour leaving the band amicably to pursue other projects. According to Carey, D'Amour left the band because he wanted to play guitar rather than bass. [Chancellor](Justin)(Justin Chancellor), a member of former tourmate band [Peach](Peach (band)), eventually replaced D'Amour during the recording of the album, having been chosen over competitors such as [Kyuss](Kyuss)'s [Reeder](Scott)(Scott Reeder (bassist)), [Filter](Filter (band))'s Frank Cavanaugh, [Love Circus](Pigmy)(Pigmy Love Circus)'s E. Shepherd Stevenson, [Addiction](Jane's)(Jane's Addiction)'s [Avery](Eric)(Eric Avery), and [ZAUM](ZAUM)'s Marco Fox.
On September 17, 1996, Tool released its second full-length album, *[Ænima](Ænima)* ("ON-ima"). The band enlisted the help of producer [Bottrill](David)(David Bottrill), who had produced some of [Crimson](King)(King Crimson)'s albums, while Jones collaborated with [de Leon](Cam)(Cam de Leon) to create *Ænima*s Grammy-nominated artwork. The album was dedicated to [comedian](stand-up)(Stand-up comedy) [Hicks](Bill)(Bill Hicks), who died two-and-a-half years earlier. The band intended to raise awareness about Hicks's material and ideas, because they felt that Tool and Hicks "were resonating similar concepts". In particular, *Ænima*s final track "Third Eye" is preceded by a clip of Hicks' performances, and the [lenticular](Lenticular printing) casing of the *Ænima* album packaging as well as the chorus of the title track "[Ænema](Ænema)" make reference to a sketch from Hicks's *[Bay](Arizona)(Arizona Bay)*, in which he contemplates the idea of Los Angeles falling into the Pacific Ocean.
The first single, "[Stinkfist](Stinkfist)", garnered limited airplay. It was shortened by radio programmers, MTV (U.S.) renamed the music video of "Stinkfist" to "Track No. 1" due to offensive connotations, and the lyrics of the song were altered. Responding to fan complaints about censorship, [Pinfield](Matt)(Matt Pinfield) of MTV's *[Minutes](120)(120 Minutes)* expressed regret on air by waving his fist in front of his face while introducing the video and explaining the name change.
A tour began in October 1996, two weeks after *Ænima*s release. Following numerous appearances in the United States and Europe, Tool headed for Australia and New Zealand in late March 1997. Eventually returning to the United States, Tool appeared at Lollapalooza '97 in July, this time as a headliner, where they gained critical praise from *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*. *Ænima* eventually matched Tool's successful debut album in sales, and the progressive-influenced album landed the band at the head of the [metal](alternative)(alternative metal) genre. It featured the Grammy Award-winning "Ænema" and appeared on several "Best Albums of 1996" lists, with notable examples being those of *[Kerrang!](Kerrang!)* and *[Terrorizer](Terrorizer (magazine))*. It was eventually certified [platinum](triple)(Music recording sales certification) by the RIAA on March 4, 2003. In 1998, Tool joined the [Ozzfest](Ozzfest) tour in the United States as the co-headliner act before [Osbourne](Ozzy)(Ozzy Osbourne). The band accepted on the condition that [Melvins](Melvins) had to join it as well because, as stated by its frontman [Osborne](Buzz)(Buzz Osborne), they "wanted at least one band on the tour that they liked", despite the dissuasions from the tour organizers.
Two legal battles then began that interfered with the band's working on another release. [Entertainment](Volcano)(Volcano Entertainment)—the successor of Tool's by-then defunct label Zoo Entertainment—alleged contract violations by Tool and filed a lawsuit. According to Volcano, Tool had violated their contract when the band looked at offers from other record labels. After Tool filed a counter-suit stating that Volcano had failed to use a renewal option in their contract, the parties settled out of court. In December 1998 Tool agreed to a new contract, a three-record joint venture deal. Then in 2000, the band dismissed their long-time manager Ted Gardner, who then sued the band over his commission. During this time, Keenan joined the band [Perfect Circle](A)(A Perfect Circle), which was founded by long-time Tool guitar tech [Howerdel](Billy)(Billy Howerdel), while Jones joined The Melvins' [Osborne](Buzz)(Buzz Osborne) and Carey drummed with Dead Kennedys' [Biafra](Jello)(Jello Biafra) on side projects. Although there were rumors that Tool was breaking up, Chancellor, Jones, and Carey were working on new material while waiting for Keenan to return. In 2000, the *[Salival](Salival)* [set](box)(box set) (CD/VHS or CD/DVD) was released, effectively putting an end to the rumors. The CD contained one new original track, a [cover](Cover version) of Led Zeppelin's "[Quarter](No)(No Quarter (song))", a live version of Peach's "[Lied](You)(You Lied)", and revised versions of old songs. The VHS and the DVD each contained four music videos, plus a bonus music video for "Hush" on the DVD. Although *Salival* did not yield any singles, the hidden track "Maynard's Dick" (which dates back to the *Opiate* era) briefly found its way to [radio](FM)(FM broadcasting) when several DJs chose to play it on air under the title "Maynard's Dead".
### *Lateralus* (2001–2005)
In January 2001, Tool announced a new album, *Systema Encéphale*, along with a 12-song track list containing titles such as "Riverchrist", "Numbereft", "Encephatalis", "Musick", and "Coeliacus". File-sharing networks such as [Napster](Napster) were flooded with bogus files bearing the titles' names. A month later, the band revealed that the new album was actually titled *[Lateralus](Lateralus)*; the name *Systema Encéphale* and the track list had been a ruse. *Lateralus* and the corresponding tours would take Tool a step further toward [rock](art)(art rock) and [rock](progressive)(progressive rock) territory. *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* wrote in an attempt to summarize the album that "Drums, bass and guitars move in jarring cycles of hyperhowl and near-silent [march](death)(death march) ... The prolonged running times of most of *Lateralus* thirteen tracks are misleading; the entire album rolls and stomps with [suite](suite (music))like purpose." Joshua Klein of *[A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club)* expressed his opinion that *Lateralus*, with its 79 minutes and relatively complex and long songs—topped by the ten-and-a-half-minute music video for "[Parabola](Parabola (song))"—posed a challenge to fans and music programming alike.
The album became a worldwide success, reaching No.1 on the U.S. [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200) albums chart in its debut week. Tool received their second Grammy Award for the best metal performance of 2001 for the song "[Schism](Schism (song))". During the band's acceptance speech, Carey stated that he would like to thank his parents (for putting up with him) and [Satan](Satan), and bassist Chancellor concluded: "I want to thank my dad for doing my mom."
Extensive touring throughout 2001 and 2002 supported *Lateralus* and included a personal highlight for the band: a 10-show joint mini-tour with [Crimson](King)(King Crimson) in August 2001. Comparisons between the two were made, MTV describing the bands as "the once and future kings of progressive rock". Keenan stated of the minitour: "For me, being on stage with King Crimson is like [Kravitz](Lenny)(Lenny Kravitz) playing with [Zeppelin](Led)(Led Zeppelin), or [Spears](Britney)(Britney Spears) onstage with [Gibson](Debbie)(Debbie Gibson)." Although the end of the tour in November 2002 seemed to signal the start of another hiatus for the band, they did not become completely inactive. While Keenan recorded and toured with [Perfect Circle](A)(A Perfect Circle), the other band members released an interview and a recording of new material, both exclusive to the fan club. The "double [vinyl](Gramophone record) four-picture disc" edition of *Lateralus* was first released as a limited autographed edition exclusively available to fan club members and publicly released on August 23, 2005. On December 20 the two DVDs were released, one containing the single "[Schism](Schism (song))" and the other "[Parabola](Parabola (song))", a remix by [Lustmord](Lustmord), and a music video with commentary by [Yow](David)(David Yow) and [Biafra](Jello)(Jello Biafra).
### *10,000 Days* (2006–2009)
[[live 2006.jpg|thumb|right|Tool live, in 2006](File:Tool)]
Fifteen years into the band's career, Tool had acquired what Dan Epstein of *[Revolver](Revolver (magazine))* described as a devoted "[cult](Cult following)" following, and as details about the band's next album emerged, such as the influence of *Lateralus* tourmates [Fantômas](Fantômas (band)) and [Meshuggah](Meshuggah), controversy surrounding the new Tool album surfaced with speculation over song titles and pre-release rumors of leaked songs. Speculation over possible album titles was dismissed with a news item on the official Tool website, announcing that the new album's name was *[Days](10,000)(10,000 Days (Tool album))*. Nevertheless, speculation continued, with allegations that *10,000 Days* was merely a "decoy" album to fool audiences. The rumor was proven false when a [leaked](music leak) copy of the album was distributed via [filesharing](filesharing) networks a week prior to its official release.
The album opener, "[Vicarious](Vicarious (Tool song))", premiered on U.S. radio stations on April 17, 2006. The album premiered on May 2 in the U.S. and debuted at the top spots of various international charts. *10,000 Days* sold 564,000 copies in its opening week in the U.S. and was number one on the *Billboard* 200 charts, doubling the sales of [Jam](Pearl)(Pearl Jam)'s [album](self-titled)(Pearl Jam (album)), its closest competitor. However, *10,000 Days* was received less favorably by critics than its predecessor *[Lateralus](Lateralus)* had been.
Prior to the release of *10,000 Days*, a tour kicked off at [Coachella](Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival) on April 30. The touring schedule was similar to the *Lateralus* tour of 2001; supporting acts were [Isis](Isis (band)) and [Mastodon](Mastodon (band)). During a short break early the next year, after touring Australia and New Zealand, drummer Carey suffered a [biceps](Biceps brachii muscle) tear during a skirmish with his girlfriend's dog, casting uncertainty on the band's upcoming concerts in North America. Carey underwent surgery on February 21 and several performances had to be postponed. Back on tour by April, Tool appeared on June 15 as a headliner at the [Music Festival](Bonnaroo)(Bonnaroo Music Festival) with a guest appearance from [Against the Machine](Rage)(Rage Against the Machine)'s [Morello](Tom)(Tom Morello) on "[Lateralus](Lateralus (song))". Meanwhile, "Vicarious" was a nominee for [Hard Rock Performance](Best)(Best Hard Rock Performance) and *10,000 Days* won [Recording Package](Best)(Best Recording Package) at the [Grammy Awards](49th)(49th Grammy Awards). The music video for "Vicarious" was released on DVD on December 18. The band's 2009 summer tour began on July 18 in [City, Colorado](Commerce)(Commerce City, Colorado), at the [High Music Festival](Mile)(Mile High Music Festival). They headlined Lollapalooza 2009 and a show on August 22 for the [Festival](Epicenter)(Epicenter (music festival)) in Pomona, California.
### *Fear Inoculum* (2012–present)
Their Tool Winter Tour played dates across the U.S. and Canada in January and February 2012. The band played at [Japan](Ozzfest)(Ozzfest) on May 12, 2013. On July 15, 2014, Carey and Jones informed *Rolling Stone* that family commitments and an ongoing lawsuit are the key reasons for the delayed fifth album. Carey said to the music publication that one untitled track is "pretty much done". In March 2015, Jones revealed that the lawsuit had been settled in the band's favor, and as such, the band was turning their focus towards recording the album. He said that he hoped the album would be finished before the end of 2015 but emphasized that the band would not rush their work to meet an arbitrary deadline. In January 2016, Tool undertook a tour of the United States. While it was reported in February 2017 that Keenan had entered the studio to work on vocals for the fifth Tool album, it was later reported that the album was not scheduled for release in 2017. Still, the band announced a North American tour starting in May. A month later, Chancellor revealed that the new Tool album was "about 90-percent there", while Carey claimed in separate interviews that it would "definitely" be released in 2018. In February 2018, Jones revealed that Keenan was working on lyrics for the album, and that the band would begin recording in March. In June 2018, during his acceptance speech for the Icon Award at the [Hammer Golden Gods Awards](Metal)(Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards), Keenan stated "I'll go on record now saying you're gonna see some new music next year."
[[performing at Welcome to Rockville 2023](File:ToolWelcometoRockville2023.jpg|thumb|Tool)] On September 11, 2018, Keenan announced via Twitter that production on the record was progressing and that vocals had been written, before suggesting a 2019 release. In January 2019, Keenan announced that he had completed recording his vocals for the album "months ago." While Carey mentioned aiming for a mid-April release date, Keenan later explained that between May and July was a more realistic time frame to wrap up production and release the album. On May 5, 2019, the band debuted two new songs live at the [to Rockville](Welcome)(Welcome to Rockville) Festival in Jacksonville, Florida called "Descending" and "Invincible". Three days later, it was confirmed that the band's new album is scheduled to be released on August 30, 2019. On July 29, 2019, Keenan confirmed the album would be titled *[Inoculum](Fear)(Fear Inoculum)*. The album's [track](title)(Fear Inoculum (song)) was released as a single on August 7, the band's first release in 13 years.
On August 2, the entirety of Tool's discography (with the exception of *Salival*) became available on digital streaming platforms. Tool was one of the last major holdouts to release their music digitally, as their record deal was signed before the rise in streaming and not revisited until before *Fear Inoculum*. The release of the discography online resulted in every release re-charting on several international charts and the band breaking several *[Billboard](Billboard (magazine))* chart records. *Fear Inoculum* was officially launched on August 30 and became their third U.S. number one.
On January 26, 2020 the band won the Best Metal Performance for their song "7empest" at the [Grammy Awards](62nd)(62nd Annual Grammy Awards) Their other nomination, the song "Fear Inoculum" lost the Best Rock Song category to [Clark Jr.](Gary)(Gary Clark Jr.)
In June 2020, the band announced that it will cancel its upcoming 2020 North American tour entirely, after initially postponing a handful of dates due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic). The following August, Carey noted that the band had entered a hiatus, but that he still hoped they would reconvene in the future to record an EP, which the band would have more freedom in releasing due to no longer being signed to a record label. On October 27, 2020, an instrumental song titled "[Witness](The)(The Witness (song))" was released featuring Jones, Chancellor, and Carey, and featuring production from Barresi, though the song was credited to Jones, not the band itself.
"Opiate" was re-recorded and released as "Opiate²" or "Opiate Squared" on March 1, 2022. It is almost twice as long as the original and includes the same lyrics as the live version, plus the extended instrumental midsection. A music video directed by Dominic Hailstone was released on March 18, 2022, to commemorate the EP's 30th anniversary. Carey mentioned in the same month that the band has been working on new material for their sixth studio album: "I'm sure it won't take us this long for the next one. We even had some stuff left over from the last one that we'll develop. We have head starts on three or four new songs."
## Musical style and influences
### Musical style
Tool's musical style has been described as [metal](alternative)(alternative metal), [rock](art)(art rock), [post-metal](post-metal), [rock](progressive)(progressive rock), [metal](progressive)(progressive metal),The paper reports that the article's featured band "have admirers in world-class progressive-metal outfits like Isis, Mastodon, and Tool and [metal](heavy)(Heavy metal music). Tool was described by Patrick Donovan of *[Age](The)(The Age)* as "the thinking person's metal band. Cerebral and visceral, soft and heavy, melodic and abrasive, tender and brutal, familiar and strange, western and eastern, beautiful and ugly, taut yet sprawling and epic, they are a tangle of contradictions." Tool has gained critical praise from the *[Herald Tribune](International)(International Herald Tribune)*s C.B. Liddell for their complex and ever-evolving sound. Describing their general sound, [AllMusic](AllMusic) refers to them as "grinding, post-[Addiction](Jane's)(Jane's Addiction) heavy metal", and *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* sees similarities to "Led Zeppelin's heaving, battering guitar riffs and Middle Eastern modes". Their 2001 work *Lateralus* was compared by Allmusic to [Floyd](Pink)(Pink Floyd)'s *[Meddle](Meddle)* (1971), but thirty years later and altered by "Tool's impulse to cram every inch of infinity with hard guitar meat and absolute dread". Tool had been labelled as post-metal in 1993 and 1996, as well as in 2006, after the term came into popularity. A component of Tool's song repertoire relies on the use of unusual [signature](time)(time signature)s. For instance, Chancellor describes the time signature employed on the first single from *Lateralus*, "[Schism](Schism (song))", as "six" and "six-and-a-half" and that it later "goes into all kinds of other times". Further examples include the album's title track, which also displays shifting rhythms, as do *10,000 Days*: "Wings for Marie (Pt 1)" and "10,000 Days (Wings Pt 2)".''
Beyond this aspect of the band's sound, each band member experiments within his wide musical scope. [Player* magazine](*Bass)(Bass Player (magazine)) described Chancellor's bass playing as having a "thick midrange tone, guitar-style techniques, and elastic versatility". As an example of this, the magazine mentioned the use of a [effect](wah)(Wah-wah (music)) by [hammering](Hammer-on) "the notes with the left hand and using the bass's tone controls to get a tone sweep", such as on the song "The Patient", from *Lateralus*.
Completing the band's [section](rhythm)(rhythm section), drummer Carey uses [polyrhythm](polyrhythm)s, [tabla](tabla)-style techniques, and the incorporation of custom [drum pads](electronic)(Electronic drum) to trigger samples, such as prerecorded tabla and [octoban](octoban) sounds.
Keenan's ability as a vocalist has been characterized more subjectively by the *[Post-Intelligencer](Seattle)(Seattle Post-Intelligencer)*: After his performance during an [in Chains](Alice)(Alice in Chains) reunion concert in 2005, freelancer Travis Hay saw him as "a natural fit at replacing [Staley](Layne)(Layne Staley)". Regarding his role in A Perfect Circle and Tool, *The New York Times* wrote that "both groups rely on Mr. Keenan's ability to dignify emotions like lust, anger and disgust, the honey in his voice adding a touch of profundity".
According to *Guitar Player* magazine, Jones does not rely on any one particular guitar-playing technique but rather combines many techniques. For example, Allmusic wrote that he "alternately utiliz[es] power chords, scratchy noise, chiming arpeggios, and a quiet minimalism" in "[Sober](Sober (Tool song))". Additionally, the band uses forms of instrumental experimentation, like the use of a "pipe bomb microphone" (a [pickup](guitar)(Pick up (music technology)) mounted inside a brass cylinder) and a [box](talk)(talk box) guitar solo on "Jambi".
The band puts an emphasis on the sound of their songs and attempts to reduce the effect lyrics can have on the perception of songs by not releasing song lyrics with their albums, although they eventually released the lyrics for *Fear Inoculum* for that album's CD. Lyrical arrangements are often given special attention, such as in "Lateralus". The number of syllables per line in the lyrics to "Lateralus" correspond to an arrangement of the [number](Fibonacci)(Fibonacci number)s and the song "Jambi" uses and makes a reference to the common metrical foot [iamb](Iamb (foot)). The lyrics on *Ænima* and *Lateralus* focus on philosophy and spirituality—specific subjects range from organized religion in "Opiate", to [evolution](evolution) and [Jungian](Jungian) psychology in "[& 2](Forty-Six)(Forty-Six & 2)" and [transcendence](transcendence (philosophy)) in "Lateralus". On *10,000 Days*, Keenan wanted to explore issues more personal to him: the album name and title track refer to the twenty-seven years during which his mother suffered from complications of a stroke until her death in 2003.
### Influences
In 1997, Tool named [Crimson](King)(King Crimson), [Melvins](Melvins), and [Gabriel](Peter)(Peter Gabriel)'s *[Passion](Passion (Peter Gabriel album))* as common influences on its development. Bottrill reprised his role on *Lateralus*, followed by Joe Barresi on the next two records because of Tool's admiration for his production on *[Stag](Stag (Melvins album))* and *[Honky](Honky (album))* by the Melvins.}} In describing their wide range of styles, critics have noted that they are "influenced as much by [Floyd](Pink)(Pink Floyd) as by the [Pistols](Sex)(Sex Pistols)." In a 1993 interview, Adam Jones mentioned [Mitchell](Joni)(Joni Mitchell), King Crimson, [Mode](Depeche)(Depeche Mode), and [music](country)(country music) as being among their inspirations. In 1997, Maynard James Keenan named *[Hejira](Hejira (album))* by Joni Mitchell, *[Money](Holy)(Holy Money)*/*[Greed](Greed (Swans album))* by [Swans](Swans (band)), *[Graffiti](Physical)(Physical Graffiti)* by Led Zeppelin, *[Red](Red (King Crimson album))* by King Crimson, and *Passion* by Peter Gabriel as his five favorite records. Danny Carey cited [Bruford](Bill)(Bill Bruford) and [White](Alan)(Alan White (Yes drummer)) of [Yes](Yes (band)) as his two biggest rock influences, in addition to Bruford's adventurousness in electronic drums. In the same way, Jones stated that [Fripp](Robert)(Robert Fripp)'s performances with King Crimson caused him to "wake up" to music as a teen. Furthermore, he acknowledged the other King Crimson guitarists, [Belew](Adrian)(Adrian Belew) and [Gunn](Trey)(Trey Gunn), along with [Osborne](Buzz)(Buzz Osborne) from the Melvins, as his biggest influences.
Tool have constantly expressed the massive impact that progressive rock pioneers King Crimson have had on their music; on a 2001 tour with them, Keenan joked: "Now you know who we ripped off. Just don't tell anyone, especially the members of King Crimson." Carey said that listening to the *[Discipline](Discipline (King Crimson album))* album upon its 1981 release "revolutionized" his musical perspective in terms of polyrhythms and the balance between the instruments.*Note*: [Link](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SsxSm1xCR-E) to the Danny Carey interview that was paraphrased in the book. It was originally broadcast on the now-defunct [Programma Stichting](Nederlandse)(Nederlandse Programma Stichting). In 1997, Keenan explained how the composition process of Tool reflected that of King Crimson: "They're very much into listening to each other; even though they might have a basic structure that they're following, it's about fitting themselves in with each other." Contrary to these statements, longtime King Crimson member Robert Fripp has downplayed any influence his band had on Tool. In an interview, Fripp touched on how the two bands relate to each other, stating "Do you hear the influence? There's just one figure where I hear an influence, just one. It was a piece we were developing that we dropped. And it's almost exactly the same figure: three note arpeggio with a particular accent from the guitar. So I do not think you could have heard it. That's the only thing." He also said, }}}}
The band's long build-ups of intensity were largely inspired by the Melvins. The latter's influence on Tool is most explicit in *Undertow*, and some authors have described Tool's music as a [progressive](progressive music) take on Melvins. On the other hand, Keenan's exotic modulations were influenced by [music](world)(world music); in his twenties, the singer was immersed in that type of music, thus when Peter Gabriel reunited several musicians whom Keenan already knew of for *[Last Temptation of Christ](The)(The Last Temptation of Christ (film))* soundtrack, which mixed their traditional styles with modern [music](ambient)(ambient music), it became a major revelation for him.
Other reported influences of Tool include [Fantômas](Fantômas (band)), [Devo](Devo), [Hicks](Bill)(Bill Hicks), [Rush](Rush (band)), [Helmet](Helmet (band)), [No More](Faith)(Faith No More), [Bauhaus](Bauhaus (band)), [Meshuggah](Meshuggah), [Bowie](David)(David Bowie), [Patton](Mike)(Mike Patton), [Lombardo](Dave)(Dave Lombardo), and [Addiction](Jane's)(Jane's Addiction).
### Influence on other artists
Writers HP Newquist and Rich Maloof attribute to Tool an influence on modern metal in their book *The New Metal Masters*. Sean Richardson of *[Boston Phoenix](The)(The Phoenix (newspaper))* sees [of a Down](System)(System of a Down), [Deftones](Deftones), and [Korn](Korn) as examples of Tool's "towering influence" on the genre. Keenan's unique style of singing has been seen as heavily influencing artists such as Pete Loeffler of [Chevelle](Chevelle (band)), [Burnley](Benjamin)(Benjamin Burnley) of [Benjamin](Breaking)(Breaking Benjamin), Will Martin of [Earshot](Earshot), and [Durst](Fred)(Fred Durst) of [Bizkit](Limp)(Limp Bizkit).
## Visual arts
Part of Tool's work as a band is to incorporate influences of other works of art in their music videos, live shows, and album packaging. Adam Jones doubles as the band's art director and director of their music videos. Another expression of this is an official website "dedicated to the arts and influences" on the band.
### Music videos
[[File:Tool-Sober-video-screencap.jpg|thumb|Screenshot from the "[Sober](Sober (Tool song))" music video, directed by Adam Jones and Fred Stuhr]]
The band has released eight music videos but made personal appearances in only the first two, which the band states is to prevent people from "latching onto the personalities involved rather than listening to the music." With the exception of "[Hush](Hush (Tool song))" and "[Vicarious](Vicarious (Tool song))" all of Tool's music videos feature [motion animation](stop)(stop motion) to some extent. The videos are created primarily by Adam Jones, often in collaboration with artists such as [Zar](Chet)(Chet Zar), [Grey](Alex)(Alex Grey), and [Labyrint](Osseus)(Osseus Labyrint).
The "[Sober](Sober (Tool song))" music video in particular attracted much attention. Jones explained that it does not contain a storyline, but that his intentions were to summon personal emotions with its imagery. *Rolling Stone* described this imagery as "evil little men dwell in a dark dungeon with meat coursing through pipes in the wall" and called it a "groundbreaking", "epic" clip. *Billboard* voted it "Best Video by a New Artist".
The video for "[Vicarious](Vicarious (song))" was released on DVD on December 18, 2007. The video is the first by Tool to be produced entirely through the use of [CGI](Computer-generated imagery).
### Album artwork
Jones is responsible for most of the band's artwork concepts. The album *Undertow* features a ribcage sculpture by Jones on its cover and photos contributed by the band members. Later albums included artwork by collaborating artists: *Ænima* and *Salival* featured works by [de Leon](Cam)(Cam de Leon); *Lateralus* and *10,000 Days* were created with the help of [Grey](Alex)(Alex Grey). The releases garnered positive critical reception, with a music journalist of the [Press](Associated)(Associated Press) attributing to the band a reputation for innovative album packaging.
Both *Ænima* and *10,000 Days* were nominated for the [Award for Best Recording Package](Grammy)(Grammy Award for Best Recording Package), but while the former failed to win in 1997, the latter did win in 2007. Jones created packaging for *10,000 Days* that features a pair of [stereoscopic](stereoscopic) lenses for viewing 3-D artwork and photos. Jones, a lifelong fan of stereoscopic photography, wanted the packaging to be unique and to reflect the 1970s artwork he appreciates. The CD packaging for *Fear Inoculum* included a rechargeable 4 inch HD video screen and a speaker which played a hidden track along with a video when opened and also included a 36-page booklet.
### Live shows
[[File:Tool live mannheim 2006.jpg|thumb|right|Tool's live performances in 2006 included an elaborate light show using *10,000 Days* artwork by painter [Grey](Alex)(Alex Grey) as a backdrop.]]
Following its first tours in the early 1990s, Tool has performed as a headline act in world tours and major festivals such as [Lollapalooza](Lollapalooza) (1997 and 2009), [Coachella](Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival) (1999 and 2006), [Fest](Voodoo)(Voodoo Experience) (2001 and 2016), [Festival](Download)(Download Festival) (2006 and 2019), [Roskilde](Roskilde Festival) (2001 and 2006), [Day Out](Big)(Big Day Out) (2007 and 2011), [Bonnaroo](Bonnaroo) (2007 and 2022), [Points West Music & Arts Festival](All)(All Points West Music & Arts Festival) (2009), and [Epicenter](Epicenter (music festival)) (2009). They have been joined on stage by numerous artists such as [Osborne](Buzz)(Buzz Osborne) and [Reeder](Scott)(Scott Reeder (bassist)) on several occasions; [Morello](Tom)(Tom Morello) and [de la Rocha](Zack)(Zack de la Rocha) during their 1991 tour; [Staley](Layne)(Layne Staley) in Hawaii, 1993; [Tricky](Tricky (musician)), [Fripp](Robert)(Robert Fripp), [Patton](Mike)(Mike Patton), [Lombardo](Dave)(Dave Lombardo), [Dailor](Brann)(Brann Dailor) of [Mastodon](Mastodon (band)), and experimental arts duo [Labyrint](Osseus)(Osseus Labyrint) during their 2001–02 *Lateralus* tour; and [Hammett](Kirk)(Kirk Hammett), [Campbell](Phil)(Phil Campbell (musician)), [Tankian](Serj)(Serj Tankian), and Tom Morello during their 2006–07 tour. They have covered songs by Led Zeppelin, [Nugent](Ted)(Ted Nugent), [Peach](Peach (band)), [Kyuss](Kyuss), the [Kennedys](Dead)(Dead Kennedys), and the [Ramones](Ramones).
Live shows on Tool's headline tour incorporate an unorthodox stage setting and video display. Keenan and Carey line up in the back on elevated platforms, while Jones and Chancellor stand in the front, toward the sides of the stage. Keenan often faces the backdrop or the sides of the stage rather than the audience. No [followspot](followspot)s or live cameras are used; instead, the band employs extensive backlighting to direct the focus away from the band members and toward large screens in the back and the crowd. Breckinridge Haggerty, the band's live video designer, says that the resulting dark spaces on stage "are mostly for Maynard". He explains, "[a] lot of the songs are a personal journey for him and he has a hard time with the glare of the lights when he's trying to reproduce these emotions for the audience. He needs a bit of personal space, and he feels more comfortable in the shadows." The big screens are used to play back "looped clips that aren't tracked to a song like a music video. The band has never used any sort of timecode. They’ve always made sure the video can change on-the-fly, in a way that can be improvised. ... The show is never the same twice." During the *10,000 Days* tour, the video material consisted of over six hours of material, created by Jones, his wife Camella Grace, [Zar](Chet)(Chet Zar), Meats Meier, and Haggerty. Some of the material created by Zar has been released on his DVD *Disturb the Normal*.
## Band members
* [James Keenan](Maynard)(Maynard James Keenan) – vocals (1990–present)
* [Jones](Adam)(Adam Jones (musician)) – guitars (1990–present)
* [Carey](Danny)(Danny Carey) – drums, percussion (1990–present), samples (1995–present)
* [Chancellor](Justin)(Justin Chancellor) – bass (1995–present)
**Former members**
* [D'Amour](Paul)(Paul D'Amour) – bass (1990–1995)
## Awards and nominations
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|-
! scope="col" | Award
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Nominee(s)
! scope="col" | Category
! scope="col" | Result
! scope="col" class="unsortable"|
|-
! scope="row"|AMFT Awards
| 2019
| "[7empest](7empest)"
| Best Metal Performance
|
|
|-
! scope="row" rowspan=2|[Music Awards](Billboard)(Billboard Music Awards)
| rowspan=2| [2020](2020 Billboard Music Awards)
| *[Inoculum](Fear)(Fear Inoculum)*
| [Rock Album](Top)(Billboard Music Award for Top Rock Album)
|
|
|-
| Tool
| [Rock Artist](Top)(Billboard Music Award for Top Rock Artist)
|
|
|-
! scope="row" rowspan=9|[Awards](Grammy)(Grammy Awards)
| [1997](39th Grammy Awards)
| *[Ænima](Ænima)*
| [Recording Package](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Recording Package)
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| [1998](40th Grammy Awards)
| "[Ænema](Ænema)"
| [Metal Performance](Best)(Best Metal Performance)
|
| Awards AllMusic|website=AllMusic|access-date=July 21, 2016|archive-date=October 11, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011112427/http://www.allmusic.com/artist/tool-mn0000790820/awards|url-status=live}}
|-
| "[Stinkfist](Stinkfist)"
| [Music Video](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Music Video)
|
|
|-
| [2002](44th Grammy Awards)
| "[Schism](Schism (song))"
| [Metal Performance](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance)
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| [2007](49th Grammy Awards)
| *[Days](10,000)(10,000 Days (Tool album))*
| [Recording Package](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Recording Package)
|
|
|-
| "[Vicarious](Vicarious (Tool song))"
| rowspan="2" | [Hard Rock Performance](Best)(Best Hard Rock Performance)
|
|
|-
| [2008](50th Grammy Awards)
| "[Pot](The)(The Pot)"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | [2020](62nd Grammy Awards)
| "[7empest](7empest)"
| [Metal Performance](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance)
|
|
|-
|"[Inoculum](Fear)(Fear Inoculum (song))"
|Best Rock Song|[Rock Song](Best)(Grammy Award for Best Rock Song)
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|[Music Awards](Hungarian)(Hungarian Music Awards)
| 2007
| *[Days](10,000)(10,000 Days (Tool album))*
| Best Foreign Rock Album
|
|
|-
! scope="row"|[Music Awards](iHeartRadio)(iHeartRadio Music Awards)
| [2020](2020 iHeartRadio Music Awards)
| *[Inoculum](Fear)(Fear Inoculum)*
| Top Rock Album
|
|
|-
!scope="row"|[Concert Industry Awards](Pollstar)(Pollstar)
| 2002
| *Tour*
| Most Creative Stage Production
|
|
## Discography
* *[Undertow](Undertow (Tool album))* (1993)
* *[Ænima](Ænima)* (1996)
* *[Lateralus](Lateralus)* (2001)
* *[Days](10,000)(10,000 Days (Tool album))* (2006)
* *[Inoculum](Fear)(Fear Inoculum)* (2019)
## Notes
## References
### Citations
| access-date = April 28, 2006
}}
| last = Theakston
| first = Rob
| title = Lateralus Review
| website = AllMusic
| year = 2001
| access-date = April 28, 2006
}}
[Metacritic](Metacritic) calculated an average score of 68 for *10,000 Days* compared to 75 for *Lateralus*.
| last = Huey
| first = Steve
| title = Sober Song Review
| work = AllMusic.com
| access-date = May 2, 2007
}}
}}
### Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
## External links
*
*
* [Art website](https://web.archive.org/web/20081025195308/http://www.dissectional.com/)
*
[ ](Category:Tool (band))
[alternative metal musical groups](Category:American)(Category:American alternative metal musical groups)
[progressive metal musical groups](Category:American)(Category:American progressive metal musical groups)
[art rock groups](Category:American)(Category:American art rock groups)
[Award winners](Category:Grammy)(Category:Grammy Award winners)
[metal musical groups from California](Category:Heavy)(Category:Heavy metal musical groups from California)
[groups established in 1990](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups established in 1990)
[groups from Los Angeles](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups from Los Angeles)
[quartets](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical quartets)
[rock musical groups from California](Category:Progressive)(Category:Progressive rock musical groups from California)
[Entertainment artists](Category:Volcano)(Category:Volcano Entertainment artists)
[Entertainment (record label) artists](Category:Zoo)(Category:Zoo Entertainment (record label) artists)
[post-metal musical groups](Category:American)(Category:American post-metal musical groups)
[establishments in California](Category:1990)(Category:1990 establishments in California)
|
Deep Silver
|
deep_silver
|
# Deep Silver
*Revision ID: 1150832348 | Timestamp: 2023-04-20T11:19:05Z*
---
| hq_location_city = [Höfen](Höfen, Tyrol)
| hq_location_country = Austria
| area_served = Worldwide
| products = See [of Deep Silver games](List)(List of Deep Silver games)
| parent = [Plaion](Plaion)
| subsid =
| website =
}}
**Deep Silver** is an Austrian [game publisher](video)(video game publisher) and a [division](Division (business)) of [Plaion](Plaion).
## History
Deep Silver was announced in November 2002, with their first release to be *[Online: The Notum Wars](Anarchy)(Anarchy Online)*. According to Craig McNichol, who ran Koch Media's England branch, the idea behind Deep Silver was to have a business segment that would develop games that would complement the games Koch Media was distributing on behalf of other publishers. McNichol also stated that Deep Silver's name was subject to much internal discussion. Koch Media invested in Deep Silver in July 2003, and in November 2003, all of Koch Media's game publishing operations (excluding distribution) were reallocated to Deep Silver. The division had been continuously active since, primarily in Europe. In April 2008, Koch Media opened Deep Silver, Inc., a subsidiary branch based in [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), under Deep Silver's name. In August 2007, Games That Matter, a studio founded by former [Vienna](Rockstar)(Rockstar Vienna) employees in 2006, was acquired by Koch Media and became part of Deep Silver under the name Deep Silver Vienna. Co-founders Niki Laber and Hannes Seifert had left the studio by January 2010, at which point Deep Silver Vienna was shut down. Deep Silver Vienna has only produced one game, *[Mountain](Cursed)(Cursed Mountain)*, which was developed in association with [Interactive](Sproing)(Sproing Interactive) and released in August 2009 for the [Wii](Wii).
Deep Silver first gained widespread attention with their release of *[Island](Dead)(Dead Island)* and their acquisition of Volition. *Dead Island* had been their first release to reach the top spot on sales charts in September 2011, and they acquired Volition in January 2013, alongside the rights to the *[Metro](Metro (franchise))* series, from the [bankruptcy](bankruptcy) proceedings of [THQ](THQ). Deep Silver also acquired a minority interest in [Berlin](Berlin)-based [free-to-play](free-to-play) game developer Infernum Productions in December 2012. In February 2013, Deep Silver announced its intentions to expand into the mobile games market.
In December 2013, [Fishlabs](Fishlabs), which had filed for [self-administration](Administration (law)) the previous October, was acquired by Koch Media and became Deep Silver's dedicated mobile game studio. As the agreement was an asset deal, the legal entity of the studio was dissolved and Fishlabs was reorganised as a division, officially known as Deep Silver Fishlabs. In July 2014, Deep Silver acquired the rights to *[Homefront](Homefront (video game))* and its in-development sequel, *[The Revolution](Homefront:)(Homefront: The Revolution)*, from German developer [Crytek](Crytek). Dambuster Studios (officially, Deep Silver Dambuster Studios) was established to continue the development of *The Revolution*, succeeding [UK](Crytek)(Crytek UK). Later on the same day, Crytek announced that Crytek UK would be closed, and all of its staff transferred to Dambuster Studios. In August 2018, Koch Media acquired the rights to the *[TimeSplitters](TimeSplitters)* games, which would be overseen by Deep Silver.
In May 2020, Koch Media and [Nordic](THQ)(THQ Nordic), by this time both part of [Group](Embracer)(Embracer Group), exchanged several [property](intellectual)(intellectual property) rights: Deep Silver received *[Faction](Red)(Red Faction)* and *[Painkiller](Painkiller (video game))*, while handing off *[Risen](Risen (series))*, *[for Berlin](Rush)(Rush for Berlin)*, *[Sacred](Sacred (video game))*, *[Sight](Second)(Second Sight (video game))*, and *[Flirt Up Your Life](Singles:)(Singles: Flirt Up Your Life)*.
In May 2021, Deep Silver and Koch Media, part of [Group](Embracer)(Embracer Group) since 2018, announced that [Radical Design](Free)(Free Radical Design) had been re-founded. Work on a new part of the *TimeSplitters* series is to begin before the end of 2021. In November 2022, Volition was transferred to Gearbox Entertainment, another company under Embracer Group.
## Controversy
In January 2013, Deep Silver announced a [edition](special)(special edition) of their then-upcoming game *[Island: Riptide](Dead)(Dead Island: Riptide)*, titled *Zombie Bait Edition*, which would include a [of a mutilated female torso](statuette)(Dead Island: Riptide#Mutilated torso promotion controversy) in Europe and Australia. After strong criticism over the item, Deep Silver initially offered an apology, stating that they were "deeply sorry" and promising consumers that something like that would not happen again. However, when the game was released in April that year, the bust was still included, generating further backlash.
In January 2019, Deep Silver partnered with [Games](Epic)(Epic Games) on a one-year exclusivity deal for the [computer](personal)(personal computer) (PC) version of their upcoming game *[Exodus](Metro)(Metro Exodus)* on Epic's digital distribution storefront, the [Games Store](Epic)(Epic Games Store). Through this deal, *Metro Exodus* was removed from [Steam](Steam (service)), another digital distribution storefront, where Deep Silver had been selling [pre-order](pre-order)s for the game since August 2018. Additionally, the deal was made and announced less than three weeks prior to game's release, causing criticism and confusion among critics and fans of the *[Metro](Metro (franchise))* franchise. [Valve](Valve Corporation), the company behind Steam, labelled the move as unfair to consumers, while fans [review-bombed](Review bomb) previous entries of the series on Steam.
## Games
Franchises published by Deep Silver include *[Metro](Metro (series))* from [Games](4A)(4A Games) and Volition's *[Row](Saints)(Saints Row)*, both of which were acquired through THQ's bankruptcy auction in 2013, as well as [Techland](Techland)-created *[Island](Dead)(Dead Island (series))*. Other games include *[The Revolution](Homefront:)(Homefront: The Revolution)* by Dambuster Studios and *[III](Shenmue)(Shenmue III)* by [Net](Ys)(Ys Net).
## References
## External links
*
[ ](Category:Deep Silver)
[companies established in 2002](Category:Austrian)(Category:Austrian companies established in 2002)
[game companies established in 2002](Category:Video)(Category:Video game companies established in 2002)
[game companies of Austria](Category:Video)(Category:Video game companies of Austria)
[game publishers](Category:Video)(Category:Video game publishers)
[of Tyrol (state)](Category:Economy)(Category:Economy of Tyrol (state))
|
Glass Onion_ A Knives Out Mystery
|
glass_onion__a_knives_out_mystery
|
# Glass Onion: A Knives Out Mystery
*Revision ID: 1154088954 | Timestamp: 2023-05-10T05:48:54Z*
---
| starring =
| cinematography = [Yedlin](Steve)(Steve Yedlin)
| editing = [Ducsay](Bob)(Bob Ducsay)
| music = [Johnson](Nathan)(Nathan Johnson (musician))
| studio = [Productions](T-Street)(T-Street Productions)
| distributor = [Netflix](Netflix)
| released =
| runtime = 139 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $40 million
| gross = $15 million
}}
***Glass Onion: A Knives Out Mystery*** (titled onscreen as simply ***Glass Onion***) is a 2022 American [film](mystery)(mystery film) written and directed by [Johnson](Rian)(Rian Johnson) and produced by Johnson and [Bergman](Ram)(Ram Bergman). It is a [sequel](standalone)(standalone sequel) to the 2019 film *[Out](Knives)(Knives Out)*, with [Craig](Daniel)(Daniel Craig) reprising his role as master detective Benoit Blanc as he takes on a new case revolving around tech billionaire Miles Bron (played by [Norton](Edward)(Edward Norton)) and his closest friends. The [cast](ensemble)(ensemble cast) also includes [Monáe](Janelle)(Janelle Monáe), [Hahn](Kathryn)(Kathryn Hahn), [Odom Jr.](Leslie)(Leslie Odom Jr.), [Henwick](Jessica)(Jessica Henwick), [Cline](Madelyn)(Madelyn Cline), [Hudson](Kate)(Kate Hudson), and [Bautista](Dave)(Dave Bautista).
Johnson had considered several films featuring the Benoit Blanc character before the first film's release. A sequel was greenlit by its original distributor [Lionsgate](Lionsgate) in 2020, but in March 2021 [Netflix](Netflix) bought the rights to two *Knives Out* sequels for $469 million. The cast signed on that May. Filming took place with a $40 million budget on the island of [Spetses](Spetses, Greece), [Greece](Greece), in June and July 2021, and continued in [Belgrade](Belgrade), [Serbia](Serbia), until September. The second sequel is in development as of March 2023.
Following its world premiere at the [International Film Festival](Toronto)(Toronto International Film Festival) on September 10, 2022, *Glass Onion* began a one-week [theatrical release](limited)(limited theatrical release) on November 23, 2022, receiving the widest theatrical release ever for a Netflix film and grossing $15 million; Netflix began streaming it on December 23. Like its predecessor, *Glass Onion* received critical acclaim, with reviewers praising Johnson's screenplay and direction, the performances of the cast, and the musical score. The [Board of Review](National)(National Board of Review) named *Glass Onion* as one of the [ten films](top)(National Board of Review: Top Ten Films) of 2022. The film received a nomination for [Adapted Screenplay](Best)(Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay) at the [Academy Awards](95th)(95th Academy Awards), and received [other accolades](numerous)(List of accolades received by Glass Onion: A Knives Out Mystery).
== Plot ==
[[File:Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF retouched.jpg|upright|thumb|[da Vinci](Leonardo)(Leonardo da Vinci)'s early 16th century painting, *[Lisa](Mona)(Mona Lisa)*, which is featured as a major plot point in the film]]
During the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic) in May 2020, Miles Bron, the billionaire co-founder of technology company Alpha, hosts a [mystery game](murder)(murder mystery game) at the Glass Onion, his mansion on a private island in [Greece](Greece). He invites five friends: Alpha head scientist Lionel Toussaint, [Connecticut](Connecticut) governor Claire Debella, controversial fashion designer and model Birdie Jay, [rights](men's)(men's rights) [streamer](Online streamer) Duke Cody, and ousted Alpha co-founder Cassandra "Andi" Brand. The five friends are delivered a wooden [box](puzzle)(puzzle box) to decipher to find the invitation inside; the former four solve the puzzle successfully while Andi simply smashes open the box. The five travel to Miles's island, along with Birdie's assistant Peg and Duke's girlfriend Whiskey. Famous detective Benoit Blanc joins them; although Miles says he did not invite Blanc, he allows Blanc to stay, assuming another guest sent him an invitation as a joke.
Before dinner, Miles shows off his valuable glass sculptures, as well as the *[Lisa](Mona)(Mona Lisa)*, which he has on loan from the [Louvre](Louvre). Miles also reveals that the mansion is powered by "Klear", a hydrogen-based [fuel](alternative)(alternative fuel) that Alpha will launch imminently, despite Lionel and Claire's concerns that it is untested and dangerous.
Blanc solves Miles's murder mystery game immediately and privately warns Miles that his guests have motives to kill him. After an argument with the rest of the group, Andi storms off. Duke dies after drinking from Miles's glass, and the panicked group suspects Andi of attempting to poison Miles. The police are summoned but will not arrive until morning. After the group discovers Duke's pistol is missing, the power goes out, and everyone splits up. In the dark, Blanc finds Andi, but an unseen assailant shoots her. Blanc gathers the group and announces that he has solved Andi's murder.
An extended flashback shows that Andi actually died a week earlier, apparently by suicide; her twin sister Helen hired Blanc to investigate. At Alpha, Andi had halted Klear's development because of its dangerous properties, so Miles had her removed as CEO; his case was aided by their friends [perjuring](Perjury) themselves to testify that Miles had single-handedly sketched out the plan for Alpha on a napkin years before. The napkin was actually Andi's work; shortly before her death, she emailed the group a photo showing the original napkin still in her possession. Helen suspects that someone in the group killed Andi and stole the napkin to protect Miles. With Andi's death not yet public knowledge, Blanc persuaded Helen to pose as Andi at Miles's party and help him investigate.
Helen helps Blanc discover motives for Miles's friends to protect Miles from Andi: Lionel and Claire have staked their reputations on Klear, Miles is financially rescuing Birdie from the fallout of ignorantly employing [sweatshop](sweatshop)s, and Duke hopes Miles will give him a show on Alpha News. Helen discovers that each of Miles's friends visited Andi's home on the day she died. She searches the guests' rooms but does not find the napkin. When Helen is shot, Andi's journal in her jacket pocket stops the bullet. Blanc fakes her death so that she can search Miles's office.
Blanc deduces that Miles committed both murders. He killed Andi after learning she had the napkin, but was spotted by Duke leaving her house. During the party, Duke saw a news report of Andi's death and, realizing that Miles was responsible, attempted to blackmail him. This prompted Miles to poison him with pineapple juice, to which Duke was [allergic](deathly)(Anaphylaxis), and to take Duke's pistol, with which he [shot](Attempted murder) Helen.
Helen locates Andi's napkin in Miles's office and reveals her identity to the group. However, Miles burns the napkin, eliminating the evidence, and his friends refuse to testify against him. Blanc tells Helen that he has done all he can and goes outside. In a cathartic rage, Helen destroys Miles's glass sculptures; Miles's friends watch her and eventually join in. Helen lights a bonfire and throws in a shard of Klear Blanc slipped her, causing the hazardous material to explode, destroying the mansion and the *Mona Lisa*. Realizing the painting's destruction will reveal that Klear is dangerous and ruin Miles, the group decides to testify against him. At the beach, Helen and Blanc watch as police boats arrive.
==Cast==
[[File:Daniel Craig Made Honourary Commander of Royal Navy.png|thumb|upright|alt=Daniel Craig during his appointment as an honorary officer of the Royal Navy.|[Craig](Daniel)(Daniel Craig) reprises his role as Detective Benoit Blanc.]]
* [Craig](Daniel)(Daniel Craig) as Benoit Blanc, a private investigator
* [Norton](Edward)(Edward Norton) as Miles Bron, a billionaire and owner of a large technology company
* [Monáe](Janelle)(Janelle Monáe) as Helen and Andi Brand, twin sisters, the latter being Miles's ex-business partner
* [Hahn](Kathryn)(Kathryn Hahn) as Claire Debella, the governor of Connecticut, now running for the [States Senate](United)(United States Senate)
* [Odom Jr.](Leslie)(Leslie Odom Jr.) as Lionel Toussaint, the head scientist for Miles's company
* [Hudson](Kate)(Kate Hudson) as Birdie Jay, a [hedonistic](hedonistic), [incorrect](politically)(political correctness) former supermodel turned fashion designer in Manhattan
* [Bautista](Dave)(Dave Bautista) as Duke Cody, a [game streamer](video)(online streaming) and [rights](men's)(men's rights movement) activist on [Twitch](Twitch (service)) and YouTube
* [Henwick](Jessica)(Jessica Henwick) as Peg, Birdie's assistants Jessica Henwick Joins Daniel Craig in Sequel |url=https://deadline.com/2021/06/knives-out-2-matrix-4s-jessica-henwick-1234774810/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614222614/https://deadline.com/2021/06/knives-out-2-matrix-4s-jessica-henwick-1234774810/ |archive-date=June 14, 2021 |access-date=June 14, 2021 |website=[Hollywood](Deadline)(Deadline Hollywood)}}
* [Cline](Madelyn)(Madelyn Cline) as Whiskey, Duke's girlfriend and Twitch channel assistant
* [Segan](Noah)(Noah Segan) as Derol, a slacker who lives on Miles's island. Segan previously appeared in *[Out](Knives)(Knives Out)* (2019) as Trooper Wagner
* [Hoffman](Jackie)(Jackie Hoffman) as Ma, Duke's mother
* [Roberts](Dallas)(Dallas Roberts) as Devon Debella, Claire's husband
Additionally, [Hawke](Ethan)(Ethan Hawke) appears briefly as Miles's assistant (credited as "Efficient Man"), [Grant](Hugh)(Hugh Grant) cameos as Phillip, Blanc's [partner](domestic)(Domestic partnership), and [Gordon-Levitt](Joseph)(Joseph Gordon-Levitt) voices Miles's clock, the Hourly Dong; Gordon-Levitt had a vocal cameo in the previous film as Detective Hardrock.s Rian Johnson Confirms Joseph Gordon-Levitt's Cameo in The *Knives Out* Sequel |url=https://www.cinemablend.com/streaming-news/glass-onions-rian-johnson-confirms-joseph-gordon-levitts-cameo-in-the-knives-out-sequel |access-date=September 12, 2022 |website=[CinemaBlend](CinemaBlend)}} Several celebrities make cameo appearances as themselves, including [Sondheim](Stephen)(Stephen Sondheim), [Lansbury](Angela)(Angela Lansbury), [Lyonne](Natasha)(Natasha Lyonne), [Abdul-Jabbar](Kareem)(Kareem Abdul-Jabbar), [Ma](Yo-Yo)(Yo-Yo Ma), [Tapper](Jake)(Jake Tapper), and [Williams](Serena)(Serena Williams). Sondheim and Lansbury both died before *Glass Onion* was released, and the film is dedicated to both of them. [Leto](Jared)(Jared Leto) and [Renner](Jeremy)(Jeremy Renner)'s likenesses appear on bottles of [kombucha](kombucha) and [sauce](hot)(hot sauce), respectively.
## Production
### Development
[[File:Star Wars- The Last Jedi Japan Premiere Red Carpet- Rian Johnson (38905495792).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Rian Johnson at the Japanese premiere of "The Last Jedi" in 2017|Writer, director, and producer [Johnson](Rian)(Rian Johnson)]]
The 2019 film *[Out](Knives)(Knives Out)* was a commercially successful production from [MRC](MRC (company)) and [Films](Lionsgate)(Lionsgate Films). It grossed over $311 million on a budget of $40 million, making it the second-highest-grossing original movie of the year that was not based on existing intellectual property. Before its release, writer and director [Johnson](Rian)(Rian Johnson) had teased the possibility of a sequel revolving around the lead character, Detective Benoit Blanc. Lionsgate officially greenlighted the sequel in early 2020.
[[Rian Johnson and the cast of "Glass Onion" (sans Dave Bautista) at TIFF 2022](File:Glassonioncast.jpg|thumb|Director)]
In March 2021, [Netflix](Netflix) outbid [Amazon](Amazon (company)) and [Apple](Apple Inc.) at an auction to acquire the rights to the film and another sequel to *Knives Out* for $469 million, with Johnson returning as director, [Craig](Daniel)(Daniel Craig) set to reprise his role as Blanc, and a budget of at least $40 million for the first installment. Johnson, Craig, and the producer [Bergman](Ram)(Ram Bergman) reportedly earned more than $100 million for both productions. A losing bidder called it an inexplicable and "mind-boggling" deal.
Craig worked with a [coach](dialect)(dialect coach) to regain familiarity with Blanc's [accent](Southern)(Southern American English). Johnson previously considered having Blanc speak with an inexplicably different accent in each film.
### Writing
Johnson wrote *Glass Onion* in 2020 during the COVID-19 lockdown, with its setting of Greece coming from a desire to travel abroad when international travel had been shut down. His writing began from the premise that he wanted to write a whodunnit "vacation mystery" in the style of stories Johnson loves such as *[Under the Sun](Evil)(Evil Under the Sun)*, *[on the Nile](Death)(Death on the Nile)* and *[Last of Sheila](The)(The Last of Sheila)*. Johnson made it clear that *Glass Onion* was not a continuation of its predecessor but a standalone film featuring a new story and cast, similar to the [Poirot](Hercule)(Hercule Poirot) novel series by [Christie](Agatha)(Agatha Christie).
In addition to Christie novels, he took inspiration from "tropical getaway murder mysteries" like the film adaptation of Christie's *[Under the Sun](Evil)(Evil Under the Sun (1982 film))* and especially *[Last of Sheila](The)(The Last of Sheila)*, saying: "It's structured around a group of friends, or [frenemies](frenemy), who all have a power dynamic with one of their successful friends. It begins with him inviting them to come and play this murder mystery game at this exotic locale. In *The Last of Sheila*, it's on his yacht, and everything ends up going horribly wrong. That is essentially how *Glass Onion* begins." Johnson wanted the film's title to refer to something hidden in plain sight. He chose "glass" because it is clear, and he searched his phone for songs with the word. He decided "[Onion](Glass)(Glass Onion (song))" by [Beatles](the)(the Beatles). The song is featured in the end credits.
The character of Benoit Blanc was revealed as gay in the film. Johnson said this "did not feel like a big decision" and "felt very natural" when depicting Blanc's home life.
### Casting
Johnson described casting the film as "throwing a dinner party". [Bautista](Dave)(Dave Bautista) said Johnson encouraged him to audition during an unprompted call, and [Hahn](Kathryn)(Kathryn Hahn) secured her role over several [Zoom](Zoom (software)) calls with Johnson.
### Filming
Returning *Knives Out* crew members included cinematographer [Yedlin](Steve)(Steve Yedlin), editor [Ducsay](Bob)(Bob Ducsay), and composer [Johnson](Nathan)(Nathan Johnson (musician)). Filming began in [Spetses](Spetses), an island in Greece, on June 28, 2021. Johnson discovered the [Amanzoe](Aman Resorts)'s Villa 20 in Porto Heli and decided to use it as a major filming location. It also housed the cast and their families for the majority of the shoot, which Johnson described as "a summer vacation where we also made a movie". The shoot moved out of Greece on July 30 to continue shooting interior and New York scenes in [Belgrade](Belgrade), and wrapped officially on September 13, 2021.Multiple sources:
*
*
*
In addition to the title, the film contains references to other songs by the Beatles; two of the glass sculptures include a walrus ("[Am the Walrus](I)(I Am the Walrus)") and strawberries ("[Fields Forever](Strawberry)(Strawberry Fields Forever)"), and the switch that controls the safety enclosure around the *Mona Lisa* is modeled as "[Fool on the Hill](The)(The Fool on the Hill)".
## Music
*Glass Onion: A Knives Out Mystery* (soundtrack)}}
Rian's cousin and frequent collaborator, [Johnson](Nathan)(Nathan Johnson (musician)), returned to score *Glass Onion*; it marks their fifth collaboration after *[Brick](Brick (film))* (2005), *[Brothers Bloom](The)(The Brothers Bloom)* (2009), *[Looper](Looper (film))* (2012), and the predecessor, *Knives Out* (2019). Netflix Music released the album on November 25, 2022.
Other songs featured in the film include "[the Bridge](Under)(Under the Bridge)" by [Hot Chili Peppers](Red)(Red Hot Chili Peppers); "Star"; "[Love Somebody"](To)(To Love Somebody (song)) by the [Gees](Bee)(Bee Gees); "[Starman](Starman (song))" by [Bowie](David)(David Bowie); "[Me Home, Country Roads](Take)(Take Me Home, Country Roads)" by [and The Maytals](Toots)(Toots and The Maytals); and "[Lisa](Mona)(Mona Lisa (Nat King Cole song))" by [King Cole](Nat)(Nat King Cole). Edward Norton plays "[Blackbird](Blackbird (Beatles song))" by [Beatles](The)(The Beatles) on guitar. "[Onion](Glass)(Glass Onion (song))" by The Beatles plays during the end credits.
## Release
### Marketing
A *Glass Onion* teaser trailer was released on September 8, 2022, followed by a full trailer on November 7, 2022. Official Trailer |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gj5ibYSz8C0&ab_channel=Netflix |access-date=December 28, 2022 |language=en-US |via=YouTube}}
Johnson said he was "pissed" that *A Knives Out Mystery* was added as the subtitle, originally intending the film to be titled *Glass Onion* and act as a standalone story. While he said he understood the need for audiences to understand that *Glass Onion* was part of a series, he believes that "the whole appeal to me is it’s a new novel off the shelf every time" and that there is an industry trend with "the gravity of a thousand suns toward serialized storytelling".
### Theatrical and streaming
*Glass Onion* premiered at the [International Film Festival](Toronto)(2022 Toronto International Film Festival) on September 10, 2022. It also screened at the [Film Festival](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia Film Festival) in October 2022, closed the [London Film Festival](BFI)(BFI London Film Festival) on October 16 and Film Fest 919 on October 30, 2022, and screened at the [International Film Festival](Miami)(Miami International Film Festival) as its opening night film on November 3, 2022. It was released on Netflix on December 23, 2022. Over its first 10 days of digital release, the film logged over 209.5 million hours viewed worldwide.
Netflix was reportedly considering a new release model for films like *Glass Onion*, which would give the film a 45-day window in theaters before being released on the streaming service. On October 6, 2022, Netflix announced that after signing deals with the three largest theater chains in the United States ([Theaters](AMC)(AMC Theatres), [Cinemas](Regal)(Regal Cinemas), and [Cinemark](Cinemark Theatres), the latter of whom Netflix had a pre-existing deal with), the film would see a limited one-week theatrical release (billed as a "sneak preview" release) from November 23 to 29, 2022, in roughly 600 theaters in the largest markets across the United States as well in other international markets, marking the first time a Netflix-distributed film would be shown in all three major theater chains in the United States. After the release was over, Netflix would then pull the film from distribution until the Netflix release on December 23. At that point, Netflix would allow theaters to show the film again. *[Deadline](Deadline Hollywood)* later reported that Netflix agreed to take a lower amount of the rental revenue than usual from theaters (40% vs. 60–70%), as well as to kick in four times the average amount of money for exhibitor marketing. *Deadline* also reported that some smaller exhibitors that were interested in playing the film were shut out from the one-week limited release, as Netflix preferred more popular theaters for *Glass Onion*.
### Home media
On December 23, 2022, in an interview with *TheWrap*, Johnson and Bergman confirmed that discussions between Netflix and the creatives about a possible [Blu-ray](Blu-ray) release of the film had taken place, with Bergman saying, "There have been conversations but no results yet. I really hope we can do it. We've got plenty of good stuff to fill out a disc if anyone's interested." Johnson—a longtime advocate of physical media—also was hopeful, saying that even if it does not come to fruition, he will strive to make an audio commentary available in some form.
## Reception
### Box office
In the United States and Canada, *Glass Onion: A Knives Out Mystery* was released alongside *[World](Strange)(Strange World (film))*, *[Devotion](Devotion (2022 film))*, and *[and All](Bones)(Bones and All)* and *[Fabelmans](The)(The Fabelmans)*, and was initially projected to gross around $6–8 million from 698 theaters over its five-day opening weekend. As with their other theatrical releases, Netflix did not release any box office numbers for the film. *[Hollywood](Deadline)(Deadline Hollywood)* reported that the film made an estimated $2–2.5 million on its first day, which led to estimates being raised to as much as $12.3 million. *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* later reported that the film went on to debut with an estimated $13.1 million over the five-day weekend, which would be the best-performing theatrical release for Netflix, and third for the weekend had Netflix officially released box office numbers, behind *[Panther: Wakanda Forever](Black)(Black Panther: Wakanda Forever)* and *Strange World*.
### Critical response
*[Variety](Variety (magazine))*s [Gleiberman](Owen)(Owen Gleiberman) praised the film as "a bigger, showier, even more elaborately multi-faceted shell-game mystery" than the first film. [Lemire](Christy)(Christy Lemire) of *[RogerEbert.com](RogerEbert.com)* gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, writing: "The clever details, amusing name-drops, and precisely pointed digs at vapid celebrity culture keep Johnson's movie zippy when it threatens to drag." Writing for *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*, Peter Bradshaw gave the film 4 out of 5 stars and said: "*Glass Onion* is never anything less than entertaining, with its succession of A-lister and A-plus-lister cameos popping up all over the place. And Johnson uncorks an absolute showstopper of a flashback a half-hour or so into the action, which then unspools back up to the present day, giving us all manner of cheeky POV-shift reveals."
The film's characters and plot have been likened to current [magnate](business)(business magnate)s. Calder McHugh of *[Politico](Politico)* described the film as "an allegory for all of us living with the omnipresent [Musk](Elon)(Elon Musk), [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump), and [Bezos](Jeff)(Jeff Bezos)", while James Downie of [MSNBC](MSNBC) claimed Norton's character Miles Bron's "mixture of bluster, hubris, and half-baked ideas will likely bring to mind Twitter owner and part-time car enthusiast Elon Musk." Of the film's relevance to [Musk's recent takeover of Twitter](Elon)(Acquisition of Twitter by Elon Musk), Rian Johnson commented, "A friend of mine said, 'Man, that feels like it was written this afternoon.' And that's just sort of a horrible, horrible accident, you know?" Shirley Li of *[Atlantic](The)(The Atlantic)* praised the film for "observing the absurd privileges of wealth and skewering the ignorance of the 1 percent" such as in the "overflowing smarm" of Edward Norton's performance as Miles Bron. Clay Cockrell, a therapist for rich people, writing in *The Guardian* said that the film illustrated how the very rich could not trust either their pre-wealth friends, or new friends, as he had seen in real life.
### Accolades
At the [Academy Awards](95th)(95th Academy Awards), *Glass Onion: A Knives Out Mystery* received a nomination for [Adapted Screenplay](Best)(Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay). The film's other nominations include six [Choice Movie Awards](Critics')(Critics' Choice Movie Awards) (winning two) and two [Globe Awards](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards). It was named one of the [best films](ten)(National Board of Review: Top Ten Films) of 2022 by the [Board of Review](National)(National Board of Review).
## Sequel
Netflix holds the film rights to at least one more film in the series. In September 2022, Johnson confirmed his intention to make more. Later that month Craig and Johnson separately said that they would continue making further films in the series, so long as they were both involved together. In November 2022, Johnson said that he was preparing to work on writing the third film. By January 2023, Johnson confirmed that he had started writing the script for the third film, stating that it will be tonally and thematically different from the previous installments. Johnson later stated that though he had approved the subtitle of *Glass Onion*, he would like to rename the series and add *A Benoit Blanc Mystery* as subtitles to future installments.
## References
## External links
*[Screenplay](https://deadline.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Glass-Onion-A-Knives-Out-Mystery-Read-The-Screenplay.pdf)
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*
}}
[Out](Category:Knives)(Category:Knives Out)
[American films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s American films)
[comedy mystery films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s comedy mystery films)
[comedy thriller films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s comedy thriller films)
[crime comedy films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s crime comedy films)
[English-language films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s English-language films)
[mystery thriller films](Category:2020s)(Category:2020s mystery thriller films)
[black comedy films](Category:2022)(Category:2022 black comedy films)
[crime thriller films](Category:2022)(Category:2022 crime thriller films)
[black comedy films](Category:American)(Category:American black comedy films)
[comedy mystery films](Category:American)(Category:American comedy mystery films)
[comedy thriller films](Category:American)(Category:American comedy thriller films)
[crime comedy films](Category:American)(Category:American crime comedy films)
[crime thriller films](Category:American)(Category:American crime thriller films)
[detective films](Category:American)(Category:American detective films)
[mystery thriller films](Category:American)(Category:American mystery thriller films)
[nonlinear narrative films](Category:American)(Category:American nonlinear narrative films)
[sequel films](Category:American)(Category:American sequel films)
[Netflix original films](Category:English-language)(Category:English-language Netflix original films)
[about the COVID-19 pandemic](Category:Films)(Category:Films about the COVID-19 pandemic)
[about twin sisters](Category:Films)(Category:Films about twin sisters)
[about writers](Category:Films)(Category:Films about writers)
[directed by Rian Johnson](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by Rian Johnson)
[produced by Ram Bergman](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Ram Bergman)
[scored by Nathan Johnson (musician)](Category:Films)(Category:Films scored by Nathan Johnson (musician))
[set in 2020](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 2020)
[set in Connecticut](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Connecticut)
[set in Greece](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Greece)
[set in Manhattan](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Manhattan)
[set on fictional islands](Category:Films)(Category:Films set on fictional islands)
[shot in Belgrade](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Belgrade)
[shot in Greece](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Greece)
[with screenplays by Rian Johnson](Category:Films)(Category:Films with screenplays by Rian Johnson)
[mystery films](Category:Murder)(Category:Murder mystery films)
[Lisa](Category:Mona)(Category:Mona Lisa)
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God
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god
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# God
*Revision ID: 1160320000 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T18:46:50Z*
---
In [monotheistic](monotheism) thought, **God** is usually viewed as the supreme being, [creator](creator deity), and principal object of [faith](Faith#Religious views).[R.G.](Swinburne,)(Richard Swinburne) "God" in [Ted](Honderich,)(Ted Honderich). (ed)*The Oxford Companion to Philosophy*, [University Press](Oxford)(Oxford University Press), 1995. In non-monotheistic thought, [god**](**a)(Deity) is "a spirit or being believed to control some part of the universe or life and often worshipped for doing so, or something that represents this spirit or being". Belief in the existence of at least one god is called [theism](theism).["theism,"](http://www.dictionary.com/browse/theism?) *Dictionary.com*. Retrieved 2016-10-21.["theism,"](http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/theism) *Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary*. Retrieved 2011-03-18.
[View](Conceptions of God)s regarding God vary considerably. Many notable theologians and philosophers have developed arguments for and against the [of God](existence)(existence of God). [Atheism](Atheism) rejects the belief in any [deity](deity). [Agnosticism](Agnosticism) is the belief that the existence of God is unknown or unknowable. Some [theist](theist)s view knowledge concerning God as derived from faith. God is often conceived as the greatest entity in existence. God is often believed to be the cause of all things and so is seen as the creator and [sustainer](God the Sustainer) and the ruler of the [universe](universe). God is often thought of as [incorporeal](incorporeality) and [independent](Transcendence (religion)) of the material creationDavid Bordwell (2002). *Catechism of the Catholic Church*, Continuum International Publishing p. 84 while [pantheism](pantheism) holds God is the universe itself. God is sometimes seen as the [benevolent](most)(Omnibenevolent), while [deism](deism) holds that God is not involved in humanity apart from creation.
Some traditions attach spiritual significance to the relationship with God and see God as the source of all [obligation](moral)(moral obligation), with acts such as [worship](worship) and [prayer](prayer). God is sometimes described without reference [gender](to)(Gender of God), while others use terminology that is gender-specific. God is referred to by different [names](Names of God) depending on the language and cultural tradition with titles also used to refer to different attributes.
## Etymology and usage
[[File:Mesha Stele (511142469) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|The [Stele](Mesha)(Mesha Stele) bears the earliest known reference (840 BCE) to the Israelite God Yahweh.]]
The earliest written form of the Germanic word *God* comes from the 6th-century [Christian](Christianity) *[Argenteus](Codex)(Codex Argenteus)*. The English word itself is derived from the [Proto-Germanic](Proto-Germanic) *ǥuđan. The reconstructed [Proto-Indo-European](Proto-Indo-European language) form was likely based on the root , which meant either "to call" or "to invoke".The ulterior etymology is disputed. Apart from the unlikely hypothesis of adoption from a foreign tongue, the OTeut. "ghuba" implies as its preTeut-type either "*ghodho-m" or "*ghodto-m". The former does not appear to admit of explanation; but the latter would represent the neut. pple. of a root "gheu-". There are two Aryan roots of the required form ("*g,heu-" with palatal aspirate) one with meaning 'to invoke' (Skr. "hu") the other 'to pour, to offer sacrifice' (Skr "hu", Gr. χεηi;ν, OE "geotàn" Yete v). [Compact Edition, G, p. 267](OED)(Oxford English Dictionary) The Germanic words for *God* were originally [neuter](Grammatical gender)—applying to both genders—but during the process of the [Christianization](Christianization) of the [people](Germanic)(Germanic people)s from their indigenous [paganism](Germanic)(Germanic paganism), the words became a [syntactic form](masculine)(Grammatical gender).Barnhart, Robert K. (1995). *The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology: the Origins of American English Words*, p. 323. [HarperCollins](HarperCollins). In the [language](English)(English language), capitalization is used when the word is used as a [noun](proper)(proper noun), as well as for other names by which a god is known. Consequently, the capitalized form of *god* is not used for multiple gods or when used to refer to the generic idea of a [deity](deity).[New World Dictionary](Webster's)(Webster's New World Dictionary); "God n. ME Sans havaté, (he) calls upon; 1. any of various beings conceived of as supernatural, immortal, and having special powers over the lives and affairs of people and the course of nature; deity, esp. a male deity: typically considered objects of worship; 2. an image that is worshiped; idol 3. a person or thing deified or excessively honored and admired; 4. [G-] in monotheistic religions, the creator and ruler of the universe, regarded as eternal, infinite, all-powerful, and all-knowing; Supreme Being; the Almighty"
[Dictionary.com](http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/God) ; "God /gɒd/ noun: 1. the one Supreme Being, the creator and ruler of the universe. 2. the Supreme Being considered with reference to a particular attribute. 3. (lowercase) one of several deities, esp. a male deity, presiding over some portion of worldly affairs. 4. (often lowercase) a supreme being according to some particular conception: the God of mercy. 5. Christian Science. the Supreme Being, understood as Life, Truth, Love, Mind, Soul, Spirit, Principle. 6. (lowercase) an image of a deity; an idol. 7. (lowercase) any deified person or object. 8. (often lowercase) Gods, Theater. 8a. the upper balcony in a theater. 8b. the spectators in this part of the balcony."
The English word *God* and its counterparts in other languages are normally used for any and all conceptions and, in spite of significant differences between religions, the term remains an English translation common to all.
*[El](El (god))* means *God* in Hebrew, but [Judaism](in)(names of God in Judaism) and [Christianity](in)(names of God in Christianity), God is also given a personal name, the [tetragrammaton](tetragrammaton) YHWH, in origin possibly the name of an [Edomite](Edomite) or [Midianite](Midianite) deity, [Yahweh](Yahweh (Canaanite deity)). In many English translations of the [Bible](Bible), when the word *LORD* is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the tetragrammaton. [Jah](Jah) or Yah is an abbreviation of Jahweh/Yahweh, and often sees usage by Jews and Christians in the interjection "[Hallelujah](Hallelujah)", meaning "Praise Jah", which is used to give God glory. In [Judaism](Judaism) some of the Hebrew titles of God are considered [names](holy)(Names of God in Judaism).
*[Allāh](Allāh)* () is the [Arabic](Arabic) term with no [plural](plural) used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning "The God", while *[ʾilāh](ʾilāh)* ( plural *`āliha* آلِهَة) is the term used for a deity or a god in general."Islam and Christianity", *Encyclopedia of Christianity* (2001): Arabic-speaking [Christians](Christians) and [Jew](Jew)s also refer to God as *Allāh*. [Muslims](Muslims) also use a [of other titles](multitude)(Names of God in Islam) for God.
In [Hinduism](Hinduism), [Brahman](Brahman) is often considered a [monistic](Monism) concept of God.Pantheism: A Non-Theistic Concept of Deity – p. 136, Michael P. Levine – 2002 God may also be given a proper name in monotheistic currents of Hinduism which emphasize the [nature of God](personal)(personal god), with early references to his name as [Krishna](Krishna)-[Vasudeva](Vasudeva) in [Bhagavata](Bhagavata) or later [Vishnu](Vishnu) and [Hari](Hari). [Hyang Widhi Wasa](Sang)(Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa) is the term used in [Hinduism](Balinese)(Balinese Hinduism).McDaniel, June (2013), A Modern Hindu Monotheism: Indonesian Hindus as 'People of the Book'. The Journal of Hindu Studies, Oxford University Press,
In [religion](Chinese)(Chinese folk religion), [Shangdi](Shangdi) is conceived as the [progenitor](progenitor) (first ancestor) of the universe, intrinsic to it and constantly bringing [order](cosmos) to it.
[Mazda](Ahura)(Ahura Mazda) is the name for God used in [Zoroastrianism](Zoroastrianism). "Mazda", or rather the Avestan stem-form *Mazdā-*, nominative *Mazdå*, reflects Proto-Iranian **Mazdāh (female)*. It is generally taken to be the proper name of the spirit, and like its [Sanskrit](Sanskrit) cognate *medhā*, means "intelligence" or "wisdom". Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect [Proto-Indo-Iranian](Proto-Indo-Iranian language) **mazdhā-*, from [Proto-Indo-European](Proto-Indo-European language) mn̩sdʰeh1, literally meaning "placing (*dʰeh1*) one's mind (**mn̩-s*)", hence "wise". Meanwhile [other names](101)(Names of God in Zoroastrianism) are also in use.The Intellectual Devotional: Revive Your Mind, Complete Your Education, and Roam confidently with the cultured class, David S. Kidder, Noah D. Oppenheim, p. 364
[Waheguru](Waheguru) (*}}*) is a term most often used in [Sikhism](Sikhism) to refer to God.Philosophy and Faith of Sikhism – p. ix, Kartar Singh Duggal – 1988 It means "Wonderful Teacher" in the Punjabi language. *Vāhi* (a [Persian](Middle)(Middle Persian) borrowing) means "wonderful" and *[guru](guru)* (*}}*) is a term denoting "teacher". Waheguru is also described by some as an experience of ecstasy which is beyond all descriptions. The most common usage of the word "Waheguru" is in the greeting Sikhs use with each other – *Waheguru Ji Ka Khalsa, Waheguru Ji Ki Fateh* "Wonderful Lord's [Khalsa](Khalsa), Victory is to the Wonderful Lord."
*Baha*, the "greatest" name for God in the [Faith](Baháʼí)(Baháʼí Faith), is Arabic for "All-Glorious".A Feast for the Soul: Meditations on the Attributes of God : ... – p. x, Baháʾuʾlláh, Joyce Watanabe – 2006
Other names for God include [Aten](Aten)Jan Assmann, *Religion and Cultural Memory: Ten Studies*, Stanford University Press 2005, p. 59 in ancient Egyptian [Atenism](Atenism) where Aten was proclaimed to be the one "true" supreme being and creator of the universe,M. Lichtheim, *Ancient Egyptian Literature*, Vol. 2, 1980, p. 96 [Chukwu](Chukwu) in [Igbo](Igbo people), and [Rabbi](Hayyi)(Hayyi Rabbi) in [Mandaeism](Mandaeism).
## General conceptions
### Existence
[[File:St-thomas-aquinas.jpg|thumb|upright|[Aquinas](Thomas)(Thomas Aquinas) summed up [main arguments](five)(Quinque viae) as proofs for God's existence. (Painting by [Crivelli](Carlo)(Carlo Crivelli), 1476)]]
[[File:Portrait of Sir Isaac Newton, 1689.jpg|thumb|upright|[Newton](Isaac)(Isaac Newton) saw the existence of a Creator necessary in the movement of astronomical objects. (Painting by [Kneller](Godfrey)(Godfrey Kneller), 1689)]]
[Atheism](Atheism) is, in a broad sense, the rejection of [belief](belief) in the existence of [deities](Deity).Nielsen 2013: "Instead of saying that an atheist is someone who believes that it is false or probably false that there is a God, a more adequate characterization of atheism consists in the more complex claim that to be an atheist is to be someone who rejects belief in God for the following reasons ... : for an anthropomorphic God, the atheist rejects belief in God because it is false or probably false that there is a God; for a nonanthropomorphic God ... because the concept of such a God is either meaningless, unintelligible, contradictory, incomprehensible, or incoherent; for the God portrayed by some modern or contemporary theologians or philosophers ... because the concept of God in question is such that it merely masks an atheistic substance – e.g., "God" is just another name for love, or ... a symbolic term for moral ideals."Edwards 2005: "On our definition, an 'atheist' is a person who rejects belief in God, regardless of whether or not his reason for the rejection is the claim that 'God exists' expresses a false proposition. People frequently adopt an attitude of rejection toward a position for reasons other than that it is a false proposition. It is common among contemporary philosophers, and indeed it was not uncommon in earlier centuries, to reject positions on the ground that they are meaningless. Sometimes, too, a theory is rejected on such grounds as that it is sterile or redundant or capricious, and there are many other considerations which in certain contexts are generally agreed to constitute good grounds for rejecting an assertion." [Agnosticism](Agnosticism) is the view that the [value](truth)(truth value)s of certain claims—especially [metaphysical](Metaphysics) and religious claims such as [God](whether)(Existence of God), the [divine](Divinity) or the [supernatural](supernatural) exist—are unknown and perhaps unknowable.[Henry Huxley](Thomas)(Thomas Henry Huxley), an English biologist, was the first to come up with the word *agnostic* in 1869 However, earlier authors and published works have promoted an agnostic points of view. They include [Protagoras](Protagoras), a 5th-century [BCE](Before Common Era) Greek philosopher. (p. 56 in 1967 edition) [Theism](Theism) generally holds that God exists objectively and independently of human thought and is sometimes used to refer to any belief in God or gods.
Some view the existence of God as an empirical question. [Dawkins](Richard)(Richard Dawkins) states that "a universe with a god would be a completely different kind of universe from one without, and it would be a scientific difference." [Sagan](Carl)(Carl Sagan) argued that the doctrine of a Creator of the Universe was difficult to prove or disprove and that the only conceivable scientific discovery that could disprove the existence of a Creator (not necessarily a God) would be the discovery that the universe is infinitely old. Some theologians, such as [McGrath](Alister)(Alister McGrath), argue that the existence of God is not a question that can be answered using the [method](scientific)(scientific method). [Agnostic](Agnostic) [Jay Gould](Stephen)(Stephen Jay Gould) argued that science and religion are not in conflict and proposed an approach dividing the world of philosophy into what he called "[magisteria](non-overlapping)(non-overlapping magisteria)" (NOMA). In this view, questions of the [supernatural](supernatural), such as those relating to the [existence](existence) and [nature](nature) of God, are [non](metaphysics)-[empirical](empirical) and are the proper domain of [theology](theology). The methods of science should then be used to answer any empirical question about the natural world, and theology should be used to answer questions about ultimate meaning and moral value. In this view, the perceived lack of any empirical footprint from the magisterium of the supernatural onto natural events makes science the sole player in the natural world. [Hawking](Stephen)(Stephen Hawking) and co-author [Mlodinow](Leonard)(Leonard Mlodinow) state in their 2010 book, *[Grand Design](The)(The Grand Design (book))*, that it is reasonable to ask who or what created the universe, but if the answer is God, then the question has merely been deflected to that of who created God. Both authors claim however, that it is possible to answer these questions purely within the realm of science, and without invoking any divine beings.Krauss L. *A Universe from Nothing*. Free Press, New York. 2012.
[argument](Ontological)(Ontological argument)s refer to any argument for the existence of God that is based on a priori reasoning. Notable ontological arguments were formulated by [Anselm](Anselm of Canterbury) and [Descartes](René)(Descartes). [argument](Cosmological)(Cosmological argument)s, such as those described [below](God#creator), utilizes concepts around the origin of the universe to argue for the existence of God.
The *[argument](Teleological)(Teleological argument)*, also called the ‘’argument from design’’, utilizes the complexity within the universe as a proof of the existence of God. It is countered that the [tuning](fine)(Fine-tuned universe) required for a stable universe with life on earth is illusionary as humans are only able to observe the small part of this universe that succeeded in making such observation possible, called the [principle](anthropic)(anthropic principle), and so would not learn of, for example, life on other planets or of [universes](multiverse) that did not occur because of different [of physics](laws)(Dimensionless physical constant). Non-theists have argued that complex processes that have natural explanations yet to be discovered are referred to the supernatural, called [of the gaps](god)(god of the gaps). Other theists, such as [Henry Newman](John)(John Henry Newman) who believed [evolution](theistic)(theistic evolution) was acceptable, have also argued against versions of the teleological argument and held that it is limiting of God to view him having to only intervene specially in some instances rather than having complex processes designed to create order.
The *[from beauty](Argument)(Argument from beauty)* states that this universe happens to contain special beauty in it and that there would be no particular reason for this over aesthetically neutrality other than God. This has been countered by pointing to the existence of ugliness in the universe. This has also been countered by arguing that beauty has no objective reality and so the Universe could be seen as ugly or that humans have made what is more beautiful than nature.*Minority Report*, H. L. Mencken's Notebooks, Knopf, 1956
The *[from morality](Argument)(Argument from morality)* argues for the existence of God given the assumption of the objective existence of [moral](moral realism)s. While prominent non-theistic philosophers such as the atheist [L. Mackie](J.)(J. L. Mackie) agreed that the argument is valid, they disagreed with its premises. Concerning the assumption of objective morals, [Hume](David)(David Hume) argued that there is no basis to believe in objective moral truths while biologist [O. Wilson](E.)(E. O. Wilson) theorized that the feelings of morality is a by product of natural selection in humans and would not exist independent of the mind. Philosopher [Lou Martin](Michael)(Michael Lou Martin) argued that a subjective account for morality can be acceptable and also opposed the premise that objective morality entails God pointing out that the argument can similarly entail the existence of polytheistic deities instead. Similar to the argument from morality is the *[from conscience](argument)(Argument from morality#Argument for conscience)* which argues for the existence of God given the existence of a conscience that informs of right and wrong. Philosopher [Locke](John)(John Locke) argued that conscience is a social construct and thus would lead to contradicting morals.
### Oneness
[[believe that God is composed of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.](File:Shield-Trinity-Scutum-Fidei-English.svg|thumb|upright|Trinitarians)]
A [deity](deity), or "god" (with [lowercase](Letter case) *g*), refers to a supernatural being.|access-date=28 June 2017|language=en}} [Monotheism](Monotheism) is the belief that there is only one deity, referred to as ‘’God’’ (with uppercase *g*). Comparing or equating other entities to God is viewed as [idolatry](idolatry) in monotheism, and is often strongly condemned. [Judaism](God in Judaism) includes some of the oldest monotheistic traditions in the world. Islam's most fundamental concept is *[tawhid](tawhid)* meaning "oneness" or "uniqueness". The first [of Islam](pillar)(Five pillars of Islam) is an [oath](Shahada) that forms the basis of the religion and which non-Muslims wishing to convert must recite, declares that "I testify that there is no [deity](deity) except God."Mohammad, N. 1985. "The doctrine of jihad: An introduction." *[of Law and Religion](Journal)(Journal of Law and Religion)* 3(2):381–97.
In Christianity, the [of the Trinity](doctrine)(doctrine of the Trinity) describes God as one God in [Father](God the Father), [Son](God the Son) ([Jesus](Jesus)), and [Spirit](Holy)(Holy Spirit (Christianity)). In the past centuries, this fundamental mystery of the Christian faith was also summarized by the Latin formula *Sancta Trinitas, Unus Deus* (Holy Trinity, Unique God), reported in the *[Lauretanas](Litanias)(Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary)*. [in Hinduism](God)(God in Hinduism) is viewed differently by diverse strands of the religion with most Hindus having faith in a [reality](supreme)(Brahman) (*Brahman*) who can be manifested in numerous chosen deities. Thus, the religion is sometimes characterized as *Polymorphic Monotheism*. [Henotheism](Henotheism) is the belief and worship of a single god at a time while accepting the validity of worshiping other deities.Müller, Max. (1878) *Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion: As Illustrated by the Religions of India.* London: Longmans, Green and Co. [Monolatry](Monolatry) is the belief in only a single deity worthy of worship while accepting the existence of other dieties.
### Transcendence
[Transcendence](Transcendence (religion)) is the aspect of God's nature that is completely independent of the material universe and its physical laws. Many supposed characteristics of God are described in human terms. [Anselm](Anselm of Canterbury) thought that God did not feel emotions such as anger or love, but appeared to do so through our imperfect understanding. The incongruity of judging "being" against something that might not exist, led many medieval philosophers approach to knowledge of God through negative attributes, called [theology](Negative)(Negative theology). For example, one should not say that God is wise, but can say that God is not ignorant (i.e. in some way God has some properties of knowledge). Christian theologian [McGrath](Alister)(Alister McGrath) writes that one has to understand a "personal god" as an analogy. "To say that God is like a person is to affirm the divine ability and willingness to relate to others. This does not imply that God is human, or located at a specific point in the universe."
[Pantheism](Pantheism) holds that God is the universe and the universe is God and denies that God transcends the Universe. For famed pantheist philosopher [Spinoza](Baruch)(Baruch Spinoza), the whole of the natural universe is made of one substance, God, or its equivalent, Nature. Pantheism is sometimes objected to as not providing any meaningful explanation of God with the German philosopher [Schopenhauer](Schopenhauer) stating “Pantheism is only a euphemism for atheism”. [Pandeism](Pandeism) holds that God was a separate entity but then [the Universe](became)(God becomes the universe).
[Panentheism](Panentheism) holds that God contains, but is not identical to, the Universe.John Culp (2013). ["Panentheism,"](http://plato.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/encyclopedia/archinfo.cgi?entry=panentheism) *Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy*, Spring.
### Creator
[[File:Blake God Blessing.jpg|thumb|upright|*God Blessing the Seventh Day*, 1805 watercolor painting by [Blake](William)(William Blake)]]
God is often viewed as the cause of all that exists. For [Pythagorean](Pythagoreanism)s, [Monad](Monad (philosophy)) variously referred to divinity, the first being or an indivisible origin.Fairbanks, Arthur, Ed., "The First Philosophers of Greece". K. Paul, Trench, Trubner. London, 1898, p. 145. The philosophy of [Plato](Plato) and [Plotinus](Plotinus) refers to “[One](The)(Henology)” which is the first principle of reality that is ‘’beyond’’ beingDodds, E.R. "The Parmenides of Plato and the Origin of the Neoplatonic 'One'". *The Classical Quarterly*, Jul–Oct 1928, vol. 22, p. 136 and is both the source of the Universe and the [teleological](teleology) purpose of all things. [SCS/AIA Annual Meeting](https://samreligions.org/2014/12/30/theism-and-related-categories-in-the-study-of-ancient-religions/) [Aristotle](Aristotle) theorized a *[uncaused cause](first)(unmoved mover)* for all motion in the universe and viewed it as perfectly beautiful, immaterial, unchanging and indivisible. [Aseity](Aseity) is the property of not depending on any cause other than itself for its existence. [Avicenna](Avicenna) held that there must be a [existent](necessarily)(Proof of the Truthful) guaranteed to exist by its essence – it cannot ‘’not’’ exist – and that humans identify this as God. [causation](Secondary)(Secondary causation) refers to God creating the laws of the Universe which then can change themselves within the [of those laws](framework)(clockwork universe). In addition to the initial creation, [occasionalism](occasionalism) refers to the idea that the Universe would not by default continue to exist from one instant to the next and so would need to rely on God as a [sustainer](God the Sustainer). While [providence](divine)(divine providence) refers to any intervention by God it is usually used to refer to "special providence" where there is an extraordinary intervention by God, such as [miracle](miracle)s.
### Benevolence
Deism holds that God exists but does not intervene in the world beyond what was necessary to create it, such as answering prayers or producing miracles. Deists sometimes attribute this to God having no interest in or not being aware of humanity. Pandeists would hold that God does not intervene because God is the Universe.
Of those theists who hold that God has an interest in humanity, most hold that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent. This belief raises questions about God's responsibility for evil and suffering in the world. [Dystheism](Dystheism), which is related to [theodicy](theodicy), is a form of theism which holds that God is either not wholly good or is fully malevolent as a consequence of the [of evil](problem)(problem of evil).
### Omniscience and omnipotence
[Omnipotence](Omnipotence) (all-powerful) is an attribute often ascribed to God. The [paradox](omnipotence)(omnipotence paradox) is most often framed with the example "Could God create a stone so heavy that even he could not lift it?" as God could either be unable to create that stone or lift that stone and so could not be omnipotent. This is often countered with variations of the argument that omnipotence, like any other attribute ascribed to God, only applies as far as it is noble enough to befit God and thus God cannot lie, or do what is contradictory as that would entail opposing himself.
Omniscience (all-knowing) is an attribute often ascribed to God. This implies that God knows how free agents will choose to act. If God does know this, either their [will](free)(free will) might be illusory or foreknowledge does not imply predestination, and if God does not know it, God may not be omniscient.Wierenga, Edward R. "Divine foreknowledge" in [Robert](Audi,)(Robert Audi). *The Cambridge Companion to Philosophy*. [University Press](Cambridge)(Cambridge University Press), 2001. [Theism](Open)(Open Theism) limits God’s omniscience by contending that, due to the nature of time, God's omniscience does not mean the deity can predict the future and [theology](process)(process theology) holds that God does not have [immutability](Immutability (theology)), so is affected by his creation.
### Other concepts
Classical theists (such as ancient Greco-Medieval philosophers, [Catholics](Roman)(Roman Catholics), [Orthodox Christians](Eastern)(Eastern Orthodox Christians), many [Jews](Jews) and [Muslims](Muslims), and some [Protestants](Protestants)) were all claimed to varying degrees by early Jewish, Christian and Muslim scholars, including [Maimonides](Maimonides), [Augustine](St)(Augustine of Hippo), and [Al-Ghazali](Al-Ghazali).}} speak of God as a [simple](divinely)(Divine simplicity) '[nothing](Incorporeality)' that is completely [transcendent](transcendence (religion)) (totally independent of all else), and having attributes such as [immutability](Immutability (theology)), [impassibility](impassibility), and timelessness.1998, God, concepts of, Edward Craig, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Taylor & Francis, [https://books.google.com/books?id=5m5z_ca-qDkC] [Theologians](Theology) of theistic personalism (the view held by [Descartes](Rene)(Rene Descartes), [Newton](Isaac)(Isaac Newton), [Plantinga](Alvin)(Alvin Plantinga), [Swinburne](Richard)(Richard Swinburne), [Lane Craig](William)(William Lane Craig), and most [evangelicals](modern)(Evangelicalism)) argue that God is most generally the ground of all being, immanent in and transcendent over the whole world of reality, with immanence and transcendence being the contrapletes of personality.
God has also been conceived as being [incorporeal](Incorporeality) (immaterial), a [personal](personal god) being, the source of all [obligation](moral)(moral obligation), and the "greatest conceivable existent". These attributes were all supported to varying degrees by the early Jewish, Christian and Muslim theologian philosophers, including [Maimonides](Maimonides), [of Hippo](Augustine)(Augustine of Hippo),[Paul](Edwards,)(Paul Edwards (philosopher)). "God and the philosophers" in [Ted](Honderich,)(Ted Honderich). (ed)*The Oxford Companion to Philosophy*, [University Press](Oxford)(Oxford University Press), 1995. . and [Al-Ghazali](Al-Ghazali),[Alvin](Plantinga,)(Alvin Plantinga). "God, Arguments for the Existence of", *Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy*, Routledge, 2000. respectively.
## Non-theistic views
### Religious traditions
[Jainism](Jainism) has [rejected creationism](generally)(Jainism and non-creationism), holding that soul substances ([Jīva](Jīva (Jainism))) are uncreated and that time is beginningless.Nayanar, Prof. A. Chakravarti (2005). *Samayasāra of Ācārya Kundakunda*. p. 190, Gāthā 10.310, New Delhi: Today & Tomorrows Printer and Publisher.
Some interpretations and traditions of [Buddhism](Buddhism) can be conceived as being [non-theistic](non-theistic). [has generally rejected](Buddhism)(Creator in Buddhism) the specific monotheistic view of a [God](Creator)(Creator deity). The Buddha criticizes the theory of creationism in the [Buddhist texts](early)(Early Buddhist Texts).Narada Thera (2006) *"The Buddha and His Teachings,"* pp. 268–269, Jaico Publishing House.Hayes, Richard P., "Principled Atheism in the Buddhist Scholastic Tradition", *Journal of Indian Philosophy*, 16:1 (1988:Mar) p. 2. Also, major Indian Buddhist philosophers, such as [Nagarjuna](Nagarjuna), [Vasubandhu](Vasubandhu), [Dharmakirti](Dharmakirti) and [Buddhaghosa](Buddhaghosa), consistently critiqued Creator God views put forth by Hindu thinkers.Hsueh-Li Cheng. "Nāgārjuna's Approach to the Problem of the Existence of God" in Religious Studies, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Jun., 1976), pp. 207–216 (10 pages), Cambridge University Press.Hayes, Richard P., "Principled Atheism in the Buddhist Scholastic Tradition", *Journal of Indian Philosophy*, 16:1 (1988:Mar.).Harvey, Peter (2019). *"Buddhism and Monotheism",* p. 1. Cambridge University Press. However, as a non-theistic religion, Buddhism leaves the existence of a supreme deity ambiguous. There are significant numbers of Buddhists who believe in God, and there are equally large numbers who deny God's existence or are unsure.
Taoic religions such as [Confucianism](Confucianism) and [Taoism](Taoism) are silent on the existence of creator gods. However, keeping with the tradition of [veneration in China](ancestor)(ancestor veneration in China), adherents worship the spirits of people such as [Confucius](Confucius) and [Tzu](Lao)(Lao Tzu) in a similar manner to God.
### Anthropology
Some atheists have argued that a single, omniscient God who is imagined to have created the universe and is particularly attentive to the lives of humans has been imagined and embellished over generations.
[Boyer](Pascal)(Pascal Boyer) argues that while there is a wide array of supernatural concepts found around the world, in general, supernatural beings tend to behave much like people. The construction of gods and spirits like persons is one of the best known traits of religion. He cites examples from [mythology](Greek)(Greek mythology), which is, in his opinion, more like a modern [opera](soap)(soap opera) than other religious systems.
[du Castel](Bertrand)(Bertrand du Castel) and Timothy Jurgensen demonstrate through formalization that Boyer's explanatory model matches physics' [epistemology](epistemology) in positing not directly observable entities as intermediaries.
[Anthropologist](Anthropology) Stewart Guthrie contends that people project human features onto non-human aspects of the world because it makes those aspects more familiar. [Freud](Sigmund)(Sigmund Freud) also suggested that god concepts are projections of one's father.
Likewise, [Durkheim](Émile)(Émile Durkheim) was one of the earliest to suggest that gods represent an extension of human social life to include supernatural beings. In line with this reasoning, psychologist Matt Rossano contends that when humans began living in larger groups, they may have created gods as a means of enforcing morality. In small groups, morality can be enforced by social forces such as gossip or reputation. However, it is much harder to enforce morality using social forces in much larger groups. Rossano indicates that by including ever-watchful gods and spirits, humans discovered an effective strategy for restraining selfishness and building more cooperative groups.
### Neuroscience and psychology
[Harris](Sam)(Sam Harris) has interpreted some findings in [neuroscience](neuroscience) to argue that God is an imaginary entity only, with no basis in reality.Harris, S. The end of faith. W.W. Norton and Company, New York. 2005.
Johns Hopkins researchers studying the effects of the “spirit molecule” [DMT](N,N-Dimethyltryptamine), which is both an endogenous molecule in the human brain and the active molecule in the [psychedelic](psychedelic) [ayahuasca](ayahuasca), found that a large majority of respondents said DMT brought them into contact with a "conscious, intelligent, benevolent, and sacred entity," and describe interactions that oozed joy, trust, love, and kindness. More than half of those who had previously self-identified as atheists described some type of belief in a higher power or God after the experience.
About a quarter of those afflicted by [lobe seizure](temporal)(temporal lobe seizure)s experience what is described as a religious experience and may become preoccupied by thoughts of God even if they were not previously. Neuroscientist [S. Ramachandran](V.)(V. S. Ramachandran) hypothesizes that seizures in the temporal lobe, which is closely connected to the emotional center of the brain, the [system](limbic)(limbic system), may lead to those afflicted to view even banal objects with heightened meaning.
Psychologists studying feelings of [awe](awe) found that participants feeling awe after watching scenes of natural wonders become more likely to believe in a supernatural being and to see events as the result of design, even when given randomly generated numbers.
## Relationship with humanity
[[File:Duerer-Prayer.jpg|right|thumb|*[Hands](Praying)(Praying Hands (Dürer))* by [Dürer](Albrecht)(Albrecht Dürer)]]
### Worship
Theistic religious traditions often require [worship](worship) of God and sometimes hold that the [of existence](purpose)(purpose of life) is to [worship](worship) God. To address the issue of an all-powerful being demanding to be worshipped, it is held that God does not need or benefit from worship but that worship is for the benefit of the worshipper. [Gandhi](Gandhi) expressed the view that God does not need his supplication and that "Prayer is not an asking. It is a longing of the soul. It is a daily admission of one's weakness". Invoking God in [prayer](prayer) plays a significant role among many believers. Depending on the tradition, God can be viewed as a personal God who is only to be invoked directly while other traditions allow praying to intermediaries, such as [saint](saint)s, to [intercede](Intercession) on their behalf. Prayer often also includes [supplication](supplication) such as [forgiveness](asking)(Forgiveness#Religious views). God is often believed to be forgiving. For example, a [hadith](hadith) states God would replace a sinless people with one who sinned but still asked repentance. [Sacrifice](Sacrifice) for the sake of God is another act of devotion that includes [fasting](fasting#religious_views) and [almsgiving](almsgiving). [Remembrance](Dhikr) of God in daily life include mentioning interjections [God](thanking)(Alhamdulillah) when feeling gratitude or [of adoration](phrases)(Tasbih) such as repeating [chant](Japa)s while performing other activities.
### Salvation
[Transtheistic](Transtheism) religious traditions may believe in the existence of deities but deny any spiritual significance to them. The term has been used to describe certain strands of Buddhism,Antonio Rigopoulos, The Life and Teachings of Sai Baba of Shirdi (1993), p. 372; J. L. (Ed) Houlden, Jesus: The Complete Guide (2005), p. 390 Jainism and [Stoicism](Stoicism).*Writings on Religion*, Walter de Gruyter (1988), p. 145.
Among religions that do attach spirituality to the relationship with God disagree as how to best [worship](worship) God and what is [plan](God's)(divine providence) for mankind. There are different approaches to reconciling the contradictory claims of monotheistic religions. One view is taken by exclusivists, who believe they are the [people](chosen)(chosen people) or have exclusive access to [truth](absolute)(absolute truth), generally through [revelation](revelation) or encounter with the Divine, which adherents of other religions do not. Another view is [pluralism](religious)(religious pluralism). A pluralist typically believes that his religion is the right one, but does not deny the partial truth of other religions. The view that all theists actually worship the same god, whether they know it or not, is especially emphasized in the Baháʼí Faith, HinduismSee Swami Bhaskarananda, *Essentials of Hinduism* (Viveka Press 2002) and Sikhism. The [Faith](Baháʼí)(Baháʼí Faith) preaches that [manifestation](divine)(Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith))s include great prophets and teachers of many of the major religious traditions such as Krishna, Buddha, Jesus, Zoroaster, Muhammad, Bahá'ú'lláh and also preaches the unity of all religions and focuses on these multiple epiphanies as necessary for meeting the needs of humanity at different points in history and for different cultures, and as part of a scheme of [revelation](progressive)(Progressive revelation (Baháʼí)) and education of humanity. An example of a pluralist view in Christianity is [supersessionism](supersessionism), i.e., the belief that one's religion is the fulfillment of previous religions. A third approach is [inclusivism](relativistic)(inclusivism), where everybody is seen as equally right; an example being [universalism](universalism): the doctrine that [salvation](salvation) is eventually available for everyone. A fourth approach is [syncretism](syncretic), mixing different elements from different religions. An example of syncretism is the [Age](New)(New Age) movement.
## Epistemology
### Faith
[Fideism](Fideism) is the position that in certain topics, notably theology such as in [epistemology](reformed)(reformed epistemology), faith is superior than reason in arriving at truths. Some theists argue that there is value to the risk in having faith and that if the arguments for God’s existence were as rational as the laws of physics then there would be no risk. Such theists often argue that the heart is attracted to beauty, truth and goodness and so would be best for dictating about God, as illustrated through [Pascal](Blaise)(Blaise Pascal) who said, “The heart has its reasons that reason does not know.” A hadith attributes a quote to God as “I am what my slave thinks of me”. Inherent intuition about God is referred to in Islam as *[fitra](fitra),* or “innate nature”.Jon Hoover, ["Fiṭra"](https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27155) , EI3. In [Confucian](Confucian) tradition, [Confucius](Confucius) and [Mencius](Mencius) promoted that the only justification for right conduct, called the Way, is what is dictated by Heaven, a more or less anthropomorphic higher power, and is implanted in humans and thus there is only one universal foundation for the Way.
### Revelation
Revelation refers to some form of message communicated by God. This is usually proposed to occur through the use of [prophet](prophet)s or [angel](angel)s. [Al-Maturidi](Abu Mansur al-Maturidi) argued for the need for revelation because even though humans are intellectually capable of realizing God, human desire can divert the intellect and because [knowledge](certain)(Al-Ghaib) cannot be known except for been specially given to prophets.Cenap Çakmak *Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia* [volumes](4) ABC-CLIO 2017 p. 1014 The term [revelation](General)(General revelation) is used to refer to knowledge revealed about God outside of [direct](direct revelation) or [special](Special revelation) revelation such as scriptures. Notably, this includes studying nature, sometimes seen as the [of Nature](Book)(Book of Nature). An idiom in Arabic states, "The Qur’an is a Universe that speaks. The Universe is a silent Qur’an".
### Reason
On matters of theology, some such as [Swinburne](Richard)(Richard Swinburne), take an [evidentialist](evidentialist) position, where a belief is only justified if it has a reason behind it, as opposed to holding it as a [belief](foundational)(foundationalism). [theology](Traditionalist)(Athari) holds that one should not opinionate beyond revelation to understand God's nature and frown upon rationalizations such as [theology](speculative)(Kalam).. Notably, for [descriptions](anthropomorphic)(Anthropomorphism) such as the “Hand of God” and [of God](attributes)(Attributes of God in Islam), they neither nullify such texts nor accept a literal hand but leave any ambiguity to God, called *[tafwid](tafwid)*, without [how](asking)(Bi-la kaifa ).. [scriptura](Prima)(Prima scriptura) is the doctrine that [canon](biblical)(biblical canon) is the primary guide over other sources such as reason or expert opinion while [scriptura](Sola)(Sola scriptura) is the doctrine that the Bible is the only source of authority for the Christian faith and practice.
## Specific characteristics
### Titles
[[File:Allah Names in Chinese Arabic Script.jpg|thumb|upright|99 names of [Allah](Allah), in Chinese [Sini](Sini (script))]]
In the [Judeo-Christian](Judeo-Christian) tradition, "the Bible has been the principal source of the conceptions of God". That the Bible "includes many different images, concepts, and ways of thinking about" God has resulted in perpetual "disagreements about how God is to be conceived and understood".Francis Schüssler Fiorenza and Gordon D. Kaufman, "God", Ch 6, in Mark C. Taylor, ed, *Critical Terms for Religious Studies* (University of Chicago, 1998/2008), 136–40. Throughout the Hebrew and Christian Bibles there are titles for God, who revealed his personal name as [YHWH](Tetragrammaton) (often vocalized as *Yahweh* or *Jehovah*). One of them is *[Elohim](Elohim)*. Another one is *[Shaddai](El)(El Shaddai)*, translated "God Almighty".Gen. 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; Ex. 6:31; Ps. 91:1, 2 A third notable title is *[Elyon](El)(El Elyon)*, which means "The High God".Gen. 14:19; Ps. 9:2; Dan. 7:18, 22, 25 Also noted in the [Hebrew](Hebrew Bible) and [Christian](Bible#Christian Bible) Bibles is the name "[Am that I Am](I)(I Am that I Am)".Exodus 3:13–15
God is described and referred in the [Quran](Quran) and [hadith](hadith) by certain [or attributes](names)(Names of God in Islam), the most common being *[Al-Rahman](R-Ḥ-M)*, meaning "Most Compassionate" and *Al-Rahim*, meaning "Most Merciful". Many of these names are also used in the scriptures of the [Faith](Baháʼí)(Baháʼí Faith).
[Vaishnavism](Vaishnavism), a tradition in Hinduism, has a [of titles and names of Krishna](list)(list of titles and names of Krishna).
### Gender
The gender of God may be viewed as either a literal or an [allegorical](allegory) aspect of a [deity](deity) who, in classical western philosophy, transcends bodily form. [Polytheistic](Polytheistic) religions commonly attribute to each of *the gods* a gender, allowing each to interact with any of the others, and perhaps with humans, sexually. In most [monotheistic](monotheistic) religions, God has no counterpart with which to relate sexually. Thus, in classical western philosophy the [gender](gender) of this one-and-only deity is most likely to be an [analogical](analogical) statement of how humans and God address, and relate to, each other. Namely, God is seen as begetter of the world and revelation which corresponds to the active (as opposed to the receptive) role in sexual intercourse.
Biblical sources usually refer to God using male or paternal words and symbolism, except ,Elaine H. Pagels ["What Became of God the Mother? Conflicting Images of God in Early Christianity"](http://holyspirit-shekinah.org/_/what_became_of_god_the_mother-1.htm) Signs, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Winter, 1976), pp. 293–303 , and (female); , , , , , (a mother); (a mother eagle); and and (a mother hen).
### Depiction
[[File:Naqsh i Rustam. Investiture d'Ardashir 1.jpg|thumb|left|Ahura Mazda (depiction is on the right, with high crown) presents [I](Ardashir)(Ardashir I) (left) with the ring of kingship. (Relief at [Rustam](Naqsh-e)(Naqsh-e Rustam), 3rd century CE)]]
In Zoroastrianism, during the early [Empire](Parthian)(Parthian Empire), [Mazda](Ahura)(Ahura Mazda) was visually represented for worship. This practice ended during the beginning of the [Empire](Sasanian)(Sasanian Empire). Zoroastrian [iconoclasm](iconoclasm), which can be traced to the end of the Parthian period and the beginning of the Sassanid, eventually put an end to the use of all images of Ahura Mazda in worship. However, Ahura Mazda continued to be symbolized by a dignified male figure, standing or on horseback, which is found in Sassanian investiture.
Deities from [Eastern cultures](Near)(Near East) are often thought of as [anthropomorphic](anthropomorphism) entities who have a human like body which is, however, not equal to a human body. Such bodies were often thought to be radiant or fiery, of superhuman size or extreme beauty. The ancient deity of the [Israelites](Israelites) ([Yahweh](Yahweh)) too was imagined as a transcendent but still anthropomorphic deity.Williams, Wesley. “A Body Unlike Bodies: Transcendent Anthropomorphism in Ancient Semitic Tradition and Early Islam.” Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 129, no. 1, 2009, pp. 19–44. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40593866 . Accessed 18 Nov. 2022. Humans could not see him, because of their impurity in contrast to Yahweh's holiness, Yahweh being described as radiating fire and light which could kill a human if looking at him. Further, more religious or spiritual people tend to have less anthropomorphic depictions of God. In Judaism, the [Torah](Torah) often ascribes human features to God, however, many other passages describe God as formless and otherworldly. Judaism is [aniconic](aniconism), meaning it overly lacks material, physical representations of both the natural and supernatural worlds. Furthermore, the worship of idols is strictly forbidden. The traditional view, elaborated by figures such as [Maimonides](Maimonides), reckons that God is wholly incomprehensible and therefore impossible to envision, resulting in a historical tradition of "divine incorporeality". As such, attempting to describe God's "appearance" in practical terms is considered disrespectful to the deity and thus is deeply taboo, and arguably heretical.
[Gnostic](Gnosticism) cosmogony often depicts the creator god of the Old Testament as an evil lesser deity or [Demiurge](Demiurge#Gnosticism), while the higher benevolent god or [Monad](Monad (Gnosticism)) is thought of as something beyond comprehension having immeasurable light and not in time or among things that exist, but rather is greater than them in a sense. All people are said to have a piece of God or [spark](divine)(divine spark) within them which has fallen from the immaterial world into the corrupt material world and is trapped unless [gnosis](gnosis) is attained.
[[File:Ascension, sacramentaire de Drogon.jpg|thumb|upright|Use of the symbolic [of God](Hand)(Hand of God (art)) in the [Ascension](Ascension of Christ) from the [Sacramentary](Drogo)(Drogo Sacramentary), c. 850]]
Early Christians believed that the words of the [of John](Gospel)(Gospel of John) 1:18: "No man has seen God at any time" and numerous other statements were meant to apply not only to God, but to all attempts at the depiction of God.James Cornwell, 2009 *Saints, Signs, and Symbols: The Symbolic Language of Christian Art* p. 2 However, later depictions of God are found. Some, like the [of God](Hand)(Hand of God (art)), are depiction borrowed from Jewish art. Prior to the 10th century no attempt was made to use a human to symbolize [the Father](God)(God the Father) in [art](Western)(Western art). Yet, Western art eventually required some way to illustrate the presence of the Father, so through successive representations a set of artistic styles for symbolizing the Father using a man gradually emerged around the 10th century AD. A rationale for the use of a human is the belief that God created the soul of man in the image of his own (thus allowing human to transcend the other animals). It appears that when early artists designed to represent God the Father, fear and awe restrained them from a usage of the whole human figure. Typically only a small part would be used as the image, usually the hand, or sometimes the face, but rarely a whole human. In many images, the figure of the Son supplants the Father, so a smaller portion of the person of the Father is depicted.Adolphe Napoléon Didron, 2003 *Christian iconography: or The history of Christian art in the middle ages* p. 169 By the 12th century depictions of God the Father had started to appear in French [manuscript](illuminated)(illuminated manuscript)s, which as a less public form could often be more adventurous in their iconography, and in [glass](stained)(stained glass) church windows in England. Initially the head or bust was usually shown in some form of frame of clouds in the top of the picture space, where the Hand of God had formerly appeared; the [of Christ](Baptism)(Baptism of Jesus) on the famous [font in Liège](baptismal)(Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège) of [of Huy](Rainer)(Rainer of Huy) is an example from 1118 (a Hand of God is used in another scene). Gradually the amount of the human symbol shown can increase to a half-length figure, then a full-length, usually enthroned, as in [Giotto](Giotto)'s [fresco](fresco) of c. 1305 in [Padua](Padua).[Chapel](Arena)(Arena Chapel), at the top of the triumphal arch, *God sending out the angel of the Annunciation*. See Schiller, I, fig 15 In the 14th century the [Bible](Naples)(Naples Bible) carried a depiction of God the Father in the [bush](Burning)(Burning bush). By the early 15th century, the [Riches Heures du Duc de Berry](Très)(Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry) has a considerable number of symbols, including an elderly but tall and elegant full-length figure walking in the [of Eden](Garden)(Garden of Eden), which show a considerable diversity of apparent ages and dress. The [of Paradise" of the Florence Baptistry]("Gates)(Battistero di San Giovanni (Florence)#Lorenzo Ghiberti) by [Ghiberti](Lorenzo)(Lorenzo Ghiberti), begun in 1425 use a similar tall full-length symbol for the Father. The [Book of Hours](Rohan)(Rohan Book of Hours) of about 1430 also included depictions of God the Father in half-length human form, which were now becoming standard, and the Hand of God becoming rarer. At the same period other works, like the large Genesis [altarpiece](altarpiece) by the Hamburg painter [Bertram](Meister)(Meister Bertram), continued to use the old depiction of Christ as *[Logos](Logos (Christianity))* in Genesis scenes. In the 15th century there was a brief fashion for depicting all three persons of the Trinity as [or identical figures with the usual appearance of Christ](similar)(Trinity#Less common types of depiction). In a Trinitarian [Pietà](Pietà), God the Father is often symbolized using a man wearing a papal dress and a papal crown, supporting the dead Christ in his arms.Irene Earls, 1987 *Renaissance art: a topical dictionary* pp. 8, 283 In 1667 the 43rd chapter of the [Moscow Council](Great)(Moscow Sobor of 1666–1667) specifically included a ban on a number of symbolic depictions of God the Father and the Holy Spirit, which then also resulted in a whole range of other icons being placed on the forbidden list,Oleg Tarasov, 2004 *Icon and devotion: sacred spaces in Imperial Russia* p. 185 mostly affecting Western-style depictions which had been gaining ground in Orthodox icons. The Council also declared that the person of the Trinity who was the "Ancient of Days" was Christ, as *Logos*, not God the Father. However some icons continued to be produced in Russia, as well as [Greece](Greece), [Romania](Romania), and other Orthodox countries.
[[File:Istanbul 027 (6445021161).jpg|thumb|left|upright|The Arabic script of "Allah" in the [Sophia](Hagia)(Hagia Sophia), [Istanbul](Istanbul)]]
In Islam, Muslims believe that God ([Allah](Allah)) is beyond all comprehension and equal, and does not resemble any of his creations in any way. Muslims tend to use the least anthropomorphism among monotheists.Shaman, Nicholas J., Anondah R. Saide, and Rebekah A. Richert. "Dimensional structure of and variation in anthropomorphic concepts of God." Frontiers in psychology 9 (2018): 1425. They are not [iconodules](Iconodulism) and have religious calligraphy of titles of God instead of pictures.
## See also
*
* [(philosophy)](Absolute)(Absolute (philosophy))
* [(cosmology)](Apeiron)(Apeiron (cosmology))
* [Deity](Deity)
* [Demigod](Demigod)
* [of God](Existence)(Existence of God)
* [complex](God)(God complex)
* [(disambiguation)](God)(God (disambiguation))
* [(word)](God)(God (word))
* [between religion and science](Relationship)(Relationship between religion and science)
## References
**Footnotes**
**Citations**
## Bibliography
*
*
* [Cliff](Pickover,)(Cliff Pickover), *The Paradox of God and the Science of Omniscience*, Palgrave/St Martin's Press, 2001.
* [Francis](Collins,)(Francis Collins (geneticist)), *The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief*, Free Press, 2006.
* [Jack](Miles,)(Jack Miles), *God: A Biography*, Vintage, 1996.
* [Karen](Armstrong,)(Karen Armstrong), *A History of God: The 4,000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam*, Ballantine Books, 1994.
* [Tillich](Paul)(Paul Tillich), *Systematic Theology*, Vol. 1 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951).
*
*
## External links
* [Concept of God in Christianity](http://www.armatabianca.org/eng/padre.php?sottomenu=4)
* [Concept of God in Islam](http://www.islam-info.ch/en/Who_is_Allah.htm)
* [God Christian perspective](http://www.allaboutgod.com/)
* [Hindu Concept of God](https://web.archive.org/web/20030504073425/http://www.shaivam.org/hipgodco.htm)
* [Jewish Literacy](http://www.aish.com/literacy/concepts/Understanding_God.asp)
[ ](Category:God)
[ ](Category:Singular God)
[gods](Category:Creator)(Category:Creator gods)
[Category:Deities](Category:Deities)
|
2020 Los Angeles Chargers season
|
2020_los_angeles_chargers_season
|
# 2020 Los Angeles Chargers season
*Revision ID: 1160037440 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T01:53:14Z*
---
The [season](2020)(2020 NFL season) was the [Angeles Chargers](Los)(Los Angeles Chargers)' 51st in the [Football League](National)(National Football League) (NFL), their 61st overall, their fifth in the [Los Angeles Area](Greater)(Greater Los Angeles Area), and their fourth and final season under [coach](head)(List of Los Angeles Chargers head coaches) [Lynn](Anthony)(Anthony Lynn). It also marks the Chargers' first season playing their home games at [Stadium](SoFi)(SoFi Stadium) in [Inglewood](Inglewood, California) (which the team shares with the [Angeles Rams](Los)(2020 Los Angeles Rams season)), after using [Health Sports Park](Dignity)(Dignity Health Sports Park) in [Carson](Carson, California) as their temporary home stadium for the previous three seasons. This is also the Chargers' first season since [2007](2007 San Diego Chargers season) with new uniforms, which were unveiled on April 21, 2020. The uniforms are somewhat similar in design to the ones they donned in their inaugural season in 1960.
After mutually agreeing to part ways, this was the first season since [2003](2003 San Diego Chargers season) without quarterback [Rivers](Philip)(Philip Rivers) on the roster and the first since [2005](2005 San Diego Chargers season) without Rivers as the starting quarterback. Rivers led the Chargers to six playoff appearances, starting every game since September 11, 2006. Backup quarterback [Taylor](Tyrod)(Tyrod Taylor) was named starter, but following a medical mishap prior to week 2, he was replaced by rookie [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert). After a 45–0 loss to the [England Patriots](New)(2020 New England Patriots) in Week 13, the Chargers were mathematically eliminated from playoff contention for the second consecutive year. However, despite this, the Chargers rallied and won their last four games, bringing their record to 7–9, improving on their [season](5–11)(2019 Los Angeles Chargers season) from the previous year.
At the conclusion of the 2020 season, the organization announced that Lynn was [fired](dismissal (employment)) as head coach. This season was highlighted by a string of blown 4th quarter leads. 8 of their 9 losses were by a deficit of 10 points or less. Despite the disappointing season, quarterback Justin Herbert was named [Offensive Rookie of the Year](AP)(Associated Press NFL Rookie of the Year Award#Winners).
## Offseason
### Signings
### Departures
## Draft
### Undrafted free agents
Despite signing a plethora of UDFAs (undrafted free agents), all were released during the initial roster cuts.
## Staff
## Final roster
|Running Backs=
|Wide Receivers=
|Tight Ends=
|Offensive Linemen=
|Defensive Linemen=
|Linebackers=
|Defensive Backs=
|Special Teams=
|Reserve Lists=
|Practice Squad=
}}
## Preseason
The Chargers' preseason schedule was announced on May 7, but was later cancelled due to the [pandemic](COVID-19)(COVID-19 pandemic).
## Regular season
### Schedule
The Chargers' [2020](2020 NFL season) schedule was announced on May 7.
**Note:** Intra-division opponents are in **bold** text.
### Game summaries
#### Week 1: at Cincinnati Bengals
;text-align:center;
|state=autocollapse
|title=Week One: Los Angeles Chargers at Cincinnati Bengals – Game summary
|date=September 13
|time=4:05 p.m. [EDT](Eastern Time Zone)/1:05 p.m. [PDT](Pacific Time Zone)
|road=**Chargers**
|R1=0|R2=6|R3=0|R4=10
|home=Bengals
|H1=7|H2=0|H3=6|H4=0
|stadium=[Brown Stadium](Paul)(Paul Brown Stadium), [Ohio](Cincinnati,)(Cincinnati, Ohio)
|attendance=0
|weather=Partly cloudy,
|referee=[Martin](Clay)(Clay Martin)
|TV=[CBS](NFL on CBS)
|TVAnnouncers=[Harlan](Kevin)(Kevin Harlan), [Green](Trent)(Trent Green) and Melanie Collins
|reference=[Recap](https://www.nfl.com/games/chargers-at-bengals-2020-reg-1), [Game Book](https://nflcdns.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/58178/CIN_Gamebook.pdf)
|scoring=
**First quarter**
* CIN – [Burrow](Joe)(Joe Burrow) 23-yard run ([Bullock](Randy)(Randy Bullock) kick), 2:24. *Bengals 7–0. **Drive: 5 plays, 44 yards, 1:35.***
**Second quarter**
* LAC – [Badgley](Michael)(Michael Badgley) 24-yard field goal, 7:10. *Bengals 7–3. **Drive: 11 plays, 74 yards, 4:08.***
* LAC – Michael Badgley 43-yard field goal, 0:00. *Bengals 7–6. **Drive: 6 plays, 61 yards, 0:33.***
**Third quarter**
* CIN – Randy Bullock 50-yard field goal, 9:12. *Bengals 10–6. **Drive: 7 plays, 29 yards, 2:28.***
* CIN – Randy Bullock 43-yard field goal, 1:32. *Bengals 13–6. **Drive: 11 plays, 43 yards, 6:08.***
**Fourth quarter**
* LAC – [Kelley](Joshua)(Joshua Kelley) 5-yard run (Michael Badgley kick), 12:23. *Tied 13–13. **Drive: 10 plays, 55 yards, 4:09.***
* LAC – Michael Badgley 22-yard field goal, 8:56. *Chargers 16–13. **Drive: 8 plays, 21 yards, 3:18.***
|stats=
**Top passers**
* LAC – [Taylor](Tyrod)(Tyrod Taylor) – 16/30, 208 yards
* CIN – [Burrow](Joe)(Joe Burrow) – 23/36, 193 yards, INT
**Top rushers**
* LAC – [Ekeler](Austin)(Austin Ekeler) – 19 rushes, 84 yards
* CIN – [Mixon](Joe)(Joe Mixon) – 19 rushes, 69 yards
**Top passers**
* LAC – [Henry](Hunter)(Hunter Henry) – 5 receptions, 73 yards
* CIN – [J. Green](A.)(A. J. Green) – 5 receptions, 51 yards
}}
#### Week 2: vs. Kansas City Chiefs
;text-align:center;
|state=autocollapse
|title=Week Two: Kansas City Chiefs at Los Angeles Chargers – Game summary
|date=September 20
|time=1:25 p.m. PDT
|road=**Chiefs**
|R1=0|R2=6|R3=3|R4=11|R5=3
|home=Chargers
|H1=7|H2=7|H3=3|H4=3|H5=0
|stadium=[Stadium](SoFi)(SoFi Stadium), [California](Inglewood,)(Inglewood, California)
|attendance=0
|weather=Sunny,
|referee=[Cheffers](Carl)(Carl Cheffers)
|TV=CBS
|TVAnnouncers=[Nantz](Jim)(Jim Nantz), [Romo](Tony)(Tony Romo) and [Wolfson](Tracy)(Tracy Wolfson)
|reference=[Recap](https://www.nfl.com/games/chiefs-at-chargers-2020-reg-2), [Game Book](https://nflcdns.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/58197/LAC_Gamebook.pdf)
|scoring=
**First quarter**
* LAC – [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) 4-yard run ([Badgley](Michael)(Michael Badgley) kick), 11:23. *Chargers 7–0. **Drive: 8 plays, 79 yards, 3:37.***
**Second quarter**
* KC – [Kelce](Travis)(Travis Kelce) 10-yard pass from [Mahomes](Patrick)(Patrick Mahomes) (kick blocked), 8:51. *Chargers 7–6. **Drive: 10 plays, 73 yards, 4:36.***
* LAC – [Guyton](Jalen)(Jalen Guyton) 14-yard pass from Justin Herbert (Michael Badgley kick), 2:30. *Chargers 14–6. **Drive: 11 plays, 71 yards, 6:21.***
**Third quarter**
* LAC – Michael Badgley 41-yard field goal, 8:07. *Chargers 17–6. **Drive: 12 plays, 57 yards, 4:50.***
* KC – [Butker](Harrison)(Harrison Butker) 58-yard field goal, 3:11. *Chargers 17–9. **Drive: 9 plays, 35 yards, 4:56.***
**Fourth quarter**
* KC – [Hill](Tyreek)(Tyreek Hill) 54-yard pass from Patrick Mahomes (Patrick Mahomes-Mecole Hardman pass), 12:48. *Tied 17–17. **Drive: 6 plays, 95 yards, 2:31.***
* LAC – Michael Badgley 23-yard field goal, 2:27. *Chargers 20–17. **Drive: 17 plays, 82 yards, 10:21.***
* KC – Harrison Butker 30-yard field goal, 0:00. *Tied 20–20. **Drive: 12 plays, 63 yards, 2:27.***
**Overtime**
* KC – Harrison Butker 58-yard field goal, 1:55. *Chiefs 23–20. **Drive: 13 plays, 39 yards, 5:52.***
|stats=
**Top passers**
* KC – [Mahomes](Patrick)(Patrick Mahomes) – 27/47, 302 yards, 2 TD
* LAC – [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) – 22/33, 311 yards, TD, INT
**Top rushers**
* KC – [Mahomes](Patrick)(Patrick Mahomes) – 6 rushes, 54 yards
* LAC – [Ekeler](Austin)(Austin Ekeler) – 16 rushes, 93 yards
**Top receivers**
* KC – [Hill](Tyreek)(Tyreek Hill) – 5 receptions, 99 yards, TD
* LAC – [Allen](Keenan)(Keenan Allen) – 7 receptions, 96 yards
}}
[Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) made an unexpected start after Taylor suffered an injury before the game.
#### Week 3: vs. Carolina Panthers
;text-align:center;
|state=autocollapse
|title=Week Three: Carolina Panthers at Los Angeles Chargers – Game summary
|date=September 27
|time=1:05 p.m. PDT
|road=**Panthers**
|R1=6|R2=12|R3=0|R4=3
|home=Chargers
|H1=0|H2=7|H3=3|H4=6
|stadium=SoFi Stadium, Inglewood, California
|attendance=0
|weather=Hazy,
|referee=[Corrente](Tony)(Tony Corrente)
|TV=CBS
|TVAnnouncers=[Gumbel](Greg)(Greg Gumbel), [Gannon](Rich)(Rich Gannon) and [Feely](Jay)(Jay Feely)
|reference=[Recap](https://www.nfl.com/games/panthers-at-chargers-2020-reg-3), [Game Book](https://nflcdns.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/58210/LAC_Gamebook.pdf)
|scoring=
**First quarter**
* CAR – [Slye](Joey)(Joey Slye) 29-yard field goal, 9:20. *Panthers 3–0. **Drive: 6 plays, 37 yards, 3:07.***
* CAR – Joey Slye 24-yard field goal, 4:28. *Panthers 6–0. **Drive: 7 plays, 29 yards, 3:15.***
**Second quarter**
* LAC – [Ekeler](Austin)(Austin Ekeler) 12-yard run ([Badgley](Michael)(Michael Badgley) kick), 14:14. *Chargers 7–6. **Drive: 10 plays, 75 yards, 5:14.***
* CAR – Joey Slye 30-yard field goal, 8:11. *Panthers 9–7. **Drive: 10 plays, 59 yards, 6:03.***
* CAR – [Davis](Mike)(Mike Davis (running back)) 13-yard pass from [Bridgewater](Teddy)(Teddy Bridgewater) (kick blocked), 8:11. *Panthers 15–7. **Drive: 8 plays, 57 yards, 3:57.***
* CAR – Joey Slye 22-yard field goal, 0:00. *Panthers 18–7. **Drive: 2 plays, 4 yards, 0:08.***
**Third quarter**
* CAR – Michael Badgley 41-yard field goal, 1:12. *Panthers 18–10. **Drive: 10 plays, 37 yards, 4:34.***
**Fourth quarter**
* CAR – Joey Slye 31-yard field goal, 10:58. *Panthers 21–10. **Drive: 8 plays, 62 yards, 5:14.***
* LAC – [Allen](Keenan)(Keenan Allen) 14-yard pass from [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) (pass failed), 4:33. *Panthers 21–16. **Drive: 16 plays, 75 yards, 6:25.***
|stats=
**Top scorers**
* CAR – [Bridgewater](Teddy)(Teddy Bridgewater) – 22/28, 235 yards, TD
* LAC – [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) – 35/49, 330 yards, TD, INT
**Top passers**
* CAR – [Davis](Mike)(Mike Davis (running back)) – 13 rushes, 46 yards
* LAC – [Ekeler](Austin)(Austin Ekeler) – 12 rushes, 59 yards, TD
**Top receivers**
* CAR – [Moore](Jason)(Jason Moore (wide receiver)) – 2 receptions, 65 yards
* LAC – [Allen](Keenan)(Keenan Allen) – 13 receptions, 132 yards, TD
}}
#### Week 4: at Tampa Bay Buccaneers
;text-align:center;
|state=autocollapse
|title=Week Four: Los Angeles Chargers at Tampa Bay Buccaneers – Game summary
|date=October 4
|time=1:00 p.m. EDT/10:00 a.m. PDT
|road=Chargers
|R1=14|R2=10|R3=7|R4=0
|home=**Buccaneers**
|H1=7|H2=7|H3=14|H4=10
|stadium=[James Stadium](Raymond)(Raymond James Stadium), [Florida](Tampa,)(Tampa, Florida)
|attendance=6,383
|weather=Cloudy,
|referee=[Allen](Brad)(Brad Allen)
|TV=CBS
|TVAnnouncers=[Eagle](Ian)(Ian Eagle), [Davis](Charles)(Charles Davis (defensive back)) and [Washburn](Evan)(Evan Washburn)
|reference=[Recap](https://www.nfl.com/games/chargers-at-buccaneers-2020-reg-4), [Game Book](https://nflcdns.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/58224/TB_Gamebook.pdf)
|scoring=
**First quarter**
*TB – [Brate](Cameron)(Cameron Brate) 3-yard pass from [Brady](Tom)(Tom Brady) ([Succop](Ryan)(Ryan Succop) kick), 10:00. *Buccaneers 7–0. **Drive: 10 plays, 75 yards, 5:00.***
*LAC – [Johnson](Tyron)(Tyron Johnson) 53-yard pass from [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) ([Badgley](Michael)(Michael Badgley) kick), 8:14. *Tied 7–7. **Drive: 4 plays, 75 yards, 1:46.***
*LAC – [Davis](Michael)(Michael Davis (defensive back)) 78-yard interception return ([Badgley](Michael)(Michael Badgley) kick), 3:55. *Chargers 14–7.*
**Second quarter**
*LAC – [Parham](Donald)(Donald Parham) 19-yard pass from Justin Herbert (Michael Badgley kick), 8:50. *Chargers 21–7. **Drive: 13 plays, 97 yards, 6:15.***
*LAC – Michael Badgley 53-yard field goal, 8:50. *Chargers 24–7. **Drive: 8 plays, 31 yards, 3:17.***
*TB – [Evans](Mike)(Mike Evans (wide receiver)) 6-yard pass from Tom Brady (Ryan Succop kick), 0:22. *Chargers 24–14. **Drive: 3 plays, 6 yards, 0:16.***
**Third quarter**
*TB – [J. Howard](O.)(O. J. Howard) 28-yard pass from Tom Brady (Ryan Succop kick), 8:22. *Chargers 24–21. **Drive: 8 plays, 69 yards, 4:28.***
*TB – [Miller](Scott)(Scott Miller (American football, born 1997)) 19-yard pass from Tom Brady (Ryan Succop kick), 0:52. *Buccaneers 28–24. **Drive: 2 plays, 63 yards, 0:48.***
*LAC – [Guyton](Jalen)(Jalen Guyton) 72-yard pass from Justin Herbert (Michael Badgley kick), 0:00. *Chargers 31–28. **Drive: 3 plays, 75 yards, 0:52.***
**Fourth quarter**
*TB – [Vaughn](Ke'Shawn)(Ke'Shawn Vaughn) 9-yard pass from Tom Brady (Ryan Succop kick), 11:05. *Buccaneers 35–31. **Drive: 7 plays, 75 yards, 3:55.***
*TB – Ryan Succop 26-yard field goal, 2:40. *Buccaneers 38–31. **Drive: 12 plays, 72 yards, 6:05.***
|stats=
**Top passers**
* LAC – [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) – 20/25, 290 yards, 3 TD, INT
* TB – [Brady](Tom)(Tom Brady) – 30/46, 369 yards, 5 TD, INT
**Top rushers**
* LAC – [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) – 5 rushes, 14 yards
* TB – [Jones](Ronald)(Ronald Jones (running back)) – 20 rushes, 111 yards
**Top recievers**
* LAC – [Guyton](Jalen)(Jalen Guyton) – 1 reception, 72 yards, TD
* TB – [Evans](Mike)(Mike Evans (wide receiver)) – 7 receptions, 122 yards, TD
}}
#### Week 5: at New Orleans Saints
;text-align:center;
|state=autocollapse
|title=Week Five: Los Angeles Chargers at New Orleans Saints – Game summary
|date=
|time=7:15 p.m. [CDT](Central Time Zone)/5:15 p.m. PDT
|road=Chargers
|R1=6|R2=14|R3=0|R4=7|R5=0
|home=**Saints**
|H1=3|H2=7|H3=3|H4=14|H5=3
|stadium=[Superdome](Mercedes-Benz)(Mercedes-Benz Superdome), [Orleans, Louisiana](New)(New Orleans, Louisiana)
|attendance=749
|weather=None (indoor stadium)
|referee=Clay Martin
|TV=[ESPN](Monday Night Football)
|TVAnnouncers=[Levy](Steve)(Steve Levy), [Griese](Brian)(Brian Griese), [Riddick](Louis)(Louis Riddick) and [Salters](Lisa)(Lisa Salters)
|reference=[Recap](https://www.nfl.com/games/chargers-at-saints-2020-reg-5), [Game Book](https://nflcdns.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/58246/NO_Gamebook.pdf)
|scoring=
**First quarter**
*LAC – [Allen](Keenan)(Keenan Allen) 17-yard pass from [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) (kick failed), 6:26. *Chargers 6–0. **Drive: 9 plays, 80 yards, 4:33.***
*NO – [Lutz](Wil)(Wil Lutz) 48-yard field goal, 0:00. *Chargers 6–3. **Drive: 5 plays, 18 yards, 2:41.***
**Second quarter**
*LAC – [Williams](Mike)(Mike Williams (wide receiver, born 1994)) 4-yard pass from Justin Herbert ([Badgley](Michael)(Michael Badgley) kick), 11:01. *Chargers 13–3. **Drive: 7 plays, 75 yards, 3:59.***
*LAC – [Henry](Hunter)(Hunter Henry) 4-yard pass from Justin Herbert (Michael Badgley kick), 4:25. *Chargers 20–3. **Drive: 3 plays, 1 yard, 1:23.***
*NO – [Brees](Drew)(Drew Brees) 1-yard run (Wil Lutz kick), 0:14. *Chargers 20–10. **Drive: 8 plays, 51 yards, 1:45.***
**Third quarter**
*NO – [Lutz](Wil)(Wil Lutz) 53-yard field goal, 4:52. *Chargers 20–13. **Drive: 7 plays, 40 yards, 3:25.***
**Fourth quarter**
*NO – [Cook](Jared)(Jared Cook) 41-yard pass from Drew Brees (Wil Lutz kick), 11:21. *Tied 20–20. **Drive: 10 plays, 89 yards, 5:02.***
*LAC – Mike Williams 64-yard pass from Justin Herbert (Michael Badgley kick), 3:40. *Chargers 27–20. **Drive: 4 plays, 78 yards, 2:02.***
*NO – [Hill](Taysom)(Taysom Hill) 9-yard run (Wil Lutz kick), 0:52. *Tied 27–27. **Drive: 8 plays, 73 yards, 2:48.***
**Overtime**
*NO – Wil Lutz 36-yard field goal, 5:08. *Saints 30–27. **Drive: 9 plays, 48 yards, 4:52.***
|stats=
**Top passers**
*LAC – [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) – 20/34, 264 yards, 4 TD
*NO – [Brees](Drew)(Drew Brees) – 33/47, 325 yards, TD, INT
**Top receivers**
*LAC – [Jackson](Justin)(Justin Jackson (American football)) – 15 rushes, 71 yards
*NO – [Kamara](Alvin)(Alvin Kamara) – 11 rushes, 45 yards
**Top rushers**
*LAC – [Williams](Mike)(Mike Williams (wide receiver, born 1994)) – 5 receptions, 109 yards, 2 TD
*NO – [Sanders](Emmanuel)(Emmanuel Sanders) – 12 receptions, 122 yards
}}The Chargers face Drew Brees and the Saints for the fourth time. The Saints trailed earlier and made comeback attempts. At the conclusion of the fourth quarter, Michael Badgley attempted a game-winning field goal, but the ball hits the upright, resulting in both teams tying and going into overtime. Wil Lutz kicked a 36-yard field goal and the game continued. When Rookie quarterback, Justin Herbert, elected a 4th down conversion, his pass was completed, but Marshon Lattimore and Demario Davis stopped the Chargers from getting a 1st down, resulting in a Chargers' loss.
#### Week 7: vs. Jacksonville Jaguars
;text-align:center;
|state=autocollapse
|title=Week Seven: Jacksonville Jaguars at Los Angeles Chargers – Game summary
|date=October 25
|time=1:25 p.m. PDT
|road=Jaguars
|R1=0|R2=14|R3=15|R4=0
|home=**Chargers**
|H1=9|H2=7|H3=20|H4=3
|stadium=SoFi Stadium, Inglewood, California
|attendance=0
|weather=Cloudy,
|referee=[Blakeman](Clete)(Clete Blakeman)
|TV=CBS
|TVAnnouncers=Andrew Catalon, James Lofton and Sherree Burruss
|reference=[Recap](https://www.nfl.com/games/jaguars-at-chargers-2020-reg-7), [Game Book](https://nflcdns.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/58283/LAC_Gamebook.pdf)
|scoring=
**First quarter**
* LAC – [Badgley](Michael)(Michael Badgley) 35-yard field goal, 10:15. *Chargers 3–0. **Drive: 9 plays, 77 yards, 3:48.***
* LAC – [Reed](Joe)(Joe Reed (wide receiver)) 7-yard run (kick failed, wide left), 0:05. *Chargers 9–0. **Drive: 11 plays, 71 yards, 5:39.***
**Second quarter**
* LAC – [Parham](Donald)(Donald Parham) 22-yard pass from [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) (Michael Badgley kick), 10:34. *Chargers 16–0. **Drive: 6 plays, 62 yards, 2:59.***
* JAX – [Robinson](James)(James Robinson (running back)) 4-yard run (James Robinson run), 7:46. *Chargers 16–8. **Drive: 6 plays, 78 yards, 2:48.***
* JAX – James Robinson 9-yard pass from [Minshew](Gardner)(Gardner Minshew) (pass failed), 0:11. *Chargers 16–14. **Drive: 11 plays, 67 yards, 3:41.***
**Third quarter**
* JAX – [Thomas](Daniel)(Daniel Thomas (safety)) 16-yard return of blocked punt ([Lambo](Josh)(Josh Lambo) kick), 13:21. *Jaguars 21–16.*
* LAC – [Green](Virgil)(Virgil Green) 22-yard pass from Justin Herbert (run failed), 5:25. *Chargers 22–21. **Drive: 6 plays, 47 yards, 2:56.***
* JAX – [Conley](Chris)(Chris Conley (American football)) 28-yard pass from Gardner Minshew (Gardner Minshew-[Ellefson](Ben)(Ben Ellefson) pass), 2:54. *Jaguars 29–22. **Drive: 6 plays, 74 yards, 2:31.***
* LAC – [Guyton](Jalen)(Jalen Guyton) 70-yard pass from Justin Herbert (Michael Badgley kick), 1:56. *Tied 29–29. **Drive: 2 plays, 80 yards, 0:58.***
* LAC – Justin Herbert 5-yard run (Michael Badgley kick), 0:05. *Chargers 36–29. **Drive: 4 plays, 19 yards, 1:42.***
**Fourth quarter**
* LAC – Michael Badgley 35-yard field goal, 6:26. *Chargers 39–29. **Drive: 11 plays, 73 yards, 4:36.***
|stats=
**Top passers**
*JAX – [Minshew](Gardner)(Gardner Minshew) – 14/27, 173 yards, 2 TD
*LAC – [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) – 27/43, 347 yards, 3 TD
**Top rushers**
*JAX – [Robinson](James)(James Robinson (running back)) – 22 rushes, 119 yards, TD
*LAC – Justin Herbert – 9 rushes, 66 yards, TD
**Top receivers**
*JAX – [Shenault](Laviska)(Laviska Shenault) – 3 receptions, 44 yards
*LAC – [Allen](Keenan)(Keenan Allen) – 10 receptions, 125 yards
}}
#### Week 8: at Denver Broncos
;text-align:center;
|state=autocollapse
|title=Week Eight: Los Angeles Chargers at Denver Broncos – Game summary
|date=November 1
|time=2:05 p.m. [MST](Mountain Time Zone)/1:05 p.m. PST
|road=Chargers
|R1=0|R2=14|R3=10|R4=6
|home=**Broncos**
|H1=3|H2=0|H3=7|H4=21
|stadium=[Field at Mile High](Empower)(Empower Field at Mile High), [Colorado](Denver,)(Denver)
|attendance=5,231
|weather=Sunny,
|referee=Carl Cheffers
|TV=CBS
|TVAnnouncers=Greg Gumbel, Rich Gannon and Jay Feely
|reference=[Recap](https://www.nfl.com/games/chargers-at-broncos-2020-reg-8), [Game Book](https://nflcdns.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/58325/DEN_Gamebook.pdf)
|scoring=
**First quarter**
* DEN – [McManus](Brandon)(Brandon McManus) 35-yard field goal, 10:02. *Broncos 3–0. **Drive: 4 plays, 0 yards, 1:27.***
**Second quarter**
* LAC – [Allen](Keenan)(Keenan Allen) 9-yard pass from [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) ([Badgley](Michael)(Michael Badgley) kick), 1:48. *Chargers 7–3. **Drive: 9 plays, 80 yards, 4:05.***
* LAC – [Nabers](Gabe)(Gabe Nabers) 2-yard pass from Justin Herbert (Michael Badgley kick), 0:15. *Chargers 14–3. **Drive: 6 plays, 80 yards, 0:56.***
**Third quarter**
* LAC – [Williams](Mike)(Mike Williams (wide receiver, born 1994)) 24-yard pass from Justin Herbert (Michael Badgley kick), 10:13. *Chargers 21–3. **Drive: 10 plays, 75 yards, 4:47.***
* LAC – Michael Badgley 52-yard field goal, 7:33. *Chargers 24–3. **Drive: 8 plays, 40 yards, 1:46.***
* DEN – [Lindsay](Phillip)(Phillip Lindsay) 55-yard run (Brandon McManus kick), 6:05. *Chargers 24–10. **Drive: 5 plays, 75 yards, 1:28.***
**Fourth quarter**
* DEN – [Okwuegbunam](Albert)(Albert Okwuegbunam) 9-yard pass from [Lock](Drew)(Drew Lock) (Brandon McManus kick), 11:42. *Chargers 24–17. **Drive: 9 plays, 80 yards, 4:54.***
* LAC – Michael Badgley 47-yard field goal, 7:57. *Chargers 27–17. **Drive: 8 plays, 46 yards, 3:45.***
* DEN – [Hamilton](DaeSean)(DaeSean Hamilton) 40-yard pass from Drew Lock (Brandon McManus kick), 7:30. *Chargers 27–24. **Drive: 2 plays, 75 yards, 0:27.***
* LAC – Michael Badgley 33-yard field goal, 2:30. *Chargers 30–24. **Drive: 12 plays, 60 yards, 5:00.***
* DEN – [J. Hamler](K.)(K. J. Hamler) 1-yard pass from Drew Lock (Brandon McManus kick), 0:00. *Broncos 31–30. **Drive: 14 plays, 81 yards, 2:30.***
|stats=
**Top passers**
* LAC – [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) – 29/43, 278 yards, 3 TD, 2 INT
* DEN – [Lock](Drew)(Drew Lock) – 26/41, 248 yards, 3 TD, INT
**Top rushers**
* LAC – [Jackson](Justin)(Justin Jackson (American football)) – 17 rushes, 89 yards
* DEN – [Lindsay](Phillip)(Phillip Lindsay) – 6 rushes, 83 yards, TD
**Top receivers**
* LAC – [Williams](Mike)(Mike Williams (wide receiver, born 1994)) – 5 receptions, 99 yards, TD
* DEN – [Hamilton](DaeSean)(DaeSean Hamilton) – 4 receptions, 82 yards, TD
}}
#### Week 9: vs. Las Vegas Raiders
;text-align:center;
|state=autocollapse
|title=Week Nine: Las Vegas Raiders at Los Angeles Chargers – Game summary
|date=November 8
|time=1:05 p.m. PST
|road=**Raiders**
|R1=7|R2=7|R3=14|R4=3
|home=Chargers
|H1=0|H2=17|H3=3|H4=6
|stadium=SoFi Stadium, Inglewood, California
|attendance=0
|weather=Mostly cloudy,
|referee=[Rogers](Brad)(Brad Rogers)
|TV=[Fox](Fox NFL)
|TVAnnouncers=[Davis](Joe)(Joe Davis (sportscaster)), [Schlereth](Mark)(Mark Schlereth) and [Czarniak](Lindsay)(Lindsay Czarniak)
|reference=[Recap](https://www.nfl.com/games/raiders-at-chargers-2020-reg-9), [Game Book](https://nflcdns.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/58297/LAC_Gamebook.pdf)
|scoring=
**First quarter**
*LV – [Booker](Devontae)(Devontae Booker) 23-yard run ([Carlson](Daniel)(Daniel Carlson) kick), 4:48. *Raiders 7–0. **Drive: 7 plays, 62 yards, 3:33.***
**Second quarter**
*LAC – [Ballage](Kalen)(Kalen Ballage) 5-yard run ([Badgley](Michael)(Michael Badgley) kick), 13:24. *Tied 7–7. **Drive: 13 plays, 61 yards, 6:18.***
*LV – [Jacobs](Josh)(Josh Jacobs) 14-yard run (Daniel Carlson kick), 5:41. *Raiders 14–7. **Drive: 6 plays, 44 yards, 3:23.***
*LAC – [Allen](Keenan)(Keenan Allen) 27-yard pass from [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) (Michael Badgley kick), 0:26. *Tied 14–14. **Drive: 10 plays, 75 yards, 5:15.***
*LAC – Michael Badgley 45-yard field goal, 0:08. *Chargers 17–14. **Drive: 1 play, 0 yards, 0:03.***
**Third quarter**
*LV – [Agholor](Nelson)(Nelson Agholor) 45-yard pass from [Carr](Derek)(Derek Carr) (Daniel Carlson kick), 13:18. *Raiders 21–17. **Drive: 4 plays, 55 yards, 1:42.***
*LV – [Waller](Darren)(Darren Waller) 3-yard pass from Derek Carr (Daniel Carlson kick), 7:49. *Raiders 28–17. **Drive: 8 plays, 75 yards, 3:39.***
*LAC – Michael Badgley 29-yard field goal, 4:23. *Raiders 28–20. **Drive: 9 plays, 62 yards, 3:30.***
**Fourth quarter**
*LAC – [Nabers](Gabe)(Gabe Nabers) 4-yard pass from Justin Herbert (run failed), 9:04. *Raiders 28–26. **Drive: 12 plays, 82 yards, 5:47.***
*LV – Daniel Carlson 31-yard field goal, 4:41. *Raiders 31–26. **Drive: 6 plays, 18 yards, 3:30.***
|stats=
**Top passers**
*LV – [Carr](Derek)(Derek Carr) – 13/23, 165 yards, 2 TD
*LAC – [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) – 28/42, 326 yards, 2 TD
**Top rushers**
*LV – [Booker](Devontae)(Devontae Booker) – 8 rushes, 68 yards, TD
*LAC – [Ballage](Kalen)(Kalen Ballage) – 15 rushes, 69 yards, TD
**Top receivers**
*LV – [Renfrow](Hunter)(Hunter Renfrow) – 2 receptions, 60 yards
*LAC – [Allen](Keenan)(Keenan Allen) – 9 receptions, 103 yards, TD
}}
#### Week 10: at Miami Dolphins
;text-align:center;
|state=autocollapse
|title=Week Ten: Los Angeles Chargers at Miami Dolphins – Game summary
|date=November 15
|time=4:05 p.m. EST/1:05 p.m. PST
|road=Chargers
|R1=0|R2=7|R3=7|R4=7
|home=**Dolphins**
|H1=14|H2=3|H3=3|H4=9
|stadium=[Rock Stadium](Hard)(Hard Rock Stadium), [Gardens, Florida](Miami)(Miami Gardens, Florida)
|attendance=12,751
|weather=Partly cloudy,
|referee=[Boger](Jerome)(Jerome Boger)
|TV=CBS
|TVAnnouncers=Greg Gumbel, Rich Gannon and AJ Ross
|reference=[Recap](https://www.nfl.com/games/chargers-at-dolphins-2020-reg-10), [Game Book](https://nflcdns.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/58266/MIA_Gamebook.pdf)
|scoring=
**First quarter**
*MIA – [Ahmed](Salvon)(Salvon Ahmed) 1-yard run ([Sanders](Jason)(Jason Sanders) kick), 12:58. *Dolphins 7–0. **Drive: 1 play, 1 yard, 0:04.***
*MIA – [Grant](Jakeem)(Jakeem Grant) 3-yard pass from [Tagovailoa](Tua)(Tua Tagovailoa) (Jason Sanders kick), 1:01. *Dolphins 14–0. **Drive: 13 plays, 88 yards, 7:04.***
**Second quarter**
*LAC – [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) 1-yard run ([Badgley](Michael)(Michael Badgley) kick), 4:25. *Dolphins 14–7. **Drive: 11 plays, 37 yards, 5:51.***
*MIA – Jason Sanders 50-yard field goal, 0:29. *Dolphins 17–7. **Drive: 5 plays, 15 yards, 0:37.***
**Third quarter**
*LAC – [Henry](Hunter)(Hunter Henry) 2-yard pass from Justin Herbert (Michael Badgley kick), 7:02. *Dolphins 17–14. **Drive: 11 plays, 68 yards, 6:38.***
*MIA – Jason Sanders 35-yard field goal, 2:34. *Dolphins 20–14. **Drive: 8 plays, 58 yards, 4:28.***
**Fourth quarter**
*MIA – [Smythe](Durham)(Durham Smythe) 2-yard pass from Tua Tagovailoa (pass failed), 11:38. *Tied 26–14. **Drive: 5 plays, 32 yards, 2:32.***
*MIA – Jason Sanders 49-yard field goal, 4:06. *Dolphins 29–14. **Drive: 7 plays, 14 yards, 2:38.***
*LAC – [Allen](Keenan)(Keenan Allen) 13-yard pass from Justin Hebert (Michael Badgley kick), 1:57. *Dolphins 29–21. **Drive: 8 plays, 69 yards, 2:02.***
|stats=
**Top passers**
*LAC – [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) – 20/32, 187 yards, 2 TD, INT
*MIA – [Tagovailoa](Tua)(Tua Tagovailoa) – 15/25, 169 yards, 2 TD
**Top rushers**
*LAC – [Ballage](Kalen)(Kalen Ballage) – 18 rushes, 68 yards
*MIA – [Ahmed](Salvon)(Salvon Ahmed) – 21 rushes, 85 yards, TD
**Top receivers**
*LAC – [Allen](Keenan)(Keenan Allen) – 3 receptions, 39 yards, TD
*MIA – [Grant](Jakeem)(Jakeem Grant) – 4 receptions, 43 yards, TD
}}
#### Week 11: vs. New York Jets
;text-align:center;
|state=autocollapse
|title=Week Eleven: New York Jets at Los Angeles Chargers – Game summary
|date=November 22
|time=1:05 p.m. PST
|road=Jets
|R1=6|R2=0|R3=13|R4=9
|home=**Chargers**
|H1=7|H2=17|H3=7|H4=3
|stadium=SoFi Stadium, Inglewood, California
|attendance=0
|weather=Clear,
|referee=[Wrolstad](Craig)(Craig Wrolstad)
|TV=CBS
|TVAnnouncers=Greg Gumbel, Rich Gannon and Jay Feely
|reference=[Recap](https://www.nfl.com/games/jets-at-chargers-2020-reg-11), [Game Book](https://nflcdns.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/58257/LAC_Gamebook.pdf)
|scoring=
**First quarter**
* NYJ – [Perine](La'Mical)(La'Mical Perine) 5-yard run (kick failed), 9:05. *Jets 6–0. **Drive: 4 plays, 29 yards, 1:59.***
* LAC – [Campbell](Tevaughn)(Tevaughn Campbell) 6-yard interception return ([Badgley](Michael)(Michael Badgley) kick), 3:20. *Chargers 7–6.*
**Second quarter**
* LAC – [Williams](Mike)(Mike Williams (wide receiver, born 1994)) 39-yard pass from [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) (Michael Badgley kick), 14:17. *Chargers 14–6. **Drive: 5 plays, 57 yards, 1:48.***
* LAC – [Henry](Hunter)(Hunter Henry) 2-yard pass from Justin Herbert (Michael Badgley kick), 10:01. *Chargers 21–6. **Drive: 7 plays, 72 yards, 2:59.***
* LAC – Michael Badgley 44-yard field goal, 0:00. *Chargers 24–6. **Drive: 7 plays, 60 yards, 1:16.***
**Third quarter**
* NYJ – [Perriman](Breshad)(Breshad Perriman) 49-yard pass from [Flacco](Joe)(Joe Flacco) ([Ficken](Sam)(Sam Ficken) kick), 11:27. *Chargers 24–13. **Drive: 7 plays, 74 yards, 3:33.***
* LAC – [Allen](Keenan)(Keenan Allen) 13-yard pass from Justin Herbert (Michael Badgley kick), 5:53. *Chargers 31–13. **Drive: 12 plays, 75 yards, 5:54.***
* NYJ – [Gore](Frank)(Frank Gore) 1-yard run (kick failed), 0:22. *Chargers 31–19. **Drive: 10 plays, 75 yards, 5:11.***
**Fourth quarter**
* LAC – Michael Badgley 23-yard field goal, 6:42. *Chargers 34–19. **Drive: 16 plays, 70 yards, 8:40.***
* NYJ – [Herndon](Chris)(Chris Herndon) 6-yard pass from Joe Flacco (Sam Ficken kick), 4:00. *Chargers 34–26. **Drive: 9 plays, 75 yards, 2:42.***
* NYJ – [Long](Ty)(Ty Long) OB in end zone, forced by [Luvu](Frankie)(Frankie Luvu), for a Safety, 0:01. *Chargers 34–28.*
|stats=
**Top passers**
* NYJ – Joe Flacco – 15/30, 205 yards, 2 TD, INT
* LAC – Justin Herbert – 37/49, 366 yards, 3 TD
**Top rushers**
* NYJ – Frank Gore – 15 rushes, 61 yards, TD
* LAC – [Ballage](Kalen)(Kalen Ballage) – 16 rushes, 44 yards
**Top receivers**
* NYJ – [Mims](Denzel)(Denzel Mims) – 3 receptions, 71 yards
* LAC – Keenan Allen – 16 receptions, 145 yards, TD
}}
#### Week 12: at Buffalo Bills
;text-align:center;
|state=autocollapse
|title=Week Twelve: Los Angeles Chargers at Buffalo Bills – Game summary
|date=November 29
|time=1:00 p.m. EST/10:00 a.m. PST
|road=Chargers
|R1=6|R2=0|R3=8|R4=3
|home=**Bills**
|H1=7|H2=10|H3=7|H4=3
|stadium=[Stadium](Bills)(Bills Stadium), [Park, New York](Orchard)(Orchard Park, New York)
|attendance=0
|weather=Sunny,
|referee=[Kemp](Alex)(Alex Kemp (American football official))
|TV=CBS
|TVAnnouncers= Greg Gumbel, Rich Gannon and Jay Feely
|reference=[Recap](https://www.nfl.com/games/chargers-at-bills-2020-reg-12), [Game Book](https://nflcdns.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/58333/BUF_Gamebook.pdf)
|scoring=
**First quarter**
* BUF – [Knox](Dawson)(Dawson Knox) 2-yard pass from [Allen](Josh)(Josh Allen (quarterback)) ([Bass](Tyler)(Tyler Bass) kick), 12:56. *Bills 7–0. **Drive: 4 plays, 63 yards, 1:59.***
* LAC – [Allen](Keenan)(Keenan Allen) 5-yard pass from [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) (kick failed), 6:31. *Bills 7–6. **Drive: 13 plays, 79 yards, 5:55.***
**Second quarter**
* BUF – [Davis](Gabe)(Gabe Davis) 20-yard pass from [Beasley](Cole)(Cole Beasley) (Tyler Bass kick), 9:44. *Bills 14–6. **Drive: 7 plays, 76 yards, 4:21.***
* BUF – Tyler Bass 45-yard field goal, 2:16. *Bills 17–6. **Drive: 12 plays, 60 yards, 5:15.***
**Third quarter**
* BUF – Josh Allen 3-yard run (Tyler Bass kick), 9:02. *Bills 24–6. **Drive: 12 plays, 57 yards, 5:58.***
* LAC – [Kelley](Joshua)(Joshua Kelley) 1-yard run (Justin Herbert-Keenan Allen pass), 4:51. *Bills 24–14. **Drive: 10 plays, 67 yards, 4:11.***
**Fourth quarter**
* LAC – [Badgley](Michael)(Michael Badgley) 27-yard field goal, 10:16. *Bills 24–17. **Drive: 7 plays, 36 yards, 3:50.***
* BUF – Tyler Bass 43-yard field goal, 3:26. *Bills 27–17. **Drive: 6 plays, 40 yards, 1:51.***
|stats=
**Top passers**
* LAC – Justin Herbert – 31/52, 316 yards, TD, INT
* BUF – Josh Allen – 18/24, 157 yards, TD, INT
**Top rushers**
* LAC – [Ekeler](Austin)(Austin Ekeler) – 14 rushes, 44 yards
* BUF – [Singletary](Devin)(Devin Singletary) – 11 rushes, 82 yards
**Top receivers**
* LAC – Austin Ekeler – 11 receptions, 85 yards
* BUF – Gabe Davis – 3 receptions, 79 yards, TD
}}
#### Week 13: vs. New England Patriots
;text-align:center;
|state=autocollapse
|title=Week Thirteen: New England Patriots at Los Angeles Chargers – Game summary
|date=December 6
|time=1:25 p.m. PST
|road=**Patriots**
|R1=7|R2=21|R3=7|R4=10
|home=Chargers
|H1=0|H2=0|H3=0|H4=0
|stadium=SoFi Stadium, Inglewood, California
|attendance=0
|weather=Clear,
|referee=Carl Cheffers
|TV=CBS
|TVAnnouncers=Kevin Harlan, Trent Green and Amanda Balionis
|reference=[Recap](https://www.nfl.com/games/patriots-at-chargers-2020-reg-13), [Game Book](https://nflcdns.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/58357/LAC_Gamebook.pdf)
|scoring=
**First quarter**
*NE – [Newton](Cam)(Cam Newton) 1-yard run ([Folk](Nick)(Nick Folk) kick), 7:50. *Patriots 7–0. **Drive: 13 plays, 75 yards, 7:10.***
**Second quarter**
*NE – [Olszewski](Gunner)(Gunner Olszewski) 70-yard punt return (Nick Folk kick), 14:02. *Patriots 14–0.*
*NE – Cam Newton 2-yard run (Nick Folk kick), 0:51. *Patriots 21–0. **Drive: 16 plays, 54 yards, 5:41.***
*NE – [McCourty](Devin)(Devin McCourty) 44-yard return of blocked field goal (Nick Folk kick), 0:00. *Patriots 28–0.*
**Third quarter**
*NE – [Harry](N'Keal)(N'Keal Harry) 5-yard pass from Cam Newton (Nick Folk kick), 8:44. *Patriots 35–0. **Drive: 7 plays, 32 yards, 3:38.***
**Fourth quarter**
*NE – Nick Folk 32-yard field goal, 11:21. *Patriots 38–0. **Drive: 4 plays, 3 yards, 2:04.***
*NE – Gunner Olszewski 38-yard pass from [Stidham](Jarrett)(Jarrett Stidham) (Nick Folk kick), 6:50. *Patriots 45–0. **Drive: 4 plays, 61 yards, 1:23.***
|stats=
**Top passers**
*NE – [Newton](Cam)(Cam Newton) – 12/19, 69 yards, TD
*LAC – [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) – 26/53, 209 yards, 2 INT
**Top rushers**
*NE – [Harris](Damien)(Damien Harris) – 16 rushes, 80 yards
*LAC – [Ekeler](Austin)(Austin Ekeler) – 8 rushes, 36 yards
**Top receivers**
*NE – [Olszewski](Gunner)(Gunner Olszewski) – 1 reception, 38 yards, TD
*LAC – [Allen](Keenan)(Keenan Allen) – 5 receptions, 48 yards
}}
With the shutout loss against New England, Los Angeles fell to 3–9 and was mathematically eliminated from playoff contention.
#### Week 14: vs. Atlanta Falcons
;text-align:center;
|state=autocollapse
|title=Week Fourteen: Atlanta Falcons at Los Angeles Chargers – Game summary
|date=December 13
|time=1:25 p.m. PST
|road=Falcons
|R1=7|R2=10|R3=0|R4=0
|home=**Chargers**
|H1=7|H2=3|H3=7|H4=3
|stadium=SoFi Stadium, Inglewood, California
|attendance=0
|weather=None (indoor stadium)
|referee=Tony Corrente
|TV=Fox
|TVAnnouncers=Joe Davis, Brock Huard and Jenny Taft
|reference=[Recap](https://www.nfl.com/games/falcons-at-chargers-2020-reg-14), [Game Book](https://nflcdns.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/58371/LAC_Gamebook.pdf)
|scoring=
**First quarter**
* LAC – [Allen](Keenan)(Keenan Allen) 10-yard pass from [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) ([Badgley](Michael)(Michael Badgley) kick), 3:57. *Chargers 7–0. **Drive: 15 plays, 83 yards, 9:33**
* ATL – [Ridley](Calvin)(Calvin Ridley) 39-yard pass from [Gage](Russell)(Russell Gage) ([Koo](Younghoe)(Younghoe Koo) kick), 0:21. *Tied 7–7. **Drive: 7 plays, 75 yards, 3:36**
**Second quarter**
* ATL – Younghoe Koo 45-yard field goal, 9:47. *Falcons 10–7. **Drive: 8 plays, 40 yards, 3:46**
* LAC – Michael Badgley 35-yard field goal, 8:13. *Tied 10–10. **Drive: 4 plays, 6 yards 1:34**
* ATL – [Treadwell](Laquon)(Laquon Treadwell) 9-yard pass from [Ryan](Matt)(Matt Ryan (American football)) (Younghoe Koo kick), 4:51. *Falcons 17–10. **Drive: 8 plays, 75 yards, 3:22**
**Third quarter**
* LAC – [Johnson](Tyron)(Tyron Johnson) 12-yard pass from Justin Herbert (Michael Badgley kick), 1:10. *Tied 17–17. **Drive: 13 plays, 85 yards, 8:21**
**Fourth quarter**
* LAC – Michael Badgley 43-yard field goal, 0:00. *Chargers 20–17. **Drive: 6 plays, 49 yards, 0:30**
|stats=
**Top passers**
* ATL – Matt Ryan – 21/31, 224 yards, TD, 3 INT
* LAC – Justin Herbert – 33/40, 195 yards, 2 TD, INT
**Top rushers**
* ATL – [Smith](Ito)(Ito Smith) – 11 rushes, 42 yards
* LAC – [Ekeler](Austin)(Austin Ekeler) – 12 rushes, 63 yards
**Top receivers**
* ATL – Calvin Ridley – 8 receptions, 124 yards, TD
* LAC – Austin Ekeler – 9 receptions, 67 yards
}}
#### Week 15: at Las Vegas Raiders
;text-align:center;
|state=autocollapse
|title=Week Fifteen: Los Angeles Chargers at Las Vegas Raiders – Game summary
|date=
|time=5:20 p.m. PST
|road=**Chargers**
|R1=7|R2=10|R3=7|R4=0|R5=6
|home=Raiders
|H1=3|H2=7|H3=7|H4=7|H5=3
|stadium=[Stadium](Allegiant)(Allegiant Stadium), [Nevada](Paradise,)(Paradise, Nevada)
|attendance=0
|weather=None (indoor stadium)
|referee=[Hussey](John)(John Hussey (American football official))
|TV=Fox/[NFLN](Thursday Night Football)/[Prime Video](Amazon)(Amazon Prime Video)
|TVAnnouncers=[Buck](Joe)(Joe Buck), [Aikman](Troy)(Troy Aikman), [Andrews](Erin)(Erin Andrews) and Kristina Pink
|reference=[Recap](https://www.nfl.com/games/chargers-at-raiders-2020-reg-15), [Game Book](https://nflcdns.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/58376/LV_Gamebook.pdf)
|scoring=
**First quarter**
*LAC – [Henry](Hunter)(Hunter Henry) 10-yard pass from [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) ([Badgley](Michael)(Michael Badgley) kick), 5:56. *Chargers 7–0. **Drive: 12 plays, 78 yards, 7:29.***
*LV – [Carlson](Daniel)(Daniel Carlson) 23-yard field goal, 0:55. *Chargers 7–3. **Drive: 9 plays, 70 yards, 5:01.***
**Second quarter**
*LV – [Waller](Darren)(Darren Waller) 35-yard pass from [Mariota](Marcus)(Marcus Mariota) (Daniel Carlson kick), 9:19. *Raiders 10–7. **Drive: 7 plays, 86 yards, 4:10.***
*LAC – Michael Badgley 22-yard field goal, 1:56. *Tied 10–10. **Drive: 14 plays, 71 yards, 7:27.***
*LAC – [Johnson](Tyron)(Tyron Johnson) 26-yard pass from Justin Herbert (Michael Badgley kick), 0:19. *Chargers 17–10. **Drive: 4 plays, 49 yards, 0:41.***
**Third quarter**
*LV – [Jacobs](Josh)(Josh Jacobs) 1-yard run (Daniel Carlson kick), 7:18. *Tied 17–17. **Drive: 10 plays, 76 yards, 5:23.***
*LAC – [Ballage](Kalen)(Kalen Ballage) 1-yard run (Michael Badgley kick), 2:08. *Chargers 24–17. **Drive: 12 plays, 75 yards, 5:10.***
**Fourth quarter**
*LV – Marcus Mariota 2-yard run (Daniel Carlson kick), 6:16. *Tied 24–24. **Drive: 19 plays, 75 yards, 10:52.***
**Overtime**
*LV – Daniel Carlson 23-yard field goal, 3:22. *Raiders 27–24. **Drive: 14 plays, 70 yards, 6:42.***
*LAC – Justin Herbert 1-yard run, 1:32. *Chargers 30–27. **Drive: 5 plays, 75 yards, 1:49.***
|stats=
**Top passers**
*LAC – [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) – 22/32, 314 yards, 2 TD
*LV – [Mariota](Marcus)(Marcus Mariota) – 17/28, 226 yards, TD, INT
**Top rushers**
*LAC – [Ekeler](Austin)(Austin Ekeler) – 13 rushes, 60 yards
*LV – [Mariota](Marcus)(Marcus Mariota) – 9 rushes, 88 yards, TD
**Top receivers**
*LAC – [Guyton](Jalen)(Jalen Guyton) – 4 receptions, 91 yards
*LV – [Waller](Darren)(Darren Waller) – 9 receptions, 150 yards, TD
}}
#### Week 16: vs. Denver Broncos
;text-align:center;
|state=autocollapse
|title=Week Sixteen: Denver Broncos at Los Angeles Chargers – Game summary
|date=December 27
|time=1:05 p.m. PST
|road=Broncos
|R1=0|R2=0|R3=3|R4=13
|home=**Chargers**
|H1=3|H2=10|H3=0|H4=6
|stadium=SoFi Stadium, Inglewood, California
|attendance=0
|weather=Partly cloudy,
|referee=[Hochuli](Shawn)(Shawn Hochuli)
|TV=CBS
|TVAnnouncers=[Dedes](Spero)(Spero Dedes), [Archuleta](Adam)(Adam Archuleta) and Amanda Balionis
|reference=[Recap](https://www.nfl.com/games/broncos-at-chargers-2020-reg-16), [Game Book](https://nflcdns.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/58395/LAC_Gamebook.pdf)
|scoring=
**First quarter**
* LAC – [Badgley](Michael)(Michael Badgley) 37-yard field goal, 12:53. *Chargers 3–0. **Drive: 5 plays, 20 yards, 2:07.***
**Second quarter**
* LAC – [Ekeler](Austin)(Austin Ekeler) 9-yard pass from [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) (Michael Badgley kick), 8:23. *Chargers 10–0. **Drive: 9 plays, 73 yards, 4:58.***
* LAC – Michael Badgley 43-yard field goal, 2:38. *Chargers 13–0. **Drive: 9 plays, 40 yards, 3:48.***
**Third quarter**
* DEN – [McManus](Brandon)(Brandon McManus) 30-yard field goal, 5:07. *Chargers 13–3. **Drive: 8 plays, 41 yards, 3:42.***
**Fourth quarter**
* LAC – Michael Badgley 25-yard field goal, 14:50. *Chargers 16–3. **Drive: 11 plays, 68 yards, 5:17.***
* DEN – Brandon McManus 50-yard field goal, 11:18. *Chargers 16–6. **Drive: 9 plays, 48 yards, 3:32.***
* DEN – [Lock](Drew)(Drew Lock) 1-yard run (Brandon McManus kick), 6:31. *Chargers 16–13. **Drive: 11 plays, 72 yards, 3:50.***
* DEN – Brandon McManus 52-yard field goal, 2:42. *Tied 16–16. **Drive: 6 plays, 25 yards, 2:43.***
* LAC – Michael Badgley 37-yard field goal, 0:41. *Chargers 19–16. **Drive: 7 plays, 56 yards, 2:01.***
|stats=
**Top passers**
* DEN – Drew Lock – 24/47, 264 yards, 2 INT
* LAC – Justin Herbert – 21/33, 253 yards, TD
**Top rushers**
* DEN – [Gordon](Melvin)(Melvin Gordon) – 16 rushes, 79 yards
* LAC – Austin Ekeler – 14 rushes, 45 yards
**Top receivers**
* DEN – [Hamilton](DaeSean)(DaeSean Hamilton) – 5 receptions, 77 yards
* LAC – [Williams](Mike)(Mike Williams (wide receiver, born 1994)) – 4 receptions, 54 yards
}}
#### Week 17: at Kansas City Chiefs
;text-align:center;
|state=autocollapse
|title=Week Seventeen: Los Angeles Chargers at Kansas City Chiefs – Game summary
|date=January 3, 2021
|time=3:25 p.m. CST/1:25 p.m. PST
|road=**Chargers**
|R1=7|R2=17|R3=7|R4=7
|home=Chiefs
|H1=7|H2=7|H3=0|H4=7
|stadium=[Stadium](Arrowhead)(Arrowhead Stadium), [City, Missouri](Kansas)(Kansas City, Missouri)
|attendance=13,240
|weather=Cloudy,
|referee=Clete Blakeman
|TV=Fox
|TVAnnouncers=[Kugler](Kevin)(Kevin Kugler), [Huard](Brock)(Brock Huard) and [Okmin](Laura)(Laura Okmin)
|reference=[Recap](https://www.nfl.com/games/chargers-at-chiefs-2020-reg-17), [Game Book](https://nflcdns.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/58414/KC_Gamebook.pdf)
|scoring=
**First quarter**
* KC – [Pringle](Byron)(Byron Pringle) 3-yard pass from [Henne](Chad)(Chad Henne) ([Butker](Harrison)(Harrison Butker) kick), 11:19. *Chiefs 7–0. **Drive: 7 plays, 56 yards, 3:41.***
* LAC – [Parham](Donald)(Donald Parham) 8-yard pass from [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) ([Badgley](Michael)(Michael Badgley) kick), 4:23. *Tied 7–7. **Drive: 12 plays, 75 yards, 6:56.***
**Second quarter**
* KC – [Thompson](Darwin)(Darwin Thompson) 1-yard run (Harrison Butker kick), 13:41. *Chiefs 14–7. **Drive: 12 plays, 72 yards, 5:42.***
* LAC – [Ekeler](Austin)(Austin Ekeler) 4-yard pass from Justin Herbert (Michael Badgley kick), 9:51. *Tied 14–14. **Drive: 4 plays, 17 yards, 2:06.***
* LAC – [Rochell](Isaac)(Isaac Rochell) safety, 1:43. *Chargers 16–14.*
* LAC – Justin Herbert 1-yard run (Justin Herbert–[Jackson](Justin)(Justin Jackson (American football)) pass), 0:16. *Chargers 24–14. **Drive: 5 plays, 59 yards, 1:27.***
**Third quarter**
* LAC – [Williams](Mike)(Mike Williams (wide receiver, born 1994)) 48-yard pass from Justin Herbert (Michael Badgley kick), 0:47. *Chargers 31–14. **Drive: 6 plays, 70 yards, 3:17.***
**Fourth quarter**
* KC – Darwin Thompson 8-yard pass from Chad Henne (Harrison Butker kick), 11:49. *Chargers 31–21. **Drive: 9 plays, 74 yards, 3:58.***
* LAC – [Ballage](Kalen)(Kalen Ballage) 1-yard run (Michael Badgley kick), 8:09. *Chargers 38–21. **Drive: 6 plays, 77 yards, 3:40.**''
|stats=
**Top passers**
* LAC – [Herbert](Justin)(Justin Herbert) – 22/31, 302 yards, 3 TD
* KC – [Henne](Chad)(Chad Henne) – 23/32, 218 yards, 2 TD
**Top rushers**
* LAC – [Jackson](Justin)(Justin Jackson (American football)) – 9 rushes, 72 yards
* KC – [Thompson](Darwin)(Darwin Thompson) – 14 rushes, 45 yards, TD
**Top receivers**
* LAC – [Williams](Mike)(Mike Williams (wide receiver, born 1994)) – 6 receptions, 108 yards, TD
* KC – Darwin Thompson – 7 receptions, 65 yards, TD
}}
### Standings
#### Division
#### Conference
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
[Angeles Chargers](Los)(Category:2020 National Football League season by team)
[Angeles Chargers seasons](Category:Los)(Category:Los Angeles Chargers seasons)
[Angeles Chargers](Los)(Category:2020 in sports in California)
[Chargers](Category:2020 in Los Angeles)
|
Evan Sharp
|
evan_sharp
|
# Evan Sharp
*Revision ID: 1158132797 | Timestamp: 2023-06-02T04:43:15Z*
---
| birth_place = [Pennsylvania](Philadelphia,)(Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), US
| death_date =
| death_place =
| education = [of Chicago](University)(University of Chicago) [Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation](Columbia)(Columbia Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation)
| occupation =
| title =
| term =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| known for = Co-founder and Chief Design & Creative Officer, [Pinterest](Pinterest)
| boards =
| spouse = Christina McBride
| children =
| website =
}}
**Evan Sharp** (born 1982) is an American billionaire Internet entrepreneur. He is the co-founder and chief design and creative officerApril 1|first1=David|last2=2019 .st0{fill:#F7EC13}.st1{clip-path:url}.st2{clip-path:url;fill:#020100}|website=www.adweek.com|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-01}} of [Pinterest](Pinterest), a visual discovery engine. He joined the company's board of directors in March 2019.
## Early life
Sharp was born in 1982. He was raised in [Pennsylvania](York,)(York, Pennsylvania) and attended York Suburban School District. Both his parents were park rangers. His father was an enthusiastic computer hobbyist. As a child, Sharp spent a lot of time tinkering with his father's Macintosh and taught himself how to code.
Sharp attended [Suburban High School](York)(York Suburban Senior High School) where he graduated in 2001. During his high school years, he spent his free time creating icons and user interfaces.
He graduated from the [of Chicago](University)(University of Chicago), where he earned a bachelor's degree in history. He subsequently studied architecture at [Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation](Columbia)(Columbia Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation).
## Career
Sharp met [Silbermann](Ben)(Ben Silbermann) in New York through a mutual friend in 2009 and they immediately connected over their love of the Internet. Together with third cofounder [Sciarra](Paul)(Paul Sciarra), the three built the very first version of Pinterest from a small apartment in New York City on West 103rd Street. He soon thereafter moved to California, where he worked as a product designer at [Facebook](Facebook).
The first desktop version of Pinterest was launched in March 2010 from a makeshift office — a two-bedroom apartment in the heart of Palo Alto that they shared with another start-up.
Sharp is credited with designing and coding Pinterest and the Pinterest grid for the initial product launch in March 2010. Over the years, he has overseen the creative, product and design teams
On October 14, 2021, Pinterest announced that Sharp would leave his post as a Chief Design & Creative Officer at the company to join [Ive](Jony)(Jony Ive)'s LoveFrom. Sharp will reportedly stay on Pinterest's board of directors and serve as the company's advisory.
## Honors and awards
In 2018, [Ive](Jony)(Jony Ive), British [design](industrial)(industrial design)er and outgoing [Design Officer](Chief)(Chief Design Officer) (CDO) of [Apple](Apple Inc.), chose Sharp as the figure in technology he believes will change the future. Interviewed by Wired Magazine, Ive said about Sharp: “He understands that complex problems can be simplified and often resolved visually. Nuance and subtlety characterize his work. He doesn’t just address a functional imperative.”
Sharp was named one of the most creative people in business by Fast Company in 2014.
## Personal life
Sharp married Christina McBride in 2014. He resides in [Francisco, California](San)(San Francisco, California). According to *[Forbes](Forbes)*, he is worth an estimated $1 billion as of 2018.
## References
## External links
*[Evan Sharp](https://www.pinterest.com/sharp/) on Pinterest
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[births](Category:1982)(Category:1982 births)
[from York, Pennsylvania](Category:People)(Category:People from York, Pennsylvania)
[from San Francisco](Category:Businesspeople)(Category:Businesspeople from San Francisco)
[of Chicago alumni](Category:University)(Category:University of Chicago alumni)
[Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation alumni](Category:Columbia)(Category:Columbia Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation alumni)
[Internet company founders](Category:American)(Category:American Internet company founders)
[billionaires](Category:American)(Category:American billionaires)
[people](Category:Pinterest)(Category:Pinterest people)
|
Black Flag _band
|
black_flag__band
|
# Black Flag (band)
*Revision ID: 1159462956 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T13:35:58Z*
---
* [metal](sludge)(sludge metal)
}}
| years_active =
* 2019–present
}}
| label = [SST](SST Records)
| associated_acts =
| current_members = * [Ginn](Greg)(Greg Ginn)
* [Vallely](Mike)(Mike Vallely)
* Harley Duggan
* Charles Wiley
| past_members = * [Pettibon](Raymond)(Raymond Pettibon)
* [Morris](Keith)(Keith Morris)
* Jim "Kansas" Dearman
* ["Spot" Lockett](Glenn)(Spot (producer))
* [Reyes](Ron)(Ron Reyes)
* [Rollins](Henry)(Henry Rollins)
* [Dukowski](Chuck)(Chuck Dukowski)
* [Cadena](Dez)(Dez Cadena)
* [Migdol](Brian)(Brian Migdol)
* [Robo](Robo (musician))
* [Stevenson](Bill)(Bill Stevenson (musician))
* [Johnson](Emil)(Emil Johnson)
* [Biscuits](Chuck)(Chuck Biscuits)
* [Roessler](Kira)(Kira Roessler)
* [Martinez](Anthony)(Anthony Martinez (drummer))
* [Revuelta](C'el)(C'el Revuelta)
* [Klein](Dave)(Dave Klein (punk musician))
* Gregory Moore
* Tyler Smith
* Joseph Noval
* Isaias Gil
}}
**Black Flag** is an American [rock](punk)(punk rock) band formed in 1976 in [Beach, California](Hermosa)(Hermosa Beach, California). Initially called **Panic**, the band was established by [Ginn](Greg)(Greg Ginn), the guitarist, primary songwriter, and sole continuous member through multiple personnel changes in the band. They are widely considered to be one of the first [punk](hardcore)(hardcore punk) bands, as well as one of the pioneers of After breaking up in 1986, Black Flag reunited in 2003 and again in 2013. The second reunion lasted well over a year, during which they released their first studio album in nearly three decades, *[The...](What)(What The...)* (2013). The band announced their third reunion in January 2019.
Black Flag's sound mixed the raw simplicity of the [Ramones](Ramones) with [atonal](atonality) [solo](guitar)(guitar solo)s and, in later years, frequent [tempo](tempo) shifts. The lyrics were written mostly by Ginn, and like other punk bands of the late 1970s and early 1980s, Black Flag voiced an [anti-authoritarian](Anti-authoritarianism) and [nonconformist](Counterculture) message, in songs punctuated with descriptions of [isolation](social)(social isolation), [neurosis](neurosis), [poverty](poverty), and [paranoia](paranoia). These themes were explored further when [Rollins](Henry)(Henry Rollins) joined the band as lead singer in 1981. Most of the band's material was released on Ginn's [record label](independent)(independent record label) [Records](SST)(SST Records).
Over the course of the 1980s, Black Flag's sound, as well as their notoriety, evolved. In addition to being central to the creation of hardcore punk, they were innovators in the first wave of American West Coast punk rock and are considered a key influence on punk subculture in the United States and abroad. Along with being among the earliest punk rock groups to incorporate elements and the influence of [metal](heavy)(Heavy metal music) melodies and rhythm, there were often overt [jazz](free)(free jazz) and [classical](contemporary)(contemporary classical music) elements in their sound, especially in Ginn's guitar playing, and the band interspersed records and performances with instrumentals throughout their career. They also played longer, slower, and more complex songs at a time when other bands in their milieu performed a raw, fast, [three-chord](three-chord song) format. As a result, their extensive discography is more stylistically varied than many of their punk rock contemporaries.
Black Flag has been well-respected within the [subculture](punk)(punk subculture), primarily for their tireless promotion of an autonomous [punk ethic](DIY)(DIY punk ethic) and aesthetic. They are often regarded as pioneers in the movement of [underground](Underground music) [record labels](do-it-yourself)(independent record label) that still flourish. By way of constant touring throughout the United States and Canada, and occasionally Europe, Black Flag established a dedicated [following](cult)(cult following).
## History
### Formation and early years (1976–1981)
Initially called Panic, Black Flag was formed in 1976 in Hermosa Beach, California, located in the [Bay](South)(South Bay (Los Angeles County)) region of [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles). Ginn insisted that the band rehearse several hours a day.Grad, David. "Fade to Black". *Spin*. July 1997 This work ethic proved too challenging for some early members; Ginn and singer [Morris](Keith)(Keith Morris) had an especially difficult time finding a reliable bass guitarist and often rehearsed without a bassist, a factor that contributed to the development of Ginn's distinctive guitar sound. Ginn's brother [Pettibon](Raymond)(Raymond Pettibon) and SST house record producer-to-be [Spot](Spot (producer)) filled in during rehearsals. In the beginning, Ginn and Morris were inspired by the raw, stripped-down attitude of bands such as the [Ramones](Ramones) and [Stooges](the)(the Stooges). Ginn has said "We were influenced by the Stooges and then the Ramones; they inspired us. Keith and myself saw the Ramones when they first toured LA in 1976. After we saw them, I said if they could do it we could do it. I thought Keith would be a good singer and after seeing the Ramones, it made him think that he doesn't have to be some classical operatic singer."
[Dukowski](Chuck)(Chuck Dukowski), bassist of [Würm](Würm (band)), liked Ginn's band and eventually joined, forming a committed quartet with Ginn, Morris and drummer [Migdol](Brian)(Brian Migdol). The band held their first performance in December 1977 in [Beach, California](Redondo)(Redondo Beach, California). To avoid confusion with another band called Panic, they changed their name to Black Flag in late 1978. They played their first show under this name on January 27, 1979, at the [Lodge](Moose)(Loyal Order of Moose) Hall in Redondo Beach, California. This was the first time [Cadena](Dez)(Dez Cadena) saw the band perform.
The name was suggested by Ginn's brother, artist [Pettibon](Raymond)(Raymond Pettibon), who also designed the band's logo: a stylized black flag represented as four black bars. Pettibon stated "If a white flag means surrender, a black flag represents anarchy." Their new name was reminiscent of the [symbol](anarchist)(Anarchist symbolism), [insecticide of the same name](the)(Black Flag (insecticide)), and of the British heavy metal band [Sabbath](Black)(Black Sabbath), one of Ginn's favorite bands. Ginn suggested that he was "comfortable with *all* the implications of the name."Azerrad, Michael. *[Band Could Be Your Life: Scenes from the American Indie Underground, 1981–1991](Our)(Our Band Could Be Your Life)*. Little Brown and Company, 2001. , p. 19. The band [paint](spray)(spray paint)ed the simple, striking logo all over Los Angeles, attracting attention from both supporters and the [Angeles Police Department](Los)(Los Angeles Police Department). Pettibon also created much of their cover artwork.
There were few opportunities for [rock](punk)(punk rock) bands to perform in [California](Southern)(Southern California) (Los Angeles club [Masque](The)(The Masque) was the center of the L.A. punk scene, but was also rather parochial, and did not often admit bands from outside L.A. proper). Black Flag organized their own gigs, performing at picnics, house parties, schools; any place that was available. They called club owners themselves to arrange appearances, and plastered hundreds of flyers—usually Pettibon's severe, haunting [strip](comic)(comic strip) style panels—on any available surface to publicize performances. Dukowski reported that the "minimum [of flyers](number) that went out was 500 for a show."
Though Ginn was the band's leader, he was more quiet than Dukowski, whose intelligent, fast-talking, high-energy persona attracted significant attention, and he often served as Black Flag's spokesman to the press. Dukowski acted as the group's tour manager even after he no longer performed with them, and helped establish the band's [punk ethic](DIY)(DIY punk ethic) and demanding work ethic. Dukowski's bass guitar was a vital part of the early Black Flag sound; "[Party](TV)(TV Party (EP))", for instance, was one of many songs "driven more by Chuck Dukowski's percolating bass line than Ginn's stun-gun guitar." | access-date = May 27, 2006 }}
Morris performed as vocalist on Black Flag's earliest recordings, and his energized, manic stage presence was pivotal in the band earning a reputation in Southern California. Migdol was replaced by the enigmatic Colombian drummer [Robo](Robo (musician)), whose numerous clicking metallic bracelets became part of his drum sound. The band played with a speed and ferocity that was all but unprecedented in rock music; critic [Robbins](Ira)(Ira Robbins) declared that "Black Flag was, for all intents and purposes, America's first hardcore band." Morris quit in 1979, citing, among other reasons, creative differences with Ginn, and his own "freaking out on [cocaine](cocaine) and speed." Morris would subsequently form the [Jerks](Circle)(Circle Jerks).
After Morris's departure, Black Flag recruited fan [Reyes](Ron)(Ron Reyes) as singer. With Reyes, Black Flag recorded the *[Again](Jealous)(Jealous Again)* 12-inch EP and appeared in the film *[Decline of Western Civilization](The)(The Decline of Western Civilization)*. This was also the line-up that toured up and down the West Coast for the first time, the version most fans outside of L.A. first saw.
In 1980, Reyes quit Black Flag mid-performance at the Fleetwood in [Beach](Redondo)(Redondo Beach, California) because of escalating violence. For the remainder of that gig, the band played an extended version of "[Louie](Louie)(Louie Louie)" and invited audience members to take turns singing.
The more reliable [Cadena](Dez)(Dez Cadena) – another fan – then joined as a vocalist. With Cadena on board, Black Flag began national touring in earnest, and arguably saw two peaks: first as a commercial draw (they sold out the 3,500-seat [Monica](Santa)(Santa Monica) Civic Auditorium, a feat they were never able to manage again); and second, perhaps seeing the peak of attention from police in the Los Angeles area, due to the violence associated with Black Flag and punk rock in general. The band members have often insisted, however, that the police instigated far more problems than they solved.
By the summer of 1981, however, Cadena's voice was worn. He had no formal training or previous experience as a singer, and had severely strained his voice during Black Flag's nonstop touring, and he wanted to play guitar rather than perform vocals.
### Rollins era (1981–1985)
[[Rollins of Black Flag, 1983.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Henry Rollins performing in 1983](file:Henry)]
Twenty-year-old fan [Rollins](Henry)(Henry Rollins) (birth name Henry Garfield) was then living in Washington, D.C., and singing for hardcore band [of Alert](State)(State of Alert) (S.O.A.). S.O.A. drummer Ivor Hanson had a father who was a top [admiral](admiral) in the [Navy](US)(US Navy), and his family shared living quarters with the [president of the United States](vice)(vice president of the United States) in the [States Naval Observatory](United)(United States Naval Observatory). The band held their practices there, and would have to be let in by [States Secret Service](United)(United States Secret Service) agents.
S.O.A. had corresponded with Black Flag, and met them when they performed on the U.S. east coast. At an impromptu show at A7 in [York City](New)(New York City), Rollins had asked the band to perform "Clocked In", and the band offered to let him sing. Since vocalist Dez Cadena was switching to guitar, the band then invited Rollins to audition. Impressed by his stage demeanor, they asked him to become their permanent vocalist.*American Hardcore*. Dir. Paul Rachman. AHC Productions LLC, 2006. Film. Despite some doubts, he accepted, due in part to [MacKaye](Ian)(Ian MacKaye)'s encouragement. Rollins acted as [roadie](roadie) for the remainder of the tour while learning Black Flag's songs during sound checks and encores, while Cadena crafted guitar parts that meshed with Ginn's. Rollins also impressed Black Flag with his broad musical interests during an era when punk rock music and fans were increasingly factionalized; he introduced Black Flag to Washington D.C.'s [go-go](go-go), a distinctive take on [music](funk)(funk music).
Rollins was Black Flag's longest-lasting vocalist. When he joined Black Flag, he brought a different attitude and perspective than previous singers. Some earlier songs, such as "[Pack](Six)(Six Pack (EP))" (a song written about original singer Keith Morris) blended a sense of black humor with driving punk rock. Rollins was an intense performer, who usually appeared onstage wearing only shorts. Ginn once stated that after Rollins joined, "We couldn't do songs with a sense of humor anymore; he got into the serious way-out poet thing."
With Rollins, Black Flag began work on their first full-length album. The sessions for the album (chronicled in [Azerrad](Michael)(Michael Azerrad)'s book *[Band Could Be Your Life](Our)(Our Band Could Be Your Life)*) were a source of conflict between the band and engineer/producer [Spot](Spot (producer)), who had worked with the band and the [SST](SST Records) label since their early years. Spot had already recorded many of the *[Damaged](Damaged (Black Flag album))* tracks with Dez Cadena on vocals (as well as Keith Morris and Ron Reyes) and felt that the band's sound was ruined with the two guitar line-up (these versions can be heard on the albums *[Went Black](Everything)(Everything Went Black)* and *[First Four Years](The)(The First Four Years)*). Whereas the earlier four-piece versions are more focused and much cleaner sounding, the *Damaged* recordings are more akin to a live recording, with little stereo separation of guitars, and somewhat muddy. When asked about the lo-fidelity production, Spot has said "They *wanted* it to sound that way." However, the artistic content and expression on the album showed the band pushing punk or hardcore music to a new level, with deeply personal and intensely emotional lyrics. As such, *Damaged* is generally regarded as Black Flag's most focused recording. One critic has written that *Damaged* was "perhaps the best album to emerge from the quagmire that was early-'80s California [punk](Punk rock) ... the visceral, intensely physical presence of *Damaged* has yet to be equaled, although many bands have tried." *Damaged* was released in 1981, and the group began an extensive tour in support of it, forging an independent network for touring independent music acts that would form a cornerstone of the independent music scene for the decade to come.
The previous year 1980 saw the U.S. punk rock movement hitting a peak in popularity. With *Damaged* and their growing reputation as an impressive live band, Black Flag seemed poised on the cusp of a commercial breakthrough. The record was to be distributed by now-defunct Unicorn Records, a subsidiary of [MCA](MCA Records). Trouble began when MCA refused to handle *Damaged* after MCA executive Al Bergamo determined the album was an "Anti-Parent" record. However, according to longtime SST employee [Carducci](Joe)(Joe Carducci)Carducci, Joe, *Rock & the Pop Narcotic*; [Publications](2.13.61)(2.13.61), 1995, the "Anti-Parent" statement was not the real reason for MCA's refusing to distribute *Damaged*; Carducci reported that Unicorn Records was so poorly managed and so deeply in debt that MCA stood to lose money by distributing the album, regardless of its content. This was the beginning of a legal dispute that would, for several years, disallow Black Flag from using their own name on any record after *Damaged* was released on [Records](SST)(SST Records) and a copy of the "Anti-Parent" statement was placed on the album's cover.
With their new singer, Black Flag and [Minutemen](the)(Minutemen (band)) made their first tour of the UK through late 1981 and early 1982. During that tour, the band met punk icon [Hell](Richard)(Richard Hell) and opened a concert for him. Rollins later published his diaries from that tour in his book *[in the Van](Get)(Get in the Van)*. As the front man, Rollins was a frequent target of violent audience members, and started getting involved in fist-fights. Rollins developed a distinct showmanship on stage, where he could entertain an audience just by talking to them. The rest of the band were targets too, with Greg Ginn getting hit by a bullet shell while playing in [Bay](Colwyn)(Colwyn Bay).[http://link2wales.com/1982/crudblog/black-flag-play-colwyn-bay/]
As Black Flag was about to return home, UK customs detained Colombian drummer Robo due to visa problems, and he was not able to return with the rest of the band. This would be the end of his tenure with the band (he was able to eventually re-enter the United States in mid-1982, at which point he would promptly join the [Misfits](Misfits (band)) as one of that band's last drummers before its 1983 breakup). The loss of Robo put an end to extensive touring for a while. [Johnson](Emil)(Emil Johnson) of Twisted Roots filled in for one tour, but it was clear he was only temporary.
While on that tour in Vancouver, the band found out that drummer [Biscuits](Chuck)(Chuck Biscuits) was leaving [D.O.A.](D.O.A. (band)) He was quickly drafted on board, traveling with the band for the rest of the tour (cut short because of Henry Rollins' injured knee) to learn the songs. This lineup recorded the later-bootlegged cassette *[Demos](1982)(1982 Demos)*, showing the direction the band would go in for the *[War](My)(My War)* album.
However, due to personality conflicts—in *Get in the Van*, Rollins described Biscuits as a "fuck up"—and the Unicorn court injunction-forced inactivity of Black Flag, Biscuits left to join their rivals the Circle Jerks. (Later, Biscuits joined ex-Misfits singer Glenn Danzig's solo project [Danzig](Danzig (band))). Black Flag eventually got [Stevenson](Bill)(Bill Stevenson (musician)) of [Descendents](Descendents) to join permanently (he had filled in from time-to-time before). While the Unicorn Records court injunction prevented the group from releasing a new studio album, they nonetheless continued to work on new material, and embarked on a period which would mark a pronounced change in the group's direction (and that of underground music in general).
It is possible that the violence of the previous tour had an effect on the band's direction. The band had also become increasingly interested in music other than punk rock, such as [Jimi Hendrix Experience](the)(the Jimi Hendrix Experience), and some of the members (particularly Ginn) used [cannabis](cannabis (drug)). (However, various members had been fans of such music long before Black Flag, with Ginn being an avid [Dead](Grateful)(Grateful Dead) fan, and Cadena a fan of [Hawkwind](Hawkwind).) Newer material (which can be heard on the *[Demos](1982)(1982 Demos)* bootleg) was slower and less like typical punk music, with classic rock and blues influences seeping in. Cadena left in April 1983 to form his own band [DC3](DC3 (band)). He would take some of the new songs he had written for Black Flag with him and record them for DC3's debut album.
Additionally, by late 1983, Dukowski had retired from performing with Black Flag (some accounts report he was "edged out" by Ginn); Azerrad reports that Ginn was dissatisfied with Dukowski's failure to progress as an instrumentalist, and made things difficult for Dukowski in an attempt to make him quit, but in the end, Rollins took it on himself to fire Dukowski.Azerrad, 41. However, a few of Dukowski's songs were featured on later albums, and he continued acting in his capacity as tour manager.
1983 found Black Flag with fresh songs and a new direction, but without a bass player, and embroiled in a legal dispute over distribution due to SST's issuing *Damaged* (Ginn argued that since MCA was no longer involved, the Unicorn deal was not legally binding, while Unicorn disagreed and sued SST and Black Flag). Until the matter was sorted out, the band were prevented by a court [injunction](injunction) from using the name "Black Flag" on any recordings. They released a compilation record, *Everything Went Black*, which was credited to the individual musicians, not "Black Flag". In fact, wherever the original album artwork had the words "Black Flag", they had been covered up with small slips of paper, thus adhering to the letter of the law.
After Unicorn Records declared bankruptcy, Black Flag were released from the injunction, and returned with a vengeance, starting with the release of *[War](My)(My War)*. The album was both a continuation of *Damaged*, and a vast leap forward. While the general mood and lyrics continue in the confrontational and emotional tone of *Damaged*, the album would prove influential to [grunge](grunge) music as the decade progressed. Lacking a bass player, Ginn played bass guitar, using the pseudonym Dale Nixon. On the May 1, 2007 episode of his radio program *Harmony in My Head*, Rollins reported that one of Ginn's favorite albums during this era was [Orchestra](Mahavishnu)(Mahavishnu Orchestra)'s *[of Fire](Birds)(Birds of Fire)* (1973), and opined that [McLaughlin](John)(John McLaughlin (musician))'s guitar work influenced Ginn.
Freed legally to release albums, Black Flag was re-energized and ready to continue full steam ahead. The band recruited bassist [Roessler](Kira)(Kira Roessler) (sister of punk keyboardist [Roessler](Paul)(Paul Roessler), of [Grave](45)(45 Grave)) to replace Dukowski, and began its most prolific period. With Roessler, Black Flag had arguably found their best bassist. Dukowski was a powerful player, but Roessler brought a level of sophistication and finesse to match Ginn's increasingly ambitious music, without sacrificing any of the visceral impact required for punk rock.
1984 saw Black Flag (and the SST label) at their most ambitious. This year they would release three full-length albums, and toured nearly constantly, with Rollins noting 178 performances for the year, and about that many for 1985. With Dukowski gone, Ginn ceded much of the spotlight to Rollins, who had expressed some discomfortsee the track "Henry" from the spoken word compilation double album "English As a Second Language" (1984) over being the group's *de facto* spokesman, while Ginn was the recognized leader (Ginn wrote the majority of the group's songs and lyrics).
With Roessler on board, Black Flag began earnest experimentation, sometimes to critical and audience disdain: One critic writes that *Slip It In* "blurs the line between moronic punk and moronic metal"; another writes *My War* is "a pretentious mess of a record with a totally worthless second side." | access-date = May 27, 2006 }} Rollins reports that Black Flag's set-lists in this era rarely included older crowd favorites like "Six Pack" or "Nervous Breakdown", and that audiences were often irritated by the new, slower Black Flag. Violence against the band (and especially Rollins) was ever-present, although the vocalist was now an avid weight lifter, and more than able to defend himself. Furthermore, to Rollins' chagrin, Ginn's interest in marijuana steadily increased; as Rollins put it, "By '86 it was 'Cannot separate the man from his Anvil case with a big-ass stash.'"Azerrad, 58. Despite the initial resistance to the new music and quasi-psychedelic direction, *My War* would later be cited as a formative influence on the grunge, stoner and sludge metal genres. The band would continue to evolve toward a more heavy metal sound, with 1985's *[Nut](Loose)(Loose Nut)* featuring more polished production.
### Later period and break up (1985–1986)
Despite 1984–85 being the most fruitful period for the band and their record label, Ginn and Rollins would ultimately decide to eject Roessler from Black Flag, citing erratic behavior. It has also been suggested that Ginn's accommodating Roessler's college schedule created tension in the band. Her absence, and the lack of a steady drummer (Stevenson quit and was replaced by [Martinez](Anthony)(Anthony Martinez (drummer))), contributed to the comparatively weak reputation of the last few Black Flag tours.
By 1986, Black Flag's members had grown tired of the tensions of their relentless touring schedule, infighting, and of living in near-poverty. The band had been together almost a decade, and true commercial success and stability had eluded them. The band's erratic artistic changes were a barrier to their retaining an audience – Ginn was so creatively restless that Black Flag's albums were often very dissimilar. At one point, Rollins apparently said, "Why don't we make a record that was like the last one so people won't always be trying to catch up with what we're doing?"Azerrad, 59. The next album, *[My Head](In)(In My Head (album))*, with its powerful bluesy proto-grunge-metal, did seem to finally be a cohesive follow-up to their previous album *Loose Nut*, but it would be their last.
Black Flag played its final show on June 27, 1986, in [Michigan](Detroit,)(Detroit). In his book *Get in the Van*, Rollins wrote that Ginn telephoned him in August 1986: "He told me he was quitting the band. I thought that was strange considering it was his band and all. So in one short phone call, it was all over."
### Post-Black Flag and reunions (1987–2012)
Since Black Flag's break-up, Rollins has had the most visible public profile as a musician, writer, and actor. Most Black Flag members have also remained active in music, especially Ginn, who continued playing with bands such as [Gone](Gone (band)), [Faction](October)(October Faction (band)), Screw Radio, and [Stevenson](Bill Stevenson (musician)), who continued on with the [Descendents](Descendents), [All](All (band)), [Crime](Only)(Only Crime), and the reformed [Lemonheads](The Lemonheads). Kira Roessler continues to record and perform with the band [dos](dos (band)), a duet with former husband and one time [Minutemen](Minutemen (band)) bassist [Watt](Mike)(Mike Watt).
In September 2003, Black Flag played three reunion shows, two at the [Palladium](Hollywood)(Hollywood Palladium) and one at Alex's Bar in [Beach, California](Long)(Long Beach, California), to benefit cat rescue organizations (a current passion of Ginn's). The line-up for the shows was [Cadena](Dez)(Dez Cadena) on vocals and guitar, [Ginn](Greg)(Greg Ginn) on guitar, [Robo](Robo (musician)) on drums, and [Revuelta](C'el)(C'el Revuelta) on bass. Professional skateboarder and singer [Vallely](Mike)(Mike Vallely) also sang all the songs from *[War](My)(My War)* at these shows while [Moore](Gregory)(Gone (band)) was on drums for the My War set.
[[Flag 2011-12-18 02.JPG|thumb|260px|Black Flag in 2011](file:Black)]
On July 24, 2010, in celebration of [Reyes](Ron)(Ron Reyes)'s 50th birthday, Greg Ginn and Reyes played a set of three Black Flag songs together in addition to his own set with the Ron Reyes Band.
On December 18, 2011, Keith Morris, Chuck Dukowski, Bill Stevenson, and the Descendents' Stephen Egerton played the *Nervous Breakdown* EP in its entirety for the Goldenvoice 30th anniversary show called GV 30. This surprise gig at the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium took place between sets by the Vandals and the Descendents.
### Official reformation, Flag, *What The...*, and trademark infringement suit (2013–present)
On January 25, 2013, it was announced that guitarist Greg Ginn and vocalist Ron Reyes would reform Black Flag, joined by Gregory Moore on drums, and 'Dale Nixon' on bass (Dale Nixon is a pseudonym sometimes used by Ginn, most prominently as the bassist on *My War*). The band would tour as well as release a new album, their first since 1985's *[My Head](In)(In My Head (album))*. In March, it was announced that [Weasel](Screeching)(Screeching Weasel) bassist Dave Klein had joined the band. On May 2, 2013, the band released a new song entitled "Down in the Dirt" through their website. After releasing two more singles ("The Chase" and "Wallow in Despair"), *[The...](What)(What The...)* was released on December 3, and was poorly received by critics and fans.
Around the same time, it was announced that the lineup that played at GV 30, Morris, Dukowski, Stevenson and Egerton, would tour performing Black Flag songs, under the name Flag. It was later announced that the lineup would be joined by Dez Cadena.
On August 2, 2013, SST Records and Greg Ginn brought a trademark infringement action in Los Angeles federal court against Morris, Dukowski, Stevenson, Cadena, and Egerton, with regard to their use of the name Black Flag and the Black Flag logo on the 2013 Flag tour. In the same action, SST and Ginn also sued Henry Rollins and Keith Morris to oppose and cancel the trademark applications filed in September 2012 by Rollins and Morris. SST and Ginn alleged that Rollins and Morris lied to the Patent and Trademark Office on their trademark applications regarding claimed use of the Black Flag name and logo by Rollins and Morris on records, T-shirts, and with regard to live performances.
In October 2013, a federal judge denied the motion for a preliminary injunction, brought by Ginn and SST against Morris, Dukowski, Stevenson, Cadena, and Egerton. The court ruled that it was possible that the logo had fallen into "generic use", but did not rule specifically that it had done so. The court also ruled that Ginn and SST could not prevent the use of the band name "Flag", as it was likely that fans would know the difference between the two acts, because of widespread publicity.[Black Flag star loses battle to keep name](http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/music/posts/la-et-ms-court-rules-against-greg-ginn-in-black-flag-lawsuit-20131011,0,4793900.story) . *LA Times*. 14 October 2013.
[[Flag - 2019.jpg|alt=Black Flag (Greg Ginn, Mike Vallely, Tyler Smith, Isaias Gil) Denver, CO 2019|thumb|250x250px|Greg Ginn, Mike Vallely, Tyler Smith, and Isaias Gil performing in Denver, Colorado, 2019](File:Black)]
During a show in November 2013 on Black Flag's Australian tour, pro skater and band manager Mike Vallely, who previously sang with the band in 2003, came on stage, took Reyes' microphone, ousted him from Black Flag and sang the band's last two songs. Reyes said he was relieved to be removed from the band, citing difficulties working with Ginn. In January 2014, Vallely was named the band's new lead singer. Vallely apologized for the band's antics in 2013 and revealed that the band had begun working on material for a new album with a tour to tentatively begin in May. Shortly after the announcement, Dave Klein announced he too was leaving the band. In 2014, Ginn filled out the line up with adding new members Tyler Smith on bass, and Brandon Pertzborn on drums. They embarked upon the Victimology Tour, bringing along Ginn's own HOR and Brooklyn band Cinema Cinema, as openers.
On January 28, 2019, it was announced that Black Flag would play their first show in five years at the Sabroso Craft Beer, Taco & Music Festival in [Point, California](Dana)(Dana Point, California) on April 7. The show would be the start of a U.S. tour. The band's first U.K. tour in 35 years was set to follow in October. The new lineup consisted of Greg Ginn on guitar, Mike Vallely on vocals, Tyler Smith on bass, and Isaias Gil on drums.
On December 10, 2022, Black Flag announced that they would be touring North America, in which they will be performing their second studio album, *My War*, in its entirety.
## Style and legacy
Black Flag are primarily a [punk](hardcore)(hardcore punk) band and are considered to be one of the first [punk](hardcore)(hardcore punk) bands. According to Ryan Cooper of [About.com](About.com) and author Doyle Greene, Black Flag is one of the pioneers of the genre for the [experimental](experimental music) style they later started playing. Black Flag experimented with a [metal](sludge)(sludge metal) sound on their album *[War](My)(My War)*. Black Flag also have used elements of styles such as [jazz](jazz), [blues](blues), [word](spoken)(spoken word), [metal](heavy)(heavy metal music), songs are slow and dense and complex. In short: They're metal.}} [rock](blues)(blues rock), [jazz](free)(free jazz), [rock](math)(math rock)Steven Blush, *American Hardcore: A Tribal History*, "Thirsty and Miserable", Los Angeles: Feral House, 2001, p. 66 and .
Throughout their ten-year career as a band, Black Flag's experiences became legendary, especially in the Southern California area. Much of the band's history is chronicled in Henry Rollins' own published tour diary *[in the Van](Get)(Get in the Van)*. Black Flag were reportedly blacklisted by the [LAPD](Los Angeles Police Department) and Hollywood rock clubs because of the destructiveness of their fans, though Rollins has claimed that police caused far more problems than they solved.
SST Records, an independent American record label that was initially founded to release Black Flag's debut single, released recordings by influential bands such as [Brains](Bad)(Bad Brains), [Minutemen](Minutemen (band)), [Descendents](Descendents), [Puppets](Meat)(Meat Puppets), and [Dü](Hüsker)(Hüsker Dü). As well, SST released some albums by [Negativland](Negativland), [Soundgarden](Soundgarden), [Youth](Sonic)(Sonic Youth), and [Vitus](Saint)(Saint Vitus (band)).
SST was founded in 1966 by Greg as Solid State Transmitters – later rebranded to release Black Flag albums.
[[File:Shephard Fairey Graffiti Henry Rollins.jpg|thumb|Henry Rollins graffiti in [Park, New Jersey](Asbury)(Asbury Park, New Jersey), by [Fairey](Shepard)(Shepard Fairey)]]
Black Flag's career is chronicled in *[Band Could Be Your Life](Our)(Our Band Could Be Your Life)*, a study of several important American [rock](underground)(underground rock) bands. Many members of the [grunge](grunge) scene cited Black Flag's *[War](My)(My War)* album as being influential in their departure from the standard punk model. [Turner](Steve)(Steve Turner (guitarist)) of [Mudhoney](Mudhoney) stated in an interview, "A lot of other people around the country hated the fact that Black Flag slowed down ... but up here it was really great – we were like 'Yay!' They were weird and fucked-up sounding."Azerrad, 419.
Kurt Cobain listed both *My War* and *[Damaged](Damaged (Black Flag album))* in his top 50 albums in his journal in 1993. [Hanneman](Jeff)(Jeff Hanneman) and [Lombardo](Dave)(Dave Lombardo), both known for their work with [Slayer](Slayer), mentioned Black Flag among their influences. [Hot Chili Peppers](Red)(Red Hot Chili Peppers) bassist Flea has a Black Flag decal on one of his signature [Modulus](Modulus Guitars) bass guitars, and guitarist [Frusciante](John)(John Frusciante) has cited Greg Ginn as one of his early influences as a guitar player. British acoustic artist and punk rocker [Turner](Frank)(Frank Turner) has a Black Flag icon tattoo on his wrist and cites the band as one of his primary inspirations, particularly in regards to their work ethic. With [Dead](Million)(Million Dead), if anything went wrong with their tour, Turner said they would "Think Black Flag". Vocalist [James Keenan](Maynard)(Maynard James Keenan) of the bands [Tool](Tool (band)) and [Perfect Circle](A)(A Perfect Circle), has described seeing Black Flag perform in 1986 as a young punk rocker in [Rapids, Michigan](Grand)(Grand Rapids, Michigan), as a "revelatory and life-changing" experience. A Perfect Circle also covered the Black Flag song "Gimmie Gimmie Gimmie" on their [*Emotive*](Emotive (album)) album. Punk band [Against](Rise)(Rise Against) portrayed Black Flag in the 2005 *[of Dogtown](Lords)(Lords of Dogtown)* film, and their cover of "Nervous Breakdown" is on the *Lords of Dogtown* soundtrack. Rise Against also does a cover of the Black Flag song "Fix Me" in the video game ''[Hawk's American Wasteland](Tony)(Tony Hawk's American Wasteland)*. [Records](Initial)(Initial Records) released a Black Flag cover album in 2002 (re-released with additional tracks in 2006 by ReIgnition Recordings), *[on Black: A Tribute to Black Flag](Black)(Black on Black: A Tribute to Black Flag)''. The compilation features 15 hardcore and metalcore bands – including [Precious Blood](Most)(Most Precious Blood (band)), [Converge](Converge (band)), [Dillinger Escape Plan](The)(The Dillinger Escape Plan), [Nightmare](American)(Give Up the Ghost (band)), [Drowningman](Drowningman), and [Coalesce](Coalesce (band)).|work=Allmusic|access-date=December 11, 2010}} [Me the Horizon](Bring)(Bring Me the Horizon) frontman [Sykes](Oliver)(Oliver Sykes) also mentioned Black Flag as one of his biggest influences. Sykes has also had the tattoo of Black Flag logo showing the love for the band. [American](United States) [rock](alternative)(alternative rock) band [Chemical Romance](My)(My Chemical Romance) has also stated that the band has been heavily influenced by Black Flag.
## Iconography
[[File:Black Flag logo.svg|thumb|200px|right|The band's name and logo were given by artist [Pettibon](Raymond)(Raymond Pettibon) to symbolize their themes of rebellion and anarchy. As the band gained popularity the logo was [graffiti](graffiti)ed in and around Los Angeles, drawing the attention of the police to the band's activities.Azerrad, 21.]]Black Flag's visual imagery and artwork complemented the themes found in the band's music. Greg Ginn's brother Raymond Ginn, under the pseudonym [Pettibon](Raymond)(Raymond Pettibon), created the artwork for all of the band's studio releases with the exceptions of *[Damaged](Damaged (Black Flag album))* and the "[Party](TV)(TV Party (EP))" single, as well as providing artwork for the band members to transform into merchandise and gig [flyers](flyer (pamphlet)).Azerrad, 51. When the band found it necessary to change their name from Panic in 1978, it was Pettibon who suggested the new name Black Flag and designed their iconic logo: four vertical black rectangles comprising a stylized rippling black flag. The logo evoked a number of meanings: it was the polar opposite of a [flag](white)(white flag) of surrender, as well as a symbol for [anarchism](anarchism) and a traditional emblem of [pirates](piracy).Azerrad, 19. At the same time, Rollins disavowed the claim that the logo represented anarchy, stating in a 1985 interview that it means "Anything that you want it to. I guess it's the opposite of the white flag too, which is the flag of surrender. A lot of people think that it means 'Anarchy' but it doesn't."
As the band gained popularity the logo was [graffiti](graffiti)ed on numerous highway [overpass](overpass)es and other public and private surfaces in and around Los Angeles, drawing the attention of the authorities and contributing to an increase in police presence at Black Flag shows.
Pettibon's artwork for the band's albums and flyers was equally stark and confrontational. He typically worked in one panel using only [and ink](pen)(pen and ink), so the message conveyed had to be direct and powerful due to lack of space and color. According to [Azerrad](Michael)(Michael Azerrad) in *[Band Could Be Your Life](Our)(Our Band Could Be Your Life)*, the artwork "was a perfect visual analogue to the music it promoted – gritty, stark, violent, smart, provocative, and utterly American." It also provided a cerebral aspect to the band's image: as the mainstream media caricatured Black Flag as a mindlessly aggressive act, the pairing of their music with high-concept artwork hinted at a greater intelligence at work that was unknown to outsiders.
[Rollins](Henry)(Henry Rollins), in his journal collection *[in the Van](Get)(Get in the Van)*, notes that Pettibon's artwork became synonymous with Black Flag and that before Rollins joined the band he would collect photocopies of their flyers that had circulated from California to Washington, D.C.Rollins, *Get in the Van*, 3. The album cover for *[Breakdown](Nervous)(Nervous Breakdown (EP))* had a particularly strong impact on Rollins: "The record's cover art said it all. A man with his back to the wall baring his fists. In front of him another man fending him off with a chair. I felt like the guy with his fists up every day of my life."Rollins, *Get in the Van*, 9. [[Flag Police Story sticker.jpg|thumb|left|Pettibon's drawing of a police officer being held at gunpoint was used on flyers and merchandise promoting the "Police Story" single. The speech blurb reads "Make me come, faggot!" The text to the left reads "Art: Chuck Higby", a pseudonym.](File:Black)] Another image which drew considerable attention was the artwork created for the "Police Story" single, showing a police officer being held with a gun in his mouth with the speech blurb "Make me come, faggot!" The image was plastered on flyers all around Los Angeles and added to the police pressure on the band. Pettibon later remarked that "my values are relativistic, and I'll give a cop the benefit of the doubt. If that's me with my [gat](gun) – my gat's larger than the one depicted – we can have a discussion, and he can answer me just as well with my [.357](.357 Magnum) barrel in his mouth, or on his cheek, or on his [adenoid](adenoid)s, or down his throat. I'll listen to his whimpering cries."
After joining the band Rollins would sometimes watch Pettibon draw, admiring his work ethic and the fact that he did not make telephone calls or sit for interviews.Rollins, *Get in the Van*, 173. The drawings themselves rarely bore a direct connection to the music or its lyrical themes. Pettibon himself recalls that:
}}
Pettibon also sold [pamphlet](pamphlet) books of his work through [SST](SST Records), with titles such as *Tripping Corpse*, *New Wave of Violence*, and *The Bible, the Bottle, and the Bomb*, and did artwork for other SST acts such as [Minutemen](Minutemen (band)).
In order to adapt Pettibon's artwork to meet the layout requirements of their albums and flyers, the members of Black Flag would alter it by cutting and pasting and adding their name, logo, and gig details to it. They would then make photocopies and put up dozens of flyers to promote their shows. Rollins recalls going out on a flyering mission with roadie Mugger in 1981 in which the pair would put a layer of [paste](adhesive) onto a [pole](telephone)(utility pole), stick up the flyer, and then cover it with an additional coat of paste so that it would last for up to a year. The band members and their crew would do this for miles around, using dozens of flyers to promote a single performance.Rollins, *Get in the Van*, 21. Pettibon, however, did not always appreciate the band's treatment of his art, which he provided to them largely for free.Azerrad, 54. "To me my work was the equivalent of a band like Black Flag or any other band who was righteously self-protective of recordings. I would give them original art and it would come back to me scrawled upon and taped over or [out](whited)(correction fluid), and I'd always ask nicely, 'Could you please make a copy of this first and then do that?' Their master tapes were deemed sacrosanct, while my work was seen as completely disposable, but I'm not venting or complaining, just stating fact." Pettibon also felt pigeonholed by his association with the band, and had a falling out with them in 1985 over artwork used on the cover of the *[Nut](Loose)(Loose Nut)* album, which had been used for a flyer several years earlier. Ginn resurrected it without telling his brother and turned it over to drummer [Stevenson](Bill)(Bill Stevenson (musician)) to do the layout, who cut it into pieces and used them as elements for the cover and lyric sheet. Pettibon became irate and he and Ginn stopped speaking for some time, although his artwork continued to be used for the remainder of the band's career.
## Members
* [Ginn](Greg)(Greg Ginn) – guitars (1976–1986, 2003, 2013–2014, 2019–present)
* [Vallely](Mike)(Mike Vallely) – vocals (2003, 2013–2014, 2019–present)
* Harley Duggan – bass (2022–present)
* Charles Wiley – drums (2022–present)
### Former members
* [Morris](Keith)(Keith Morris) – vocals (1976–1979)
* [Pettibon](Raymond)(Raymond Pettibon) – bass (1976)
* Jim "Kansas" Dearman – bass (1977)
* Bryan Migdol – drums (1977–1978)
* ["Spot" Lockett](Glen)(Spot (producer)) – bass (1977; died in 2023)
* [Dukowski](Chuck)(Chuck Dukowski) – bass (1977–1983)
* ["ROBO" Valverde](Roberto)(Robo (musician)) – drums (1978–1981, 2003)
* [Reyes](Ron)(Ron Reyes) – vocals (1979–1980, 2013)
* [Cadena](Dez)(Dez Cadena) – vocals (1980–1981, 2003), rhythm guitar (1981–1983, 2003)
* [Rollins](Henry)(Henry Rollins) – vocals (1981–1986)
* [Johnson](Emil)(Emil Johnson) – drums (1982)
* [Biscuits](Chuck)(Chuck Biscuits) – drums (1982)
* [Stevenson](Bill)(Bill Stevenson (musician)) – drums (1982–1985)
* [Roessler](Kira)(Kira Roessler) – bass (1983–1985)
* [Martinez](Anthony)(Anthony Martinez (drummer)) – drums (1985–1986)
* [Revuelta](C'el)(C'el Revuelta) – bass (1985–1986, 2003; died in 2017)
* [Moore](Gregory)(List of Black Flag band members#Gregory Moore) – drums (2003, 2013–2014)
* [Klein](Dave)(Dave Klein (punk musician)) – bass (2013–2014)
* Tyler Smith – bass (2014)
* Joseph Noval – bass (2019–2022)
* Isaias Gil – drums (2019–2022)
## Discography
**Studio albums**
* *[Damaged](Damaged (Black Flag album))* (1981)
* *[War](My)(My War)* (1984)
* *[Man](Family)(Family Man (Black Flag album))* (1984)
* *[It In](Slip)(Slip It In)* (1984)
* *[Nut](Loose)(Loose Nut)* (1985)
* *[My Head](In)(In My Head (album))* (1985)
* *[The...](What)(What The...)* (2013)
## Videography
* *The Art of Punk – Black Flag* (The Museum of Contemporary Art) (2013) – Documentary featuring the art of Raymond Pettibon.
## Tribute compilations
* *Back On Black* (A Tribute To Black Flag) ([Initial](Initial Records)) (2003)
* [Above: 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three](Rise)(Rise Above: 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three) (2002)
## References
### Citations
### Bibliography
*
*
*
*
## External links
*
*
* [Suburban Voice Interview](https://web.archive.org/web/20061106054925/http://www.operationphoenixrecords.com/suburbanvoiceblackflag.html) – Black Flag interview from 1984
* [Flipside Interview](https://web.archive.org/web/20061106054533/http://www.operationphoenixrecords.com/flipsideblackflag.html) – Black Flag interview from 1980
* [1984 Article and Photos, bLATCH zine](https://archive.org/details/BlatchNumber10NormanOK/page/n3)
* [FLAG Official Facebook Page](https://www.facebook.com/flagband)
[ ](Category:Black Flag (band))
[punk groups from California](Category:Hardcore)(Category:Hardcore punk groups from California)
[post-hardcore musical groups](Category:American)(Category:American post-hardcore musical groups)
[groups from Los Angeles](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups from Los Angeles)
[groups established in 1976](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups established in 1976)
[groups disestablished in 1986](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1986)
[groups reestablished in 2003](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2003)
[groups disestablished in 2003](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2003)
[groups reestablished in 2013](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2013)
[groups disestablished in 2014](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2014)
[groups reestablished in 2019](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2019)
[Records artists](Category:SST)(Category:SST Records artists)
[establishments in California](Category:1976)(Category:1976 establishments in California)
[Tentacles artists](Category:Alternative)(Category:Alternative Tentacles artists)
[Beach, California](Category:Hermosa)(Category:Hermosa Beach, California)
|
Markdown
|
markdown
|
# Markdown
*Revision ID: 1159574188 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T06:00:37Z*
---
| _nomimecode = on
| mime = text/markdown
| type code =
| uniform type = net.daringfireball.markdown
| conforms to =
| magic =
| owner = [Gruber](John)(John Gruber)
| released =
| latest release version = 1.0.1
| latest release date =
| genre = [language](Markup)(Markup language)
| container for =
| contained by =
| extended from =
| extended to = [pandoc](pandoc), [MultiMarkdown](MultiMarkdown), [Extra](Markdown)(Markdown Extra), [CommonMark](#Standardization), [RMarkdown](RMarkdown)
| standard =
| standards =
| type = [file format](Open)(Open file format)
| url =
}}
**Markdown** is a [markup language](lightweight)(lightweight markup language) for creating [text](formatted)(formatted text) using a [editor](plain-text)(text editor). [Gruber](John)(John Gruber) created Markdown in 2004 as a [language](markup)(markup language) that is appealing to human readers in its source code form. Markdown is widely used in [blog](blog)ging, [messaging](instant)(instant messaging), [forums](online)(online forums), [software](collaborative)(collaborative software), [documentation](documentation) pages, and [files](readme)(README).
The initial description of Markdown contained ambiguities and raised unanswered questions, causing implementations to both intentionally and accidentally diverge from the original version. This was addressed in 2014, when long-standing Markdown contributors released [CommonMark](#Standardization), an unambiguous specification and test suite for Markdown.
## History
Markdown was inspired by pre-existing [conventions](Convention (norm)) for marking up [text](plain)(plain text) in [email](email) and [usenet](usenet) posts, such as the earlier markup languages [setext](setext) *(c. 1992)*, [Textile](Textile (markup language)) *(c. 2002)*, and [reStructuredText](reStructuredText) *(c. 2002)*.
In 2002 [Swartz](Aaron)(Aaron Swartz) created [atx](atx (markup language)) and referred to it as "the true structured text format". Gruber created the Markdown language in 2004, with Swartz acting as beta tester, had the goal of enabling people "to write using an easy-to-read and easy-to-write plain text format, optionally convert it to structurally valid [XHTML](XHTML) (or [HTML](HTML))."Markdown 1.0.1 readme source code
Its key design goal was *readability*, that the language be readable as-is, without looking like it has been marked up with tags or formatting instructions, "Readability, however, is emphasized above all else. A Markdown-formatted document should be publishable as-is, as plain text, without looking like it's been marked up with tags or formatting instructions. While Markdown's syntax has been influenced by several existing text-to-HTML filters — including Setext, atx, Textile, reStructuredText, Grutatext }}, and EtText }} — the single biggest source of inspiration for Markdown's syntax is the format of plain text email." }} unlike text formatted with 'heavier' [language](markup)(markup language)s, such as [Text Format](Rich)(Rich Text Format) (RTF), HTML, or even [wikitext](wikitext) (each of which have obvious in-line tags and formatting instructions which can make the text more difficult for humans to read).
Gruber wrote a [Perl](Perl) script, , which converts marked-up text input to valid, [well-formed](XML#Well-formedness and error-handling) XHTML or HTML and replaces angle brackets (, ) and [ampersand](ampersand)s () with their corresponding [entity references](character)(character entity references). It can take the role of a standalone script, a plugin for [Blosxom](Blosxom) or a [Type](Movable)(Movable Type), or of a text filter for [BBEdit](BBEdit).
## Rise and divergence
As Markdown's popularity grew rapidly, many Markdown implementations appeared, driven mostly by the need for additional features such as tables, footnotes, definition lists,Technically HTML description lists. and Markdown inside HTML blocks.
The behavior of some of these diverged from the reference implementation, as Markdown was only characterised by an informal specification and a Perl implementation for conversion to HTML.
At the same time, a number of ambiguities in the informal specification had attracted attention. These issues spurred the creation of tools such as Babelmark to compare the output of various implementations, and an effort by some developers of Markdown parsers for standardisation. However, Gruber has argued that complete standardization would be a mistake: "Different sites (and people) have different needs. No one syntax would make all happy."
Gruber avoided using curly braces in Markdown to unofficially reserve them for implementation-specific extensions.
## Standardization
| conforms to = public.plain-text
| magic =
| owner = [MacFarlane](John)(John MacFarlane (philosopher)), open source
| released =
| latest release version = 0.30
| latest release date =
| genre = [language](Markup)(Markup language)
| container for =
| contained by =
| extended from = Markdown
| extended to = GitHub Flavored Markdown
| standard =
| type = [file format](Open)(Open file format)
| url =
}}
From 2012, a group of people, including [Atwood](Jeff)(Jeff Atwood) and [MacFarlane](John)(John MacFarlane (philosopher)), launched what Atwood characterised as a standardisation effort. A community website now aims to "document various tools and resources available to document authors and developers, as well as implementors of the various Markdown implementations". In September 2014, Gruber objected to the usage of "Markdown" in the name of this effort and it was rebranded as CommonMark. CommonMark.org published several versions of a specification, reference implementation, test suite, and "[plans] to announce a finalized 1.0 spec and test suite in 2019." No 1.0 spec has since been released as major issues still remain unsolved. Nonetheless, the following websites and projects have adopted CommonMark: [Discourse](Discourse (software)), [GitHub](GitHub), [GitLab](GitLab), [Reddit](Reddit), [Qt](Qt (software)), [Exchange](Stack)(Stack Exchange) ([Overflow](Stack)(Stack Overflow)), and [Swift](Swift (programming language)).
In March 2016 two relevant informational Internet [RFCs](Request for Comments) were published:
* introduced [MIME](MIME) type .
* discussed and registered the variants [MultiMarkdown](MultiMarkdown), GitHub Flavored Markdown (GFM), [Pandoc](Pandoc), and Markdown Extra among others.
## Variants
Websites like [Bitbucket](Bitbucket), [Diaspora](Diaspora (social network)), [GitHub](GitHub), [OpenStreetMap](OpenStreetMap), [Reddit](Reddit), [SourceForge](SourceForge), and [Exchange](Stack)(Stack Exchange) use variants of Markdown to facilitate discussion between users.
Depending on implementation, basic inline [tag](HTML)(HTML tag)s may be supported. Italic text may be implemented by _underscores_ and/or *single-asterisks*.
### GitHub Flavored Markdown
GitHub had been using its own variant of Markdown since as early as 2009, adding support for additional formatting such as tables and nesting [content](block)(HTML element#Block elements) inside list elements, as well as GitHub-specific features such as auto-linking references to commits, issues, usernames, etc. In 2017, GitHub released a formal specification of its GitHub Flavored Markdown (GFM) that is based on CommonMark. It is a [superset](strict)(Superset) of CommonMark, following its specification exactly except for *tables, strikethrough, autolinks and task lists,* which GFM adds as extensions. GitHub also changed the parser used on their sites accordingly, which required that some documents be changed. For instance, GFM now requires that the [symbol](hash)(number sign) that creates a heading be separated from the heading text by a space character.
### Markdown Extra
Markdown Extra is a [markup language](lightweight)(lightweight markup language) based on Markdown implemented in [PHP](PHP) (originally), [Python](Python (programming language)) and [Ruby](Ruby (programming language)). It adds the following features not available with plain Markdown syntax:
* Markdown markup inside [HTML](HTML) blocks
* Elements with id/class attribute
* "Fenced code blocks" that span multiple lines of code
* Tables
* Definition lists
* Footnotes
* Abbreviations
Markdown Extra is supported in some [management system](content)(content management system)s such as [Drupal](Drupal) and [TYPO3](TYPO3).
### LiaScript
LiaScript is a Markdown dialect that was designed to create interactive educational content. It is implemented in [Elm](Elm (programming language)) and [TypeScript](TypeScript) and adds additional syntax elements to define features like:
* Animations
* Automatic speech output
* Mathematical formulas (using [KaTeX](KaTeX))
* [art](ASCII)(ASCII art) diagrams
* Various types of quizzes and surveys
* [JavaScript](JavaScript) is natively supported and can be attached to various elements, this way code fragments can be made executable and editable
## Examples
## Implementations
Implementations of Markdown are available for over a dozen [language](programming)(programming language)s; in addition, many applications, platforms and [frameworks](Software framework) support Markdown. For example, Markdown [plugins](Plug-in (computing)) exist for every major [blog](blog)ging platform.
While Markdown is a minimal markup language and is read and edited with a normal [editor](text)(text editor), there are specially designed editors that preview the files with styles, which are available for all major platforms. Many general-purpose text and [editors](code)(Source-code editor) have [highlighting](syntax)(syntax highlighting) plugins for Markdown built into them or available as optional download. Editors may feature a side-by-side preview window or render the code directly in a [WYSIWYG](WYSIWYG) fashion.
Some apps, services and editors that support Markdown as an editing format, including:
* [Teams](Microsoft)(Microsoft Teams): chat messages
* [Discord](Discord (software)): chat messages
* [JotterPad](JotterPad): an online WYSIWYG editor that supports Markdown and fountain
* [Doxygen](Doxygen): a source code documentation generator which supports Markdown with extra features
* [RStudio](RStudio): an [IDE](Integrated development environment) for [R](R (programming language)). It provides a [C++](C++) [function](wrapper)(wrapper function) for a markdown variant called sundown
* GitHub Flavored Markdown (GFM) ignores underscores in words, and adds [highlighting](syntax)(syntax highlighting), [list](task)(task list)s, and tables
* [RMarkdown](RMarkdown)
* [Notes](Nextcloud)(Nextcloud): the default app for taking notes on the Nextcloud platform supports formatting using Markdown
* [Joplin](Joplin (software)): a note-taking application that supports markdown formatting
* [Simplenote](Simplenote)
* [Obsidian](Obsidian (software)) is note-taking software based on Markdown files.
* The [Evolution](GNOME)(GNOME Evolution) email client supports composing messages in Markdown format, with the ability to send and render emails in pure Markdown format (Content-Type: text/markdown;) or to convert Markdown to [plaintext](plaintext) or [email](HTML)(HTML email) when sending.
* The [Thunderbird](Mozilla)(Mozilla Thunderbird) email client supports Markdown through the "[Markdown here Revival](https://addons.thunderbird.net/en-US/thunderbird/addon/markdown-here-revival/)" add-on.
* [Kanboard](Kanboard) uses the standard Markdown syntax as its only formatting syntax for task descriptions.
* [Discourse](Discourse (software)) uses the CommonMark flavor of Markdown in the forum post composer.
* [Bugzilla](Bugzilla) uses a customized version of Markdown.
## See also
* [of document markup languages](Comparison)(Comparison of document markup languages)
* [of documentation generators](Comparison)(Comparison of documentation generators)
* [markup language](Lightweight)(Lightweight markup language)
* [markup](Wiki)(Wiki markup)
## Explanatory notes
## References
## External links
* for original John Gruber markup
[introductions in 2004](Category:Computer-related)(Category:Computer-related introductions in 2004)
[markup languages](Category:Lightweight)(Category:Lightweight markup languages)
[formats](Category:Open)(Category:Open formats)
|
Mongrel Mob
|
mongrel_mob
|
# Mongrel Mob
*Revision ID: 1160164510 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T19:47:32Z*
---
| allies =
| rivals = [Power](Black)(Black Power (New Zealand gang)), [Knights](Road)(Road Knights), [Hunters](Head)(Head Hunters MC), [Tribesmen](Tribesmen Motorcycle Club), [Beez](Killer)(Killa Beez (gang)), [Nomads](New Zealand Nomads)
}}
The **Mongrel Mob** (sometimes self-labelled as the **Mighty Mongrel Mob** or colloquially known as **the Mob**) is an organised [gang](street)(street gang) and [gang](Prison)(Prison gang) based in [Zealand](New)(New Zealand). With a network of more than thirty chapters throughout the country and additional operations in [Australia](Australia) and [Canada](Canada), the Mob is the largest [in New Zealand](gang)(Gangs in New Zealand). They are especially active in the [Country](King)(King Country), [Kawerau](Kawerau), [Ōpōtiki](Ōpōtiki), [Waikato](Waikato) and [Hastings](Hastings, New Zealand)."[Police say Mongrel Mob still criminals](http://www.dailypost.co.nz/localnews/storydisplay.cfm?storyid=3713980&thesection=localnews&thesubsection=&thesecondsubsection=)". *Daily Post*, 14 December 2006. The Mongrel Mob's main rival is the [Power](Black)(Black Power (New Zealand gang)) gang; there have been several very public and violent clashes between the two gangs over the years.
## History
The gang began with a group of mainly [Zealand European](New)(New Zealand European) youths from [Wellington](Wellington) and [Bay](Hawke's)(Hawke's Bay Region) in the 1960s. Legend within the gang holds that the name originated from the comments of a judge in the Hastings District Court, who referred to a group of men before him as [mongrel](mongrel)s.["Chapter 3"](https://cdn.auckland.ac.nz/assets/press/all-books/pdfs/2013/Patched-text-web_sample.pdf), Jarrod, *Patched: The History of Gangs in New Zealand* Whatever the origin, the group embraced the term. By the late 1960s loose groups of rebellious young men in Wellington and Hawke's Bay were calling themselves Mongrels. By 1966 they were wearing patches bearing the name 'Mongrel Mob'.
By about 1970 the Mongrels were also known as the Mongrel Mob, and the gang had expanded to include numerous [Māori](Māori people). Members consider Hastings in Hawke's Bay to be the gang's "Fatherland" or birthplace, and the gang first became known for its violence in Hawke's Bay. Later, similarly named groups sprang up around the country, forming their own independent chapters.
In the 2000s and 2010s, the Mongrel Mob began expanding into parts of Australia.
In 2018 they also expanded into Canada.
### Chapters
According to [Ara](Te)(Te Ara), in 2010 there were over 30 recognised chapters of the Mongrel Mob; including,
*Mongrel Mob [Hastings](Hastings, New Zealand) – 1962
*Mongrel Mob [Wellington](Wellington) – 1962
*Mongrel Mob [Maximum Security Prison](Auckland)(Paremoremo Prison) – 1979
*[Notorious](Mangere) Mongrel Mob – 1981
*Mongrel Mob [Perth](Perth) – 1989-1989 (defunct)
*Mongrel Mob [Melbourne](Melbourne) – 2013
*Mongrel Mob [Darwin](Darwin, Northern Territory) – 2016
*Mongrel Mob [Coast](Gold)(Gold Coast, Queensland) – 2016
*Mongrel Mob [Fatherland](Hastings, New Zealand) – 2018
*Mongrel Mob [Puke](Te)(Te Puke)
## Insignia
Mongrel Mob colours are predominantly red and black. The [patches](gang patch) usually feature a [Bulldog](British)(Bulldog) wearing a German [Stahlhelm](Stahlhelm), which supposedly is an image intended to offend as it is a [Bulldog](British)(Bulldog) wearing the helmet. The patch is worn on the back of "patched members": those considered loyal and trustworthy enough to be in the gang. The patch will also be tattooed on the member's body. Mob members are known for their tattooed faces and red bandannas.
## Membership
The gang claims it offers a surrogate family for young men, most of whom are often alienated from their family via joining. A majority of members are [Māori](Māori people), European or other Polynesian ethnic groups, with Māori predominating.
A "prospect" is a person who is loyal to the gang but is not a "patched member" yet and must normally do errands or "missions" to show his loyalty to his gang. A prospect normally has a patched member to report or "[in](clock)(time clock)" to. This patched member normally decides when it is time for the prospect to be "patched".
The hierarchy is: captain or president, vice president, sergeant at arms, patched members, prospects. In some cases they use younger blood gangs as prospects.
There were 934 members in prison in April 2013, making up more than a tenth of all New Zealand prisoners. In the Wellington region, there were an estimated 194 patched members in 2013.
### Notable members
*Anaru "Fats" Moke – Wellington member, often featured in the media
* Sonny Fatupaito – [Ariki](Ariki) of Mongrel Mob Waikato Kingdom, often featured in New Zealand media.
*Dennis Makalio – Senior member, often featured in New Zealand media
*Frank Milosevic – President of the Mongrel Mob [Kawerau](Kawerau)
*Harry Tam – Senior member, often featured in New Zealand media.
*Joe Edmonds – Senior member, deported from Australia while attempting to establish a chapter
*Roy Dunn – Mongrel Mob President who died on 1 April 2016
*Tuhoe Isaac – Former senior member often featured in the media
*Grantito Chacone - Former National President of the Mongrel Mob Kingdom - Australia
*Daniel Eliu - Auckland Notorious Mongrel Mob President, shot dead outside a South Auckland church in December 2022
## Criminal activity
### Organised crime
***Operation Crusade**
In 2001, the [Zealand Police](New)(New Zealand Police) launched **Operation Crusade**, a long police surveillance operation of the Christchurch-based **Mongrel Mob Aotearoa** chapter. The main purpose of the Operation was to disrupt and destroy a suspected drug sales-ring controlled by the Mongrel Mob. Over a 15-month period, the Operation targeted the gang using taps on the phones of known Mongrel Mob Aotearoa members and undercover police buying drugs from the gang. The operation culminated in co-ordinated raids resulting in nearly 40 arrests and a "huge trial" in the High Court at Christchurch.
Joseph 'Junior' Wiringi and most of the chapter's top hierarchy were arrested in 2003 as part of the police investigation on more than 70 charges, including dealing in methamphetamine and magic mushrooms and possessing firearms. The operation confirmed the suspicions of police and revealed brazen drug dealing from the gang's former headquarters on Wilsons Rd.
***Operation Walnut**
Operation Walnut was a four-month long investigation targeting an organised methamphetamine supply-and-distribution ring operating out of the **Mongrel Mob Porirua** in the Wellington region. The investigation began in December 2016 when New Zealand Police officers infiltrated the Mongrel Mob via placing undercover officers as associates of the organisation, where they would buy methamphetamine from the gang. As well as undertaking 8 search warrants in the Wellington region, the Operation also targeted a property in the East Auckland suburb of [Howick](Howick, New Zealand) where the Mongrel Mob is suspected of importing the methamphetamine. The operation involved another 150 New Zealand Police officers, with 120 operating in the Wellington raids and the remaining 30 operating in the Auckland raids. From December 2016 to April 2017, it is thought that the Mongrel Mob had distributed over 20 kilograms of methamphetamine, valued at over [$](New Zealand dollar)18 million.
The first day of raids led to the confiscation of a Mercedes-Benz, a container property, 2 kilograms of methamphetamine, $450,000 in cash, two stolen motorbikes valued at $30,000, and over 13 vehicles, a jetski, 2 boats, valued at $1.8 million. The second day of the raids led to 7 arrests, as well as grenades, money, 2 kilograms of methamphetamine, locked safes, and 11 guns being found and confiscated. The Operation culminated in 14 arrests; 4 kilograms of methamphetamine, valued at $3.6 million; $2.3 million in property; and $500,000 in cash being confiscated.
***Operation Notus** [[firearms positioned on a confiscated motorcycle](File:Operation_Notus.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Confiscated)]
In October 2017, **Operation Notus** was launched because of community concern in regards to the **Mongrel Mob Kawerau** and their alleged involvement in the 'commercial distribution of methamphetamine and cannabis' within the community. The six-month-long investigation involved over 300 New Zealand Police staff, including the Auckland-based National Organised Crime Group, Tauranga-based [Offenders Squad](Armed)(Armed Offenders Squad)s, and the locally based Asset Recovery Unit. The investigation proved the community concern to be accurate, and led to the arrests of over 30 members, and associates, of the Mongrel Mob Kawerau. The final number of arrested associates stood at 38 arrested, with more arrests likely to occur
The investigation culminated with the raids of over 40 properties, in Kawerau, [Ōpōtiki](Ōpōtiki), [Whakatane](Whakatane); and 3 properties in [Gisborne](Gisborne, New Zealand) and [Hastings](Hastings, New Zealand); leading to the subsequent arrest of the 30 associates. Along with the arrests, the police confiscated over 25 firearms, over [$](New Zealand dollar)2.6 million worth of methamphetamine, over $100,000 in bank accounts as well as over 100 cannabis plants. Also confiscated were residential property, boats, jet-skis, motorcycles, and cars. Eastern Bay of Plenty Area Commander Inspector Kevin Taylor said, "We are committed to protecting our communities from the harm caused by organised crime and today's arrests will go a long way to disrupting the supply of methamphetamine and cannabis in Kawerau and wider Bay of Plenty region." Kawerau is commonly known as a 'red-town', a town that is known to be a Mongrel Mob stronghold.
### Other incidents
*In June 1971, members of the [Angels](Hells)(Hells Angels Motorcycle Club), [61](Highway)(Highway 61 Motorcycle Club), the [Panthers](Polynesian)(Polynesian Panthers) and the Mongrel Mob gangs engaged in a large gang-related brawl in central Auckland.
*On 14 August 1981, **Mongrel Mob Wellington** leader Lester Epps awoke outside the gang pad. Epps had fought members of the Eastern Suburbs Rugby League Club at the Tramway Hotel the night before. Epps tried to flee through the [Reserve](Basin)(Basin Reserve), however he was ultimately caught and beaten. He died later in hospital. All people involved eventually received 18-month prison terms for manslaughter.
*In December 1986, a young woman was kidnapped by the Mongrel Mob and taken to a convention in [Park](Ambury)(Ambury Regional Park) in Auckland, where she was subsequently raped by over 15 members of the gang.Gilbert, Jarrod (2013). Patched: The History of Gangs in New Zealand. Auckland University Press. pp. 125–126, 129–133.
*In June 1987, Mongrel Mob member Sam Te Hei raped and murdered 16-year-old Colleen Burrows in Napier.
*In 2003, members of the **Murupara Mongrel Mob**, and the [MC](Tribesmen)(Tribesmen MC) Murupara chapters were involved in multiple methamphetamine laboratories that were raided by police.
*On 9 September 2011, a member of the **Wairoa Mongrel Mob** chapter fired a sawn-off shotgun at a local Rugby League match because there were Black Power gang members in attendance.
*In August 2016, a 31-year-old with **Mongrel Mob Aotearoa** links and under the influence of methamphetamine and alcohol caused a crash with a taxi in Christchurch, injuring two people.
*According to the *[Territory News](Northern)(Northern Territory News)*, between the establishment of the **Mongrel Mob Darwin** in September 2016 and January 2017, there were roughly four unreported assaults involving Mongrel Mob members, including a brawl with a member of the Australian [Angels](Hells)(Hells Angels).
*On 13 January 2018, a gunfight erupted in [Whakatane](Whakatane), [of Plenty](Bay)(Bay of Plenty), when a funeral procession of the **Mongrel Mob Kawerau** chapter was ambushed by members of the Outback Blacks – a sub-chapter of Black Power.
*On 10 March 2018, Joe Edmonds, a senior Mongrel Mob member, was deported from Australia, along with four others, for allegedly attempting to establish a Mongrel Mob chapter in Western Australia.
*On 22 March 2018, police raided four houses in Ōpōtiki, leading to three **Mongrel Mob Barbarians** members being arrested and charged with a "connection to the supply of methamphetamine in Opotiki."
## Community services
In 2005, the Mongrel Mob Notorious chapter and its [President](Gang#Types and structure) Roy Dunn started a labour-hire business to do painting, demolition, and other work. Dunn said, "We are setting this up for our kids, creating the employment, bringing them in." A search on the New Zealand [Office](Companies)(Companies Office) showed that Dunn was a joint-shareholder in two companies, both named Rent A Bro Limited at one point, however the older company's name was changed to BRO 2007 Limited in 2011, just months before the second company was incorporated. BRO 2007 was incorporated in 2007 as *Rent A Bro Limited* and changed its name to BRO 2007 Limited in 2011 and subsequently removed from the company registry in 2012. Rent A Bro Limited was incorporated in 2011 and was removed from the company registry in 2013.
In 2010, Dunn and his [Māngere](Māngere)-based Notorious chapter announced the Hauora Programme partnership with [Salvation Army](the)(the Salvation Army) to combat [methamphetamine](methamphetamine) drug use. By 2013, they had completed five intakes of 'P' users who wanted to rid themselves of addiction. In a press release via The Salvation Army, Dunn stated, "When our [whanau](whanau) arrive at rehab, we discover how some of them have been living—and the effects of this on their kids. Many onlookers could say that we do things to excess, and maybe that is true. Our journey so far has been about learning. We still do and get things wrong because we don’t necessarily know how to do things differently. I ask my leaders all the time to consider changing what they know for a different way. I haven’t always had total acceptance of this journey. It continues to be one step at a time... ...As our rehabs have progressed—we have just had our fifth rehab programme—I ask myself, has this journey been worth it? I guess my answer is that every time I bury another one of my bros, my gut turns, and so I keep going on this journey. I remind myself of where we have come from and our vision to see our children free. Our vision to know and understand values that see us embrace that which we are good at: being whanau, looking out for each other, and having a good future for our kids."
In mid July 2021, [Minister](Prime)(Prime Minister of New Zealand) [Ardern](Jacinda)(Jacinda Ardern) confirmed that she and several Government ministers including [Robertson](Grant)(Grant Robertson), [Williams](Poto)(Poto Williams) and [Faafoi](Kris)(Kris Faafoi) had approved $2.75 million in funding to support the Mongrel Mob-led Kahukura drug and trauma rehabilitation scheme. The scheme is run by the charity Hard2Reach which aims to address trauma and drug abuse through a live-in [marae](marae) based in [Waipawa](Waipawa) using funds from criminal proceeds that had been seized by the Police. The [of Health](Ministry)(Ministry of Health (New Zealand)) also confirmed that it supported the Kahukura proposal to receive funding under the Proceeds of Crime, which is run by the [of Justice](Ministry)(Ministry of Justice (New Zealand)). The Government's support for the Kahukura scheme was criticised by the opposition [Party](National)(New Zealand National Party) leader [Collins](Judith)(Judith Collins) and [Brown](Simeon)(Simeon Brown), [Sentencing Trust](Sensible)(Sensible Sentencing Trust) co-leader [Ball](Darroch)(Darroch Ball), and mental health advocate [King](Mike)(Mike King (advocate)).
## In media
**[Kemp on Gangs](Ross)(Ross Kemp on Gangs)* (2005) – [1, Episode 3](Season)(Ross Kemp on Gangs#Series 1 .282004-2006.29) – Episode documenting the history of the Mongrel Mob in New Zealand.
**Jono Rotman* (2007) – a [photographer](photographer); has featured members of the Mongrel Mob gang in a series of award-winning, traditional [portraits](portraits).
*Arman Alizad, a Finnish journalist visited the Mongrel Mob in his TV-series: Arman ja viimeinen ristiretki - Uusi Seelanti - Maorijengit (Arman and the last crusade - New Zealand - Maori gangs)
## See also
* [in New Zealand](Gangs)(Gangs in New Zealand)
## References
## External links
* [Mighty Mongrel Mob website](https://mightymongrelmob.com)
* [Images referring to the Mongrel Mob in the collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa](https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/agent/63040)
[in New Zealand](Category:Gangs)(Category:Gangs in New Zealand)
[gangs](Category:Māori)(Category:Māori gangs)
[gangs](Category:Polynesian)(Category:Polynesian gangs)
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List of Naruto_ Shippuden episodes
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list_of_naruto__shippuden_episodes
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# List of Naruto: Shippuden episodes
*Revision ID: 1154928453 | Timestamp: 2023-05-15T15:39:17Z*
---
[[visual of the series.](File:Shippudenkeyvisual.png|thumb|right|Key)]
*[Shippuden](Naruto:)(Naruto#Naruto: Shippuden)* is an [anime](anime) series mainly adapted from [II](Part)(List of Naruto chapters (Part II)) of [Kishimoto](Masashi)(Masashi Kishimoto)'s original [series](manga)(Naruto), with exactly 500 episodes. It is set two and a half years after the [series](original)(List of Naruto chapters (Part I)) in the *Naruto* universe, following the ninja teenager [Uzumaki](Naruto)(Naruto Uzumaki) and his allies. The series is directed by [Date](Hayato)(Hayato Date), and produced by [Pierrot](Pierrot (company)) and [Tokyo](TV)(TV Tokyo). It began broadcasting on February 15, 2007, on TV Tokyo, and concluded on March 23, 2017.
On January 2, 2009, [Media](Viz)(Viz Media) and [Crunchyroll](Crunchyroll) provided eight English [subtitled](Subtitle (captioning)) *Naruto: Shippuden* episodes on the official *Naruto* website. Later the following 2 weeks, Viz began providing subtitled versions of the latest *Naruto: Shippuden* episodes a week after they first aired in Japan, with a new episode being added to the *Naruto* website each subsequent Thursday. On July 24, 2009, Viz Media announced that the series would be released on the [Store](iTunes)(iTunes Store). The first DVD release of the series in North America was released on September 29, 2009. The English [dub](dubbing) of *Naruto: Shippuden* made its US premiere on [XD](Disney)(Disney XD) on October 28, 2009.
*Naruto: Shippuden* stopped airing on Disney XD on November 5, 2011 after 98 episodes. The English dub was streamed on the [Alley](Neon)(Neon Alley) [channel](web)(Streaming television) from its launch in October 2012, and beginning December 29 of the same year with episode 99, dubbed episodes premiered every week until March 25, 2016 after 338 episodes, about a month before Neon Alley's closure. [Swim](Adult)(Adult Swim)'s [Toonami](Toonami) programming block began airing the anime from the beginning on January 5, 2014 in an uncut format. The network started showing never before aired dubbed episodes at the 339th episode mark by May 2021.
In four regions, episodes from the series have been released on DVD by single volumes and box sets. In Japan, twenty six sets of volumes have been released based on which arc it represents. In North America, twelve single volumes and thirty eight box sets have been released. In the United Kingdom, twenty eight single volumes and six box sets have been released. In Australia and New Zealand, twenty-eight collections have been released.
## Series overview
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| episodes5 = 24
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| episodes6 = 31
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| episodes8 = 24
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| link9 = List of Naruto: Shippuden episodes#Season 9 (2010–11)
| episodes9 = 21
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| episodes10 = 25
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| link11 = List of Naruto: Shippuden episodes#Season 11 (2011)
| episodes11 = 21
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| link12 = List of Naruto: Shippuden episodes#Season 12 (2012)
| episodes12 = 33
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| link13 = List of Naruto: Shippuden episodes#Season 13 (2012–13)
| episodes13 = 20
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| link14 = List of Naruto: Shippuden episodes#Season 14 (2013)
| episodes14 = 25
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| link15 = List of Naruto: Shippuden episodes#Season 15 (2013–14)
| episodes15 = 28
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| link16 = List of Naruto: Shippuden episodes#Season 16 (2014)
| episodes16 = 13
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| link17 = List of Naruto: Shippuden episodes#Season 17 (2014)
| episodes17 = 11
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| link18 = List of Naruto: Shippuden episodes#Season 18 (2014)
| episodes18 = 21
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| link19 = List of Naruto: Shippuden episodes#Season 19 (2015)
| episodes19 = 20
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| episodes20 = 45
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## Episode list
### Season 1 (2007)
### Season 2 (2007–08)
### Season 3 (2008)
### Season 4 (2008)
### Season 5 (2008–09)
### Season 6 (2009–10)
### Season 7 (2010)
### Season 8 (2010)
### Season 9 (2010–11)
### Season 10 (2011)
### Season 11 (2011)
### Season 12 (2012)
### Season 13 (2012–13)
### Season 14 (2013)
### Season 15 (2013–14)
### Season 16 (2014)
### Season 17 (2014)
### Season 18 (2014)
### Season 19 (2015)
### Season 20 (2015–16)
### Season 21 (2016)
### Season 22 (2016–17)
## Home media release
### Region 1 (North America)
#### Single volumes
#### Box sets
### Region 2 (UK)
#### Box sets
#### Series sets
### Region 3 (Japan)
### Region 4 (Australia/NZ)
#### Hokage Box Sets
#### Chakra Collection
## Notes
## References
### Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
## External links
* [Shippūden*](https://www.crunchyroll.com/naruto-shippuden/*Naruto:) at [Crunchyroll](Crunchyroll)
*
[Shippuden](Naruto:)(Category:Lists of anime episodes)
[ ](Category:Naruto episodes)
[Shippuden](Category:Naruto lists)
|
Rachel Weisz
|
rachel_weisz
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# Rachel Weisz
*Revision ID: 1159395215 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T02:03:46Z*
---
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Westminster](Westminster), London, England
| other_names = Rachel Weisz Craig
| citizenship =
| alma_mater = [Hall, Cambridge](Trinity)(Trinity Hall, Cambridge)
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 1992–present
| spouse =
| children = 2
| relatives = [Weisz](Minnie)(Minnie Weisz) (sister)
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Rachel Weisz)
}}
**Rachel Hannah Weisz** (; born 7 March 1970) gives a year of 1970, as does the *[Britannica](Encyclopædia)(Encyclopædia Britannica)* and the National Portrait Gallery. The public record of her birth lists it as 1970.
Other sources give it as 1971, including her detailed biography at the [Film Institute](British)(British Film Institute) ([Larman](Alexander)(Alexander Larman): [*Weisz, Rachel (1971–)*](http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/1174895/index.html)), [a biographic article in *The Guardian*](https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/feb/03/film.edvulliamy) and several other British newspapers. The *Evening Standard* of 6 March 2006 (Nick Curtis: *A Taxing Issue for Partygoers; the Oscars Diary*) claims that Weisz herself gives 1971 as her year of birth.}}) is a British actress. She began acting in stage and television productions in the early 1990s, and made her film debut in *[Machine](Death)(Death Machine)* (1994). She won a [Circle Theatre Award](Critics')(Critics' Circle Theatre Award) for her role in the 1994 revival of [Coward](Noël)(Noël Coward)'s play *[for Living](Design)(Design for Living),* and went on to appear in the 1999 [Warehouse](Donmar)(Donmar Warehouse) production of [Williams](Tennessee)(Tennessee Williams)' drama *[Last Summer](Suddenly,)(Suddenly, Last Summer)*. Her film breakthrough came with her starring role as [Carnahan](Evelyn)(List of The Mummy characters#Evelyn Carnahan) in the Hollywood action films *[Mummy](The)(The Mummy (1999 film))* (1999) and *[Mummy Returns](The)(The Mummy Returns)* (2001). Weisz went on to star in several films of the 2000s, including *[at the Gates](Enemy)(Enemy at the Gates)* (2001), *[a Boy](About)(About a Boy (film))* (2002), *[Jury](Runaway)(Runaway Jury)* (2003), *[Constantine](Constantine (film))* (2005), *[Fountain](The)(The Fountain)* (2006), *[Lovely Bones](The)(The Lovely Bones (film))* (2009) and
*[Whistleblower](The)(The Whistleblower)* (2010)
For her performance as an activist in the 2005 thriller *[Constant Gardener](The)(The Constant Gardener (film))*, she won the [Award for Best Supporting Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress), and for playing [DuBois](Blanche)(Blanche DuBois) in a 2009 revival of *[Streetcar Named Desire](A)(A Streetcar Named Desire)*, she won the [Olivier Award for Best Actress](Laurence)(Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress). In the 2010s, Weisz continued to star in big-budget films such as the action film *[Bourne Legacy](The)(The Bourne Legacy (film))* (2012) and the fantasy film *[the Great and Powerful](Oz)(Oz the Great and Powerful)* (2013), and achieved critical acclaim for her performances in the independent films *[Deep Blue Sea](The)(The Deep Blue Sea (2011 film))* (2011), *[Denial](Denial (2016 film))* (2016), and *[Favourite](The)(The Favourite)* (2018). For her portrayal of [Churchill](Sarah)(Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough) in *The Favourite* , she won the [Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role](BAFTA)(BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role) and received a second Academy Award nomination. Weisz has since played [Vostokoff](Melina)(Melina Vostokoff (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) in the [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe) film *[Widow](Black)(Black Widow (2021 film))* (2021) and starred as twin obstetricians in the thriller miniseries *[Ringers](Dead)(Dead Ringers (miniseries))* (2023).
Weisz was engaged to filmmaker [Aronofsky](Darren)(Darren Aronofsky), with whom she has a son, from 2005 to 2010. In 2011 she married [Craig](Daniel)(Daniel Craig), with whom she has a daughter, and also became a US citizen.
## Early life and family
Weisz was born on 7 March 1970 in [Westminster](Westminster), London, and grew up in [Garden Suburb](Hampstead)(Hampstead Garden Suburb). Her father, George Weisz, was a Hungarian Jewish mechanical engineer. Her mother, Edith Ruth ( Teich),*England and Wales, Death Index, 2007–2017*. was a teacher-turned-psychotherapist originally from [Vienna](Vienna), Austria. Her parents emigrated to the United Kingdom as children around 1938, prior to the outbreak of [War II](World)(World War II), in order to escape the [Nazis](Nazis). Her maternal grandfather's ancestry was Austrian Jewish; her maternal grandmother was Catholic and of Italian ancestry. The scholar and [activist](social)(social activist) [Parkes](James)(James Parkes (priest)) helped her mother's family to leave Austria for England. Weisz's mother was raised in the [Catholic](Catholic) church and formally [to Judaism](converted)(Conversion to Judaism) upon marrying Weisz's father. Weisz's maternal grandfather was Alexander Teich, a Jewish activist who had been a secretary of the [Union of Jewish Students](World)(World Union of Jewish Students). Her younger sister [Weisz](Minnie)(Minnie Weisz) is a [artist](visual)(Fine-art photography).
Weisz's parents valued the arts; they also encouraged their children to form opinions of their own by engaging their participation in family debates. Weisz left [London Collegiate School](North)(North London Collegiate School) and attended [School](Benenden)(Benenden School) for one year, completing [A-levels](A-Level) at [Paul's Girls School](St)(St Paul's Girls School).
Known for being an "[rose](English)(English rose (epithet))",["Profile of Rachel Weisz"](http://www.hellomagazine.com/profiles/rachel-weisz/). *Hello*. Retrieved 12 June 2012 Weisz began modelling at the age of 14. In 1984, she gained public attention when she turned down an offer to star in *[David](King)(King David (film))* with [Gere](Richard)(Richard Gere).
Weisz went to [Hall, Cambridge](Trinity)(Trinity Hall, Cambridge), where she read English. She graduated with upper second-class honours. During her university years she was a contemporary of [Baron Cohen](Sacha)(Sacha Baron Cohen), [Armstrong](Alexander)(Alexander Armstrong (comedian)), [Maitlis](Emily)(Emily Maitlis), [Perkins](Sue)(Sue Perkins), [Giedroyc](Mel)(Mel Giedroyc), [Osman](Richard)(Richard Osman) and [Miller](Ben)(Ben Miller) (whom she briefly dated), and appeared in various student dramatic productions, co-founding a student drama group called Cambridge Talking Tongues. The group won a *Guardian* Student Drama Award at the 1991 [Festival Fringe](Edinburgh)(Edinburgh Festival Fringe) for an improvised piece called *Slight Possession*, directed by David Farr.
## Career
### 1990s
In 1992, Weisz appeared in the television film *Advocates II*, followed by roles in the *[Morse](Inspector)(Inspector Morse (TV series))* episode "[of the Gods](Twilight)(Twilight of the Gods (Inspector Morse))", and the [BBC](BBC)'s steamy period drama *[and Black](Scarlet)(Scarlet and Black (TV Series))*, alongside [McGregor](Ewan)(Ewan McGregor). *Dirty Something*, a BBC Screen Two, hour-long television film made in 1992, was Weisz's first film, in which she played Becca, who met and fell in love with a [traveller](New Age travellers), Dog ([Reynolds](Paul)(Paul Reynolds (actor))), at the end of [Festival](Glastonbury)(Glastonbury Festival). The opening scenes were filmed at the festival. Also starring as an older fellow traveller and sage was Larry ([Hill](Bernard)(Bernard Hill)).
Weisz's breakthrough role on the stage was that of Gilda in [Mathias](Sean)(Sean Mathias)'s 1994 revival of [Coward](Noël)(Noël Coward)'s *[for Living](Design)(Design for Living)* at the [Theatre](Gielgud)(Gielgud Theatre), for which she received the London Critics' Circle Award for the most promising newcomer. Her portrayal was described as "wonderful" by a contemporary review.
Weisz started her film career with a minor role in the 1994 film *[Machine](Death)(Death Machine)*, but her first major role came in the 1996 film *[Reaction](Chain)(Chain Reaction (1996 film))*, which also starred [Reeves](Keanu)(Keanu Reeves) and [Freeman](Morgan)(Morgan Freeman). While the film received mostly negative reviews–it holds a 16% rating on [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes)–it was a minor financial success. She next appeared as Miranda Fox in *[Beauty](Stealing)(Stealing Beauty)*, directed by [Bertolucci](Bernardo)(Bernardo Bertolucci), where she was first labelled an "English rose".
Following this, Weisz found roles in the 1997 American drama *[from the Sea](Swept)(Swept from the Sea)*, the 1998 British television comedy-drama *[Summer with Des](My)(My Summer with Des)*, [Winterbottom](Michael)(Michael Winterbottom)'s crime film *[Want You](I)(I Want You (1998 film))*, and [Leland](David)(David Leland)'s *[Land Girls](The)(The Land Girls (film))*, based on [Huth](Angela)(Angela Huth)'s book of the same name.
In 1999, Weisz played Greta in the historical film *[Sunshine](Sunshine (1999 film))*. The same year, her international breakthrough came with the 1999 adventure film *[Mummy](The)(The Mummy (1999 film))*, in which she played the female lead opposite [Fraser](Brendan)(Brendan Fraser). Her character, Evelyn Carnahan, is an English [Egyptologist](Egyptology), who undertakes an expedition to the fictional ancient Egyptian city of Hamunaptra to discover an ancient book. *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* criticised the direction of the film, writing: "(the actors) have been directed to broad, undisciplined performances [...] Buffoonery hardly seems like Weisz's natural domain, as the actress strains for comic effects that she can't achieve". She followed this up with the sequel *[Mummy Returns](The)(The Mummy Returns)* in 2001, which grossed an estimated $433 million worldwide, (equivalent to $}} million in dollars) higher than the original's $260 million (equal to $}} million in dollars).
Also in 1999, she played the role of Catherine in the [Warehouse](Donmar)(Donmar Warehouse) production of [Williams](Tennessee)(Tennessee Williams)' *[Last Summer](Suddenly)(Suddenly Last Summer)*, ''What's on Stage'' called her "captivating", stating that she brought "a degree of credibility to a difficult part". The same year, Weisz appeared in [LaBute](Neil)(Neil LaBute)'s *[Shape of Things](The)(The Shape of Things)* at the [Theatre](Almeida)(Almeida Theatre), then temporarily located in London's [Cross](King's)(King's Cross, London), for which she received a [World Award](Theatre)(Theatre World Award). CurtainUp called her "a sophisticated, independent artist" with "great stage presence".
### 2000s
In 2000, she portrayed Petula in the film *[Creatures](Beautiful)(Beautiful Creatures (2000 film))*, following this up with 2001's *[at the Gates](Enemy)(Enemy at the Gates)*, and the 2002 comedy-drama *[a Boy](About)(About a Boy (film))*, with [Grant](Hugh)(Hugh Grant), based on [Hornby](Nick)(Nick Hornby)'s 1998 [novel](About a Boy (novel)). In 2003, she played Marlee in the [adaptation](Runaway Jury) of [Grisham](John)(John Grisham)'s legal thriller novel *[Runaway Jury](The)(The Runaway Jury)*, along with [Hoffman](Dustin)(Dustin Hoffman), [Cusack](John)(John Cusack), and [Hackman](Gene)(Gene Hackman); and starred in the film adaptation of the romantic comedy-drama play *[Shape of Things](The)(The Shape of Things)*.
[[in 2007](File:Rachelweisz.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Weisz)]
In 2004, Weisz appeared in the comedy *[Envy](Envy (2004 film))*, opposite [Stiller](Ben)(Ben Stiller), [Black](Jack)(Jack Black), and [Walken](Christopher)(Christopher Walken). The film failed at the box office. *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* opined that Weisz and co-star [Poehler](Amy)(Amy Poehler) "get fewer choice moments than they deserve." Her next role was alongside [Reeves](Keanu)(Keanu Reeves) in *[Constantine](Constantine (film))*, based on the comic book *[Hellblazer](Hellblazer)*. *[Threat](Film)(Film Threat)* called her portrayal "effective at projecting scepticism and, eventually, dawning horror".
Her next appearance, in 2005, was in [Meirelles](Fernando)(Fernando Meirelles)'s *[Constant Gardener](The)(The Constant Gardener (film))*, a film adaptation of a [le Carré](John)(John le Carré) [thriller](The Constant Gardener) set in the slums of [Kibera](Kibera) and [Loiyangalani](Loiyangalani), [Kenya](Kenya). Weisz played an activist, Tessa Quayle, married to a British embassy official. The film was critically acclaimed, earning Weisz the [Award for Best Supporting Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress), the [Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture), and the [Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role). UK newspaper *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* noted that the film "established her in the front rank of British actors", while the BBC wrote: "Weisz is exceptional: film star charisma coupled with raw emotion in a performance to fall in love with". In 2006, she received the [BAFTA](British Academy of Film and Television Arts) [Award](Britannia)(Britannia Awards) for British Artist of the Year.
In 2006, Weisz starred in [Aronofsky](Darren)(Darren Aronofsky)'s romantic drama *[Fountain](The)(The Fountain (film))*. The *[Francisco Chronicle](San)(San Francisco Chronicle)* found her portrayal of Queen Isabel "less convincing" than other roles. That same year, she provided the voice for [Saphira](Saphira) the dragon in the fantasy film *[Eragon](Eragon (film))*; and rejected an offer to star in *[Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor](The)(The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor)* due to script issues. The part eventually went to [Bello](Maria)(Maria Bello). Her subsequent films include the 2007 [Kar-wai](Wong)(Wong Kar-wai) drama *[Blueberry Nights](My)(My Blueberry Nights)*, and [Johnson](Rian)(Rian Johnson)'s 2008 caper film *[Brothers Bloom](The)(The Brothers Bloom)*, alongside [Brody](Adrien)(Adrien Brody) and [Ruffalo](Mark)(Mark Ruffalo). In 2009, she played the lead role of [of Alexandria](Hypatia)(Hypatia of Alexandria) in the historical drama film *[Agora](Agora (film))*, a [Spanish](Spain) production directed by [Amenábar](Alejandro)(Alejandro Amenábar). *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* called her portrayal "adept", noting that she imparted "a sympathetic presence". That same year, she appeared as [DuBois](Blanche)(Blanche DuBois), in [Ashford](Rob)(Rob Ashford)'s revival of the play *[Streetcar Named Desire](A)(A Streetcar Named Desire (play))*. Her performance in the play was praised by the critics, the *[Telegraph](Daily)(Daily Telegraph)* noted that she "rises to the challenge magnificently".
### 2010s
[[File:Rachel Weisz 2012.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Weisz at the 2012 [American Film Festival](Deauville)(Deauville American Film Festival)]]
Weisz starred in the film *[Whistleblower](The)(The Whistleblower)*, which debuted at the [International Film Festival](Toronto)(Toronto International Film Festival) in 2010. The film was based on the [story](true)(DynCorp#Employee involvement in child sex slave traffic) of human trafficking by employees of contractor [DynCorp](DynCorp). During its première, the intense depiction of the treatment meted out to victims by the kidnappers made a woman in the audience faint. *Variety magazine* wrote "Weisz's performance holds the viewer every step of the way." That same year, she guest-starred in the animated series *[Simpsons](The)(The Simpsons)*, in the [season](22nd)(The Simpsons (season 22)) episode "[Munched is That Birdie in the Window?](How)(How Munched is That Birdie in the Window?)". Weisz's 2011 roles included an adaptation of [Rattigan](Terence)(Terence Rattigan)'s play *[Deep Blue Sea](The)(The Deep Blue Sea (2011 film))*, [Meirelles](Fernando)(Fernando Meirelles)' [psychosexual](Psychosexual disorder) drama *[360](360 (film))* opposite [Law](Jude)(Jude Law) again and [Hopkins](Anthony)(Anthony Hopkins), the BBC espionage thriller *[Eight](Page)(Page Eight)*, and the thriller film *[House](Dream)(Dream House (2011 film))*, alongside [Craig](Daniel)(Daniel Craig).
She filmed scenes for *[the Wonder](To)(To the Wonder)*, a 2012 romantic drama film written and directed by [Malick](Terrence)(Terrence Malick), alongside [Affleck](Ben)(Ben Affleck), [Kurylenko](Olga)(Olga Kurylenko), [Bardem](Javier)(Javier Bardem), and [McAdams](Rachel)(Rachel McAdams); her scenes were cut. She has also starred in the 2012 action thriller film *[Bourne Legacy](The)(The Bourne Legacy (film))* based on the series of books by [Ludlum](Robert)(Robert Ludlum).
In 2013, Weisz starred on [Broadway](Broadway theatre) alongside her husband, [Craig](Daniel)(Daniel Craig), in a revival of [Pinter](Harold)(Harold Pinter)'s *[Betrayal](Betrayal (play))*. It opened 27 October 2013, and closed 5 January 2014. Despite mixed reviews, box office receipts of $17.5 million made it the second highest grossing Broadway play of 2013. That same year, Weisz played [Evanora](Wicked Witch of the East) in the fantasy film *[the Great and Powerful](Oz)(Oz the Great and Powerful)*.
[[File:Rachel Weisz Cannes 2015 2.jpg|thumb|upright|Weisz at the [Cannes Film Festival](2015)(2015 Cannes Film Festival)]]
In 2015, she appeared in drama film *[Youth](Youth (2015 film))* and in science fiction film *[Lobster](The)(The Lobster)*. The film won Cannes Jury Prize. In 2016, she appeared in the drama film *[Light Between Oceans](The)(The Light Between Oceans (film))*, with [Fassbender](Michael)(Michael Fassbender) and [Vikander](Alicia)(Alicia Vikander), and portrayed Holocaust historian [Lipstadt](Deborah)(Deborah Lipstadt) in *[Denial](Denial (2016 film))*, a film based on Lipstadt's book, and directed by [Jackson](Mick)(Mick Jackson (director)).
In 2017 Weisz starred in *[Cousin Rachel](My)(My Cousin Rachel (2017 film))*, a drama based on [du Maurier](Daphne)(Daphne du Maurier)'s novel, and in 2018 co-starred in a British [film](biographical)(biographical film) about sailor [Crowhurst](Donald)(Donald Crowhurst), *[Mercy](The)(The Mercy)*, directed by [Marsh](James)(James Marsh (director)).
Weisz's production company, LC6 Productions, released its first feature film, *[Disobedience](Disobedience (2017 film))*, in 2017, starring Weisz and [McAdams](Rachel)(Rachel McAdams). Weisz grew up three [underground](London Underground) stops away from where the film is set in London. Raised Jewish, she never fully connected to the faith. She claims she was "really disobedient" herself, and has never felt she fits in anywhere.
In 2018, Weisz played [Churchill](Sarah)(Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough) in *[Favourite](The)(The Favourite)*, winning the [Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role](BAFTA)(BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role) and receiving her second nomination for the [Award for Best Supporting Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress). In April 2019, she entered talks to join [Johansson](Scarlett)(Scarlett Johansson) in the [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe) film *[Widow](Black)(Black Widow (2021 film))*. In July of that year, Weisz was announced to play [Vostokoff](Melina)(Melina Vostokoff (Marvel Cinematic Universe)) in the film, which was released on 9 July 2021.
### 2020s
Weisz next starred and executive produced *[Ringers](Dead)(Dead Ringers (miniseries))*, a remake of the [film of the same name](1988)(Dead Ringers (film)) for [Prime Video](Amazon)(Amazon Prime Video). She is set to portray actress [Taylor](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Taylor) in the biographical drama *A Special Relationship*, though the film remains in development. The film will chronicle Taylor's life and career from actress to activist. It is set to be directed by [and Bertie](Bert)(Bert and Bertie), and produced by [Films](See-Saw)(See-Saw Films), with a script written by [Beaufoy](Simon)(Simon Beaufoy). She is attached to star alongside [Farrell](Colin)(Colin Farrell) in *Love Child*, directed by [Solondz](Todd)(Todd Solondz). She is also set to star in a film adaptation of *[on a Wet Afternoon](Seance)(Seance on a Wet Afternoon)*, based on the 1961 suspense novel of the same name by Mark McShane and directed by [Alfredson](Tomas)(Tomas Alfredson).
## Personal life
In the summer of 2001, Weisz began dating American filmmaker and producer [Aronofsky](Darren)(Darren Aronofsky). They met backstage at London's [Theatre](Almeida)(Almeida Theatre), where she was starring in *The Shape of Things*. Weisz moved to [York](New)(New York City) with Aronofsky the following year; in 2005, they were engaged. Their son was born in May 2006 in New York City. The couple resided in the [Village](East)(East Village, Manhattan) in [Manhattan](Manhattan). In November 2010, Weisz and Aronofsky announced that they had been apart for months, but remained close friends and were committed to bringing up their son together in New York.
Weisz and actor [Craig](Daniel)(Daniel Craig) had been friends for many years, and worked together on the film *[House](Dream)(Dream House (2011 film))*. They began dating in December 2010 and they married on 22 June 2011 in a private New York ceremony, with four guests in attendance, including Weisz's son and Craig's daughter. On 1 September 2018, it was reported that they had their first child together, a daughter.
Throughout her career, Weisz has been featured on the covers of magazines, such as *[Vogue](Vogue (magazine))*. She served as a [muse](Artistic inspiration) to fashion designer [Rodriguez](Narciso)(Narciso Rodriguez), and was named [L'Oréal](L'Oréal)'s global ambassador in 2010.
Weisz learned [karate](karate) for her role in *[Brothers Bloom](The)(The Brothers Bloom)*.
A British citizen by birth, Weisz became a [US citizen](naturalised)(naturalised US citizen) in 2011.
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
### Theatre
## Awards and nominations
## See also
*[of British Academy Award nominees and winners](List)(List of British Academy Award nominees and winners)
*[of Jewish Academy Award winners and nominees](List)(List of Jewish Academy Award winners and nominees)
*[of actors with Academy Award nominations](List)(List of actors with Academy Award nominations)
*[of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories](List)(List of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories)
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
*
}}
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Michael Crichton
|
michael_crichton
|
# Michael Crichton
*Revision ID: 1159566905 | Timestamp: 2023-06-11T04:49:06Z*
---
| birth_place = [Chicago](Chicago), Illinois, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = [Angeles](Los)(Los Angeles), California, U.S.
| occupation = Author, filmmaker
| education = [University](Harvard)(Harvard University) ([BA](Bachelor of Arts), [MD](Doctor of Medicine))
| genre = [Action](Action (fiction)), [adventure](adventure fiction), science fiction, [techno-thriller](techno-thriller), historical fiction, drama
| spouse =
| children = 2
| period = 1959–2008
| signature = Michael Crichton signature.svg
| signature_alt = "Michael Crichton"
| website =
}}
**John Michael Crichton** (; October 23, 1942 – November 4, 2008) was an American author and filmmaker. His books have sold over 200 million copies worldwide, and over a dozen have been adapted into films. His literary works heavily feature technology and are usually within the [fiction](science)(science fiction), [techno-thriller](techno-thriller), and [fiction](medical)(medical fiction) genres. His novels often explore technology and failures of human interaction with it, especially resulting in catastrophes with [biotechnology](biotechnology). Many of his novels have medical or scientific underpinnings, reflecting his medical training and scientific background.
Crichton received an [M.D.](Doctor of Medicine) from [Medical School](Harvard)(Harvard Medical School) in 1969 but did not practice medicine, choosing to focus on his writing instead. Initially writing under a pseudonym, he eventually wrote 26 novels, including: *[Andromeda Strain](The)(The Andromeda Strain)* (1969), *[Terminal Man](The)(The Terminal Man)* (1972), *[Great Train Robbery](The)(The Great Train Robbery (novel))* (1975), *[Congo](Congo (novel))* (1980), *[Sphere](Sphere (novel))* (1987), *[Park](Jurassic)(Jurassic Park (novel))* (1990), *[Sun](Rising)(Rising Sun (Crichton novel))* (1992), *[Disclosure](Disclosure (novel))* (1994), *[Lost World](The)(The Lost World (Crichton novel))* (1995), *[Airframe](Airframe (novel))* (1996), *[Timeline](Timeline (novel))* (1999), *[Prey](Prey (novel))* (2002), *[of Fear](State)(State of Fear)* (2004), and *[Next](Next (Crichton novel))* (2006). Several novels, in various states of completion, were published after his death in 2008.
Crichton was also involved in the film and television industry. In 1973, he wrote and directed *[Westworld](Westworld (film))*, the first film to utilize 2D [imagery](computer-generated)(computer-generated imagery). He also directed: *[Coma](Coma (1978 film))* (1978), *[First Great Train Robbery](The)(The First Great Train Robbery)* (1978), *[Looker](Looker)* (1981), and *[Runaway](Runaway (1984 American film))* (1984). He was the creator of the television series *[ER](ER (TV series))* (1994–2009), and several of his novels were adapted into films, most notably the [Park* franchise](*Jurassic)(Jurassic Park).
## Life
### Early life
John Michael Crichton was born on October 23, 1942, in Chicago, Illinois, to John Henderson Crichton, a journalist, and Zula Miller Crichton, a homemaker. He was raised on [Island](Long)(Long Island), in [New York](Roslyn,)(Roslyn, New York), and he showed a keen interest in writing from a young age; at 16, he had an article about a trip he took to [Crater](Sunset)(Sunset Crater) published in *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*.
Crichton later recalled, "Roslyn was another world. Looking back, it's remarkable what wasn't going on. There was no terror. No fear of children being abused. No fear of random murder. No drug use we knew about. I walked to school. I rode my bike for miles and miles, to the movie on Main Street and piano lessons and the like. Kids had freedom. It wasn't such a dangerous world... We studied our butts off, and we got a tremendously good education there."
Crichton had always planned on becoming a writer and began his studies at [College](Harvard)(Harvard College) in 1960. During his undergraduate study in literature, he conducted an experiment to expose a professor who he believed was giving him abnormally low marks and criticizing his literary style. Informing another professor of his suspicions, Crichton submitted an essay by [Orwell](George)(George Orwell) under his own name. The paper was returned by his unwitting professor with a mark of "B−". He later said, "Now Orwell was a wonderful writer, and if a B-minus was all he could get, I thought I'd better drop English as my major." His differences with the English department led Crichton to switch his undergraduate concentration. He obtained his bachelor's degree in [anthropology](biological)(biological anthropology) *[cum laude](summa)(wikt:summa cum laude)* in 1964 and was initiated into the [Beta Kappa Society](Phi)(Phi Beta Kappa Society). He received a Henry Russell Shaw Traveling Fellowship from 1964 to 1965 and was a visiting lecturer in [anthropology](anthropology) at the [of Cambridge](University)(University of Cambridge) in the United Kingdom in 1965. Crichton later enrolled at [Medical School](Harvard)(Harvard Medical School). Crichton later said "about two weeks into medical school I realized I hated it. This isn't unusual since everyone hates medical school – even happy, practicing physicians."
### Pseudonymous novels (1965–1968)
[[File:Hudson in the woods by Mytens.jpg|thumb|upright|Crichton used the pen-name "[Hudson](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Hudson)", a reference to the 17th century court dwarf and his own abnormal height.]]
In 1965, while at [Medical School](Harvard)(Harvard Medical School), Crichton wrote a novel, *[On](Odds)(Odds On)*. "I wrote for furniture and groceries", he said later. *Odds On* is a 215-page paperback novel which describes an attempted robbery in an isolated hotel on [Brava](Costa)(Costa Brava). The robbery is planned scientifically with the help of a [path analysis](critical)(Critical path method) computer program, but unforeseen events get in the way. Crichton submitted it to Doubleday, where a reader liked it but felt it was not for the company. Doubleday passed it on to New American Library, which published it in 1966. Crichton used the pen name John Lange because he planned to become a doctor and did not want his patients to worry that he would use them for his plots. The name came from cultural anthropologist [Lang](Andrew)(Andrew Lang). Crichton added an "e" to the surname and substituted his own real first name, John, for Andrew. The novel was successful enough to lead to a series of John Lange novels. Film rights were sold in 1969, but no movie resulted.
The second Lange novel, *[One](Scratch)(Scratch One)* (1967), relates the story of Roger Carr, a handsome, charming, privileged man who practices law, more as a means to support his playboy lifestyle than a career. Carr is sent to [Nice](Nice), France, where he has notable political connections, but is mistaken for an assassin and finds his life in jeopardy. Crichton wrote the book while traveling through Europe on a travel fellowship. He visited the [Film Festival](Cannes)(Cannes Film Festival) and [Grand Prix](Monaco)(Monaco Grand Prix), and then decided, "any idiot should be able to write a [potboiler](potboiler) set in Cannes and Monaco", and wrote it in eleven days. He later described the book as "no good". His third John Lange novel, *[Go](Easy)(Easy Go (novel))* (1968), is the story of Harold Barnaby, a brilliant [Egyptologist](Egyptologist) who discovers a concealed message while translating [hieroglyphics](hieroglyphics) informing him of an unnamed pharaoh whose tomb is yet to be discovered. Crichton said the book earned him $1,500 () . Crichton later said: "My feeling about the Lange books is that my competition is in-flight movies. One can read the books in an hour and a half, and be more satisfactorily amused than watching [Day](Doris)(Doris Day). I write them fast and the reader reads them fast and I get things off my back."
Crichton's fourth novel was *[Case of Need](A)(A Case of Need)* (1968), a medical thriller. The novel had a different tone from the Lange books; accordingly, Crichton used the pen name "Jeffery Hudson", based on Sir [Hudson](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Hudson), a 17th-century dwarf in the court of [consort](queen)(queen consort) [Maria](Henrietta)(Henrietta Maria of France) of England. The novel would prove a turning point in Crichton's future novels, in which technology is important in the subject matter, although this novel was as much about medical practice. The novel earned him an [Award](Edgar)(Edgar Award) in 1969. He intended to use the "Jeffery Hudson" for other medical novels but ended up using it only once. It would later be adapted into the film *[Carey Treatment](The)(The Carey Treatment)* (1972).
#### Pseudonyms
*John Lange
*Jeffery Hudson
*Michael Douglas
### Early novels and screenplays (1969–1974)
[[File:Slaughterhouse-Five (first edition) - Kurt Vonnegut.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Crichton critiqued [Vonnegut](Kurt)(Kurt Vonnegut)'s *[Slaughterhouse-Five](Slaughterhouse-Five)* (1969) in *[New Republic](The)(The New Republic)*.]]
Crichton says after he finished his third year of medical school: "I stopped believing that one day I'd love it and realised that what I loved was writing." He began publishing book reviews under his name. In 1969, Crichton wrote a review for *[New Republic](The)(The New Republic)* (as J. Michael Crichton), critiquing *[Slaughterhouse-Five](Slaughterhouse-Five)* by [Vonnegut](Kurt)(Kurt Vonnegut). He also continued to write Lange novels: *[Cool](Zero)(Zero Cool)* (1969), dealt with an American radiologist on vacation in Spain who is caught in a murderous crossfire between rival gangs seeking a precious artifact. *[Venom Business](The)(The Venom Business)* (1969) relates the story of a smuggler who uses his exceptional skill as a snake handler to his advantage by importing snakes to be used by drug companies and universities for medical research.
The first novel that was published under Crichton's name was *[Andromeda Strain](The)(The Andromeda Strain)* (1969), which proved to be the most important novel of his career and established him as a bestselling author. The novel documented the efforts of a team of scientists investigating a deadly [extraterrestrial](extraterrestrial life) [microorganism](microorganism) that fatally clots human blood, causing death within two minutes. Crichton was inspired to write it after reading *[IPCRESS File](The)(The IPCRESS File)* by [Deighton](Len)(Len Deighton) while studying in England. Crichton says he was "terrifically impressed" by the book – "a lot of *Andromeda* is traceable to *Ipcress* in terms of trying to create an imaginary world using recognizable techniques and real people." He wrote the novel over three years. The novel became an instant hit, and film rights were sold for $250,000. It was adapted into a [film](1971)(The Andromeda Strain (film)) by director [Wise](Robert)(Robert Wise).
During his clinical rotations at the [City Hospital](Boston)(Boston City Hospital), Crichton grew disenchanted with the culture there, which appeared to emphasize the interests and reputations of doctors over the interests of patients. He graduated from Harvard, obtaining an MD in 1969, and undertook a post-doctoral fellowship study at the [Institute for Biological Studies](Salk)(Salk Institute for Biological Studies) in [Jolla, California](La)(La Jolla, San Diego), from 1969 to 1970. He never obtained a license to practice medicine, devoting himself to his writing career instead. Reflecting on his career in medicine years later, Crichton concluded that patients too often shunned responsibility for their own health, relying on doctors as miracle workers rather than advisors. He experimented with [projection](astral)(astral projection), [aura](Aura (paranormal)) viewing, and [clairvoyance](clairvoyance), coming to believe that these included real phenomena that scientists had too eagerly dismissed as [paranormal](paranormal).
Three more Crichton books under pseudonyms were published in 1970. Two were Lange novels, *[of Choice](Drug)(Drug of Choice)* and *[Descend](Grave)(Grave Descend)*. *Grave Descend* earned him an Edgar Award nomination the following year. There was also *[or the Berkeley-to-Boston Forty-Brick Lost-Bag Blues](Dealing:)(Dealing: or the Berkeley-to-Boston Forty-Brick Lost-Bag Blues)* written with his younger brother Douglas Crichton. *Dealing* was written under the pen name "Michael Douglas", using their first names. Michael Crichton wrote it "completely from beginning to end". Then his brother rewrote it from beginning to end, and then Crichton rewrote it again. This novel was [into a movie in 1972](made)(Dealing: Or the Berkeley-to-Boston Forty-Brick Lost-Bag Blues (film)). Around this time Crichton also wrote and sold an original film script, ''Morton's Run*. He also wrote the screenplay *Lucifer Harkness in Darkness''.
[[File:MassGeneralHospital.jpg|thumb|right|Crichton's first published book of non-fiction, *[Patients](Five)(Five Patients)*, recounts his experiences of practices in the late 1960s at [General Hospital](Massachusetts)(Massachusetts General Hospital) and the issues of costs and politics within American health care.]]
Aside from fiction, Crichton wrote several other books based on medical or scientific themes, often based upon his own observations in his field of expertise. In 1970, he published *[Patients](Five)(Five Patients)*, which recounts his experiences of hospital practices in the late 1960s at [General Hospital](Massachusetts)(Massachusetts General Hospital) in Boston. The book follows each of five patients through their hospital experience and the context of their treatment, revealing inadequacies in the hospital institution at the time. The book relates the experiences of Ralph Orlando, a construction worker seriously injured in a scaffold collapse; John O'Connor, a middle-aged dispatcher suffering from fever that has reduced him to a delirious wreck; Peter Luchesi, a young man who severs his hand in an accident; Sylvia Thompson, an airline passenger who suffers chest pains; and Edith Murphy, a mother of three who is diagnosed with a life-threatening disease. In *Five Patients*, Crichton examines a brief history of medicine up to 1969 to help place hospital culture and practice into context, and addresses the costs and politics of American healthcare. In 1974, he wrote a pilot script for a medical series, "[Hours](24)(24 Hours (ER))", based on his book *[Patients](Five)(Five Patients)*, however, networks were not enthusiastic.
As a personal friend of the artist [Johns](Jasper)(Jasper Johns), Crichton compiled many of Johns' works in a [table book](coffee)(coffee table book), published as *[Johns](Jasper)(Jasper Johns (book))*. It was originally published in 1970 by Harry N. Abrams, Inc. in association with the [Museum of American Art](Whitney)(Whitney Museum of American Art) and again in January 1977, with a second revised edition published in 1994. The psychiatrist Janet Ross owned a copy of the painting *Numbers* by Jasper Johns in Crichton's later novel *[Terminal Man](The)(The Terminal Man)*. The [technophobic](technophobic) antagonist of the story found it odd that a person would paint numbers as they were inorganic.
In 1972, Crichton published his last novel as John Lange: *[Binary](Binary (novel))*, relates the story of a villainous middle-class businessman, who attempts to assassinate the President of the United States by stealing an army shipment of the two precursor chemicals that form a deadly nerve agent.
*[Terminal Man](The)(The Terminal Man)* (1972), is about a [epileptic](psychomotor)(psychomotor epileptic) sufferer, Harry Benson, who regularly suffers seizures followed by blackouts, and conducts himself inappropriately during seizures, waking up hours later with no knowledge of what he has done. Believed to be psychotic, he is investigated and electrodes are implanted in his brain. The book continued the preoccupation in Crichton's novels with machine-human interaction and technology. The novel was adapted into a [film](1974)(The Terminal Man (film)) directed by [Hodges](Mike)(Mike Hodges) and starring [Segal](George)(George Segal). Crichton was hired to adapt his novel *The Terminal Man* into a script by Warner Bros. The studio felt he had departed from the source material too much and had [writer adapt it for the 1974 film](another)(The Terminal Man (film)).
ABC TV wanted to buy the film rights to Crichton's novel *[Binary](Binary (novel))*. The author agreed on the provision that he could direct the film. ABC agreed provided someone other than Crichton write the script. The result, *[Pursuit](Pursuit (1972 American film))* (1972) was a ratings success. Crichton then wrote and directed the 1973 low-budget science fiction western-thriller film *[Westworld](Westworld (film))* about robots that run amok, which was his feature film directorial debut. It was the first feature film using 2D [imagery](computer-generated)(computer-generated imagery) (CGI). The producer of *Westworld* hired Crichton to write an original script, which became the erotic thriller *[Close-Up](Extreme)(Extreme Close-Up (film))* (1973). Directed by [Szwarc](Jeannot)(Jeannot Szwarc), the movie disappointed Crichton.
### Period novels and directing (1975–1988)
[[File:Neanderthal Man, H. G. Wells' Outline of History, page 39.jpg|thumb|Crichton's 1976 novel *[of the Dead](Eaters)(Eaters of the Dead)* featured relict [Neanderthals](Neanderthals) as antagonists.]]
In 1975, Crichton wrote *[Great Train Robbery](The)(The Great Train Robbery (novel))*, which would become a bestseller. The novel is a recreation of the [Gold Robbery of 1855](Great)(Great Gold Robbery of 1855), a massive gold heist, which takes place on a train traveling through [era](Victorian)(Victorian era) England. A considerable portion of the book was set in London. Crichton had become aware of the story when lecturing at the [of Cambridge](University)(University of Cambridge). He later read the transcripts of the court trial and started researching the historical period.
In 1976, Crichton published *[of the Dead](Eaters)(Eaters of the Dead)*, a novel about a 10th-century Muslim who travels with a group of Vikings to their settlement. *Eaters of the Dead* is narrated as a scientific commentary on an old manuscript and was inspired by two sources. The first three chapters retell [ibn Fadlan](Ahmad)(Ahmad ibn Fadlan)'s personal account of his journey north and his experiences in encountering the [Rus'](Rus' people), a Varangian tribe, whilst the remainder is based upon the story of [Beowulf](Beowulf), culminating in battles with the 'mist-monsters', or 'wendol', a relict group of [Neanderthals](Neanderthals).
Crichton wrote and directed the suspense film *[Coma](Coma (1978 film))* (1978), adapted from the 1977 novel of the same name by [Cook](Robin)(Robin Cook (novelist)), a friend of his. There are other similarities in terms of genre and the fact that both Cook and Crichton had medical degrees, were of similar age, and wrote about similar subjects. The film was a popular success. Crichton then wrote and directed an adaptation of his own book, *[Great Train Robbery](The)(The First Great Train Robbery)* (1978), starring [Connery](Sean)(Sean Connery) and [Sutherland](Donald)(Donald Sutherland). The film would go on to be nominated for Best Cinematography Award by the [Society of Cinematographers](British)(British Society of Cinematographers), also garnering an [Allan Poe Award](Edgar)(Edgar Allan Poe Award) for Best Motion Picture by the Mystery Writers Association of America.
In 1979 it was announced that Crichton would direct a movie version of his novel *[of the Dead](Eaters)(Eaters of the Dead)* for the newly formed [Pictures](Orion)(Orion Pictures). This did not occur. Crichton pitched the idea of a modern day ''[Solomon's Mines](King)(King Solomon's Mines)* to [Century Fox](20th)(20th Century Fox) who paid him $1.5 million for the film rights to the novel, a screenplay and directorial fee for the movie, before a word had been written. He had never worked that way before, usually writing the book then selling it. He eventually managed to finish the book, titled *[Congo](Congo (novel))*, which became a best seller. Crichton did the screenplay for *Congo* after he wrote and directed *[Looker](Looker)* (1981). *Looker* was a financial disappointment. Crichton came close to directing a film of *Congo'' with [Connery](Sean)(Sean Connery), but the film did not happen. Eventually a film version was made in 1995 by [Marshall](Frank)(Frank Marshall (filmmaker)).
In 1984, [Telarium](Telarium) released a [adventure](graphic)(graphic adventure) based on *Congo*. Because Crichton had sold all adaptation rights to the novel, he set the game, named *[Amazon](Amazon (video game))*, in South America, and Amy the gorilla became Paco the parrot. That year Crichton also wrote and directed *[Runaway](Runaway (1984 American film))* (1984), a police thriller set in the near future which was a box office disappointment.
Crichton had begun writing *[Sphere](Sphere (novel))* in 1967 as a companion piece to *[Andromeda Strain](The)(The Andromeda Strain)*. His initial storyline began with American scientists discovering a 300-year-old spaceship underwater with stenciled markings in English. However, Crichton later realized that he "didn't know where to go with it" and put off completing the book until a later date. The novel was published in 1987. It relates the story of psychologist Norman Johnson, who is required by the U.S. Navy to join a team of scientists assembled by the U.S. Government to examine an enormous alien spacecraft discovered on the bed of the Pacific Ocean, and believed to have been there for over 300 years. The novel begins as a science fiction story, but rapidly changes into a psychological thriller, ultimately exploring the nature of the human imagination. The novel was adapted into the [film](1998)(Sphere (1998 film)) directed by [Levinson](Barry)(Barry Levinson) and starring [Hoffman](Dustin)(Dustin Hoffman).
Crichton worked as a director only on *[Evidence](Physical)(Physical Evidence)* (1989), a thriller originally conceived as a sequel to *[Edge](Jagged)(Jagged Edge (film))*.
In 1988, Crichton was a visiting writer at the [Institute of Technology](Massachusetts)(Massachusetts Institute of Technology).
A book of autobiographical writings, *[Travels](Travels (book))* was published in 1988.
### *Jurassic Park* and subsequent works (1989–1999)
[[File:Jurassic Park for kids in Kletno PL.jpg|thumb|right|Crichton's novel *Jurassic Park*, and its sequels, were made into films that became a major part of popular culture, with related parks established in places as far afield as [Kletno](Kletno), Poland.]]
In 1990, Crichton published the novel *[Park](Jurassic)(Jurassic Park (novel))*. Crichton utilized the presentation of "[as fact](fiction)(False document)", used in his previous novels, *Eaters of the Dead* and *The Andromeda Strain*. In addition, [theory](chaos)(chaos theory) and its philosophical implications are used to explain the collapse of an [park](amusement)(amusement park) in a "biological preserve" on Isla Nublar, a fictional island to the west of Costa Rica. The novel began as a screenplay Crichton wrote in 1983, about a graduate student who recreates a dinosaur. Eventually, given his reasoning that genetic research is expensive and "there is no pressing need to create a dinosaur", Crichton concluded that it would emerge from a "desire to entertain", leading to a [park](wildlife)(Wildlife refuge) of extinct animals."Return to Jurassic Park: Dawn of a New Era", *Jurassic Park* Blu-ray (2011) Originally, the story was told from the point of view of a child, but Crichton changed it as everyone who read the draft felt it would be better if told by an adult.
Crichton originally had conceived a screenplay about a graduate student who recreates a dinosaur, but decided to put off exploring his fascination with dinosaurs and cloning until he began writing the novel. [Spielberg](Steven)(Steven Spielberg) learned of the novel in October 1989 while he and Crichton were discussing a screenplay that would become the television series *[ER](ER (TV series))*. Before the book was published, Crichton demanded a non-negotiable fee of $1.5 million as well as a substantial percentage of the gross. [Bros.](Warner)(Warner Bros.) and [Burton](Tim)(Tim Burton), [Pictures Entertainment](Sony)(Sony Pictures Entertainment) and [Donner](Richard)(Richard Donner), and [Century Fox](20th)(20th Century Fox) and [Dante](Joe)(Joe Dante) bid for the rights,[McBride](Joseph)(Joseph McBride (writer)) (1997). *Steven Spielberg*. Faber and Faber, 416–9. but Universal eventually acquired the rights in May 1990 for Spielberg.DVD Production Notes Universal paid Crichton a further $500,000 to adapt his own novel, which he had completed by the time Spielberg was filming *[Hook](Hook (film))*. Crichton noted that, because the book was "fairly long", his script only had about 10% to 20% of the novel's content. The [film](Jurassic Park (film)), directed by Spielberg, was released in 1993.
[[in amber.jpg|thumb|left|A mosquito preserved in amber. A specimen of this sort was the source of dinosaur DNA in *Jurassic Park*.](File:Mosquito)]
In 1992, Crichton published the novel *[Sun](Rising)(Rising Sun (Crichton novel))*, an international bestselling crime thriller about a murder in the Los Angeles headquarters of Nakamoto, a fictional Japanese corporation. The book was adapted into the [film](1993)(Rising Sun (film)) directed by [Kaufman](Philip)(Philip Kaufman) and starring [Connery](Sean)(Sean Connery) and [Snipes](Wesley)(Wesley Snipes), released the same year as the adaptation of *Jurassic Park*.Lehmann-Haupt, Christopher. ["A thriller not to carry on your next plane trip".](https://www.nytimes.com/1996/12/05/books/a-thriller-not-to-carry-on-your-next-plane-trip.html) *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, December 5, 1996.
His next novel, *[Disclosure](Disclosure (novel))*, published in 1994, addresses the theme of sexual harassment previously explored in his 1972 novel, *Binary*. Unlike that novel however, Crichton centers on sexual politics in the workplace, emphasizing an array of paradoxes in traditional gender functions by featuring a male protagonist who is being sexually harassed by a female executive. As a result, the book has been criticized harshly by feminist commentators and accused of anti-feminism. Crichton, anticipating this response, offered a rebuttal at the close of the novel which states that a "role-reversal" story uncovers aspects of the subject that would not be seen as easily with a female protagonist. The novel was made into a [film](Disclosure (1994 film)) the same year, directed by [Levinson](Barry)(Barry Levinson) and starring [Douglas](Michael)(Michael Douglas) and [Moore](Demi)(Demi Moore).
Crichton was the creator and an executive producer of the television drama *[ER](ER (TV series))* based on his 1974 pilot script *24 Hours*. Spielberg helped develop the show, serving as an executive producer on season one and offering advice (he insisted on [Margulies](Julianna)(Julianna Margulies) becoming a regular, for example). It was also through Spielberg's Amblin Entertainment that [Wells](John)(John Wells (TV producer)) was contacted to be the show's executive producer.
Crichton then published *[Lost World](The)(The Lost World (Crichton novel))* in 1995 as the sequel to *Jurassic Park*. The title was a reference to [Conan Doyle](Arthur)(Arthur Conan Doyle)'s *[Lost World](The)(The Lost World (Doyle novel))* (1912). It was made into the [film](1997)(The Lost World: Jurassic Park) two years later, again directed by Spielberg. In March 1994, Crichton said there would probably be a sequel novel as well as a film adaptation, stating that he had an idea for the novel's story.
Then, in 1996, Crichton published *[Airframe](Airframe (novel))*, an aero-techno-thriller. The book continued Crichton's overall theme of the failure of humans in human-machine interaction, given that the plane worked perfectly and the accident would not have occurred had the pilot reacted properly.
He also wrote *[Twister](Twister (1996 film))* (1996) with [Martin](Anne-Marie)(Anne-Marie Martin), his wife at the time.
In 1999, Crichton published *[Timeline](Timeline (novel))*, a science fiction novel in which experts [travel](time)(time travel) back to the medieval period. The novel, which continued Crichton's long history of combining technical details and action in his books, addresses [physics](quantum)(quantum physics) and time travel directly and received a warm welcome from medieval scholars, who praised his depiction of the challenges in studying the [Ages](Middle)(Middle Ages). In 1999, Crichton founded Timeline Computer Entertainment with [Smith](David)(David A. Smith (computer scientist)). Despite signing a multi-title publishing deal with [Interactive](Eidos)(Eidos Interactive), only one game was ever published, *[Timeline](Timeline (video game))*. Released by Eidos Interactive on November 10, 2000, for the PC, the game received negative reviews. A [film](2003)(Timeline (2003 film)) based on the book was directed by [Donner](Richard)(Richard Donner) and starring [Walker](Paul)(Paul Walker), [Butler](Gerard)(Gerard Butler) and [O'Connor](Frances)(Frances O'Connor).
*Eaters of the Dead* was adapted into the 1999 film *[13th Warrior](The)(The 13th Warrior)* directed by [McTiernan](John)(John McTiernan), who was later removed, with Crichton himself taking over direction of reshoots.
### Final novels and later life (2000–2008)
[[File:MichaelCrichton.jpg|thumb|left|Crichton speaking at [University](Harvard)(Harvard University) in 2002]]
In 2002, Crichton published *[Prey](Prey (novel))*, about developments in science and technology, specifically [nanotechnology](nanotechnology). The novel explores relatively recent phenomena engendered by the work of the scientific community, such as: [life](artificial)(artificial life), [emergence](emergence) (and by extension, [complexity](complexity)), [algorithms](genetic)(genetic algorithms), and [agent](intelligent agent)-based computing.
In 2004, Crichton published *[of Fear](State)(State of Fear)*, a novel concerning [eco-terrorists](eco-terrorism) who attempt mass murder to support their views. The novel's central premise is that climate scientists exaggerate [warming](global)(global warming). A review in *[Nature](Nature (journal))* found the novel "likely to mislead the unwary". The novel had an initial print run of 1.5 million copies and reached the No. 1 bestseller position at [Amazon.com](Amazon.com) and No. 2 on [New York Times* Best Seller list](*The)(The New York Times Best Seller list) for one week in January 2005.[Michael Crichton's "Scientific Method"](http://www.columbia.edu/~jeh1/2005/Crichton_20050927.pdf) . James Hansen.
The last novel published while he was still living was *[Next](Next (Crichton novel))* in 2006. The novel follows many characters, including [transgenic](Genetically modified organism) animals, in the quest to survive in a world dominated by genetic research, corporate greed, and legal interventions, wherein government and private investors spend billions of dollars every year on genetic research.
In 2006, Crichton clashed with journalist [Crowley](Michael)(Michael Crowley (journalist)), a senior editor of the magazine *[New Republic](The)(The New Republic)*. In March 2006, Crowley wrote a strongly critical review of *State of Fear*, focusing on Crichton's stance on global warming.Crowley, Michael. ["Cock and Bull"](http://www.tnr.com/article/cock-and-bull) . *[New Republic](The)(The New Republic)*. December 25, 2006. In the same year, Crichton published the novel *[Next](Next (Crichton novel))*, which contains a minor character named "Mick Crowley", who is a Yale graduate and a Washington, D.C.–based political columnist. The character was portrayed as a child molester [a small penis](with)(Small penis rule).|author=Lee, Felicia|access-date=February 22, 2017|archive-date=April 22, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422155605/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/14/books/14cric.html|url-status=live}} The character does not appear elsewhere in the book. The real Crowley, also a Yale graduate, alleged that by including a [named character](similarly)(Tuckerization) Crichton had libeled him.
### Posthumous works
Several novels that were in various states of completion upon Crichton's death have since been published. The first, *[Latitudes](Pirate)(Pirate Latitudes)*, was found as a manuscript on one of his computers after his death. It centers on a fictional privateer who attempts to raid a Spanish galleon. It was published in November 2009 by [HarperCollins](HarperCollins).
Additionally, Crichton had completed the outline for and was roughly a third of the way through a novel titled *[Micro](Micro (novel))*, a novel which centers on technology that [shrinks](shrink ray) humans to microscopic sizes. *Micro* was completed by [Preston](Richard)(Richard Preston) using Crichton's notes and files, and was published in November 2011.
On July 28, 2016, Crichton's website and HarperCollins announced the publication of a third posthumous novel, titled *[Teeth](Dragon)(Dragon Teeth)*, which he had written in 1974. It is a historical novel set during the [Wars](Bone)(Bone Wars), and includes the real life characters of [Charles Marsh](Othniel)(Othniel Charles Marsh) and [Drinker Cope](Edward)(Edward Drinker Cope). The novel was released in May 2017.
In addition, some of his published works are being continued by other authors. On February 26, 2019, Crichton's website and HarperCollins announced the publication of *[Andromeda Evolution](The)(The Andromeda Evolution)*, the sequel to *[Andromeda Strain](The)(The Andromeda Strain)*, a collaboration with CrichtonSun LLC. and author [H. Wilson](Daniel)(Daniel H. Wilson). It was released on November 12, 2019.
It was later announced that his unpublished works will be adapted into TV shows and movies in collaboration with CrichtonSun and Range Media Partners.
On December 15, 2022, it was announced that [Patterson](James)(James Patterson) will coauthor a novel about a mega-eruption of Hawaii’s Mauna Loa volcano, based on an unfinished manuscript by Crichton. It is set to be published in 2024.
## Scientific and legal career
### Video games and computing
[[was an early proponent of programming and computers, predicting their ubiquity.](File:AtariBASIC.png|thumb|left|Crichton)]
In 1983, Crichton wrote *[Life](Electronic)(Electronic Life)*, a book that introduces [BASIC](BASIC programming language) [programming](computer programming) to its readers. The book, written like a glossary, with entries such as: "Afraid of Computers (everybody is)", "Buying a Computer" and "Computer Crime", was intended to introduce the idea of personal computers to a reader who might be faced with the hardship of using them at work or at home for the first time. It defined basic computer jargon and assured readers that they could master the machine when it inevitably arrived. In his words, being able to program a computer is liberation: "In my experience, you assert control over a computer—show it who's the boss—by making it do something unique. That means programming it. ... If you devote a couple of hours to programming a new machine, you'll feel better about it ever afterward." In the book, Crichton predicts a number of events in the history of computer development, that computer networks would increase in importance as a matter of convenience, including the sharing of information and pictures that we see online today, which the telephone never could. He also makes predictions for computer games, dismissing them as "the [hoop](hula)(hula hoop)s of the '80s", and saying "already there are indications that the mania for twitch games may be fading." In a section of the book called "Microprocessors, or how I flunked biostatistics at Harvard", Crichton again seeks his revenge on the teacher who had given him abnormally low grades in college. Within the book, Crichton included many self-written demonstrative [Applesoft](Applesoft BASIC) (for [II](Apple)(Apple II)) and [BASICA](Microsoft BASICA) (for [PC](IBM)(IBM PC) compatibles) programs.
*[Amazon](Amazon (video game))* is a [adventure](graphical)(graphical adventure) game created by Crichton and produced by John Wells. [Trillium](Trillium Corporation) released it in the United States in 1984, and the game runs on [II](Apple)(Apple II), [Atari](Atari) 8-bit, Atari ST, [64](Commodore)(Commodore 64), and [DOS](DOS). *Amazon* sold more than 100,000 copies, making it a significant commercial success at the time. It featured plot elements similar to those previously used in *Congo*.
Crichton started a company selling a computer program he had originally written to help him create budgets for his movies. He often sought to utilize computing in films, such as *Westworld*, which was the first film to employ computer-generated special effects. He also pushed Spielberg to include them in the *Jurassic Park* films. For his pioneering use of computer programs in film production he was awarded the [Award for Technical Achievement](Academy)(Academy Award for Technical Achievement) in 1995.
### Intellectual property cases
In November 2006, at the [Press Club](National)(National Press Club (United States)) in Washington, D.C., Crichton joked that he considered himself an expert in intellectual property law. He had been involved in several lawsuits with others claiming credit for his work.
In 1985, the [States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit](United)(United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit) heard *Berkic v. Crichton*, 761 F.2d 1289 (1985). Plaintiff Ted Berkic wrote a screenplay called *Reincarnation Inc.*, which he claims Crichton plagiarized for the movie *[Coma](Coma (1978 film))*. The court ruled in Crichton's favor, stating the works were not substantially similar.
In the 1996 case, *Williams v. Crichton*, 84 F.3d 581 (2d Cir. 1996), Geoffrey Williams claimed that *Jurassic Park* violated his copyright covering his dinosaur-themed children's stories published in the late 1980s. The court granted [judgment](summary)(summary judgment) in favor of Crichton.
In 1998, A United States District Court in Missouri heard the case of *Kessler v. Crichton* that actually went all the way to a jury trial, unlike the other cases. Plaintiff Stephen Kessler claimed the movie *[Twister](Twister (1996 film))* (1996) was based on his work *Catch the Wind*. It took the jury about 45 minutes to reach a verdict in favor of Crichton. After the verdict, Crichton refused to shake Kessler's hand.
Crichton later summarized his intellectual property legal cases: "I always win."
### Global warming
Crichton became well known for [attacking](Climate change denial) the [science](Scientific consensus on climate change) behind [warming](global)(global warming). He testified on the subject before Congress in 2005.
His views would be contested by a number of scientists and commentators. An example is [meteorologist](meteorologist) [Masters](Jeffrey)(Jeffrey Masters)'s review of Crichton's 2004 novel *[of Fear](State)(State of Fear)*:}}
[Doran](Peter)(Peter Doran), author of the paper in the January 2002 issue of *[Nature](Nature (journal))*, which reported the finding referred to above, stating that some areas of Antarctica had cooled between 1986 and 2000, wrote an opinion piece in the July 27, 2006, *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* in which he stated "Our results have been misused as 'evidence' against global warming by Michael Crichton in his novel *State of Fear*." [Gore](Al)(Al Gore) said on March 21, 2007, before a U.S. House committee: "The planet has a fever. If your baby has a fever, you go to the doctor ... if your doctor tells you you need to intervene here, you don't say 'Well, I read a science fiction novel that tells me it's not a problem'." Several commentators have interpreted this as a reference to *State of Fear*.[Knights of the Limits](http://news.ansible.co.uk/a237.html#05) Ansible 237, April 2007
## Literary technique and style
Crichton's novels, including *Jurassic Park*, have been described by *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* as "harking back to the fantasy adventure fiction of [Arthur Conan Doyle](Sir)(Sir Arthur Conan Doyle), [Verne](Jules)(Jules Verne), [Rice Burroughs](Edgar)(Edgar Rice Burroughs), and [Wallace](Edgar)(Edgar Wallace), but with a contemporary spin, assisted by cutting-edge technology references made accessible for the general reader". According to *The Guardian*, "Michael Crichton wasn't really interested in characters, but his innate talent for storytelling enabled him to breathe new life into the science fiction thriller". Like *The Guardian*, *The New York Times* has also noted the boys' adventure quality to his novels interfused with modern technology and science. According to *The New York Times*,
}}
Crichton's works were frequently [cautionary](cautionary tale); his plots often portrayed scientific advancements going awry, commonly resulting in worst-case scenarios. A notable recurring theme in Crichton's plots is the [pathological](pathological (mathematics)) failure of [system](complex)(complex system)s and their safeguards, whether biological (*[Park](Jurassic)(Jurassic Park (novel))*), militaristic/organizational (*[Andromeda Strain](The)(The Andromeda Strain)*), technological (*[Airframe](Airframe (novel))*), or [cybernetic](cybernetics) (*[Westworld](Westworld (film))*). This theme of the inevitable breakdown of "perfect" systems and the failure of "[fail-safe](fail-safe) measures" can be seen strongly in the poster for *Westworld*, whose slogan was, "Where nothing can possibly go worng" , and in the discussion of [theory](chaos)(chaos theory) in *Jurassic Park*. His 1973 movie *Westworld* contains one of the earliest references to a [virus](computer)(computer virus) and is the first mention of the concept of a computer virus in a movie. Crichton believed, however, that his view of technology had been misunderstood as
}}
The use of [surrogate](author)(author surrogate) was a feature of Crichton's writings from the beginning of his career. In *[Case of Need](A)(A Case of Need)*, one of his pseudonymous [whodunit](whodunit) stories, Crichton used first-person narrative to portray the hero, a Bostonian pathologist, who is running against the clock to clear a friend's name from medical malpractice in a girl's death from a hack-job abortion.
Crichton has used the literary technique known as the [document](false)(false document). *[of the Dead](Eaters)(Eaters of the Dead)* is a "recreation" of the [English](Old)(Old English language) epic* [Beowulf](Beowulf)* presented as a scholarly translation of [ibn Fadlan](Ahmad)(Ahmad ibn Fadlan)'s 10th century manuscript. *[Andromeda Strain](The)(The Andromeda Strain)* and* [Park](Jurassic)(Jurassic Park (novel)) *incorporate fictionalized scientific documents in the form of diagrams, computer output, [sequence](DNA)(DNA sequence)s, footnotes, and bibliography. *[Terminal Man](The)(The Terminal Man)* and *[of Fear](State)(State of Fear)* include authentic published scientific works that illustrate the premise point.
Crichton often employs the premise of diverse experts or specialists assembled to tackle a unique problem requiring their individual talents and knowledge. The premise was used for *The Andromeda Strain*, *Sphere*, *Jurassic Park*, and, to a lesser extent, *Timeline*. Sometimes the individual characters in this dynamic work in the private sector and are suddenly called upon by the government to form an immediate response team once some incident or discovery triggers their mobilization. This premise or plot device has been imitated and used by other authors and screenwriters in several books, movies and television shows since.
## Personal life
As an adolescent Crichton felt isolated because of his height (6 ft 9 in, or 206 cm). During the 1970s and 1980s, he consulted [psychic](psychic)s and enlightenment gurus to make him feel more socially acceptable and to improve his positive [karma](karma). As a result of these experiences, Crichton practiced [meditation](meditation) throughout much of his life. He is often regarded as a [deist](Deism); however, he never publicly confirmed this. When asked in an online Q&A if he were a spiritual person, Crichton responded with: "Yes, but it is difficult to talk about."
Crichton was a [workaholic](workaholic). When drafting a novel, which would typically take him six or seven weeks, Crichton withdrew completely to follow what he called "a structured approach" of ritualistic self-denial. As he neared writing the end of each book, he would rise increasingly early each day, meaning that he would sleep for less than four hours by going to bed at 10 p.m. and waking at 2 am.
In 1992, Crichton was ranked among *[People](People (magazine))* magazine's 50 most beautiful people.
He married five times. Four of the marriages ended in divorce with: Joan Radam (1965–1970), Kathleen St. Johns (1978–1980), Suzanna Childs (1981–1983) and actress [Martin](Anne-Marie)(Anne-Marie Martin) (1987–2003), the mother of his daughter Taylor Anne (born 1989). At the time of his death, Crichton was married to Sherri Alexander (married 2005), who was six months pregnant with their son, John Michael Todd Crichton, born on February 12, 2009.
### Politics
From 1990 to 1995, Crichton donated $9,750 to [Democratic](Democratic Party (United States)) candidates for office. According to [Choate](Pat)(Pat Choate), Crichton was a supporter of [Reform](Reform Party of the United States of America) candidate [Perot](Ross)(Ross Perot) in the [United States presidential election](1996)(1996 United States presidential election).
In a 2003 speech, Crichton warned against partisanship in environmental legislation, arguing for an apolitical environmentalist movement. He stated:
}}
In 2005, Crichton reportedly met with [Republican](Republican party (United States)) President [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush) to discuss Crichton's novel *State of Fear*, of which Bush was a fan. According to [Barnes](Fred)(Fred Barnes (journalist)), Bush and Crichton "talked for an hour and were in near-total agreement."
### Illness and death
According to Crichton's brother Douglas, Crichton was diagnosed with [lymphoma](lymphoma) in early 2008. In accordance with the private way in which Crichton lived, his cancer was not made public until his death. He was undergoing [chemotherapy](chemotherapy) treatment at the time of his death, and Crichton's physicians and relatives had been expecting him to recover. He died at age 66 on November 4, 2008.
|Steven Spielberg on Michael Crichton's death}}
|[King](Stephen)(Stephen King) on Crichton, 2008}}
Crichton had an extensive collection of 20th-century American art, which [Christie's](Christie's) auctioned in May 2010.
## Reception
[[File:Crichtonsaurus skeleton.jpg|thumb|A *[Crichtonsaurus](Crichtonsaurus)* skeleton in China]]
### Science fiction novels
Most of Crichton's novels address issues emerging in scientific research fields. In a number of his novels (*Jurassic Park*, *The Lost World*, *Next*, *Congo*), [genomics](genomics) plays an important role. Usually, the drama revolves around the sudden eruption of a scientific crisis, revealing the disruptive impacts new forms of knowledge and technology may have, as is stated in *The Andromeda Strain*, Crichton's first science fiction novel: "This book recounts the five-day history of a major American scientific crisis" (1969, p. 3) or *The Terminal Man* where unexpected behaviors are realized when electrodes are implanted into a person's brain.
### Awards
* [Writers of America](Mystery)(Mystery Writers of America)'s [Allan Poe Award](Edgar)(Edgar Award), Best Novel, 1969 – *[Case of Need](A)(A Case of Need)*
* Association of American Medical Writers Award, 1970
* [Writers of America](Mystery)(Mystery Writers of America)'s [Allan Poe Award](Edgar)(Edgar Award), Best Motion Picture, 1980 – *[Great Train Robbery](The)(The First Great Train Robbery)*
* Named to the list of the [Most Beautiful People"]("Fifty)(People Magazine's 100 Most Beautiful People) by [magazine](*People*)(People (American magazine)), 1992
* Golden Plate Award of the [Academy of Achievement](American)(Academy of Achievement), 1992
* [of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences Technical Achievement Award](Academy)(Academy Award for Technical Achievement), 1994
* [Guild of America Award](Writers)(Writers Guild of America Award), Best Long Form Television Script of 1995 (The Writer Guild list the award for 1996)
* [Foster Peabody Award](George)(Peabody Award), 1994 – *[ER](ER (TV series))*
* [Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series), 1996 – *[ER](ER (TV series))*
* [Ankylosaur](Ankylosaur) named *[bohlini](Crichtonsaurus)(Crichtonsaurus bohlini)*, 2002
* [Association of Petroleum Geologists](American)(American Association of Petroleum Geologists) Journalism Award, 2006
## Speeches
Crichton was also a popular public speaker. He delivered a number of notable speeches in his lifetime, particularly on the topic of [Warming](Global)(Global Warming).
### "Intelligence Squared debate"
On March 14, 2007, [Squared](Intelligence)(Intelligence Squared) held a debate in New York City titled *Global Warming Is Not a Crisis*, moderated by [Lehrer](Brian)(Brian Lehrer). Crichton was on the **for the motion** side along with [Lindzen](Richard)(Richard Lindzen) and [Stott](Philip)(Philip Stott) vs [Schmidt](Gavin)(Gavin Schmidt), [Somerville](Richard)(Richard Somerville), and Brenda Ekwurze, 'against the motion'. Before the debate, the audience was largely on the 'against the motion' side (57% vs. 30%, with 13% undecided). At the end of the debate, there was a notable shift in the audience vote to 'for the motion' side (46% vs. 42%, with 12% undecided), leaving the debate with the conclusion that Crichton's group had won. Even though Crichton inspired a lot of blog responses and it was considered one of his best rhetorical performances, reception of his message was mixed.
### Other speeches
#### "Mediasaurus: The Decline of Conventional Media"
In a speech delivered at the [Press Club](National)(National Press Club (USA)) in Washington, D.C., on April 7, 1993, Crichton predicted the decline of mainstream media.
#### "Ritual Abuse, Hot Air, and Missed Opportunities: Science Views Media"
The AAAS invited Crichton to address scientists' concerns about how they are portrayed in the media, which was delivered to the [Association for the Advancement of Science](American)(American Association for the Advancement of Science) in Anaheim, California on January 25, 1999.
#### "Environmentalism as Religion"
This was not the first discussion of environmentalism as a religion, but it caught on and was widely quoted. Crichton explains his view that religious approaches to the environment are inappropriate and cause damage to the natural world they intend to protect. The speech was delivered to the [Club](Commonwealth)(Commonwealth Club of California) in San Francisco, California on September 15, 2003.
#### "Science Policy in the 21st century"
Crichton outlined several issues before a joint meeting of liberal and conservative think tanks. The speech was delivered at [AEI](American Enterprise Institute)–[Institution](Brookings)(Brookings Institution) in Washington, D.C., on January 25, 2005.
#### "The Case for Skepticism on Global Warming"
On January 25, 2005, at the [Press Club](National)(National Press Club (USA)) in Washington, D.C., Crichton delivered a detailed explanation of why he criticized the consensus view on global warming. Using published UN data, he argued that claims for catastrophic warming arouse doubt; that reducing CO2 is vastly more difficult than is commonly presumed. He spoke on why societies are morally unjustified in spending vast sums on a speculative issue when people around the world are dying of starvation and disease.
#### "Caltech Michelin Lecture"
"Aliens Cause Global Warming" January 17, 2003. In the spirit of his science fiction writing, Crichton details research on [winter](nuclear)(nuclear winter) and [SETI](SETI) Drake equations relative to global warming science.
#### "Testimony before the United States Senate"
Crichton was invited to testify before the Senate in September 2005, as an "expert witness on global warming".p.8 Johansen, Bruce Elliott *Silenced!: Academic Freedom, Scientific Inquiry, and the First Amendment Under Siege in America* Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007 The speech was delivered to the [on Environment and Public Works](Committee)(Committee on Environment and Public Works) in Washington, D.C.
#### "Complexity Theory and Environmental Management"
In previous speeches, Crichton criticized environmental groups for failing to incorporate [theory](complexity)(complexity theory and organizations). Here he explains in detail why complexity theory is essential to environmental management, using the history of Yellowstone Park as an example of what not to do. The speech was delivered to the Washington Center for Complexity and Public Policy in Washington, D.C., on November 6, 2005.["An Afternoon with Michael Crichton: In collaboration with The Smithsonian Associates"](http://www.complexsys.org/publicprograms.html) , *Washington Center for Complexity and Public Policy*, Washington, D.C., November 6, 2005["Michael Crichton – Fear and Complexity and Environmental Management in the 21st Century"](http://www.michaelcrichton.net/video-speeches-smithsonian.html) , video from talk, *[Smithsonian Associates](The)(Smithsonian Associates)* and the *Washington Center for Complexity and Public Policy*, Washington, D.C., November 6, 2005
#### "Genetic Research and Legislative Needs"
While writing *[Next](Next (Crichton novel))*, Crichton concluded that laws covering genetic research desperately needed to be revised, and spoke to congressional staff members about problems ahead. The speech was delivered to a group of legislative staffers in Washington, D.C., on September 14, 2006.A Talk to Legislative Staffers
https://web.archive.org/web/20080513233120/http://www.michaelcrichton.com/speech-legislativestaffers.html
#### Gell-Mann Amnesia Effect
In a speech in 2002, Crichton coined the term "Gell-Mann amnesia effect", after physicist [Gell-Mann](Murray)(Murray Gell-Mann). He used this term to describe the phenomenon of experts believing news articles written on topics outside of their fields of expertise, yet acknowledging that articles written in the same publication within their fields of expertise are error-ridden and full of misunderstanding:
The Gell-Mann Amnesia effect is similar to [Knoll](Erwin)(Erwin Knoll)'s Law of Media Accuracy, which states: "Everything you read in the newspapers is absolutely true except for the rare story of which you happen to have firsthand knowledge."
### Legacy
In 2002, a genus of [ankylosaurid](ankylosaurid), *[bohlini](Crichtonsaurus)(Crichtonsaurus)*, was named in his honor. This species was concluded to be dubious however, and some of the diagnostic fossil material was then transferred into the new binomial *[benxiensis](Crichtonpelta)(Crichtonpelta)*, also named in his honor.
His properties continue to be adapted into films, making him the 20th highest grossing story creator of all time.
## Works
## References
## General and cited references
*
*
*
*
## External links
*
* [Musings on Michael Crichton — News and Analysis on his Life and Works](http://www.musingsonmichaelcrichton.com/)
*
*
*
*
* [Michael Crichton Obituary](http://legacy.suntimes.com/ChicagoSunTimes/DeathNotices.asp?Page=LifeStory&PersonID=119781709). [Press](Associated)(Associated Press). *[Sun-Times](Chicago)(Chicago Sun-Times)*
*
*
* [Michael Crichton](https://web.archive.org/web/20081206032423/http://www.iblist.com/author430.htm) bibliography on the Internet Book List
* [Complete bibliography and cover gallery of the first editions](http://michaelcrichton.sweb.cz/)
* [Comprehensive listing and info on Michael Crichton's complete works](http://www.michaelcrichton.eu/)
}}
[births](Category:1942)(Category:1942 births)
[deaths](Category:2008)(Category:2008 deaths)
[American male writers](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American male writers)
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Marina Berlusconi
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marina_berlusconi
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# Marina Berlusconi
*Revision ID: 1160236543 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T07:10:26Z*
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| birth_place = [Milan](Milan), Italy
| alma_mater =
| known_for =
| occupation =
| yearsactive =
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| children = 2
| relatives =
}}
**Maria Elvira "Marina" Berlusconi** (born 10 August 1966 in [Milan](Milan)) is an Italian businesswoman, chairwoman of [Fininvest](Fininvest) Holding[The Holding: Board of Directors](http://www.fininvest.it/_eng/holding/cda.shtml) , *Finvest.it* and of the [Mondadori Editore](Arnoldo)(Arnoldo Mondadori Editore) publishing group.[Consiglio di Amministrazione](http://www.mondadori.it/ame/it/corporate/index.html) , *Mondadori.it* She is the oldest daughter of Italian businessman and politician [Berlusconi](Silvio)(Silvio Berlusconi).
## Biography
Marina Berlusconi is the daughter of Silvio Berlusconi and his first wife Carla Elvira Lucia Dall'Oglio, and is the elder sister of the businessman [Silvio Berlusconi](Pier)(Pier Silvio Berlusconi). Like her brother, they both drop their studies at the [of Milan](University)(University of Milan) without getting their diploma. https://www.gala.fr/stars_et_gotha/pier_silvio_berlusconi
After graduating from high school in classical studies, she began attending the Faculty of Law and then that of Political Science, both of which she abandoned in her first year. [Marina Berlusconi: età altezza, figli e marito, carriera e biografia](https://www.theitaliantimes.it/politica/marina-berlusconi-biografia_060320/), *Italiantimes.com*, 6 March 2020 After an apprenticeship, Berlusconi worked in several positions in the media business in Italy. She joined the board of [Fininvest](Fininvest) in 1994 alongside her brother Pier Silvio. In 1995, she partook to the inauguration of the Spanish channel [Telecinco](Telecinco). Daniele Grasso, [Marina Berlusconi: en el nombre del padre](https://www.elconfidencial.com/mundo/2013-08-18/marina-berlusconi-en-el-nombre-del-padre_18527/), *Elconfidencial.com*, 18 August 2013 In July 1996, she was appointed Deputy Chairman of the media holding company founded by her father. Fininvest |url=https://www.fininvest.it/en/holding/board_of_directors/marina_berlusconi |access-date=2022-01-18 |website=www.fininvest.it}}
Since February 2003, she has been the chairperson of Italy's largest magazine publisher, [Mondadori](Mondadori).
She is also a member of the Board of Directors of MFE (until 2021 known as [Mediaset](Mediaset) SpA) and was on the Board of Directors of Mediobanca from October 2008 to April 2012.
In 2010, she was placed 48th in The World's 100 Most Powerful Women by *[Forbes](Forbes)*, the only Italian on the list (where she had been since 2004). Since 2001, she has also been included in [*Fortune*](Fortune (magazine)) magazine's list of the 50 most influential women in the international business community. In 2013, 2016, and 2018 the US magazine *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* included Berlusconi in its list of the 20 most influential women in the media TV industry.
In 2011, Berlusconi declared that she never thought of entering politics.[Marina Berlusconi, Silvio Berlusconi's Daughter, To Replace Father? (Video)](https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/08/08/rpt-as-berlusconi-star-fa_n_3723170.html), *Huffingtonpost.com*, 8 October 2013 In 2014, she declared that it may happen eventually.Illaria Polleschi, James Mackenzie, James Mackenzie, Louise Ireland, [Berlusconi's daughter on a career in politics: 'Never say never!'](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-italy-berlusconi/berlusconis-daughter-on-a-career-in-politics-never-say-never-idUSBREA3T0FS20140430), *Reuters.com*, 30 April 2014
## Personal life
In December 2008, Berlusconi married [Vanadia](Maurizio)(Maurizio Vanadia), the former [dancer](first)(principal dancer) of [Scala](La)(La Scala) in Milan. [La millonaria hija de Silvio Berlusconi se casa en las afueras de Milán](https://www.20minutos.es/noticia/436469/0/silvio-berlusconi/hija/boda/), *20minutos.es*, 13 December 2008 They had a son together before their marriage, Gabriele, born in 2002, and another named Silvio.
## Awards
*2004-2010: she was named in The World's 100 Most Powerful Woman in the world by *Forbes* magazine[#33 Marina Berlusconi - Forbes.com](https://www.forbes.com/lists/2007/11/biz-07women_Marina-Berlusconi_4JHY.html)
*In 2009, the mayor of Milan, [Moratti](Letizia)(Letizia Moratti), awarded her the Gold Medal of the City of Milan (Ambrogino d'oro), as "an example of Milanese excellence in the world and the ability to reconcile professional and family life".
## References
[mass media owners](Category:Italian)(Category:Italian mass media owners)
[Italian businesswomen](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century Italian businesswomen)
[Italian businesspeople](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century Italian businesspeople)
[corporate executives](Category:Women)(Category:Women corporate executives)
[births](Category:1966)(Category:1966 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[Marina](Category:Berlusconi family)
[of prime ministers of Italy](Category:Children)(Category:Children of prime ministers of Italy)
[Category:Fininvest](Category:Fininvest)
[from Milan](Category:Businesspeople)(Category:Businesspeople from Milan)
[Italian businesswomen](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century Italian businesswomen)
[Italian businesspeople](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century Italian businesspeople)
[of the Ambrogino d'oro](Category:Recipients)(Category:Recipients of the Ambrogino d'oro)
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NBA 75th Anniversary Team
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nba_75th_anniversary_team
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# NBA 75th Anniversary Team
*Revision ID: 1158124641 | Timestamp: 2023-06-02T03:26:24Z*
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[[File: NBA 75th Anniversary Team (cropped).jpg|thumb|275px|Members of the NBA 75th Anniversary Team during the halftime ceremony of the [NBA All-Star Game](2022)(2022 NBA All-Star Game).]]
The **NBA 75th Anniversary Team**, also referred to as the **NBA 75**, was chosen in 2021 to honor [75th anniversary](the)(2021–22 NBA season#75th anniversary promotions) of the founding of the [Basketball Association](National)(National Basketball Association) (NBA). It was the fourth and most recent [team](anniversary)(NBA anniversary teams) in the league. Similar to the [Greatest Players in NBA History](50)(50 Greatest Players in NBA History) named in 1996, a panel of reporters, current and former players, coaches, general managers, and team executives selected the greatest players in league history. Tasked with compiling a list of 75 players, the committee named an additional 76th member due to a tie in voting. It was built as part of the league's anniversary celebration during the [NBA season](2021–22)(2021–22 NBA season). Forty-five of the seventy-six players were later assembled in [Cleveland](Cleveland), during the halftime ceremony of the [All-Star Game](2022)(2022 NBA All-Star Game).
## Players selected
### List
At the time of selection, the players selected combined for 158 [championships](NBA)(NBA Finals), 62 [Valuable Player](Most)(NBA Most Valuable Player Award) (MVP) awards, 48 [MVP](Finals)(NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award) awards, and 730 [All-Star](NBA All-Star Game) selections. Of the 76 players, all 50 members of the 50th anniversary team were selected. The other 26 included players from the 1970s to the current era. Two notable omissions from the earlier top 50 selections, [McAdoo](Bob)(Bob McAdoo) and [Wilkins](Dominique)(Dominique Wilkins), were named to the 75th anniversary list. When the previous 50 players were chosen in 1996–97, Wilkins was the only nine-time All-Star to be excluded, as well as the only six-time [All-NBA](All-NBA) selection to miss the cut. A two-time NBA champion, McAdoo was the only former league MVP omitted. [Russell](Bill)(Bill Russell), [Cousy](Bob)(Bob Cousy), [Mikan](George)(George Mikan) and [Pettit](Bob)(Bob Pettit) are the only players who have been named to all four [anniversary teams](NBA)(NBA anniversary teams). NBA 75th Anniversary Team announced|date=October 22, 2021|website=www.nba.com|url=https://www.nba.com/news/nba-75th-anniversary-team-announced|access-date=October 22, 2021}} [Rose](Derrick)(Derrick Rose) (2011) was the only former league MVP (as of 2020) to not be included on the team.
Eleven players ([Antetokounmpo](Giannis)(Giannis Antetokounmpo), [Anthony](Carmelo)(Carmelo Anthony), [Curry](Stephen)(Stephen Curry), [Davis](Anthony)(Anthony Davis), [Durant](Kevin)(Kevin Durant), [Harden](James)(James Harden), [James](LeBron)(LeBron James), [Leonard](Kawhi)(Kawhi Leonard), [Lillard](Damian)(Damian Lillard), [Paul](Chris)(Chris Paul), and [Westbrook](Russell)(Russell Westbrook)) were active in the 2021–22 season, when the list was announced. Four of them (Anthony, Davis, James, and Westbrook) were playing for the [Angeles Lakers](Los)(Los Angeles Lakers) on [2021–22 squad](their)(2021–22 Los Angeles Lakers season). The [Nets](Brooklyn)(Brooklyn Nets), with Durant and Harden on [roster](their)(2021–22 Brooklyn Nets season), were the only other team with multiple active players. The [Celtics](Boston)(Boston Celtics) had the most overall players, past and present, on the list with 20. The Lakers were next with 15.
***Note**: Statistics are correct through the end of the , the season last completed before the list was announced.*
### Selection process
The list was made through voting compiled by a panel of 88 media, current and former players, coaches, general managers, and team executives. The NBA stated the players were "selected for being pioneers that have helped shape, define, and redefine the game." The NBA revealed 25 members of the list the first two days, and 26 the last day from October 19 through October 21, 2021.
## 15 Greatest Coaches in NBA History
Alongside the selection of the NBA's 75th anniversary team was the selection of the 15 Greatest Coaches in NBA History. The list was compiled based upon unranked selection undertaken exclusively by a panel of 43 current and former NBA coaches in collaboration with the National Basketball Coaches Association. Of the 15 coaches, eight members of the [10 Coaches in NBA History](Top)(50 Greatest Players in NBA History#Top 10 Coaches in NBA History) in 1996 were selected; original Top 10 coaches [Fitch](Bill)(Bill Fitch) and [Kundla](John)(John Kundla) were excluded from the updated list. Nine of the 15 coaches named were alive at the time of the list's announcement, and four of them—[Kerr](Steve)(Steve Kerr), [Popovich](Gregg)(Gregg Popovich), [Rivers](Doc)(Doc Rivers), and [Spoelstra](Erik)(Erik Spoelstra)—were active.; the preceding record is that of the coach at the time of his selection.}} Six have died: [Holzman](Red)(Red Holzman) in 1998, [Auerbach](Red)(Red Auerbach) in 2006, [Daly](Chuck)(Chuck Daly) in 2009, [Ramsay](Jack)(Jack Ramsay) in 2014, and [C. Jones](K.)(K. C. Jones) and [Sloan](Jerry)(Jerry Sloan) in 2020. Nelson and Sloan were the only members to have never won a championship as a coach; Nelson won five as a player. [Wilkens](Lenny Wilkens) was the only member of the coaches list to have been selected as a member of the players list. Ten of the 15 coaches are also members of the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame, with Nelson the most recent inductee in 2012.
***Note**: Statistics are correct through the end of the , the season last completed before the list was announced.*
## See also
* [All-Time Team](ABA)(ABA All-Time Team)
* [25th Anniversary Team](NBA)(NBA 25th Anniversary Team)
* [35th Anniversary Team](NBA)(NBA 35th Anniversary Team)
* [Greatest Players in NBA History](50)(50 Greatest Players in NBA History)
## Notes
## References
## External links
* [NBA's 75th Anniversary Team Players](https://www.nba.com/75) at NBA.com
* [The Full NBA 75 Team Announced at 2022 All-Star Game](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v0nERP6RER8&t=935s) at the NBA official [YouTube](YouTube) channel
[75](Category:NBA Anniversary Teams)
[75](Category:2021–22 NBA season)
|
George Reeves
|
george_reeves
|
# George Reeves
*Revision ID: 1159726610 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T04:50:08Z*
---
| birth_place = [Iowa](Woolstock,)(Woolstock, Iowa), U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = [Canyon, Los Angeles](Benedict)(Benedict Canyon, Los Angeles), [California](California), U.S.
| death_cause = Gunshot wound
| resting_place = [View Cemetery and Mausoleum](Mountain)(Mountain View Cemetery, Altadena), [California](Altadena,)(Altadena, California), U.S.
| resting_place_coordinates =
| other_names = George Bessolo
| education = [School](Polytechnic)(Polytechnic School (California))
| alma_mater = [Junior College](Pasadena)(Pasadena City College)
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 1939–1959
| spouse =
}}
**George Reeves** (born **George Keefer Brewer**; January 5, 1914 – June 16, 1959) was an American actor. He is best known for portraying [Superman](Superman) in the television series *[of Superman](Adventures)(Adventures of Superman (TV series))* (1952–1958).
His death at age 45 from a gunshot remains controversial. The official finding was [suicide](suicide), but some believe that he was murdered or the victim of an accidental shooting.Henderson, Jan Alan, Speeding Bullet, M. Bifulco, 1999;
## Early life
Reeves was born January 5, 1914,Reeves' [plaque](mausoleum)(gravestone) erroneously lists his birth date as "1/6/1914," or January 6, 1914. as George Keefer Brewer in [Iowa](Woolstock,)(Woolstock, Iowa), the son of Donald Carl Brewer and Helen Lescher. Reeves was born five months into their marriageFox, Alma Archer. "My Cousin Superman", *Galesburg Register-Mail*, June 15, 1979. and the couple separated soon after Reeves's birth. At this time, Reeves and his mother moved from Iowa to Ashland, Kentucky, to stay with relatives for a time and then to her home of [Illinois](Galesburg,)(Galesburg, Illinois).
Later, Reeves's mother,Helen Roberta Lescher Brewer Bessolo (1892–1964) - Born in Galesburg, Knox County, Illinois, US. September 6, 1892 was the daughter of George Christian Lescher and Eliza Jane McKenzie, she died in a Pasadena hospital on June 18, 1964. who was of German descent, moved to California to stay with her sister. There she had met and married Frank Joseph Bessolo by 1927, according to that year's federal census. Reeves's father married Helen Schultz in 1925. Reeves reportedly never saw his father again. In 1927, Frank Bessolo adopted George at aged 13, as his own son, and the boy took on his stepfather's last name, becoming George Bessolo. The Bessolo marriage lasted 15 years, ending in divorce, with the couple separating while Reeves was away visiting relatives. When he returned, his mother told him his stepfather had committed suicide. According to biographer [Beaver](Jim)(Jim Beaver), Reeves did not know for several years that Bessolo was still alive. Bessolo actually died March 4, 1944, at age 51, when his adopted son was well into his movie career.
Reeves began acting and singing in high school and continued performing on stage as a student at [Junior College](Pasadena)(Pasadena Junior College).*Pasadena Junior College Courier*, 1934
## Acting career
While studying acting at the [Playhouse](Pasadena)(Pasadena Playhouse), Reeves met his future wife, Ellanora Needles, great-great-granddaughter of circus magnate John Robinson, founder of the [Robinson Circus](John)(John Robinson Circus)."Actress to Wed." Philadelphia Inquirer, September 18, 1940. They married on September 22, 1940, in [Gabriel, California](San)(San Gabriel, California), at the Church of Our Savior. They had no children and divorced 10 years later.
Reeves's film career began in 1939 when he was cast as Stuart Tarleton (incorrectly listed in the film's credits as Brent Tarleton), one of [O'Hara](Scarlett)(Scarlett O'Hara)'s suitors in *[with the Wind](Gone)(Gone with the Wind (film))*. It was a minor role, but he and [Crane](Fred)(Fred Crane (actor)) were in the film's opening scene. (Reeves and Crane both dyed their hair red to portray the Tarleton twins.) After *Gone with the Wind* was filmed, Reeves returned to the Pasadena Playhouse and was given the lead role in the play *Pancho.* This part directly led to his being contracted to [Brothers](Warner)(Warner Brothers). Warner changed his professional name to George Reeves. His *Gone with the Wind* screen credit reflects the change. Between the start of production on *Gone With the Wind* and its release 12 months later, several films on his Warner contract were made and released, making *Gone With the Wind* his first film role, but his fifth film release.
He starred in a number of two-reel short subjects and appeared in several B-pictures, including two with future president of the United States [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan) and three with [Cagney](James)(James Cagney) (*[Zone](Torrid)(Torrid Zone)*, *[Fighting 69th](The)(The Fighting 69th)*, and *[Strawberry Blonde](The)(The Strawberry Blonde)*). These roles did little to advance Reeves's career, and his contract with Warners was dissolved by mutual consent.
Released from his Warner contract, he signed a contract at [Century-Fox](Twentieth)(Twentieth Century-Fox) but was released after only a handful of films, one of which was the [Chan](Charlie)(Charlie Chan) movie *[Men Tell](Dead)(Dead Men Tell)*. Twentieth Century-Fox loaned him to producer [Korda](Alexander)(Alexander Korda) to co-star with [Oberon](Merle)(Merle Oberon) in *[Lydia](Lydia (film))*, a box-office failure, after which he freelanced, looking to find work in westerns. His friend [Sherman](Teddi)(Teddi Sherman) introduced him to her father, producer [Sherman](Harry)(Harry Sherman), who asked Reeves to do a [test](screen)(screen test) with Teddi for the [Cassidy](Hopalong)(Hopalong Cassidy) films. Reeves and Sherman impressed the casting director by performing seven pages of script in a single take without pause. Reeves appeared in five [Cassidy](Hopalong)(Hopalong Cassidy) westerns before being cast as Lieutenant John Summers opposite [Colbert](Claudette)(Claudette Colbert) in *[Proudly We Hail!](So)(So Proudly We Hail!)* (1942), a war drama for [Pictures](Paramount)(Paramount Pictures), which signed Reeves up for two films a year.
However, Reeves was inspired by *So Proudly We Hail!* to put his budding acting career on hold and enlist in the [Army](U.S.)(U.S. Army). He was drafted in early 1943.U.S. World War II Army Enlistment Records 1938–1946, dated March 24, 1943 He was assigned to the [Army Air Forces](U.S.)(U.S. Army Air Forces) and performed in the USAAF's [Broadway](Broadway theatre) show *[Victory](Winged)(Winged Victory (play))*. The long Broadway run was followed by a national tour and a [movie](Winged Victory (film)) version. Reeves was then transferred to the Army Air Forces' [Motion Picture Unit](First)(First Motion Picture Unit), where he made training films.
Discharged at the war's end, Reeves returned to Hollywood. Many studios were slowing down their production schedules, however, and some production units had shut down completely. He appeared in a pair of outdoor thrillers with [Byrd](Ralph)(Ralph Byrd). As more and more time passed between acting jobs paying less and less, Reeves was reduced to appearing in a low-budget serial produced by [Katzman](Sam)(Sam Katzman), *[Adventures of Sir Galahad](The)(The Adventures of Sir Galahad)*, and taking a second job digging [cesspool](cesspool)s. Reeves fit the rugged requirements of the roles, and, with his retentive memory for dialogue, he did well under rushed production conditions. He was able to play against type and starred as a villainous gold hunter in a [Weissmuller](Johnny)(Johnny Weissmuller) [Jim](Jungle)(Jungle Jim) film. Separated from his wife (their divorce became final in 1950), Reeves moved to [York City](New)(New York City) in 1949. He performed on live television anthology programs, as well as on radio, and then returned to Hollywood in 1951 for a role in a [Lang](Fritz)(Fritz Lang) film, *[Notorious](Rancho)(Rancho Notorious)*."George Reeves Returns", *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)*, April 11, 1951, p. 6
In 1953, Reeves played a minor character, Sergeant Maylon Stark, in *[Here to Eternity](From)(From Here to Eternity)*. The film won the [Award](Academy)(Academy Award) for [Picture](Best)(Academy Award for Best Picture) and gave Reeves the distinction of appearing in two "Best Picture" films.
### Superman
In June 1951, Reeves was offered the role of [Superman](Superman) in a new television series"Reeves Now Superman", *Hollywood Reporter*, June 25, 1951, p. 7. titled *[of Superman](Adventures)(Adventures of Superman (TV series))*. He was initially reluctant to take the role because, like many actors of his time, he considered television unimportant and believed few would see his work. The half-hour films were shot on tight schedules; at least two shows were made every six days. According to commentaries on the *Adventures of Superman* DVD sets, multiple scripts were filmed simultaneously to take advantage of the standing sets; for example, all the "[White](Perry)(Perry White)'s office" scenes for three or four episodes would be shot the same day and the various "apartment" scenes would be done consecutively.
Reeves's career as Superman had begun with *[and the Mole Men](Superman)(Superman and the Mole Men)*, a film intended both as a B-picture and as the pilot for the TV series. Immediately after completing it, Reeves and the crew began production of the first season's episodes, all shot over 13 weeks in the summer of 1951. The series went on the air the following year, and Reeves was amazed at becoming a national celebrity. In 1952, the struggling [Network](ABC)(American Broadcasting Company) purchased the show for national broadcast, which gave him greater visibility.
The Superman cast members had restrictive contracts preventing them from taking other work that might interfere with the series. Except for the second season, the Superman schedule was brief (13 shows shot two per week, a total of seven weeks out of a year), but all had a "30-day clause", which meant that the producers could demand their exclusive services for a new season on four weeks' notice. This prevented long-term work on major films with long schedules, stage plays that might lead to a lengthy run, or any other series work.Grossman, p. 121.
Reeves, however, earned additional income from personal appearances. He had affection for his young fans, and took his role-model status seriously. He avoided smoking cigarettes where children could see him and eventually quit smoking. He kept his private life discreet, including a romantic relationship with [Mannix](Toni)(Toni Mannix), wife of [Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer](Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer) general manager [Mannix](Eddie)(Eddie Mannix).
In the documentary *[Up in the Sky: The Amazing Story of Superman](Look,)(Look, Up in the Sky: The Amazing Story of Superman)*, [Larson](Jack)(Jack Larson) said that when he first met Reeves, he told him that he enjoyed his performance in *So Proudly We Hail!* According to Larson, Reeves said that if [Sandrich](Mark)(Mark Sandrich) had not died, he would not be there in "this monkey suit". According to Larson, Reeves also said he would feel better about the role if he knew he had any adult fans but never learned that *Adventures of Superman* had adult fans even during its original broadcast run.
Between the first and second seasons of *Superman*, Reeves got sporadic acting assignments in one-shot TV anthology programs and in two feature films, *[Female](Forever)(Forever Female)* (1953) and [Lang](Fritz)(Fritz Lang)'s *[Blue Gardenia](The)(The Blue Gardenia)* (1953), but by the time the series was airing nationwide, Reeves found himself so [associated](Typecasting (acting)) with Superman and Clark Kent that it was difficult for him to find other roles.
Reeves worked tirelessly with Toni Mannix to raise money to fight [gravis](myasthenia)(myasthenia gravis). He served as national chairman for the Myasthenia Gravis Foundation in 1955. During the second season, Reeves appeared in a short film for the Treasury Department entitled *[Day for Superman](Stamp)(Stamp Day for Superman)*, in which he caught the villains and told children why they should invest in government [stamp](savings)(savings stamp)s.
[[Reeves at the Patio Restaurant.jpg|thumb|upright|Reeves as Superman at the Patio Restaurant (1958)](File:George)]
After two seasons, Reeves was dissatisfied with his salary and the show's one-dimensional role. He was 40 years old and wanted to quit and move on with his career. The producers looked elsewhere for a new star.*[Variety](Variety (magazine))*, September 27, 1954.
Reeves established his own production company and conceived a TV adventure series called *Port of Entry*, which would be shot on location in Hawaii and Mexico. Reeves wrote the pilot script himself. However, *Superman* producers offered him a salary increase, and he returned to the series.*Variety*, October 27, 1954. He was reportedly making $5,000 (about $}} in today's dollars) per week, but only while the show was in production (about eight weeks each year). As for *Port of Entry*, Reeves was never able to gain financing for the project, and the show was never made.
In 1957, the producers considered a theatrical film *Superman and the Secret Planet*. A script was commissioned from David Chantler, who had written many of the TV scripts. In 1959, however, negotiations began for a renewal of the series, with 26 episodes scheduled to go into production. By mid 1959, contracts were signed, costumes refitted, and new teleplay writers assigned. [Neill](Noel)(Noel Neill) was quoted as saying that the cast of *Superman* was ready to do a new series of the still-popular show.''DC Comics: Sixty Years of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes,* no page cited.
His good friend [Walsh](Bill)(Bill Walsh (producer)), a producer at [Disney](Disney) Studios, gave Reeves a prominent role in *[Ho the Wagons!](Westward)(Westward Ho the Wagons!)* (1956), in which Reeves wore a beard and mustache. It was to be his final feature film appearance. Attempting to showcase his versatility, Reeves sang on the [Bennett](Tony)(Tony Bennett) show in August 1956.Grossman, p. 45. He appeared as Superman on *[Love Lucy](I)(I Love Lucy)* (Episode #165, "[and Superman](Lucy)(Lucy and Superman)") in 1957. Character actor [Welden](Ben)(Ben Welden) had acted with Reeves in the Warner Bros. days and frequently guest-starred on *Superman*. He said, "After the *I Love Lucy'' show, Superman was no longer a challenge to him... I know he enjoyed the role, but he used to say, 'Here I am, wasting my life.'"Grossman, p. 151.
Reeves, Noel Neill, [Vacío](Natividad)(Natividad Vacío), [LeBell](Gene)(Gene LeBell), and a trio of musicians toured with a public-appearance show from 1957 onward. The first half of the show was a *Superman* sketch in which Reeves and Neill performed with LeBell as a villain called "Mr. [Kryptonite](Kryptonite)" who captured Lois Lane. Kent then rushed offstage to return as Superman, who came to the rescue and fought with the bad guy. The second half of the show was Reeves out of costume as himself, singing and accompanying himself on the guitar. Vacio and Neill accompanied him in duets.Grossman, p. 54.
Reeves and Toni Mannix split in 1958 and Reeves announced his engagement to society playgirl Leonore Lemmon. Reeves was apparently scheduled to marry Lemmon on June 19 and then spend their honeymoon in Tijuana. He complained to friends, columnists, and his mother of his financial problems. The planned revival of *Superman* was apparently a small lifeline. Reeves had also hoped to direct a low-budget science-fiction film written by a friend from his Pasadena Playhouse days, and he had discussed the project with his first Lois Lane, [Coates](Phyllis)(Phyllis Coates), the previous year.Grossman, p. 58. However, Reeves and his partner failed to find financing, and the film was never made. Another Superman stage show was scheduled for JulyNew York Post, June 17, 1959. with a planned stage tour of [Australia](Australia). Reeves had options for making a living, but those options apparently all involved playing Superman again—a role that he was not eager to reprise at age 45.
Jack Larson and Noel Neill both remembered Reeves as a noble Southern gentleman (even though he was from Iowa) with a sign on his dressing room door that said "Honest George, the people's friend".*[Up in the Sky: The Amazing Story of Superman](Look,)(Look, Up in the Sky: The Amazing Story of Superman)*. Reeves had been made a "[Colonel](Kentucky)(Kentucky Colonel)" during a publicity trip in the South, and the sign on his dressing room door was replaced with a new one that read "Honest George, also known as Col. Reeves", created by the show's prop department. A photo of a smiling Reeves and the sign appears in Gary Grossman's book about the show.
## Death
Reeves died of a gunshot wound to the head in the upstairs bedroom of his home at 1579 Benedict Canyon Drive in [Canyon](Benedict)(Benedict Canyon, Los Angeles, California) between 1:30 and 2:00 a.m. on June 16, 1959, according to the Los Angeles Police Department report.
In contemporaneous news articles, Lemmon attributed Reeves' alleged suicide to depression caused by his "failed career" and inability to find more work. The report made by the Los Angeles Police states, "[was](Reeves)... depressed because he couldn't get the sort of parts he wanted." Newspapers and wire-service reports quoted LAPD Sergeant V.A. Peterson as saying: "Miss Lemmon blurted, 'He's probably going to go shoot himself.' A noise was heard upstairs. She continued, 'He's opening a drawer to get the gun.' A shot was heard. 'See there—I told you so!'"'
The official story given by Lemmon to the police placed her in the living room with party guests at the time of the shooting, but hearsay statements from Fred Crane, Reeves' friend and colleague from *Gone With The Wind*, put Lemmon either inside or in direct proximity to Reeves' bedroom.Speeding Bullet, 2nd Ed, by Jan Alan Henderson, p. 151 According to Crane (who was not present), Bill Bliss had told Millicent Trent after the shot rang out, while Bliss was having a drink, that Leonore Lemmon came downstairs and said, “Tell them I was down here, tell them I was down here!”
A number of questionable physical findings were reported by investigators and others: No fingerprints were recovered from the gun. No gunpowder residue was found on Reeves' hands. (Some sources contend that it may not have been looked for, as gunshot residue testing was not routinely performed in 1959).["Was Superman star George Reeves a suicide – or murder victim?"](http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/1556/was-em-superman-em-star-george-reeves-a-suicide-or-murder-victim), StraightDope.com; accessed October 31, 2015. The bullet that killed Reeves was recovered from the bedroom ceiling, and the spent shell casing was found under his body. Two additional bullets were discovered embedded in the bedroom floor. All three bullets had been fired from the weapon found at Reeves' feet, though all witnesses agreed they heard only one gunshot, and there was no sign of forced entry or other physical evidence that a second person was in the room. Despite the unanswered questions, Reeves' death was officially ruled a suicide, based on witness statements, physical evidence at the scene, and the autopsy report.Los Angeles Police Department Death Report, June 26, 1959.
Reeves' mother thought the ruling premature and peremptory, and retained attorney [Giesler](Jerry)(Jerry Giesler) to petition for a reinvestigation of the case as a possible homicide. The findings of a second autopsy, conducted at Giesler's request, were the same as the first, except for a series of bruises of unknown origin about the head and body. A month later, having uncovered no evidence contradicting the official finding, Giesler announced that he was satisfied that the gunshot wound had been self-inflicted and withdrew.*Los Angeles Mirror-News*, June 24, 1959[Who Killed Superman?](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/films/2016/04/14/who-killed-superman-the-sinister-true-story-behind-the-death-of/) *The Telegraph* (March 13, 2016), retrieved August 17, 2016.
Reeves is interred at [View Cemetery and Mausoleum](Mountain)(Mountain View Cemetery, Altadena) in [California](Altadena,)(Altadena, California). In 1960, Reeves was awarded a star on Hollywood's Walk of Fame on Hollywood Boulevard for his contributions to the TV industry. In 1985, he was posthumously named one of the honorees by DC Comics in the company's 50th anniversary publication *[Who Made DC Great](Fifty)(Fifty Who Made DC Great)*.
### Controversy
Actors [Ladd](Alan)(Alan Ladd) and [Young](Gig)(Gig Young) were reportedly skeptical of the official determination. Reeves' friend [Calhoun](Rory)(Rory Calhoun) told a reporter "No one in Hollywood believed the suicide story." In their book *Hollywood Kryptonite*, Sam Kashner and Nancy Schoenberger make a case for the involvement of MGM vice president and fixer [Mannix](Eddie)(Eddie Mannix). Reeves had been having an affair with his wife [Mannix](Toni)(Toni Mannix). Others suggested that Eddie Mannix, rumored to have [Mafia](Mafia) ties, ordered Reeves killed.[Death of Superman may not have been a suicide](http://chronicle.augusta.com/stories/2000/12/03/ent_299454.shtml#.WOflWxRGWA0). *Augusta Chronicle* (December 3, 2000), retrieved April 7, 2017.
### In popular culture
The 2006 film *[Hollywoodland](Hollywoodland)*, starring [Affleck](Ben)(Ben Affleck) as Reeves and [Brody](Adrien)(Adrien Brody) as a fictional investigator loosely based on actual detective Milo Speriglio, dramatizes the investigation of Reeves' death. The film suggests three possible scenarios: accidental shooting by Lemmon, murder by an unnamed hitman under orders from Eddie Mannix, and suicide.
In June 2021, an episode of the internet series *[Unsolved](BuzzFeed)(BuzzFeed Unsolved)* discussed the death of Reeves and possible theories.
## Filmography
## References
## Further reading
* Daniels, Les & Kahn, Jenette, ''DC Comics: Sixty Years of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes*, Bulfinch, 1995
* Grossman, Gary *Superman: Serial to Cereal*, Popular Library, 1977
* Henderson, Jan Alan, *Speeding Bullet*, M. Bifulco, 1999
* Henderson, Jan Alan & Randisi, Steve, *Behind the Crimson Cape*, M. Bifulco, 2005
* Kashner, Sam & Schoenberger, Nancy *Hollywood Kryptonite'', St. Martin's Mass Market Paper, 1996
* Neill, Noel & Ward, Larry, *Truth, Justice and the American Way*, Nicholas Lawrence Books, 2003
## External links
*
*
*
*
[births](Category:1914)(Category:1914 births)
[deaths](Category:1959)(Category:1959 deaths)
[American male actors](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American male actors)
[adoptees](Category:American)(Category:American adoptees)
[States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II](Category:United)(Category:United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II)
[male film actors](Category:American)(Category:American male film actors)
[male stage actors](Category:American)(Category:American male stage actors)
[male television actors](Category:American)(Category:American male television actors)
[television directors](Category:American)(Category:American television directors)
[conspiracy theories](Category:Death)(Category:Death conspiracy theories)
[Motion Picture Unit personnel](Category:First)(Category:First Motion Picture Unit personnel)
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[personnel from Iowa](Category:Military)(Category:Military personnel from Iowa)
[from Wright County, Iowa](Category:People)(Category:People from Wright County, Iowa)
[by firearm in California](Category:Suicides)(Category:Suicides by firearm in California)
[States Army Air Forces soldiers](Category:United)(Category:United States Army Air Forces soldiers)
[suicides](Category:1959)(Category:1959 suicides)
[deaths in the United States](Category:Unsolved)(Category:Unsolved deaths in the United States)
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BoJack Horseman
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bojack_horseman
|
# BoJack Horseman
*Revision ID: 1159883009 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T04:09:35Z*
---
* [drama](Comedy)(Comedy drama)
* [Tragicomedy](Tragicomedy)
* [comedy](Dark)(Dark comedy)
* [humor](Surreal)(Surreal humor)
* [drama](Psychological)(Psychological drama)
* [Satire](Satire (film and television))
}}
| creator = [Bob-Waksberg](Raphael)(Raphael Bob-Waksberg)
| voices =
| theme_music_composer = [Carney](Patrick)(Patrick Carney) featuring [Carney](Ralph)(Ralph Carney)
| endtheme = "Back in the '90s (BoJack's Theme)" by [Grouplove](Grouplove)
| composer = [Novak](Jesse)(Jesse Novak)
| country = United States
| num_seasons = 6
| num_episodes = 77
| list_episodes = List of BoJack Horseman episodes
| executive_producer =
| producer =
| runtime = 25 minutes
| company =
| picture_format = [HDTV](HDTV) [1080p](1080p)
| audio_format = [Digital Plus](Dolby)(Dolby Digital Plus) 5.1
| first_aired =
| last_aired =
| channel = [Netflix](Netflix)
}}
***BoJack Horseman*** is an American [animated](adult)(adult animation) [black](Black comedy) [drama](comedy)(comedy drama) television series created by [Bob-Waksberg](Raphael)(Raphael Bob-Waksberg). It stars the voices of [Arnett](Will)(Will Arnett), [Sedaris](Amy)(Amy Sedaris), [Brie](Alison)(Alison Brie), [F. Tompkins](Paul)(Paul F. Tompkins), and [Paul](Aaron)(Aaron Paul). Set primarily in [Hollywood](Hollywood, Los Angeles), the series revolves around the [anthropomorphic](Anthropomorphism) horse [Horseman](BoJack)(BoJack Horseman (character)) (Arnett), a washed-up star of a 1990s sitcom who plans a return to relevance with an autobiography to be written by [ghostwriter](ghostwriter) Diane Nguyen (Brie). It also chronicles his contentions with his agent, Princess Carolyn (Sedaris), former rival Mr. Peanutbutter (Tompkins), roommate Todd Chavez (Paul), and his declining mental health. The series is designed by cartoonist [Hanawalt](Lisa)(Lisa Hanawalt), a longtime friend to Bob-Waksberg who previously collaborated on the [webcomic](webcomic) *Tip Me Over, Pour Me Out*.
The series premiered on [Netflix](Netflix) on August 22, 2014. On September 20, 2018, Netflix renewed the show for its sixth and final season, and the series ended on January 31, 2020, with a total of [episodes](77)(List of BoJack Horseman episodes). The first five seasons consist of 12 episodes each, while the sixth and final season consists of 16 episodes divided into two parts of eight episodes each. A one-off [special](Christmas)(List of Christmas television specials) was also released on December 19, 2014.
Despite mixed reviews upon its debut, critics were significantly more positive towards the second half of the first season, and the subsequent seasons received widespread critical acclaim. *[GQ](GQ)* magazine hailed the show as one of the best of the decade, and [IndieWire](IndieWire) ranked *BoJack Horseman* as one of the greatest animated TV series in history. The show has been lauded for its realistic take on [depression](Major depressive disorder), [trauma](Psychological trauma), [addiction](addiction), [behavior](self-destructive)(self-destructive behavior), [racism](racism), [sexism](sexism), [pregnancy](teen)(Teenage pregnancy), [sexuality](sexuality), and the [condition](human)(human condition). The series received [accolades](numerous)(List of awards and nominations received by BoJack Horseman), including four [Choice Television Award](Critics')(Critics' Choice Television Award)s for [Animated Series](Best)(Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Animated Series), three [Awards](Annie)(Annie Awards) and two [Guild of America Awards](Writers)(Writers Guild of America Awards). It also received three [Emmy Award](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award) nominations, including two for [Animated Program](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program).
## Premise
The series is set in an [world](alternate)(alternate history) where humans and [anthropomorphic](Anthropomorphism) animals live side by side, taking place mostly in [Hollywoo](Hollywood, Los Angeles) (the name is changed after the D is stolen from the sign). [Horseman](BoJack)(BoJack Horseman (character)) is the washed-up star of the 1990s sitcom ''Horsin' Around*, which centered around a young bachelor horse trying to raise three human children who had been orphaned. Now living in relative obscurity in his [Hills](Hollywood)(Hollywood Hills) mansion, BoJack plans a monumental comeback to celebrity relevance with a tell-all autobiography to be written by [ghostwriter](ghostwriter) Diane Nguyen. At the same time, he deals with his addiction to alcohol and other drugs, and the resulting recklessness. BoJack also has to contend with the demands of his agent and former girlfriend Princess Carolyn, the misguided antics of his freeloading roommate Todd Chavez, and his former rival Mr. Peanutbutter.
## Cast and characters
*[Arnett](Will)(Will Arnett) as [Horseman](BoJack)(BoJack Horseman (character)), a self-loathing cynical alcoholic horse currently in his 50s, whose acting career peaked when he starred in a successful 1990s family sitcom called *Horsin' Around''. Though he began as a young bright-eyed actor, he has since grown bitter, deeply depressed, and jaded towards and who he has become post-fame. BoJack has been shown to be caring and insightful, but his insecurities, loneliness, desperate need for approval, and guilt over his own actions often result in self-destructive and selfish actions that devastate those around him. His past and present relationships with his abusive alcoholic parents and his attempts at overcoming their legacy are a continual theme of the series.
*[Sedaris](Amy)(Amy Sedaris) as Princess Carolyn, a pink [cat](Persian)(Persian cat) who is BoJack's agent in the first three seasons and former on-and-off girlfriend. Hailing from [North Carolina](Eden,)(Eden, North Carolina), the earnest and unflagging Princess Carolyn was a top agent at Vigor agency through her tireless pursuit of new talent and large network of odd personal connections. Though she struggles to find a balance between work, her troubled personal life, and taking care of BoJack and her friends, she enjoys her fast-paced hectic lifestyle. She left Vigor to start a new agency with her then-boyfriend and coworker Rutabaga Rabitowitz. After recognizing his lack of trustworthiness and confronting her fear of being alone, she ultimately decides to leave him and run the new company named VIM by herself. After several setbacks, Princess Carolyn closes VIM in season 3, only to reopen it as a management agency. She struggles throughout the series in starting a family and suffers several miscarriages. In season 5, after several failed attempts, she successfully adopts a baby porcupine from Sadie, a young woman from her hometown. In the series finale, she marries Judah, her loyal assistant.
*[Brie](Alison)(Alison Brie) as Diane Nguyen, a human [ghostwriter](ghostwriter), a well-schooled, misunderstood intellectual, and a [Vietnamese-American](Vietnamese-American) [feminist](third-wave)(third-wave feminism) from Boston. She is a thinker who wants to make the world a better place for women and wants others to behave according to her morals even though she often breaks them. While writing BoJack's memoir, Diane and BoJack develop a strong friendship that initially becomes awkward and strained after BoJack develops romantic feelings for her, especially as she was dating Mr. Peanutbutter at the time. She eventually marries Mr. Peanutbutter, but during and after Mr. Peanutbutter's run for [of California](Governor)(Governor of California), their marriage begins to deteriorate, and they divorce at the beginning of season 5. She eventually realizes she has [depression](depression (mood)), and gains weight as her [health](mental)(mental health) improves due to [antidepressant](antidepressant)s; news media celebrated the series' realistic portrayal of her changing body shape as a sign of improved health. During the sixth season, Diane develops a relationship with a buffalo named Guy (whom she goes on to wed) and comes to terms with her neglectful upbringing. She is a graduate of [University](Boston)(Boston University).
*[F. Tompkins](Paul)(Paul F. Tompkins) as Mr. Peanutbutter, an energetic, optimistic and cheerful yellow [Retriever](Labrador)(Labrador Retriever) who is BoJack's former sitcom rival. Mr. Peanutbutter was the star of ''Mr. Peanutbutter's House*, which, according to BoJack, "borrowed the premise" from *Horsin' Around''. Despite their rivalry, Mr. Peanutbutter cares a great deal about BoJack's opinion and admires him for his work on ''Horsin' Around''. He has an especially good relationship with Todd, and his positive attitude and financial resources combined with Todd's outlandish schemes and plans often result in the two starting questionable business ventures. Mr. Peanutbutter has been married three times (to Katrina Peanutbutter, [Biel](Jessica)(Jessica Biel) and Diane Nguyen). In "Old Acquaintance", it is revealed that "Mr." is his actual first name. He is a graduate of [University](Northwestern)(Northwestern University) and a native of [and Labrador](Newfoundland)(Newfoundland and Labrador), [Canada](Canada). His character was initially created as a foil for BoJack, but then evolves into an important character himself.
*[Paul](Aaron)(Aaron Paul) as Todd Chavez, an unemployed, silly but vastly talented 24-year-old human [slacker](slacker) who ended up at BoJack's house for a party five years before the beginning of the series and never left. Although BoJack constantly voices disdain for him, he secretly cares about Todd, continuing to financially support him and sabotage his attempts to gain independence. Todd has been shown to possess a plethora of skills including an understanding of Japanese, entrepreneurial know-how—allying with Mr. Peanutbutter for various business ideas—and writing and composing his own [opera](rock)(rock opera), which was eventually sabotaged by BoJack. This, along with other examples of BoJack's poor behavior towards him leads Todd to break ties with BoJack in season 4. Todd also has an uncanny knack for getting himself in absurd and extremely dangerous situations when his friends aren't around, such as getting into gun fights on several occasions, ending up in prison, and in one case, switching places *[and the Pauper](Prince)(The Prince and the Pauper)*–style with a Cordovian dictator. He is also almost never seen without wearing his signature yellow beanie. In his teenage years, he was an aimless skateboarder, and the object of affection of his schoolmate Emily. He realizes in the season 3 finale "That Went Well" that he is [asexual](Asexuality). In season 6, Todd forms a relationship with a rabbit named Maude who is also asexual.
## Episodes
## Production
### Conception
After moving to LA for the first time, writer [Bob-Waksberg](Raphael)(Raphael Bob-Waksberg) unsuccessfully pitched ideas for shows to different networks. Among them was the idea for a family comedy set during the [of Terror](Reign)(Reign of Terror) called *The Good Times Are Killing Me*, which Waksberg described as "*[in the Family](All)(All in the Family)* but in France, ... where the Dad was [guillotine](guillotine) salesman and business was booming, but he couldn't get his wacky family in order." Around the same time, he moved into a friend's house up in the [Hills](Hollywood)(Hollywood Hills), living in what he described as "a glorified closet in a beautiful mansion". On his first night there, he "look[ed] out on the deck over all of Hollywood, and [felt] simultaneously on top of the world and never more isolated and alone." This was the beginning of the idea that would become *BoJack Horseman*.
Raphael Bob-Waksberg and illustrator Lisa Hanawalt had met in high school and the two would often joke about creating an animated series together. The two eventually went their separate ways, with Bob-Waksberg moving to LA and Hanawalt moving to New York, but stayed in touch, working together on the web comic *Tip Me Over, Pull Me Out*. In March 2010, Bob-Waksberg emailed Hanawalt asking for a drawing of one of the "horse-guys" she had been sketching, outlining a pitch for a show he titled "BoJack the Depressed Talking Horse". This early pitch hewed closely to the final product except for some minor differences – Todd was called Topher and was BoJack's childhood friend; Diane was a development executive instead of a [ghostwriter](ghostwriter); and Mr. Peanutbutter was BoJack's agent instead of Princess Carolyn, with his role as BoJack's rival instead filled by a horse called Honeybucket. Hanawalt joked that the concept sounded too depressing.
### Development history
In late 2010, Bob-Waksberg met with producer Steven A. Cohen of [Tornante Company](the)(the Tornante Company) and pitched five different animated projects, including *BoJack Horseman*. After the pitch, Cohen asked Bob-Waksberg which project interested him most, and Bob-Waksberg chose *BoJack Horseman*. He wrote up a treatment for the series which was then pitched to the Tornante Company CEO [Eisner](Michael)(Michael Eisner), who suggested that the show center around a former racehorse rather than a former sitcom actor. While Bob-Waksberg successfully pushed for the show-business angle, this contributed to a storyline in which BoJack later played the titular racehorse in the fictional movie *Secretariat* in the show's second season.
Hanawalt was approached to come on board to design the show. She initially turned down the offer. "I'd just finished illustrating a children's book and it was kind of a bad experience. It took six months of work and felt endless, and I didn't want to commit to another big project. I made the mistake of not jumping aboard a good thing". Production went ahead with various other artists coming on board to design the show and characters, but none captured Hanawalt's unique style. Six months later, Hanawalt was again approached to design the show, and this time agreed. She then worked with animation production studio [ShadowMachine](ShadowMachine) to develop the show's visual style. The production team put together a brief pilot presentation of the show which was used to shop the show to networks.
Bob-Waksberg and the team eventually pitched to [Netflix](Netflix) in October 2013, and the show was picked up on the condition that the series launch in time for summer 2014. As a result, the 12-episode [season](first)(BoJack Horseman (season 1)) was produced in just 35 weeks; the first three episodes were written by Bob-Waksberg before a full writing staff were hired, and the first table read was held in the first week of production. The original plan had been to use the footage from the original pilot presentation in the season's first episode; however, the decision was made to start from scratch (partially due to the decision to completely redesign the character of Todd Chavez from the way he appeared in the pilot).
The series premiered on August 22, 2014. Four days later, the series was renewed for a [season](second)(BoJack Horseman (season 2)) which released on July 17, 2015. A [season](third)(BoJack Horseman (season 3)) was announced July 28, 2015, and premiered July 22, 2016, with a [season](fourth)(BoJack Horseman (season 4)) announced the same day. The fourth season launched on Netflix on September 8, 2017. A [season](fifth)(BoJack Horseman (season 5)) was announced on September 21, 2017 and launched on September 14, 2018. Each season contained twelve episodes. Writers for *BoJack Horseman* included Bob-Waksberg, [Lawson](Joe)(Joe Lawson (writer)), [Purdy](Kate)(Kate Purdy), Elijah Aron, [Young](Jordan)(Jordan Young (producer)), Mehar Sethi and Joanna Calo. Directors include [Winfrey](Amy)(Amy Winfrey), J.C. Gonzalez, [Hollingsworth](Mike)(Mike Hollingsworth (animator)), [Long](Aaron)(Aaron Long (animator)) and Anne Walker Farrell.
The show's first season intentionally told a self-contained story in case the show was not picked up for a second season. Netflix asked Bob-Waksberg to leave some threads hanging to set up a potential second season, and Bob-Waksberg asked that, should *Bojack Horseman* get cancelled, Netflix warn him in advance so he could end the series properly. After the release of the fifth season, Netflix told Bob-Waksberg that the upcoming sixth season would be the show's last. "They don't have to do that, obviously. But I said I would appreciate it if I could have the forewarning to give the show a proper finale, and not set up some cliffhangers that will never pay off. So when they picked up season six, they said, 'Hey, remember how you asked for that heads-up? We think that this is your heads-up.' So I'm very grateful that we got that notice." An extended [and final season](sixth)(BoJack Horseman (season 6)) of sixteen episodes was announced on October 30, 2018, and released in two parts of eight episodes each. The first half released on October 25, 2019, and the second on January 31, 2020.
### Casting
[Arnett](Will)(Will Arnett), [Sedaris](Amy)(Amy Sedaris) and [Paul](Aaron)(Aaron Paul) were the first actors to be cast for the show as BoJack Horseman, Princess Carolyn and Todd Chavez respectively, landing their roles ahead of the show's pilot presentation, with the remaining cast brought on board after Netflix picked up the show. Arnett and Paul also served as executive producers on the show. The character of BoJack was not written with any particular actor in mind. Bob-Waksberg cast Arnett because he was "so funny, but there's also a darkness to him... I feel like, in his gravelly performance, you feel like he's lived a life. And there's a sadness lurking underneath there. But again, he's so funny... He took our dumbest stuff and spun it into gold." Arnett also provided the role of BoJack's father, Butterscotch Horseman, as well as the voice of a younger BoJack in flashback sequences. Amy Sedaris signed on to the series as she wanted to work with Arnett.
Following Netflix's acquisition of the series, [F. Tompkins](Paul)(Paul F. Tompkins) was cast as BoJack's sitcom rival Mr. Peanutbutter. When Bob-Waksberg was originally writing Mr. Peanutbutter, he originally imagined him as being a "meat-head" with a deep voice, but the casting of Arnett as BoJack and Paul as Todd caused the casting team to go in a different direction with the character. Tompkins brought a "beautiful, lilting quality" to the role, with Bob-Waksberg describing his performance as "skipping above the line, which as a foil to BoJack is very funny. BoJack, even in his voice, is very sunk down and in the muck, whereas Mr. Peanutbutter is playfully skipping above the muck."
[Brie](Alison)(Alison Brie) was cast as Diane Nguyen, a [ghostwriter](ghostwriter) hired to write BoJack's memoir and later ends up marrying Mr. Peanutbutter. As the show grew in popularity, Brie's casting as a Vietnamese-American character was met with controversy and accusations of [white-washing](Whitewashing in film). Bob-Waksberg later commented on the controversy, applauding Brie's performance of the character while expressing regret and that he believed the casting had "hurt the show". "When I think about casting now, I try to be very race-conscious. My casting director, Linda Lamontagne, and I are actively looking for people of color for every new character, and that's made a big difference in how we cast the show. I hope that is reflected even to a layperson observing the show. I'm very proud of the movement we've made, but we're always going to be somewhat hobbled in our efforts because of our original sin."
## Influences
Creator Raphael Bob-Waksberg has cited the cynical humor in the Canadian show *[Newsroom](The)(The Newsroom (Canadian TV series))* as a large influence on *BoJack Horseman*. He also praised *[Simpsons](The)(The Simpsons)* as an influence for being able to tell sad stories without sacrificing humor.[Horsin' around with 'BoJack' creator Raphael Bob-Waksberg](https://www.pri.org/stories/2017-09-21/horsin-around-bojack-creator-raphael-bob-waksberg) , 15:00–20:00. Based on storyline similarities and graphical nuances, the series has been said to have influences deriving from *[Californication](Californication (TV series))*, *[and a Half Men](Two)(Two and a Half Men)*, and *[Daria](Daria)*. In September 2018, before the show's fifth season was released, Bob-Waksberg stated that the show's ten biggest influences were *The Simpsons*, *[Framed Roger Rabbit](Who)(Who Framed Roger Rabbit)*, *[Archer](Archer (2009 TV series))*, *[Animaniacs](Animaniacs)*, *Daria*, *[Tick](The)(The Tick (1994 TV series))*, [Animation Studios](Pixar)(Pixar Animation Studios), *[Futurama](Futurama)*, *[Park](South)(South Park)*, and the works of [Hertzfeldt](Don)(Don Hertzfeldt).
## Addressing social issues
Since its first season, *BoJack* has addressed many hot-button sociopolitical issues. Its creator, Raphael Bob-Waksberg, once said that he considered the concept of "political correctness" something that other comedians and media creators should view as more of a responsibility. In a 2017 interview with *[Vice](Vice (magazine))*, he said,
A notable example is the episode "[After Dark](Hank)(Hank After Dark)" (season two, episode seven), commonly referred to as "the [Cosby](Bill Cosby) episode," which follows Diane and BoJack on a book tour as they field questions regarding allegations that have just surfaced about a comedy legend, Hank Hippopopalous. In the episode "Brrap Brrap Pew Pew" (season three, episode six), Diane accidentally announces she is getting an abortion via pop starlet Sextina Aquafina's Twitter account, and gets swept up in talks about the practice. The season four episode, "[and Prayers](Thoughts)(Thoughts and Prayers (BoJack Horseman))," took a similar satirical approach towards the [of mass shootings](frequency)(Mass shootings in the United States) and the [debate in America](gun)(Gun politics in the United States), after Diane fires a gun for the first time, and one of Princess Carolyn's projects get caught in the crossfire, launching a debate on whether or not women should own and use guns.
The fifth season has been praised for its handling of sexual harassment and powerful men following the [movement](#MeToo)(MeToo movement). Emily VanDerWerff wrote that it "just might be the best artistic rumination on #MeToo and an age of terrible men yet."
The show also explores Todd Chavez's open [asexuality](asexuality), which is addressed throughout the latter three seasons. In the last episode of the third season, Todd says, "I'm not gay... I mean, I don't think I am, but I don't think I'm straight, either. I don't know what I am. I think I might be nothing." In season 6, Todd forms a relationship with Maude, a rabbit he meets on the asexual dating app Emily created, "All About That Ace."
## Music
The main title theme for *BoJack Horseman* was composed by [Carney](Patrick)(Patrick Carney), drummer for the blues-rock duo [Black Keys](the)(the Black Keys), with his uncle [Carney](Ralph)(Ralph Carney), and the ending theme "Back in the 90s (BoJack's Theme)" was performed by the indie-pop act [Grouplove](Grouplove). The incidental music is composed by [Novak](Jesse)(Jesse Novak) who acted as the recurring composer for the six seasons.
The soundtrack for *BoJack Horseman* was released on [Records](Lakeshore)(Lakeshore Records) on September 1, 2017. It includes several songs, among them the full version of the main theme, Patrick Carney and [Branch](Michelle)(Michelle Branch)'s version of [America](America (band))'s "[Horse with No Name](A)(A Horse with No Name)", Sextina Aquafina's "Get Dat Fetus, Kill Dat Fetus", the themes from ''Horsin' Around* and *Mr. Peanutbutter's House'', and the entire score for the episode "Fish Out of Water".
## Critical reception
Initially met with "mixed" to "average" reviews from critics, the series would quickly go on to receive consistent critical acclaim midway into season one and onwards. It was ranked as the best Netflix original series of all time by [Thrillist](Thrillist) and [Uproxx](Uproxx) in August 2018 and May 2019, respectively. [IndieWire](IndieWire), in November 2018, named *BoJack Horseman* as the best animated series of all time. It has also been ranked as one of the best TV shows of the 2010s by multiple publications, including *[Time](Time (magazine))* and *[Fair](Vanity)(Vanity Fair (magazine))* and following the premiere of the first half of season six in 2019, Chris Mandle of the [BBC](BBC) declared *BoJack Horseman* "the 21st Century's best animation". *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* has labeled *BoJack Horseman* "phenomenal". *[GQ](GQ)* magazine hailed the show as one of the best of the decade, declaring it to be "the benchmark by which all comedies of the decade can be judged".
### Season 1
On the [aggregator](review)(review aggregator) website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), the first season has an approval rating of 71% with an average rating of 5.9/10 based on 28 reviews. The website's critics consensus is, "It's intermittently funny, but in most respects, *BoJack Horseman* pales in comparison to similar comedies." On [Metacritic](Metacritic), the season received a score of 59 out of 100, based on 13 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Erik Adams' review of the first six episodes gave the series a C+ grade; in the review, Adams wrote that the show "spoofs the emptiness of celebrity, but does so without any novelty or true insight". Willa Paskin, writing for *[Slate](Slate (website))*, was more enthused. "[It] is perhaps a little more clever than it is uproariously funny, but it is often very clever, and, moreover, well-tuned to the ludicrousness of the sort of low-level fame that surrounds BoJack". She likened it to *[Rock](30)(30 Rock)* in its ability to "[present] big ideas without having to commit to them". Chris Mitchell of Popzara was equally optimistic about the show's future, saying that "Fans of [FX](FX (TV channel))'s *[Archer](Archer (2009 TV series))* or [Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company)'s ''[Burgers](Bob's)(Bob's Burgers)* will definitely want to check this one out, as its rapid-fire delivery is always consciously spot-on". *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* described the show as "hilarious and ribald". Margaret Lyons of *[Vulture](New York (magazine))'' gave a positive review, describing it as "radically sad. I love it."
The second half of the season, however, received much more positive reviews. Ben Travers of IndieWire believed one possible reason for mixed reviews of the show was critics reviewing only the first half of the season, with the second half changing drastically in tone and developing a darker and deeper meaning. This change was so drastic that it led to IndieWire changing its policy to only review entire seasons of shows on Netflix, instead of just the first six episodes, which would have boosted *BoJack Horseman*s C+ grade.
Keith Uhlich of *[A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club)* named the first season of *BoJack Horseman* the fourth-best motion picture of 2014.
### Season 2
The second season received universal acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season holds an approval rating of 100% with an average rating of 8.7/10 based on 22 critics. The website's critics consensus is, "*Bojack Horseman* truly comes into its own during season two, maturing into an ambitious comedy that sensitively blends wackiness with dark, nuanced drama." On Metacritic, the season has a score of 90 out of 100, based on 7 critics. Emily VanDerWerff of *[Vox](Vox (website))* wrote that the show had "found its footing beautifully in season two, earning the title of not just the streaming service's best show, but of one of television's best shows". Liz Shannon Miller of IndieWire gave the series a grade of "A−", praising the depth of the show's storyline, the voice cast and the superior comedy in comparison to the first season. Vikram Murthi of *[A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club)* also gave the series an "A−", commenting that "for the most part, it's an entirely unique, funny, and melancholic exploration into the heart and mind of someone struggling to put his life back on track after a series of dark turns".
Chuck Bowen of *[Magazine](Slant)(Slant Magazine)* awarded the series four-and-a-half stars out of five, commenting that "*BoJack Horseman*s second season is an even more confident blend of the various tones it experimentally donned last year, as it's simultaneously melancholic, angry, goofy, playful, and often uproariously funny in a distinctively ineffable what-the-fuck fashion". *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)* gave the series a B rating, stating it was "one of TV's best meta-skewers of Hollywood".
### Season 3
The third season received near-universal acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, the third season has an approval rating of 100% with average rating of 9.1 based on 31 reviews. The website's critics consensus is, "Skillfully puncturing the idea of celebrity and our culture's bizarre obsession with it, *BoJack Horseman*s third season continues its streak as one of the funniest and most heartbreaking shows on television." On Metacritic, the season received a score of 89 out of 100, based on 12 reviews. Daniel Fienberg of *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* lauded the season, commenting that the show "evolved from frothy talking-animal Hollywood satire to character-rich treatise on depression in its first season, deepened and darkened into one of TV's best shows in its second season and gallops into its third season with a profound confidence". *Entertainment Weekly* gave the series an A rating, stating the season is "more digressive than the show's first two years, and much more open-ended, sending core characters in different directions" and that it "builds to one of the funniest, weirdest, and most profound moments ever seen in a television show".
*The A.V. Club* awarded the series an A−, commenting that "Netflix has taken it upon itself to add BoJack to the line of TV's famous antiheroes" and praising the show for improving with each series. Chris Cabin of [Collider](Collider (website)) gave the show four out of five stars, stating "BoJack Horseman ends up becoming a thrilling, rueful study of the psychological games and uniquely vain, notably capitalistic decision-making that powers the entertainment industry". They went on to praise the show's humor; "through its venomous jokes and unrelenting, uproarious gags, the series also recognizes how charming, joyful, and galvanizing entertainment for entertainment sake can be, no matter how stupid or silly it may seem".
### Season 4
The fourth season also received wide acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season holds a 97% approval rating with an average rating of 8.7/10 based on 35 reviews. The website's critics consensus is, "*BoJack Horseman*s fourth season finds the show continuing to fearlessly traverse the emotional gamut - with results that are heartbreaking as often as they are hilarious." Metacritic awarded the show a score of 87 out of 100 based on 5 reviews. Liz Shannon Miller of IndieWire gave the series an "A" grade, commenting that "by the end of the season, we know these characters, and this show, far better than ever before. BoJack's signature tropes—the background visual jokes, the animal puns, the brutal moments of sadness—remain reliably consistent, but turns the focus largely inward, ensuring that some of the more outlandish plots support and highlight the more emotional storylines".
Bethonie Butler of *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)* lauded the series, praising the installment as "moving and unexpected" and that "it offers hope but never ignores the sorrows that are inevitable in real life". Mike Hale of *The New York Times* also gave a positive review, commenting that the "material has the snap and the poignancy we've grown accustomed to" and that "while nothing matches the adventurousness of season three's underwater film festival episode, season four's ninth episode—narrated from the future by a distant descendant of Princess Carolyn's—is a devastating example of what *BoJack* can do at its best".
### Season 5
Keeping up with the performance of previous seasons, the fifth season received widespread acclaim. Based on 48 reviews, the season has an approval rating of 98% with average rating of 9.3/10 on Rotten Tomatoes. The website's critics consensus is, "*BoJack Horseman* continues confidently down the thematic rabbit hole with a fresh and poignant season that's as devastating as it is hilarious." On Metacritic, it holds a score of 92 out of 100 based on 6 reviews. Indiewire gave the season an "A" calling it another brilliant season and saying the series has become so great that it is "beyond reproach". Multiple critical reviews have praised the episode "[Churro](Free)(Free Churro)", calling it one of the series' best episodes and giving it Emmy buzz for both the writing and Will Arnett's monologue. Les Chappell of *The A.V. Club* observed that the episode "The Dog Days Are Over", in which Diane Nguyen takes an impromptu trip to [Hanoi](Hanoi), can be seen as a commentary on the "identity crisis elements" of having the Vietnamese-American character Diane voiced by a white actress.
### Season 6
The sixth season has also received wide acclaim. Jen Chaney of *[Vulture](New York (magazine))* called it "more clever, intelligent, and multilayered than 95 percent of comedies on television or any other platform". On Rotten Tomatoes, the season holds a 96% approval rating with an average rating of 9.2/10 based on 54 reviews, with a critics' consensus that reads: "Bittersweet and brilliant to the very end, *BoJack Horseman*s final season manages to keep surprising viewers with its empathy and depth, solidifying its place as one of TV's greatest offerings." On Metacritic, the first part of season six holds a score of 93 out of 100 based on 6 reviews, while the second part holds a score of 91 out of 100 based on 8 reviews.
## Legacy
*BoJack Horseman* has been considered by multiple critics to be one of the best animated shows of all time. It received acclaim during its run for its [existential](existential) plot lines and realistic take on depression, drug addiction, [alcoholism](alcoholism), and celebrity status. Its ensemble cast has been praised for their voice performances.
*BoJack Horseman* has contributed to the rise of the "sadcom", a [tragicomic](Tragicomedy) format that balances both humor and sadness.
## Syndication
On July 26, 2018, [Central](Comedy)(Comedy Central) acquired exclusive [television](linear)(Non-linear media#Television) [syndication](Broadcast syndication) rights to *BoJack Horseman*; making it the first [original](Netflix)(List of original programs distributed by Netflix) to be syndicated to cable television in the United States. The series debuted on September 26, 2018, following the *[Park](South)(South Park)* season 22 premiere. In February 2021, *BoJack Horseman* re-aired on [MTV2](MTV2).
In the United Kingdom, the show began airing on [DMAX](DMAX (British TV channel)) on February 25, 2019.
## Home media
On December 13, 2018, The Tornante Company and [Factory](Shout!)(Shout! Factory) announced a deal to release the first four seasons on DVD and Blu-ray. In North America, a bundle of the first two seasons and the Christmas special was released on DVD and Blu-ray on July 30, 2019; this release also contains animatics, art galleries and audio commentaries as bonus features. In the United Kingdom, [Entertainment](Manga)(Manga Entertainment) released season one on October 28, 2019, followed by season two on December 2, respectively.
## Awards and nominations
Throughout its run, *BoJack Horseman* has received numerous [accolades](List of awards and nominations received by BoJack Horseman), including two [Award](Saturn)(Saturn Awards) nominations for [Animated Series on Television](Best)(Saturn Award for Best Animated Series on Television), four [Choice Television Award](Critics')(Critics' Choice Television Award)s for [Animated Series](Best)(Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Animated Series), and two [Arts Emmy Award](Creative)(Creative Arts Emmy Award) nominations for [Animated Program](Outstanding)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program). For her voicing of Sarah Lynn, [Schaal](Kristen)(Kristen Schaal) was nominated for the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Character Voice-Over Performance](Primetime)(Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Character Voice-Over Performance). Additionally, writers on the show received a total of seven nominations from the [Guild of America](Writers)(Writers Guild of America Awards), three of which were won by [Lawson](Joe)(Joe Lawson (writer)) for "[the Presses](Stop)(Stop the Presses (BoJack Horseman))", [Purdy](Kate)(Kate Purdy) for "[Arrow](Time's)(Time's Arrow (BoJack Horseman))", and [Adams](Nick)(Nick Adams (writer)) for "Xerox of a Xerox".
## References
## Further reading
McDonnell, Chris (2018). *Bojack Horseman: The Art Before the Horse.* Harry N. Abrams.
## External links
* – Official site
*
## Notes
}}
[ ](Category:BoJack Horseman)
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Moore's law
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moore's_law
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# Moore's law
*Revision ID: 1160332713 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T20:33:26Z*
---
[[File:Moore's Law Transistor Count 1970-2020.png|thumb|upright=2|A [plot](semi-log)(semi-log plot) of [count](transistor)(transistor count)s for [microprocessor](microprocessor)s against dates of introduction, nearly doubling every two years |alt=refer to caption|300px]]
'''Moore's law''' is the observation that the [of transistor](number)(Transistor count)s in an [circuit](integrated)(integrated circuit) (IC) doubles about every two years. Moore's law is an [observation](observation) and [projection](Forecasting) of a historical trend. Rather than a [of physics](law)(law of physics), it is an [relationship](empirical)(empirical relationship) linked to [from experience](gains)(Wright's Law) in production.
The observation is named after [Moore](Gordon)(Gordon Moore), the co-founder of [Semiconductor](Fairchild)(Fairchild Semiconductor) and [Intel](Intel) (and former CEO of the latter), who in 1965 posited a [every year](doubling)(exponential growth) in the number of components per integrated circuit, and projected this rate of growth would continue for at least another decade. In 1975, looking forward to the next decade, he revised the forecast to doubling every two years, a [annual growth rate](compound)(compound annual growth rate) (CAGR) of 41%. While Moore did not use empirical evidence in forecasting that the historical trend would continue, his prediction held since 1975 and has since become known as a "law".
Moore's prediction has been used in the [industry](semiconductor)(semiconductor industry) to guide long-term planning and to set targets for [and development](research)(research and development), thus functioning to some extent as a [prophecy](self-fulfilling)(self-fulfilling prophecy). Advancements in [electronics](digital)(digital electronics), such as the reduction in [quality-adjusted](Price index#Quality change) [microprocessor](microprocessor) prices, the increase in [capacity](memory)(Computer memory) ([RAM](Random-access memory) and [flash](flash memory)), the improvement of [sensors](digital sensor), and even the number and size of [pixel](pixel)s in [camera](digital)(digital camera)s, are strongly linked to Moore's law. These ongoing changes in digital electronics have been a driving force of technological and social change, [productivity](productivity), and economic growth.
Industry experts have not reached a consensus on exactly when Moore's law will cease to apply. Microprocessor architects report that semiconductor advancement has slowed industry-wide since around 2010, slightly below the pace predicted by Moore's law. In September 2022 [Nvidia](Nvidia) CEO [Huang](Jensen)(Jensen Huang) considered Moore's law dead, while Intel CEO [Gelsinger](Pat)(Pat Gelsinger) was of the opposite view.
## History
In 1959, [Engelbart](Douglas)(Douglas Engelbart) studied the projected downscaling of [circuit](integrated)(integrated circuit) (IC) size, publishing his results in the article "Microelectronics, and the Art of Similitude". Engelbart presented his findings at the 1960 [Solid-State Circuits Conference](International)(International Solid-State Circuits Conference), where Moore was present in the audience.
In 1965, Gordon Moore, who at the time was working as the director of research and development at [Semiconductor](Fairchild)(Fairchild Semiconductor), was asked to contribute to the thirty-fifth anniversary issue of *[Electronics](Electronics (magazine))* magazine with a prediction on the future of the semiconductor components industry over the next ten years. His response was a brief article entitled "Cramming more components onto integrated circuits". An engineer living in the United Kingdom was the first to find a copy and offer it to Intel.}} Within his editorial, he speculated that by 1975 it would be possible to contain as many as 65,000 components on a single quarter-square-inch (~1.6 square-centimeter) semiconductor.
The complexity for minimum component costs has increased at a rate of roughly a factor of two per year. Certainly over the short term this rate can be expected to continue, if not to increase. Over the longer term, the rate of increase is a bit more uncertain, although there is no reason to believe it will not remain nearly constant for at least 10 years.
Moore posited a log-linear relationship between device complexity (higher circuit density at reduced cost) and time. In a 2015 interview, Moore noted of the 1965 article: "...I just did a wild extrapolation saying it's going to continue to double every year for the next 10 years." One historian of the law cites [law of eponymy](Stigler's)(Stigler's law of eponymy), to introduce the fact that the regular doubling of components was known to many working in the field.
In 1974, [H. Dennard](Robert)(Robert H. Dennard) at [IBM](IBM) recognized the rapid MOSFET scaling technology and formulated what became known as [scaling](Dennard)(Dennard scaling), which describes that as MOS transistors get smaller, their [density](power)(power density) stays constant such that the power use remains in proportion with area. Evidence from the semiconductor industry shows that this inverse relationship between power density and areal density broke down in the mid-2000s.
At the 1975 [International Electron Devices Meeting](IEEE)(IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting), Moore revised his forecast rate, predicting semiconductor complexity would continue to double annually until about 1980, after which it would decrease to a rate of doubling approximately every two years. He outlined several contributing factors for this exponential behavior:
* The advent of [metal–oxide–semiconductor](metal–oxide–semiconductor) (MOS) technology
* The exponential rate of increase in die sizes, coupled with a decrease in defective densities, with the result that semiconductor manufacturers could work with larger areas without losing reduction yields
* Finer minimum dimensions
* What Moore called "circuit and device cleverness"
Shortly after 1975, [Caltech](Caltech) professor [Mead](Carver)(Carver Mead) popularized the term "Moore's law".in reference to [E. Moore](Gordon)(Gordon E. Moore)'s statements at the IEEE.
Moore's law eventually came to be widely accepted as a goal for the semiconductor industry, and it was cited by competitive semiconductor manufacturers as they strove to increase processing power. Moore viewed his eponymous law as surprising and optimistic: "Moore's law is a violation of [law](Murphy's)(Murphy's law). Everything gets better and better." The observation was even seen as a [prophecy](self-fulfilling)(self-fulfilling prophecy).
The doubling period is often misquoted as 18 months because of a prediction by Moore's colleague, Intel executive David House. In 1975, House noted that Moore's revised law of doubling transistor count every 2 years in turn implied that computer chip performance would roughly double every 18 months (with no increase in power consumption). Mathematically, Moore's Law predicted that transistor count would double every 2 years due to shrinking transistor dimensions and other improvements. As a consequence of shrinking dimensions, Dennard scaling predicted that power consumption per unit area would remain constant. Combining these effects, David House deduced that computer chip performance would roughly double every 18 months. Also due to Dennard scaling, this increased performance would not be accompanied by increased power, i.e., the energy-efficiency of [silicon](silicon)-based computer chips roughly doubles every 18 months. Dennard scaling ended in the 2000s. Koomey later showed that a similar rate of efficiency improvement predated silicon chips and Moore's Law, for technologies such as vacuum tubes.
[[File:Osbourne Executive (34 365).jpg|thumb|350px|An [Executive](Osborne)(Osborne Executive) portable computer, from 1982, with a [Z80](Zilog)(Zilog Z80) 4 MHz CPU, and a 2007 [Apple](Apple Inc.) [iPhone](iPhone) with a 412 MHz [ARM11](ARM11) CPU; the Executive has 100 times the weight, almost 500 times the volume, approximately 10 times the inflation adjusted cost, and 1/103rd the [frequency](clock)(clock frequency) of the [smartphone](smartphone).|alt=Large early portable computer next to a modern smartphone]]
Microprocessor architects report that since around 2010, semiconductor advancement has slowed industry-wide below the pace predicted by Moore's law. [Krzanich](Brian)(Brian Krzanich), the former CEO of Intel, cited Moore's 1975 revision as a precedent for the current deceleration, which results from technical challenges and is "a natural part of the history of Moore's law". The rate of improvement in physical dimensions known as Dennard scaling also ended in the mid-2000s. As a result, much of the semiconductor industry has shifted its focus to the needs of major computing applications rather than semiconductor scaling. Nevertheless, leading semiconductor manufacturers [TSMC](TSMC) and [Electronics](Samsung)(Samsung Electronics) have claimed to keep pace with Moore's law with [10](10 nm process), [7](7 nm process), and [5 nm](5 nm process) nodes in mass production
### Moore's second law
As the cost of computer power to the consumer falls, the cost for producers to fulfill Moore's law follows an opposite trend: R&D, manufacturing, and test costs have increased steadily with each new generation of chips. Rising manufacturing costs are an important consideration for the sustaining of Moore's law. This led to the formulation of [second law](Moore's)(Moore's second law), also called Rock's law (named after [Rock](Arthur)(Arthur Rock)), which is that the [capital](financial capital) cost of a [fabrication plant](semiconductor)(semiconductor fabrication plant) also increases exponentially over time.
## Major enabling factors
[[File:NAND scaling timeline.png|thumb|450px|The trend of [scaling](MOSFET)(MOSFET scaling) for [flash](NAND)(NAND flash) memory allows [doubling](the)(transistor count) of [MOSFET](floating-gate)(floating-gate MOSFET) components manufactured in the same wafer area in less than 18 months.|alt=A semi-log plot of NAND flash design rule dimensions in nanometers against dates of introduction. The downward linear regression indicates an exponential decrease in feature dimensions over time.]]
Numerous innovations by scientists and engineers have sustained Moore's law since the beginning of the IC era. Some of the key innovations are listed below, as examples of breakthroughs that have advanced integrated circuit and [device fabrication](semiconductor)(semiconductor device fabrication) technology, allowing [count](transistor)(transistor count)s to grow by more than seven orders of magnitude in less than five decades.
* [circuit](Integrated)(Integrated circuit) (IC): The ''raison d'être'' for Moore's law. The [germanium](germanium) [IC](hybrid)(Hybrid integrated circuit) was invented by [Kilby](Jack)(Jack Kilby) at [Instruments](Texas)(Texas Instruments) in 1958,Kilby, J., "Miniaturized electronic circuits", , issued June 23, 1964 (filed February 6, 1959). followed by the invention of the [silicon](silicon) [IC](monolithic)(Monolithic integrated circuit) chip by [Noyce](Robert)(Robert Noyce) at [Semiconductor](Fairchild)(Fairchild Semiconductor) in 1959.Noyce, R., "Semiconductor device-and-lead structure", , issued April 25, 1961 (filed July 30, 1959)
*[metal–oxide–semiconductor](Complementary)(Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor) (CMOS): The CMOS process was invented by [Sah](Chih-Tang)(Chih-Tang Sah) and [Wanlass](Frank)(Frank Wanlass) at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963.Wanlass, F., "Low stand-by power complementary field effect circuitry", , issued December 5, 1967 (filed June 18, 1963).
*[random-access memory](Dynamic)(Dynamic random-access memory) (DRAM): DRAM was developed by [H. Dennard](Robert)(Robert H. Dennard) at [IBM](IBM) in 1967.Dennard, R., "Field-effect transistor memory", , issued June 4, 1968 (filed July 14, 1967)
* [photoresist](Chemically-amplified)(Photoresist#Chemical amplification): Invented by Hiroshi Ito, and J. M. J. Fréchet at IBM *circa* 1980, "Positive and Negative Working Resist Compositions with Acid-Generating Photoinitiator and Polymer with Acid-Labile Groups Pendant From Polymer Backbone" J. M. J. Fréchet, H. Ito and C. G. Willson 1985.[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect2=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2Fsearch-bool.html&r=1&f=G&l=50&d=PALL&RefSrch=yes&Query=PN%2F4491628] which was 5–10 times more sensitive to ultraviolet light. IBM introduced chemically amplified photoresist for DRAM production in the mid-1980s.
* Deep UV excimer laser [photolithography](photolithography): Invented by Kanti Jain at IBM *circa* 1980. Prior to this, [laser](excimer)(excimer laser)s had been mainly used as research devices since their development in the 1970s.Basov, N. G. et al., Zh. Eksp. Fiz. i Tekh. Pis'ma. Red. 12, 473(1970). From a broader scientific perspective, the invention of excimer laser lithography has been highlighted as one of the major milestones in the 50-year history of the laser.
* [Interconnect](Semiconductor fabrication#Back-end-of-line (BEOL) processing) innovations: Interconnect innovations of the late 1990s, including chemical-mechanical polishing or [mechanical planarization](chemical)(Chemical-mechanical planarization) (CMP), trench isolation, and copper interconnects—although not directly a factor in creating smaller transistors—have enabled improved [wafer](Wafer (electronics)) yield, additional [of metal](layers)(Technology node#Interconnect) wires, closer spacing of devices, and lower electrical resistance. "Table1: 1990 enabling multilevel metallization; 1995 enabling STI compact isolation, polysilicon patterning and yield / defect reduction"
Computer industry technology road maps predicted in 2001 that Moore's law would continue for several generations of semiconductor chips.
### Recent trends
[[File:Threshold formation nowatermark.gif|thumb|450px|A simulation of electron density as gate voltage (Vg) varies in a [nanowire](nanowire) MOSFET. The threshold voltage is around 0.45 V. Nanowire MOSFETs lie toward the end of the ITRS road map for scaling devices below 10 nm gate lengths.|alt=animated plot showing electron density and current as gate voltage varies ]]
One of the key technical challenges of engineering future [nanoscale](Nanoelectronics) transistors is the design of gates. As device dimension shrinks, controlling the current flow in the thin channel becomes more difficult. Modern nanoscale transistors typically take the form of [MOSFET](multi-gate)(multi-gate MOSFET)s, with the [FinFET](FinFET) being the most common nanoscale transistor. The FinFET has gate dielectric on three sides of the channel. In comparison, the [gate-all-around](gate-all-around) MOSFET ([GAAFET](GAAFET)) structure has even better gate control.
* A [gate-all-around](gate-all-around) MOSFET (GAAFET) was first demonstrated in 1988, by a [Toshiba](Toshiba) research team led by [Masuoka](Fujio)(Fujio Masuoka), who demonstrated a vertical nanowire GAAFET which he called a "surrounding gate transistor" (SGT). Masuoka, best known as the inventor of [memory](flash)(flash memory), later left Toshiba and founded Unisantis Electronics in 2004 to research surrounding-gate technology along with [University](Tohoku)(Tohoku University).
* In 2006, a team of Korean researchers from the [Advanced Institute of Science and Technology](Korea)(KAIST) (KAIST) and the National Nano Fab Center developed a [3 nm](3 nm) transistor, the world's smallest [nanoelectronic](nanoelectronic) device at time, based on FinFET technology.
* In 2010, researchers at the Tyndall National Institute in Cork, Ireland announced a junctionless transistor. A control gate wrapped around a silicon nanowire can control the passage of electrons without the use of junctions or doping. They claim these may be produced at 10-nm scale using existing fabrication techniques.
* In 2011, researchers at the University of Pittsburgh announced the development of a single-electron transistor, 1.5 nm in diameter, made out of oxide-based materials. Three "wires" converge on a central "island" that can house one or two electrons. Electrons tunnel from one wire to another through the island. Conditions on the third wire result in distinct conductive properties including the ability of the transistor to act as a solid state memory. Nanowire transistors could spur the creation of microscopic computers.
* In 2012, a research team at the [of New South Wales](University)(University of New South Wales) announced the development of the first working transistor consisting of a single atom placed precisely in a silicon crystal (not just picked from a large sample of random transistors). Moore's law predicted this milestone to be reached for ICs in the lab by 2020.
* In 2015, IBM demonstrated [7 nm](7 nm) node chips with [silicon-germanium](silicon-germanium) transistors produced using [EUVL](EUVL). The company believes this transistor density would be four times that of current [14 nm](14 nm) chips.
* Samsung and TSMC plan to manufacture 3nm GAAFET nodes by 20212022. Note that node names, such as 3nm, have no relation to the physical size of device elements (transistors).
* A [Toshiba](Toshiba) research team including T. Imoto, M. Matsui and C. Takubo developed a "System Block Module" wafer bonding process for manufacturing [integrated circuit](three-dimensional)(three-dimensional integrated circuit) (3D IC) packages in 2001. In April 2007, Toshiba introduced an eight-layer 3D IC, the 16[GB](Gigabyte) THGAM [embedded](Embedded system) [flash](NAND)(NAND flash) memory chip which was manufactured with eight stacked 2GB NAND flash chips. In September 2007, [Hynix](Hynix) introduced 24-layer 3D IC, a 16GB flash memory chip that was manufactured with 24 stacked NAND flash chips using a wafer bonding process.
* [V-NAND](V-NAND), also known as 3D NAND, allows flash memory cells to be stacked vertically using [trap flash](charge)(charge trap flash) technology originally presented by John Szedon in 1967, significantly increasing the number of transistors on a flash memory chip. 3D NAND was first announced by Toshiba in 2007. V-NAND was first commercially manufactured by [Electronics](Samsung)(Samsung Electronics) in 2013.
* In 2008, researchers at HP Labs announced a working [memristor](memristor), a fourth basic passive circuit element whose existence only had been theorized previously. The memristor's unique properties permit the creation of smaller and better-performing electronic devices.
* In 2014, bioengineers at [University](Stanford)(Stanford University) developed a circuit modeled on the human brain. ["Neurocore" chips](Sixteen)(Neurogrid) simulate one million neurons and billions of synaptic connections, claimed to be 9,000 times faster as well as more energy efficient than a typical PC.
* In 2015, Intel and [Micron](Micron Technology) announced [XPoint](3D)(3D XPoint), a [memory](non-volatile)(non-volatile memory) claimed to be significantly faster with similar density compared to NAND. Production scheduled to begin in 2016 was delayed until the second half of 2017.
* In 2017, Samsung combined its V-NAND technology with [eUFS](Universal Flash Storage) 3D IC stacking to produce a 512GB flash memory chip, with eight stacked 64-layer V-NAND dies. In 2019, Samsung produced a 1[TB](Terabyte) flash chip with eight stacked 96-layer V-NAND dies, along with [cell](quad-level)(quad-level cell) (QLC) technology ([4-bit](4-bit computing) per transistor), equivalent to 2trillion transistors, the highest [count](transistor)(transistor count) of any IC chip.
* In 2020, [Electronics](Samsung)(Samsung Electronics) plans to produce the [5 nm](5 nm) node, using FinFET and [EUV](Extreme ultraviolet lithography) technology.
* In May 2021, IBM announces the creation of the first [nm](2)(2 nm) computer chip, with parts supposedly being smaller than human DNA.
Microprocessor architects report that semiconductor advancement has slowed industry-wide since around 2010, below the pace predicted by Moore's law. Brian Krzanich, the former CEO of Intel, announced, "Our cadence today is closer to two and a half years than two." Intel stated in 2015 that improvements in MOSFET devices have slowed, starting at the [22 nm](22 nm) feature width around 2012, and continuing at [14 nm](14 nm).
The physical limits to transistor scaling have been reached due to source-to-drain leakage, limited gate metals and limited options for channel material. Other approaches are being investigated, which do not rely on physical scaling. These include the spin state of electron [spintronics](spintronics), [junction](tunnel)(tunnel junction)s, and advanced confinement of channel materials via nano-wire geometry. Spin-based logic and memory options are being developed actively in labs.
### Alternative materials research
The vast majority of current transistors on ICs are composed principally of [doped](Doping (semiconductor)) silicon and its alloys. As silicon is fabricated into single nanometer transistors, [effect](short-channel)(short-channel effect)s adversely change desired material properties of silicon as a functional transistor. Below are several non-silicon substitutes in the fabrication of small nanometer transistors.
One proposed material is [gallium arsenide](indium)(Indium gallium arsenide#Applications), or InGaAs. Compared to their silicon and germanium counterparts, InGaAs transistors are more promising for future high-speed, low-power logic applications. Because of intrinsic characteristics of [compound semiconductors](III-V)(List of semiconductor materials#Compound semiconductors), quantum well and [tunnel](tunnel field-effect transistor) effect transistors based on InGaAs have been proposed as alternatives to more traditional MOSFET designs.
* In the early 2000s, the [layer deposition](atomic)(atomic layer deposition) [high-κ](high-κ dielectric) [film](thin film) and pitch [double-patterning](double patterning) processes were invented by [Singh Sandhu](Gurtej)(Gurtej Sandhu) at [Technology](Micron)(Micron Technology), extending Moore's law for planar CMOS technology to [30 nm](32 nanometer) class and smaller.
* In 2009, Intel announced the development of 80-nm InGaAs [well](quantum)(quantum well) transistors. Quantum well devices contain a material sandwiched between two layers of material with a wider band gap. Despite being double the size of leading pure silicon transistors at the time, the company reported that they performed equally as well while consuming less power.
* In 2011, researchers at Intel demonstrated 3-D [tri-gate](Multigate device#Types) InGaAs transistors with improved leakage characteristics compared to traditional planar designs. The company claims that their design achieved the best electrostatics of any III-V compound semiconductor transistor. At the 2015 [Solid-State Circuits Conference](International)(International Solid-State Circuits Conference), Intel mentioned the use of III-V compounds based on such an architecture for their 7 nm node.
* In 2011, researchers at the [of Texas at Austin](University)(University of Texas at Austin) developed an InGaAs tunneling field-effect transistors capable of higher operating currents than previous designs. The first III-V TFET designs were demonstrated in 2009 by a joint team from [University](Cornell)(Cornell University) and [State University](Pennsylvania)(Pennsylvania State University).May 2011 |access-date=2016-08-15 |url=http://www.semiconductor-today.com/features/PDF/SemiconductorToday_AprMay2011_InGaAsFET.pdf |first = Mike |last = Cooke}}
* In 2012, a team in MIT's Microsystems Technology Laboratories developed a 22 nm transistor based on InGaAs which, at the time, was the smallest non-silicon transistor ever built. The team used techniques currently used in silicon device fabrication and aims for better electrical performance and a reduction to [10-nanometer](10 nanometer) scale.
[computing](Biological)(Biological computing) research shows that biological material has superior information density and energy efficiency compared to silicon-based computing.
[[File:Graphene SPM.jpg|thumb|[probe microscopy](Scanning)(Scanning probe microscopy) image of graphene in its hexagonal lattice structure |alt=refer to caption]]
Various forms of [graphene](graphene) are being studied for [electronics](graphene)(graphene electronics), e.g. [nanoribbon](graphene)(graphene nanoribbon) [transistors](graphene transistor) have shown great promise since its appearance in publications in 2008. (Bulk graphene has a [gap](band)(band gap) of zero and thus cannot be used in transistors because of its constant conductivity, an inability to turn off. The zigzag edges of the nanoribbons introduce localized energy states in the conduction and valence bands and thus a bandgap that enables switching when fabricated as a transistor. As an example, a typical GNR of width of 10 nm has a desirable bandgap energy of 0.4 eV.) More research will need to be performed, however, on sub-50 nm graphene layers, as its resistivity value increases and thus electron mobility decreases.
## Forecasts and roadmaps
In April 2005, [Moore](Gordon)(Gordon Moore) stated in an interview that the projection cannot be sustained indefinitely: "It can't continue forever. The nature of exponentials is that you push them out and eventually disaster happens." He also noted that transistors eventually would reach the limits of miniaturization at [atom](atom)ic levels:
}}In 2016 the [Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors](International)(International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors), after using Moore's Law to drive the industry since 1998, produced its final roadmap. It no longer centered its research and development plan on Moore's law. Instead, it outlined what might be called the More than Moore strategy in which the needs of applications drive chip development, rather than a focus on semiconductor scaling. Application drivers range from smartphones to AI to data centers.
IEEE began a road-mapping initiative in 2016, "Rebooting Computing", named the [Roadmap for Devices and Systems](International)(International Roadmap for Devices and Systems) (IRDS).
Most forecasters, including Gordon Moore, expect Moore's law will end by around 2025. Although Moore's Law will reach a physical limitation, some forecasters are optimistic about the continuation of technological progress in a variety of other areas, including new chip architectures, quantum computing, and AI and machine learning. [Nvidia](Nvidia) CEO [Huang](Jensen)(Jensen Huang) declared Moore's law dead in 2022; several days later [Intel](Intel) CEO Pat Gelsinger declared that Moore's law is not dead.
## Consequences
Digital electronics have contributed to world economic growth in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. The primary driving force of economic growth is the growth of [productivity](productivity), and Moore's law factors into productivity. Moore (1995) expected that "the rate of technological progress is going to be controlled from financial realities". The reverse could and did occur around the late-1990s, however, with economists reporting that "Productivity growth is the key economic indicator of innovation." Moore's law describes a driving force of technological and social change, productivity, and economic growth.
An acceleration in the rate of semiconductor progress contributed to a surge in U.S. productivity growth, which reached 3.4% per year in 1997–2004, outpacing the 1.6% per year during both 1972–1996 and 2005–2013. As economist Richard G. Anderson notes, "Numerous studies have traced the cause of the productivity acceleration to technological innovations in the production of semiconductors that sharply reduced the prices of such components and of the products that contain them (as well as expanding the capabilities of such products)."
The primary negative implication of Moore's law is that [obsolescence](obsolescence) pushes society up against the [to Growth](Limits)(Limits to Growth). As technologies continue to rapidly "improve", they render predecessor technologies obsolete. In situations in which security and survivability of hardware or data are paramount, or in which resources are limited, rapid obsolescence often poses obstacles to smooth or continued operations.
Because of the intensive resource footprint and toxic materials used in the production of computers, obsolescence leads to serious [environmental impacts](harmful)(Limits to Growth). Americans throw out 400,000 cell phones every day, but this high level of obsolescence appears to companies as an opportunity to generate regular sales of expensive new equipment, instead of retaining one device for a longer period of time, leading to industry using [obsolescence](planned)(planned obsolescence) as a [centre](profit)(profit centre).
[[transistor gate length trend** – transistor scaling has slowed down significantly at advanced (smaller) nodes.|alt=Log-log plot comparing gate length to node size](File:Intel.svg|thumb|**Intel)]
An alternative source of improved performance is in [microarchitecture](microarchitecture) techniques exploiting the growth of available transistor count. [execution](Out-of-order)(Out-of-order execution) and on-chip [caching](CPU cache) and [prefetching](Instruction prefetch) reduce the memory latency bottleneck at the expense of using more transistors and increasing the processor complexity. These increases are described empirically by [Rule](Pollack's)(Pollack's Rule), which states that performance increases due to microarchitecture techniques approximate the square root of the complexity (number of transistors or the area) of a processor.
For years, processor makers delivered increases in [rate](clock)(clock rate)s and [parallelism](instruction-level)(instruction-level parallelism), so that single-threaded code executed faster on newer processors with no modification.See Herb Sutter,[The Free Lunch Is Over: A Fundamental Turn Toward Concurrency in Software](http://www.gotw.ca/publications/concurrency-ddj.htm), Dr. Dobb's Journal, 30(3), March 2005. Retrieved November 21, 2011. Now, to manage [power dissipation](CPU)(CPU power dissipation), processor makers favor [multi-core](multi-core) chip designs, and software has to be written in a [multi-threaded](multi-threaded) manner to take full advantage of the hardware. Many multi-threaded development paradigms introduce overhead, and will not see a linear increase in speed versus number of processors. This is particularly true while accessing shared or dependent resources, due to [lock](Lock (computer science)) contention. This effect becomes more noticeable as the number of processors increases. There are cases where a roughly 45% increase in processor transistors has translated to roughly 10–20% increase in processing power.
On the other hand, manufacturers are adding specialized processing units to deal with features such as graphics, video, and cryptography. For one example, Intel's [JavaScript](Parallel)(River Trail (JavaScript engine)) extension not only adds support for multiple cores, but also for the other non-general processing features of their chips, as part of the migration in client side scripting toward [HTML5](HTML5).
Moore's law has affected the performance of other technologies significantly: [S. Malone](Michael)(Michael S. Malone) wrote of a Moore's War following the apparent success of [and awe](shock)(shock and awe) in the early days of the [War](Iraq)(Iraq War). Progress in the development of guided weapons depends on electronic technology. Improvements in circuit density and low-power operation associated with Moore's law also have contributed to the development of technologies including [telephones](mobile)(mobile phones) and [printing](3-D)(3D printing).
## Other formulations and similar observations
Several measures of digital technology are improving at exponential rates related to Moore's law, including the size, cost, density, and speed of components. Moore wrote only about the density of components, "a component being a transistor, resistor, diode or capacitor", at minimum cost.
*Transistors per integrated circuit* – The most popular formulation is of the doubling of the number of transistors on ICs every two years. At the end of the 1970s, Moore's law became known as the limit for the number of transistors on the most complex chips. The graph at the top shows this trend holds true today. As of 2017, the commercially available processor possessing the highest number of transistors is the 48 core [Centriq](Qualcomm Centriq) with over 18 billion transistors.
### Density at minimum cost per transistor
This is the formulation given in Moore's 1965 paper. It is not just about the density of transistors that can be achieved, but about the density of transistors at which the cost per transistor is the lowest.
As more transistors are put on a chip, the cost to make each transistor decreases, but the chance that the chip will not work due to a defect increases. In 1965, Moore examined the density of transistors at which cost is minimized, and observed that, as transistors were made smaller through advances in [photolithography](photolithography), this number would increase at "a rate of roughly a factor of two per year".
*Dennard scaling* – This posits that power usage would decrease in proportion to area (both voltage and current being proportional to length) of transistors. Combined with Moore's law, [per watt](performance)(performance per watt) would grow at roughly the same rate as transistor density, doubling every 1–2 years. According to Dennard scaling transistor dimensions would be scaled by 30% (0.7x) every technology generation, thus reducing their area by 50%. This would reduce the delay by 30% (0.7x) and therefore increase operating frequency by about 40% (1.4x). Finally, to keep electric field constant, voltage would be reduced by 30%, reducing energy by 65% and power (at 1.4x frequency) by 50%. CV2f}} Therefore, in every technology generation transistor density would double, circuit becomes 40% faster, while power consumption (with twice the number of transistors) stays the same. Dennard scaling came to end in 2005–2010, due to leakage currents.
The exponential processor transistor growth predicted by Moore does not always translate into exponentially greater practical CPU performance. Since around 2005–2007, Dennard scaling has ended, so even though Moore's law continued for several years after that, it has not yielded dividends in improved performance. The primary reason cited for the breakdown is that at small sizes, current leakage poses greater challenges, and also causes the chip to heat up, which creates a threat of [runaway](thermal)(thermal runaway) and therefore, further increases energy costs.
The breakdown of Dennard scaling prompted a greater focus on multicore processors, but the gains offered by switching to more cores are lower than the gains that would be achieved had Dennard scaling continued. In another departure from Dennard scaling, Intel microprocessors adopted a non-planar tri-gate FinFET at 22 nm in 2012 that is faster and consumes less power than a conventional planar transistor. The rate of performance improvement for single-core microprocessors has slowed significantly. Single-core performance was improving by 52% per year in 1986–2003 and 23% per year in 2003–2011, but slowed to just seven percent per year in 2011–2018.
*Quality adjusted price of IT equipment* – The [price](Price index) of information technology (IT), computers and peripheral equipment, adjusted for quality and inflation, declined 16% per year on average over the five decades from 1959 to 2009. The pace accelerated, however, to 23% per year in 1995–1999 triggered by faster IT innovation, and later, slowed to 2% per year in 2010–2013.
While [quality-adjusted](Price index#Quality change) microprocessor price improvement continues, the rate of improvement likewise varies, and is not linear on a log scale. Microprocessor price improvement accelerated during the late 1990s, reaching 60% per year (halving every nine months) versus the typical 30% improvement rate (halving every two years) during the years earlier and later. Laptop microprocessors in particular improved 25–35% per year in 2004–2010, and slowed to 15–25% per year in 2010–2013.
The number of transistors per chip cannot explain quality-adjusted microprocessor prices fully. Moore's 1995 paper does not limit Moore's law to strict linearity or to transistor count, "The definition of 'Moore's Law' has come to refer to almost anything related to the semiconductor industry that on a [plot](semi-log)(semi-log plot) approximates a straight line. I hesitate to review its origins and by doing so restrict its definition."
*Hard disk drive areal density* – A similar prediction (sometimes called [law](Kryder's)(Mark Kryder)) was made in 2005 for [disk drive](hard)(hard disk drive) [density](areal)(areal density (computer storage)). The prediction was later viewed as over-optimistic. Several decades of rapid progress in areal density slowed around 2010, from 30–100% per year to 10–15% per year, because of noise related to [grain size](smaller)(Superparamagnetism#Effect on hard drives) of the disk media, thermal stability, and writability using available magnetic fields.
*Fiber-optic capacity* – The number of bits per second that can be sent down an optical fiber increases exponentially, faster than Moore's law. '''Keck's law''', in honor of [Keck](Donald)(Donald Keck).
Jeff Hecht.
["Is Keck's Law Coming to an End?"](https://spectrum.ieee.org/semiconductors/optoelectronics/is-kecks-law-coming-to-an-end).
IEEE Spectrum.
2016.
*Network capacity* – According to Gerald Butters, the former head of Lucent's Optical Networking Group at Bell Labs, there is another version, called Butters' Law of Photonics, a formulation that deliberately parallels Moore's law. Butters' law says that the amount of data coming out of an optical fiber is doubling every nine months. Thus, the cost of transmitting a bit over an optical network decreases by half every nine months. The availability of [multiplexing](wavelength-division)(wavelength-division multiplexing) (sometimes called WDM) increased the capacity that could be placed on a single fiber by as much as a factor of 100. Optical networking and [wavelength-division multiplexing](dense)(Dense WDM) (DWDM) is rapidly bringing down the cost of networking, and further progress seems assured. As a result, the wholesale price of data traffic collapsed in the [bubble](dot-com)(dot-com bubble). [Law](Nielsen's)(Nielsen's Law) says that the bandwidth available to users increases by 50% annually.
*Pixels per dollar* – Similarly, Barry Hendy of Kodak Australia has plotted pixels per dollar as a basic measure of value for a digital camera, demonstrating the historical linearity (on a log scale) of this market and the opportunity to predict the future trend of digital camera price, [LCD](Liquid-crystal display) and [LED](Light-emitting diode) screens, and resolution.
''The great Moore's law compensator (TGMLC)'', also known as [law](Wirth's)(Wirth's law) – generally is referred to as [bloat](software)(software bloat) and is the principle that successive generations of computer software increase in size and complexity, thereby offsetting the performance gains predicted by Moore's law. In a 2008 article in [InfoWorld](InfoWorld), Randall C. Kennedy, formerly of Intel, introduces this term using successive versions of [Office](Microsoft)(Microsoft Office) between the year 2000 and 2007 as his premise. Despite the gains in computational performance during this time period according to Moore's law, Office 2007 performed the same task at half the speed on a prototypical year 2007 computer as compared to Office 2000 on a year 2000 computer.
*Library expansion* – was calculated in 1945 by [Rider](Fremont)(Fremont Rider) to double in capacity every 16 years, if sufficient space were made available. He advocated replacing bulky, decaying printed works with miniaturized [microform](microform) analog photographs, which could be duplicated on-demand for library patrons or other institutions. He did not foresee the digital technology that would follow decades later to replace analog microform with digital imaging, storage, and transmission media. Automated, potentially lossless digital technologies allowed vast increases in the rapidity of information growth in an era that now sometimes is called the [Age](Information)(Information Age).
*[curve](Carlson)(Carlson curve)* – is a term coined by *The Economist*Life 2.0. (August 31, 2006). The Economist to describe the biotechnological equivalent of Moore's law, and is named after author Rob Carlson. |isbn=978-0-674-05362-5}} Carlson accurately predicted that the doubling time of DNA sequencing technologies (measured by cost and performance) would be at least as fast as Moore's law. Carlson Curves illustrate the rapid (in some cases hyperexponential) decreases in cost, and increases in performance, of a variety of technologies, including DNA sequencing, DNA synthesis, and a range of physical and computational tools used in protein expression and in determining protein structures.
''[law](Eroom's)(Eroom's law)'' – is a pharmaceutical drug development observation which was deliberately written as Moore's Law spelled backwards in order to contrast it with the exponential advancements of other forms of technology (such as transistors) over time. It states that the cost of developing a new drug roughly doubles every nine years.
*[curve effects](Experience)(Experience curve effects)* says that each doubling of the cumulative production of virtually any product or service is accompanied by an approximate constant percentage reduction in the unit cost. The acknowledged first documented qualitative description of this dates from 1885. A power curve was used to describe this phenomenon in a 1936 discussion of the cost of airplanes.
''[law](Edholm's)(Edholm's law)'' – Phil Edholm observed that the [bandwidth](Bandwidth (signal processing)) of [network](telecommunication)(telecommunication network)s (including the Internet) is doubling every 18 months. The bandwidths of online [networks](communication)(communication networks) has risen from [per second](bits)(bits per second) to [per second](terabits)(terabit per second). The rapid rise in online bandwidth is largely due to the same MOSFET scaling that enables Moore's law, as telecommunications networks are built from MOSFETs.
''[law](Haitz's)(Haitz's law)* predicts that the brightness of LEDs increases as their manufacturing cost goes down.
*[law](Swanson's)(Swanson's law)'' is the observation that the price of solar photovoltaic modules tends to drop 20 percent for every doubling of cumulative shipped volume. At present rates, costs go down 75% about every 10 years.
## See also
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
## Notes
## References
}}
## Further reading
*
*
*
*
## External links
* [Intel press kit](https://www.intel.com/pressroom/kits/events/moores_law_40th/index.htm) – released for Moore's Law's 40th anniversary, with a [1965 sketch](https://www.intel.com/pressroom/kits/events/moores_law_40th/Images_Assets/graph.jpg) by Moore
* [No Technology has been more disruptive...](http://www.slideshare.net/Christiansandstrom/no-technology-has-been-more-disruptive-presentation/) Slide show of microchip growth
* [Intel (IA-32) CPU speeds 1994–2005](https://web.archive.org/web/20090830042915/http://wi-fizzle.com/compsci/) – speed increases in recent years have seemed to slow down with regard to percentage increase per year (available in PDF or PNG format)
* [International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS)](https://web.archive.org/web/20151228041321/http://www.itrs.net/)
* net FAQ about Moore's Law}}
* [ASML's 'Our Stories', Gordon Moore about Moore's Law](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EzyJxAP6AQo), [Holding](ASML)(ASML Holding)
*
* [Moore’s Law](https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/newsroom/resources/moores-law.html)
[introductions](Category:1965)(Category:1965 introductions)
[architecture statements](Category:Computer)(Category:Computer architecture statements)
[Revolution](Category:Digital)(Category:Digital Revolution)
[of computing hardware](Category:History)(Category:History of computing hardware)
[Category:MOSFETs](Category:MOSFETs)
[of thumb](Category:Rules)(Category:Rules of thumb)
[change](Category:Technological)(Category:Technological change)
[Category:Eponyms](Category:Eponyms)
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Google Sheets
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google_sheets
|
# Google Sheets
*Revision ID: 1158136203 | Timestamp: 2023-06-02T05:13:51Z*
---
| ver layout = stacked
| latest release version =
| latest release date =
| latest preview version =
| latest preview date =
| programming language = [JavaScript](JavaScript)
| platform =
| operating system = [Android](Android (operating system)), [iOS](iOS), [macOS](macOS), [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows), [OS](BlackBerry)(BlackBerry OS), [ChromeOS](ChromeOS)
| language count = 83
| language footnote =
| genre =
| website =
}}
**Google Sheets** is a [spreadsheet](spreadsheet) application included as part of the free, [web-based](web application) [Docs Editors](Google)(Google Docs Editors) suite offered by [Google](Google). Google Sheets is available as a [application](web)(web application); a [app](mobile)(mobile app) for: [Android](Android (operating system)), [iOS](iOS), [Windows](Microsoft)(Microsoft Windows), [OS](BlackBerry)(BlackBerry OS); and as a [application](desktop)(Application software) on Google's [ChromeOS](ChromeOS). The app is compatible with [Excel](Microsoft)(Microsoft Excel) file formats. The app allows users to create and edit files online while collaborating with other users in real-time. Edits are tracked by which user made them, along with a revision history. Where an editor is making changes is highlighted with an editor-specific color and cursor. A permissions system regulates what users can do. Updates have introduced features that use [learning](machine)(machine learning), including "Explore", which offers answers based on [language](natural)(Natural language processing) questions in the spreadsheet. Sheets is one of the [services](Google Workspace) provided by Google that also includes [Docs](Google)(Google Docs), [Slides](Google)(Google Slides), [Drawings](Google)(Google Drawings), [Forms](Google)(Google Forms), [Sites](Google)(Google Sites) and [Keep](Google)(Google Keep).
## History
Google Sheets originated from XL2Web, a web-based spreadsheet application developed by [Technologies](2Web)(2Web Technologies), founded by Jonathan Rochelle and Farzad "Fuzzy" Khosrowshahi. XL2Web was acquired by Google in 2006 and turned into [Labs](Google)(Google Labs) Spreadsheets. It was launched as a test for a limited number of users, on a first-come, first-served basis on June 6, 2006. The limited test was later replaced with a beta version available to all Google Account holders, around the same time as an official announcement press release was issued. In March 2010, Google acquired the online document collaboration company DocVerse. DocVerse allowed multiple-user online collaboration on Excel-compatible documents as well as other [Office](Microsoft)(Microsoft Office) formats such as [Word](Microsoft)(Microsoft Word) and [PowerPoint](Microsoft)(Microsoft PowerPoint). Improvements based on DocVerse were announced and deployed in April 2010. In June 2012, Google acquired [Quickoffice](Quickoffice), a freeware proprietary productivity suite for mobile devices. In October 2012, Google Spreadsheets was renamed Google Sheets and a [Chrome app](Google)(Google Chrome App) was released that provided shortcuts to Sheets on Chrome's new tab page.
## Platforms
Google Sheets is available as a [application](web)(web application) supported on: [Chrome](Google)(Google Chrome), [Edge](Microsoft)(Microsoft Edge), [Firefox](Firefox), [Explorer](Internet)(Internet Explorer), and [Safari](Safari (web browser)) web browsers. Users can access all spreadsheets, among other files, collectively through the [Drive](Google)(Google Drive) website. In June 2014, Google rolled out a dedicated website homepage for Sheets that contain only files created with Sheets. In 2014, Google launched a dedicated mobile app for Sheets on the [Android](Android (operating system)) and [iOS](iOS) mobile operating systems. In 2015, the mobile website for Sheets was updated with a "simpler, more uniform" interface. While users can read spreadsheets through the mobile websites, users trying to edit will be redirected towards the mobile app to eliminate editing on the mobile web.
| programming language = [JavaScript](JavaScript)
| genre = [application framework](Web)(Web application framework), [language](scripting)(scripting language)
| website =
}}
## Features
### Editing
#### Collaboration and revision history
Google Sheets serves as a [collaborative](collaborative) tool for cooperative editing of spreadsheets in real time. Documents can be shared, opened, and edited by multiple users simultaneously and users can see character-by-character changes as other collaborators make edits. Changes are automatically saved to Google's servers and a revision history is automatically kept so past edits may be viewed and reverted to. An editor's current position is represented with an editor-specific color/cursor, so if another editor happens to be viewing that part of the document they can see edits as they occur. A sidebar chat functionality allows collaborators to discuss edits. The revision history allows users to see the additions made to a document, with each author distinguished by color. Only adjacent revisions can be compared and users cannot control how frequently revisions are saved. Files can be exported to a user's local computer in a variety of formats such as [PDF](Portable Document Format) and [Open XML](Office)(Office Open XML). Sheets supports tagging for archival and organizational purposes.
#### Explore
Launched for the entire Drive suite in September 2016, "Explore" enables additional functionality through [learning](machine)(machine learning). In Google Sheets, Explore enables users to ask questions, such as "How many units were sold on Black Friday?" and Explore will return the answer, without requiring formula knowledge from the user. In June 2017, Google expanded the Explore feature in Google Sheets to automatically build charts and visualize data and again expanded it in December to feature machine learning capable of automatically creating pivot tables. In October 2016, Google announced the addition of "Action items" to Sheets. If a user assigns a task within a Sheet, the service will intelligently assign that action to the designated user. Google states this will make it easier for other collaborators to visualize who is responsible for a task. When a user visits Google Drive or Sheets, any files containing tasks assigned to them will be highlighted with a badge. In March 2014, Google introduced add-ons; new tools from third-party developers that add more features for Google Sheets.
#### Offline editing
To view and edit spreadsheets offline on a computer, users need to be using the [Chromium](Google)(Google Chromium)-based web browser (e.g., [Chrome](Google)(Google Chrome), [Edge](Microsoft)(Microsoft Edge)). A [extension](Chrome)(Google Chrome#Extensions), *Google Docs Offline*, allows users to enable offline support for Sheets and other Drive suite files on the Google Drive website. The Android and iOS apps natively support offline editing.
### Files
#### Supported file formats and limits
Files in the following formats can be viewed and converted to the Sheets format: .xls (if newer than [Office 95](Microsoft)(Microsoft Office 95)), .xlsx, .xlsm, .xlt, .xltx, .xltm .ods, .csv, .tsv, .txt and .tab Overall document size is capped at 10 million cells.
### Google Workspace
The Sheets app and the rest of the [Docs Editors](Google)(Google Docs Editors) suite are free to use for individuals, but Sheets is also available as part of the business-centered [Workspace](Google)(Google Workspace) (formerly G Suite) service by Google, which is a monthly subscription that enables additional business-focused functionality.
### Integration with Charts and Wikipedia
Sheets can produce [Charts](Google)(Google Charts) Charts |url=https://developers.google.com/chart/interactive/docs/spreadsheets |website=Google Developers |access-date=March 1, 2020 |language=en}} and has a third-party plugin which allows for integration with Wikipedia.
### Other functionality
A simple find and replace tool is available. The service includes a web clipboard tool that allows users to copy and paste content between Google Sheets and Google Docs, Google Slides, and Google Drawings. The web clipboard can also be used for copying and pasting content between different computers. Copied items are stored on Google's servers for up to 30 days. Google offers an extension for the Google Chrome web browser called *Office editing for Docs, Sheets and Slides* that enables users to view and edit Microsoft Excel documents on Google Chrome, via the Google Sheets app. The extension can be used for opening Excel files stored on the computer using Chrome, as well as for opening files encountered on the web (in the form of email attachments, web search results, etc.) without having to download them. The extension is installed on [ChromeOS](ChromeOS) by default. As of June 2019, this extension is no longer required since the functionality exists natively.
[Cloud Connect](Google)(Google Cloud Connect) was a plug-in for Microsoft Office 2003, 2007, and 2010 that could automatically store and synchronize any Excel document to Google Sheets (before the introduction of Drive). The online copy was automatically updated each time the Microsoft Excel document was saved. Microsoft Excel documents could be edited offline and synchronized later when online. Google Cloud Connect maintained previous Microsoft Excel document versions and allowed multiple users to collaborate by working on the same document at the same time. However, Google Cloud Connect has been discontinued as of April 30, 2013, as, according to Google, Google Drive achieves all of the above tasks, "with better results".
While Microsoft Excel maintains the 1900 [year bug](Leap)(Leap year bug), Google sheets 'fixes' this bug by increasing all dates before March 1, 1900, so entering "0" and formatting it as a date returns December 30, 1899. On the other hand. Excel interprets "0" as meaning December 31, 1899, which is formatted to read January 0, 1900.
Launched in December 2022, Simple ML is the Google's add-on for [learning](machine)(machine learning).
## References
## External links
*
[Sheets](Category:Google software)
[software](Category:Spreadsheet)(Category:Spreadsheet software)
[software for macOS](Category:Spreadsheet)(Category:Spreadsheet software for macOS)
[software for Windows](Category:Spreadsheet)(Category:Spreadsheet software for Windows)
[(operating system) software](Category:Android)(Category:Android (operating system) software)
[software](Category:iOS)(Category:iOS software)
[applications](Category:Web)(Category:Web applications)
[Docs Editors](Category:Google)(Category:Google Docs Editors)
|
Mecca
|
mecca
|
# Mecca
*Revision ID: 1159849200 | Timestamp: 2023-06-12T22:41:15Z*
---
| image_seal =
| population_demonym = (}})
| pop_est_as_of = 2020
| population_rank = 3rd in Saudi Arabia
| population_est = 2042000
| population_as_of = 2015
| population_total = 1578722
| leader_name1 = [bin Faisal Al Saud](Khalid)(Khalid bin Faisal Al Saud)
| leader_title1 = Provincial Governor
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name =
[Al-Turki](Saleh)(Saleh Al-Turki)
| subdivision_type2 = [Governorate](List of governorates of Saudi Arabia)
| official_name = ()
| subdivision_name1 = [Province](Mecca)(Mecca Province)
| subdivision_type1 = [Province](Regions of Saudi Arabia)
| subdivision_name = [Arabia](Saudi)(Saudi Arabia)
| subdivision_type = Country
| established_title = Settled by [Jurhum](Jurhum)
| coordinates =
| pushpin_map = Saudi Arabia
| other_name = )|Mother of all Settlements ()}}
| settlement_type = City
| native_name_lang = ar
| native_name =
| timezone1 = [AST](Arabian Standard Time)
| utc_offset = +3
| area_code = +966-12
| website =
| elevation_m = 277
| flag_size = 135px
| blank_emblem_size = 100px
| total_type =
| coor_pinpoint =
| area_total_km2 = 1200
| area_land_km2 = 760
| translit_lang1 =
| area_urban_km2 =
}}
**Mecca** (; officially **Makkah al-Mukarramah**,|lit=Makkah the Noble|translit=Makkah al-Mukarramah}}, }} commonly shortened to **Makkah** ()}}) is the capital of [Province](Mecca)(Mecca Province) in the [Hejaz](Hejaz) region of western [Arabia](Saudi)(Kingdom of Saudi Arabia) and considered the [city in Islam](holiest)(Holiest sites in Islam). It is inland from [Jeddah](Jeddah) on the [Sea](Red)(Red Sea), in a narrow valley above sea level. Its last recorded population was 1,578,722 in 2015. Its estimated metro population in 2020 is 2.042million, making it the [populated city in Saudi Arabia](third-most)(List of cities in Saudi Arabia by population) after [Riyadh](Riyadh) and [Jeddah](Jeddah). Pilgrims more than triple this number every year during the [pilgrimage](Pilgrimage#Islam), observed in the twelfth [Hijri](Islamic calendar) month of .
Mecca is generally considered "the fountainhead and cradle of [Islam](Islam)". Mecca is revered in Islam as the birthplace of the [prophet](Islamic)(Prophets and messengers in Islam) [Muhammad](Muhammad). The [cave](Hira)(Hira cave) atop the ("Mountain of Light"), just outside the city, is where Muslims believe the [Quran](Quran) was first revealed to Muhammad.; Visiting Mecca for the is an obligation upon all able Muslims. The [Mosque of Mecca](Great)(Great Mosque of Mecca), known as the , is home to the [Ka'bah](Kaaba), believed by Muslims to have been built by [Abraham](Abraham in Islam) and [Ishmael](Ishmael in Islam). It is one of [holiest sites](Islam's)(Holiest sites in Islam) and the direction of prayer for all Muslims ().
Muslim rulers from in and around the region long tried to take the city and keep it in their control, and thus, much like most of the [Hejaz](Hejaz) region, the city has seen several [change](regime)(regime change)s. The city was most recently conquered in the [conquest of Hejaz](Saudi)(Saudi conquest of Hejaz) by [Saud](Ibn)(Ibn Saud) and his allies in 1925. Since then, Mecca has seen a tremendous expansion in size and infrastructure, with newer, modern buildings such as the [Al Bait](Abraj)(Abraj Al Bait), the world's fourth-tallest building and [by floor area](third-largest)(List of largest buildings in the world), towering over the Great Mosque. The [government](Saudi)(Saudi government) has also carried out the [of several historical structures and archaeological sites](destruction)(Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia), such as the [Fortress](Ajyad)(Ajyad Fortress).A Saudi tower: Mecca versus Las Vegas: Taller, holier and even more popular than (almost) anywhere else, [Economist](The)(The Economist) (24 June 2010), Cairo.Fattah, Hassan M.[Islamic Pilgrims Bring Cosmopolitan Air to Unlikely City](https://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/20/international/middleeast/20mecca.html) , *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* (20 January 2005). Non-Muslims are strictly [prohibited](Closed city) from entering the city.
Under the Saudi government, Mecca is governed by the Mecca Regional Municipality, a municipal council of 14 locally elected members headed by the mayor (called in Arabic) appointed by the [government](Saudi)(Politics of Saudi Arabia). In 2015, the mayor of the city was Osama bin Fadhel Al-Barr; , the mayor is Saleh Al-Turki. The City of Mecca , which constitutes Mecca and the surrounding region, is the capital of the Mecca Province, which includes the neighbouring cities of [Jeddah](Jeddah) and [Ta'if](Ta'if), even though Jeddah is considerably larger in population compared to Mecca. The Provincial Governor of the province from 16 May 2007 was [Prince](House of Saud) [bin Faisal Al Saud](Khalid)(Khalid bin Faisal Al Saud).
## Etymology
Mecca has been referred to by many names. As with many Arabic words, its [etymology](etymology) is obscure. Widely believed to be a synonym for , it is said to be more specifically the early name for the valley located therein, while Muslim scholars generally use it to refer to the sacred area of the city that immediately surrounds and includes the [Ka'bah](Kaaba).
###
The Quran refers to the city as in [Surah](Surah) [Imran](Al)(Al Imran) (3), verse 96: "Indeed the first [[Place of worship|House [worship](of)]], established for mankind was that at Bakkah". This is said to have been the name of the city at the time of [Abraham](Abraham) (Ibrahim in [tradition](Islamic)(Abraham in Islam)) and it is also transliterated as and , among others. It was a name for the city in the ancient world.
### and *Mecca*
is the official transliteration used by the Saudi government and is closer to the Arabic pronunciation. The government adopted as the official spelling in the 1980s, but it is not universally known or used worldwide. The full official name is (). is used to refer to the city in the Quran in [Surah](Surah) [Al-Fath](Al-Fath) (48), verse 24.
The word *Mecca* in English has come to be used to refer to any place that draws large numbers of people, and because of this some English-speaking Muslims have come to regard the use of this spelling for the city as offensive. Nonetheless, *Mecca* is the familiar form of the English transliteration for the Arabic name of the city.
The consensus in academic scholarship has been that "Macoraba", the place mentioned in [Felix](Arabia)(Arabia Felix) by [Ptolemy](Claudius)(Ptolemy), is Mecca. Some studies have questioned this association. Many etymologies have been proposed: the traditional one is that it is derived from the [South Arabian](Old)(Old South Arabian) root M-K-R-B which means "temple".
### Other names
Another name used for Mecca in the Quran is at 6:92 where it is called (}}, meaning "Mother of all Settlements"). The city has been called several other names in both the Quran and . Another name used historically for Mecca is .AlSahib, AlMuheet fi Allughah, p. 303 According to Arab and Islamic tradition, another name for Mecca, , is synonymous with the [of Paran](Desert)(Desert of Paran) mentioned in the [Testament](Old)(Old Testament) at [21](Genesis)(Vayeira):21. Arab and Islamic tradition holds that the wilderness of Paran, broadly speaking, is the [coastal plain](Tihamah)(Tihamah) and the site where Ishmael settled was Mecca. [al-Hamawi](Yaqut)(Yaqut al-Hamawi), the 12th-century Syrian geographer, wrote that was "an arabized Hebrew word, one of the names of Mecca mentioned in the Torah."
Another ancient name for the city was Macoraba.
## History
### Prehistory
In 2010, Mecca and the surrounding area became an important site for [paleontology](paleontology) with respect to [primate](primate) evolution, with the discovery of a *[Saadanius](Saadanius)* fossil. *Saadanius* is considered to be a primate closely related to the common ancestor of the [World monkey](Old)(Old World monkey)s and [apes](apes). The fossil habitat, near what is now the Red Sea in western Saudi Arabia, was a damp forest area between 28 million and 29 million years ago. Paleontologists involved in the research hope to find further fossils in the area.
### Early history (up to 6th century CE)
The early history of Mecca is still largely disputed, as there are no unambiguous references to it in ancient literature prior to the rise of Islam.[Tom](Holland,)(Tom Holland (author)); *In the Shadow of the Sword*; Little, Brown; 2012; p. 303: ‘Otherwise, in all the vast corpus of ancient literature, there is not a single reference to Mecca – not one’ The first unambiguous reference to Mecca in external literature occurs in 741 CE, in the Byzantine-Arab Chronicle, though here the author places the region in Mesopotamia rather than the Hejaz.Holland, Tom; In the Shadow of the Sword; Little, Brown; 2012; p. 471
The Greek historian [Siculus](Diodorus)(Diodorus Siculus) writes about Arabia in the 1st century BCE in his work *[historica](Bibliotheca)(Bibliotheca historica)*, describing a holy shrine: "And a temple has been set up there, which is very holy and exceedingly revered by all Arabians".Translated by C.H. Oldfather, *Diodorus Of Sicily, Volume II*, William Heinemann Ltd., London & Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1935, p. 217. Claims have been made this could be a reference to the [Ka'bah](Ka'bah) in Mecca. However, the geographic location Diodorus describes is located in northwest Arabia, around the area of [Kome](Leuke)(Leuke Kome), within the former [Kingdom](Nabataean)(Nabataean Kingdom) and the Roman province of [Petraea](Arabia)(Arabia Petraea).Jan Retsö, The Arabs in Antiquity (2003), 295–300Photius, Diodorus and Strabo (English): Stanley M. Burnstein (tr.), Agatharchides of Cnidus: On the Eritraean Sea (1989), 132–173, esp. 152–3 (§92).)
Ptolemy lists the names of 50 cities in Arabia, one going by the name of Macoraba. There has been speculation since 1646 that this could be a reference to Mecca. Historically, there has been a general consensus in scholarship that Macoraba mentioned by [Ptolemy](Ptolemy) in the 2nd century CE is indeed Mecca, but more recently, this has been questioned. Bowersock favors the identity of the former, with his theory being that "Macoraba" is the word "*Makkah"* followed by the aggrandizing [Aramaic](Aramaic) adjective *rabb* (great). The Roman historian [Marcellinus](Ammianus)(Ammianus Marcellinus) also enumerated many cities of Western Arabia, most of which can be identified. According to Bowersock, he did mention Mecca as "Geapolis" or "Hierapolis", the latter one meaning "holy city" potentially referring to the sanctuary of the [Kaaba](Kaaba). [Crone](Patricia)(Patricia Crone), from the [school of Islamic studies](Revisionist)(Revisionist school of Islamic studies) on the other hand, writes that "the plain truth is that the name Macoraba has nothing to do with that of Mecca [...] if Ptolemy mentions Mecca at all, he calls it Moka, a town in [Petraea](Arabia)(Arabia Petraea)".Crane, P. *Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam*, 1987, p.136
Recent research suggests that "Mecca was small" and the population of Mecca at the time of Muhammad was around 550.
[Procopius](Procopius)' 6th century statement that the [Ma'ad](Ma'ad ibn Adnan) tribe possessed the coast of western Arabia between the [Ghassanids](Ghassanids) and the [Himyarites](Himyarite Kingdom) of the south supports the Arabic sources tradition that associates [Quraysh](Quraysh) as a branch of the Ma'add and Muhammad as a direct descendant of [ibn Adnan](Ma'ad)(Ma'ad ibn Adnan).
Historian [Crone](Patricia)(Patricia Crone) has cast doubt on the claim that Mecca was a major historical trading outpost.Crone, Patricia; *Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam*; 1987; p.7Holland, Tom (2012). *In the Shadow of the Sword*; Little, Brown; p. 303 However, other scholars such as Glen W. Bowersock disagree and assert that Mecca was a major trading outpost. Crone later on disregarded some of her theories. She argues that Meccan trade relied on skins, hides, manufactured leather goods, clarified butter, Hijazi woollens, and camels. She suggests that most of these goods were destined for the Roman army, which is known to have required colossal quantities of leather and hides for its equipment.
Mecca is mentioned in the following early Quranic manuscripts:
* Codex Is. 1615 I, folio 47v, [dated](radiocarbon)(Radiocarbon dating) to 591–643 CE.
* Codex Ṣanʿāʾ DAM 01–29.1, folio 29a, radiocarbon dated between 633 and 665 CE.
* Codex Arabe 331, folio 40 v, radiocarbon dated between 652 and 765 CE.
The earliest Muslim inscriptions are from the Mecca-[Ta'if](Ta'if) area.
**Islamic narrative**
In the Islamic view, the beginnings of Mecca are attributed to the [figures](Biblical)(Biblical people in Islam), [Abraham](Abraham), [Hagar](Hagar) and [Ishmael](Ishmael). The civilization of Mecca is believed to have started after [Ibrāhīm](Abraham in Islam) (Abraham) left his son Ismāʿīl (Ishmael) and wife [Hājar](Hagar in Islam) (Hagar) in the valley at [Allah](Allah)'s command. Some people from the Yemeni tribe of [Jurhum](Jurhum) settled with them, and Isma'il reportedly married two women, one after divorcing the first, on Ibrahim's advice. At least one man of the Jurhum helped Ismāʿīl and his father to construct or according to Islamic narratives, reconstruct, the ''[Ka'bah](Kaaba)'' ('Cube'), which would have social, religious, political and historical implications for the site and region.
Muslims see the mention of a pilgrimage at the [of Baca](Valley)(Bakkah#Valley of Baca) in the [Testament](Old)(Old Testament) chapter [84](Psalm)(Psalm 84):3–6 as a reference to Mecca, similar to the Quran at Surah In the *Sharḥ al-Asāṭīr*, a commentary on the [Samaritan](Samaritans) [midrash](midrash)ic chronology of the Patriarchs, of unknown date but probably composed in the 10th century CE, it is claimed that Mecca was built by the sons of [Nebaioth](Nebaioth), the eldest son of Ismāʿīl or [Ishmael](Ishmael).Crown, Alan David (2001) [*Samaritan Scribes and Manuscripts*](https://books.google.com/books?id=e5iW24esf-sC&pg=PA27). Mohr Siebeck. p. 27Crone, Patricia and Cook, M.A. (1977) [*Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World,*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Ta08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA22) Cambridge University Press. p. 22.Lazarus-Yafeh, Hava (1992). [*Intertwined Worlds: Medieval Islam and Bible Criticism*](https://books.google.com/books?id=mzQABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61). Princeton University Press. pp.61–62
**Thamudic inscriptions**
Some [Thamudic](Thamudic) inscriptions which were discovered in the south [Jordan](Jordan) contained names of some individuals such as *ʿAbd Mekkat* (}}, "Servant of Mecca").G. Lankester Harding & Enno Littman, Some Thamudic Inscriptions from the Hashimite Kingdom of the Jordan (Leiden, Netherlands – 1952), p. 19, Inscription No. 112A
There were also some other inscriptions which contained personal names such as *Makki* (, "Makkahn"), but Jawwad Ali from the [of Baghdad](University)(University of Baghdad) suggested that there's also a probability of a tribe named "Makkah".Jawwad Ali, The Detailed History of Arabs before Islam (1993), Vol. 4, p. 11
### Under the Quraish
Sometime in the 5th century, the Ka'bah was a place of worship for the deities of [pagan tribes](Arabia's)(Arabian mythology). Mecca's most important [pagan](Paganism) [deity](deity) was [Hubal](Hubal), which had been placed there by the ruling [Quraish](Quraysh (tribe)) tribe.[World*](*Islamic)(#iw), p. 20 and remained until the [of Mecca](Conquest)(Conquest of Mecca) by [Muhammad](Muhammad). In the 5th century, the Quraish took control of Mecca, and became skilled merchants and traders. In the 6th century, they joined the lucrative [trade](spice)(spice trade), since battles elsewhere were diverting [route](trade)(trade route)s from dangerous sea routes to more secure overland routes. The [Empire](Byzantine)(Byzantine Empire) had previously controlled the [Sea](Red)(Red Sea), but [piracy](piracy) had been increasing. Another previous route that ran through the [Gulf](Persian)(Persian Gulf) via the [Tigris](Tigris) and [Euphrates](Euphrates) rivers was also being threatened by exploitations from the [Empire](Sassanid)(Sassanid Empire), and was being disrupted by the [Lakhmids](Lakhmids), the [Ghassanids](Ghassanids), and the [Wars](Roman–Persian)(Roman–Persian Wars). Mecca's prominence as a trading center also surpassed the cities of [Petra](Petra) and [Palmyra](Palmyra)."Makka – The pre-Islamic and early Islamic periods", *Encyclopaedia of Islam*[Lapidus](#Lapidus), p. 14 The Sassanids however did not always pose a threat to Mecca, as in 575 CE they protected it from a Yemeni invasion, led by its Christian leader [Abraha](Abraha). The tribes of southern Arabia asked the Persian king [I](Khosrau)(Khosrau I) for aid, in response to which he came south to Arabia with foot-soldiers and a fleet of ships near Mecca.
By the middle of the 6th century, there were three major settlements in northern [Arabia](Arabian Peninsula), all along the south-western coast that borders the Red Sea, in a habitable region between the sea and the Hejaz mountains to the east. Although the area around Mecca was completely barren, it was the wealthiest of the three settlements with abundant water from the renowned [Well](Zamzam)(Zamzam Well) and a position at the crossroads of major [caravan](Camel train) routes.
The harsh conditions and terrain of the Arabian peninsula meant a near-constant state of conflict between the [tribes](local)(Tribes of Arabia), but once a year they would declare a truce and converge upon Mecca in an annual pilgrimage. Up to the 7th century, this journey was intended for religious reasons by the pagan Arabs to pay homage to their shrine, and to drink [Zamzam](Zamzam Well). However, it was also the time each year that disputes would be arbitrated, debts would be resolved, and trading would occur at Meccan fairs. These annual events gave the tribes a sense of common identity and made Mecca an important focus for the peninsula.[Lapidus](#Lapidus), pp. 16–17
**The Year of the Elephant (570 CE)**
The "[of the Elephant](Year)(Year of the Elephant)" is the name in [Islam](Islam)ic history for the year approximately equating to 570–572 [CE](Common Era), when, according to Islamic sources such as [Ishaq](Ibn)(Ibn Ishaq), Abraha descended upon Mecca, riding an elephant, with a large army after building a [cathedral](Church (building)) at [San'aa](Sanaa), named *al-Qullays* in honor of the [Negus](Negus) of [Axum](Axum). It gained widespread fame, even gaining attention from the [Empire](Byzantine)(Byzantine Empire). Abraha attempted to divert the pilgrimage of the Arabs from the Ka'bah to al-Qullays, effectively converting them to Christianity. According to Islamic tradition, this was the year of [Muhammad](Muhammad)'s birth. Abraha allegedly sent a messenger named Muhammad ibn Khuza'i to Mecca and [Tihamah](Tihamah) with a message that al-Qullays was both much better than other houses of worship and purer, having not been defiled by the housing of idols. When Muhammad ibn Khuza'i got as far as the land of [Kinana](Banu Kinanah), the people of the lowland, knowing what he had come for, sent a man of [Hudhayl](Banu Hudhayl) called ʿUrwa bin Hayyad al-Milasi, who shot him with an arrow, killing him. His brother Qays who was with him, fled to Abraha and told him the news, which increased his rage and fury and he swore to raid the Kinana tribe and destroy the Ka'bah. Ibn Ishaq further states that one of the men of the [Quraysh](Quraysh) tribe was angered by this, and going to Sana'a, entering the church at night and defiling it; widely assumed to have done so by [defecating](defecation) in it.["Abraha."](http://www.dacb.org/stories/ethiopia/_abraha.html) *Dictionary of African Christian Biographies*. 2007. (last accessed 11 April 2007)Müller, Walter W. (1987) ["Outline of the History of Ancient Southern Arabia"](http://www.yemenweb.com/info/_disc/0000002c.htm) , in Werner Daum (ed.), *Yemen: 3000 Years of Art and Civilisation in Arabia Felix*.
[Abraha](Abraha) marched upon the [Ka'bah](Kaaba) with a large army, which included one or more [elephant](war)(war elephant)s, intending to demolish it. When news of the advance of his army came, the Arab tribes of Quraysh, Kinanah, [Khuza'a](Banu Khuza'a) and Hudhayl united in the defense of the Ka'bah and the city. A man from the [Kingdom](Himyarite)(Himyarite Kingdom) was sent by Abraha to advise them that Abraha only wished to demolish the Ka'bah and if they resisted, they would be crushed. [Muttalib](Abdul)(Abdul Muttalib) told the Meccans to seek refuge in the hills while he and some members of the Quraysh remained within the precincts of the Kaaba. Abraha sent a dispatch inviting Abdul-Muttalib to meet with Abraha and discuss matters. When Abdul-Muttalib left the meeting he was heard saying: "The Owner of this House is its Defender, and I am sure he will save it from the attack of the adversaries and will not dishonor the servants of His House."
Abraha eventually attacked Mecca. However, the lead elephant, known as Mahmud, is said to have stopped at the boundary around Mecca and refused to enter. It has been theorized that an epidemic such as by [smallpox](smallpox) could have caused such a failed invasion of Mecca.In turn citing: The reference to the story in [Quran](Quran) is rather short. According to the 105th [Sura](Sura)h of the Quran, [Al-Fil](Al-Fil), the next day, a dark cloud of small birds sent by Allah appeared. The birds carried small rocks in their beaks, and bombarded the Ethiopian forces, and smashed them to a state like that of eaten straw.
**Economy**
Camel caravans, said to have first been used by Muhammad's great-grandfather, were a major part of Mecca's bustling economy. Alliances were struck between the merchants in Mecca and the local nomadic tribes, who would bring goods – leather, livestock, and metals mined in the local mountains – to Mecca to be loaded on the caravans and carried to cities in [Shaam](Syria (region)) and [Iraq](Iraq).[World*](*Islamic)(#iw), pp. 17–18 Historical accounts also provide some indication that goods from other continents may also have flowed through Mecca. Goods from Africa and the Far East passed through en route to Syria including spices, leather, medicine, cloth, and slaves; in return Mecca received money, weapons, cereals and wine, which in turn were distributed throughout Arabia. The Meccans signed treaties with both the Byzantines and the [Bedouin](Bedouin)s, and negotiated safe passages for caravans, giving them water and pasture rights. Mecca became the center of a loose confederation of client tribes, which included those of the [Tamim](Banu)(Banu Tamim). Other regional powers such as the [Abyssinians](Habesha people), Ghassanids, and Lakhmids were in decline leaving Meccan trade to be the primary binding force in Arabia in the late 6th century.
### Muhammad and the conquest of Mecca
[[File:Site of the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad, Mecca, Saudi Arabia.jpg|thumb|[Al Mukarramah Library](Makkah)(Makkah Al Mukarramah Library) () is believed to stand on the spot where Muhammad was born, so it is also known as *[al-Mawlid](Bayt)(Bayt al-Mawlid)*]]
Muhammad was [born](mawlid) in Mecca in 570 CE, and thus Islam has been inextricably linked with it ever since. He was born into the faction of [Hashim](Banu)(Banu Hashim) in the ruling tribe of [Quraysh](Quraysh). It was in the nearby mountain cave of Hira on [al-Nour](Jabal)(Jabal al-Nour) that Muhammad began receiving divine [revelation](revelation)s from God through the [archangel](archangel) [Jibreel](Gabriel) in 610 CE, according to Islamic tradition. Advocating his form of [monotheism](Abrahamic)(Abrahamic religions) against Meccan paganism, and after enduring persecution from the pagan tribes for 13 years, Muhammad emigrated to Medina ([*hijrah*](Hijra (Islam))) in 622 CE with his companions, the *[Muhajirun](Muhajirun)*, to Yathrib (later renamed [Medina](Medina)). The conflict between the Quraysh and the Muslims is accepted to have begun at this point. Overall, Meccan efforts to annihilate Islam failed and proved to be costly and unsuccessful. During the [of the Trench](Battle)(Battle of the Trench) in 627 CE, the combined armies of Arabia were unable to defeat Muhammad's forces (as the trench surrounding Muhammad's forces protected them from harm and a storm was sent to breach the Quraysh tribe).[Lapidus](#Lapidus), p. 32
In 628 CE, Muhammad and his followers wanted to enter Mecca for pilgrimage, but were blocked by the Quraysh. Subsequently, Muslims and Meccans entered into the [of Hudaybiyyah](Treaty)(Treaty of Hudaybiyyah), whereby the Quraysh and their allies promised to cease fighting Muslims and their allies and promised that Muslims would be allowed into the city to perform the pilgrimage the following year. It was meant to be a ceasefire for 10 years; however, just two years later, the [Bakr](Banu)(Banu Bakr), allies of the Quraish, violated the truce by slaughtering a group of the Banu Khuza'ah, allies of the Muslims. Muhammad and his companions, now 10,000 strong, marched into Mecca and conquered the city. The pagan imagery was destroyed by Muhammad's followers and the location [Islamized](Islamized) and rededicated to the worship of [Allah](Allah) alone. Mecca was declared the holiest site in Islam ordaining it as the center of Muslim pilgrimage (*[Hajj](Hajj)*), one of the Islamic faith's [Pillars](Five)(Five Pillars of Islam).
Muhammad then returned to Medina, after assigning '[ibn Usaid](Akib)(Akib ibn Usaid) as governor of the city. His other activities in Arabia led to the unification of the Arabian Peninsula under the banner of Islam. Muhammad passed away in 632 CE. Within the next few hundred years, the area under the banner of Islam stretched from North Africa into Asia and parts of Europe. As the [realm](Islamic)(Rashidun Caliphate) grew, Mecca continued to attract pilgrims from all across the [world](Muslim)(Muslim world) and beyond, as Muslims came to perform the annual Hajj pilgrimage. Mecca also attracted a year-round population of scholars, pious Muslims who wished to live close to the Kaaba, and local inhabitants who served the pilgrims. Due to the difficulty and expense of the Hajj, pilgrims arrived by boat at Jeddah, and came overland, or joined the annual caravans from Syria or Iraq.
### Medieval and pre-modern times
Mecca was never the capital of any of the [states](Islamic)(caliphate). Muslim rulers did contribute to its upkeep, such as during the reigns of '[Umar](Umar) (r. 634–644 CE) and '[ibn Affan](Uthman)(Uthman ibn Affan) (r. 644–656 CE) when concerns of flooding caused the caliphs to bring in Christian engineers to build barrages in the low-lying quarters and construct dykes and embankments to protect the area around the Kaaba.
Muhammad's return to Medina shifted the focus away from Mecca and later even further away when '[Ali](Ali), the fourth caliph, took power and chose [Kufa](Kufa) as his capital. The [Caliphate](Umayyad)(Umayyad Caliphate) moved the capital to [Damascus](Damascus) in Syria and the [Caliphate](Abbasid)(Abbasid Caliphate) to [Baghdad](Baghdad), in modern-day Iraq, which remained the center of the Islamic Empire for nearly 500 years. Mecca re-entered Islamic political history during the [Fitna](Second)(Second Fitna), when it was held by [ibn az-Zubayr](Abdullah)(Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr) and the Zubayrids. The city was twice besieged by the Umayyads in [683](Siege of Mecca (683)) CE and [692](Siege of Mecca (692)) CE, and for some time thereafter, the city figured little in politics, remaining a city of devotion and scholarship governed by various other factions. In 930 CE, Mecca was [and sacked](attacked)(Sack of Mecca) by [Qarmatians](Qarmatians), a [millenarian](millenarianism) [Shi'a](Shia Islam) [Isma'ili](Ismailism) [sect](Muslim)(Islamic schools and branches) led by [Al-Jannābī](Abū-Tāhir)(Abū-Tāhir Al-Jannābī) and centered in eastern Arabia. The [Death](Black)(Black Death) [pandemic](pandemic) hit Mecca in 1349 CE.
#### Ibn Battuta's description of Mecca
One of the most famous travelers to Mecca in the 14th century was a Moroccan scholar and traveler, [Battuta](Ibn)(Ibn Battuta). In his *rihla* (account), he provides a vast description of the city. Around the year 1327 CE or 729 AH, Ibn Battuta arrived at the holy city. Immediately, he says, it felt like a holy sanctuary, and thus he started the rites of the pilgrimage. He remained in Mecca for three years and left in 1330 CE. During his second year in the holy city, he says his caravan arrived "with a great quantity of alms for the support of those who were staying in Mecca and Medina". While in Mecca, prayers were made for (not to) the King of Iraq and also for [al-Ayyubi](Salaheddin)(Saladin), Sultan of Egypt and Syria at the Ka'bah. Battuta says the Ka'bah was large, but was destroyed and rebuilt smaller than the original and that it contained images of angels and prophets including Jesus (Isa in Islamic tradition), his mother Mary (Maryam in Islamic tradition), and many others. Battuta describes the Ka'bah as an important part of Mecca due to the fact that many people make the pilgrimage to it. Battuta describes the people of the city as being humble and kind, and also willing to give a part of everything they had to someone who had nothing. The inhabitants of Mecca and the village itself, he says, were very clean. There was also a sense of elegance to the village.
**Under the Ottomans**[[File:Khalili Collection Hajj Mecca panorama.jpg|alt=|thumb|Panorama of Mecca, 1845, from the [Collection of Hajj and the Arts of Pilgrimage](Khalili)(Khalili Collection of Hajj and the Arts of Pilgrimage)]]In 1517, the then Sharif of Mecca, Barakat bin Muhammad, acknowledged the supremacy of the [Caliph](Ottoman)(Ottoman Caliphate) but retained a great degree of local autonomy. In 1803 the city was captured by the [Saudi State](First)(First Saudi State),"[The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam](http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm) ". [of Congress Country Studies](Library)(Library of Congress Country Studies). which held Mecca until 1813, destroying some of the historic tombs and domes in and around the city. The Ottomans assigned the task of bringing Mecca back under Ottoman control to their powerful *[Khedive](Khedive)* (viceroy) and *[Wali](Wali (administrative title))* of Egypt, [Ali Pasha](Muhammad)(Muhammad Ali of Egypt). Muhammad Ali Pasha successfully returned Mecca to Ottoman control [1813](in)(Ottoman return of Mecca 1813). In 1818, the Saud were defeated again but survived and founded the [Saudi State](Second)(Second Saudi State) that lasted until 1891 and led on to the present country of Saudi Arabia. In 1853, Sir [Francis Burton](Richard)(Richard Francis Burton) undertook the Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina disguised as a Muslim. Although Burton was certainly not the first non-Muslim European to make the *Hajj* ([di Varthema](Ludovico)(Ludovico di Varthema) did this in 1503), his pilgrimage remains one of the most famous and documented of modern times. Mecca was regularly hit by [cholera](cholera) [outbreaks](Cholera outbreaks and pandemics). Between 1830 and 1930, cholera broke out among pilgrims at Mecca 27 times.[Cholera (pathology)](https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/114078/cholera/253250/Seven-pandemics#ref=ref886683) . Britannica Online Encyclopedia.
### Modern history
[[in 1910](File:Makkah-1910.jpg|thumb|Mecca)]
**Hashemite Revolt and subsequent control by the Sharifate of Mecca**
In [War I](World)(World War I), the Ottoman Empire was at war with the [Allies](Allies of World War I). It had successfully repulsed an attack on [Istanbul](Istanbul) in the [campaign](Gallipoli)(Gallipoli campaign) and on Baghdad in the [of Kut](Siege)(Siege of Kut). The British intelligence agent [Lawrence](T.E.)(T.E. Lawrence) conspired with the Ottoman governor, [bin Ali](Hussain)(Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca), the Sharif of Mecca to revolt against the Ottoman Empire and it was the first city captured by his forces in the [Battle of Mecca](1916)(Battle of Mecca (1916)). Sharif's revolt proved a turning point of the war on the eastern front. Hussein declared a new state, the [of Hejaz](Kingdom)(Kingdom of Hejaz), declaring himself the Sharif of the state and Mecca his capital. News reports in November 1916 via contact in [Cairo](Cairo) with returning [Hajj](Hajj) pilgrims, stated that with the Ottoman Turkish authorities gone, the Hajj of 1916 was free of the previous massive extortion and monetary demands made by the Turks who were agents of the Ottoman government.*[Telegraph](Daily)(Daily Telegraph)* Saturday 25 November 1916, reprinted in *[Telegraph](Daily)(Daily Telegraph)* Friday 25 November 2016 issue (p. 36)
**Saudi Arabian conquest and modern history**
Following the [Battle of Mecca](1924)(Battle of Mecca (1924)), the Sharif of Mecca was overthrown by the Saud family, and Mecca was incorporated into Saudi Arabia.["Mecca"](https://web.archive.org/web/20091028055612/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577367/Mecca.html) at [Encarta](Encarta). (Archived) 1 November 2009. Under Saudi rule, much of the historic city has been demolished as a result of the Saudi government fearing these sites might become sites of association in worship besides Allah (*[shirk](Shirk (Islam))*). The city has been expanded to include several towns previously considered to be separate from the holy city and now is just a few kilometers outside the main sites of the Hajj, Mina, Muzdalifah and Arafat. Mecca is not served by any airport, due to concerns about the city's safety. It is instead served by the [Abdulaziz International Airport](King)(King Abdulaziz International Airport) in [Jeddah](Jeddah) (approx. 70 km away) internationally and the [Regional Airport](Ta'if)(Ta'if Regional Airport) (approx. 120 km away) for domestic flights.
The city today is at the junction of the two most important highways in all of the Saudi Arabian highway system, Highway 40, which connects the city to Jeddah in the west and the capital, [Riyadh](Riyadh) and [Dammam](Dammam) in the east and Highway 15, which connects it to [Medina](Medina), [Tabuk](Tabuk, Saudi Arabia) and onward to [Jordan](Jordan) in the north and [Abha](Abha) and [Jizan](Jizan) in the south. The Ottomans had planned to extend their railway network to the holy city, but were forced to abandon this plan due to their entry into the [World War](First)(First World War). This plan was later carried out by the Saudi government, which connected the two holy cities of Medina and Mecca with the modern [high-speed railway](Haramain)(Haramain high-speed railway) system which runs at 300 km/h (190 mph) and connects the two cities via Jeddah, King Abdulaziz International Airport and [Abdullah Economic City](King)(King Abdullah Economic City) near Rabigh within two hours.
The [area](haram)(Haram (site)) of Mecca, in which the entry of non-Muslims is forbidden, is much larger than that of Medina.
**1979 Grand Mosque seizure**
On 20 November 1979, two hundred armed dissidents led by [al-Otaibi](Juhayman)(Juhayman al-Otaibi), [the Grand Mosque](seized)(Grand Mosque Seizure), claiming the Saudi royal family no longer represented pure Islam and that the [al-Haram](Masjid)(Masjid al-Haram) and the Ka'bah, must be held by those of true faith. The rebels seized tens of thousands of pilgrims as hostages and barricaded themselves in the mosque. The siege lasted two weeks, and resulted in several hundred deaths and significant damage to the shrine, especially the [Safa-Marwah](Al-Safa and Al-Marwah) gallery. A multinational force was finally able to retake the mosque from the dissidents.
Since then, the Grand Mosque has been expanded several times, with many other expansions being undertaken in the present day.
**Destruction of Islamic heritage sites**
[[File:Makkah_Aerial_View.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Mecca, as seen from [al-Nour](Jabal)(Jabal al-Nour). [Clock Tower](Mecca)(Abraj Al Bait) is visible in the skyline.]]
Under Saudi rule, it has been estimated that since 1985, about 95% of Mecca's historic buildings, most over a thousand years old, have been demolished.['The destruction of Mecca: Saudi hardliners are wiping out their own heritage'](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/the-destruction-of-mecca-saudi-hardliners-are-wiping-out-their-own-heritage-501647.html) , The Independent, 6 August 2005. Retrieved 17 January 2011 It has been reported that there are now fewer than 20 structures remaining in Mecca that date back to the time of Muhammad. Some important buildings that have been destroyed include the house of [Khadijah](Khadija bint Khuwaylid), the wife of Muhammad, the house of [Bakr](Abu)(Abu Bakr), Muhammad's birthplace and the Ottoman-era [Fortress](Ajyad)(Ajyad Fortress).['Shame of the House of Saud: Shadows over Mecca'](https://web.archive.org/web/20090310011511/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/shame-of-the-house-of-saud-shadows-over-mecca-474736.html), The Independent, 19 April 2006 | archived from the original on 10 March 2009 The reason for much of the destruction of historic buildings has been for the construction of hotels, apartments, parking lots, and other infrastructure facilities for [Hajj](Hajj) pilgrims.
**Incidents during pilgrimage**
Mecca has been the site of several incidents and failures of crowd control because of the large numbers of people who come to make the Hajj. For example, on 2 July 1990, a pilgrimage to Mecca ended in tragedy when the ventilation system failed in a crowded pedestrian tunnel and 1,426 people were either suffocated or trampled to death in a [stampede](1990 Hajj stampede).[Express & Star](https://www.expressandstar.com/days/1976-2000/1990.html) . *Express & Star*. Retrieved 3 February 2013. On 24 September 2015, 700 pilgrims [killed](were)(2015 Mina stampede) in a stampede at [Mina](Mina, Saudi Arabia) during the stoning-the-Devil ritual at Jamarat.
## Significance in Islam
[[File:La mecque pelerinage.png|thumb|The [Hajj](Hajj) involves pilgrims visiting Al-Haram Mosque, but mainly camping and spending time in the plains of [Mina](Mina, Saudi Arabia) and [Arafah](Arafah)|300x300px]]
Mecca holds an important place in Islam and is considered the holiest city in all branches of the religion. The city derives its importance from the role it plays in the [Hajj](Hajj) and '[Umrah](Umrah) and for its status as the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad.
### Masjid al-Haram
The *Masjid al-Haram* is the site of two of the most important rites of both the Hajj and of the Umrah, the circumambulation around the Ka'bah (*[tawaf](tawaf)*) and the walking between the two mounts of Safa and Marwa (''[sa'ee](sa'ee)''). The masjid is also the site of the [Well](Zamzam)(Zamzam Well). According to Islamic tradition, a prayer in the masjid is equal to 100,000 prayers in any other masjid around the world.
#### Kaaba
There is a difference of opinion between Islamic scholars upon who first built the [Ka'bah](Ka'bah), some believe it was built by the [angels](Angels in Islam) while others believe it was built by [Adam](Adam and Eve). Regardless, it was built several times before reaching its current state. The Ka'bah is also the common direction of prayer (*[qibla](qibla)*) for all Muslims. The surface surrounding the Ka'bah on which Muslims circumambulate it is known as the Mataf.
#### Hajr-e-Aswad (The Black Stone)
The Black Stone is a stone, considered by scientists to be a [meteorite](meteorite) or of similar origin and believed by Muslims to be of divine origin. It is set in the eastern corner of the Ka’bah and it is [Sunnah](Sunnah) to touch and kiss the stone. The area around the stone is generally always crowded and guarded by policemen to ensure the pilgrims' safety. In Islamic tradition, the stone was sent down from Jannah (Paradise) and used to build the Ka'bah. It used to be a white stone (and was whiter than milk). Because of the worldly sins of man, it slowly changed color to black over the years after it was brought down to Earth.
#### Maqam Ibrahim
This is the stone that Ibrahim (Abraham) stood on to build the higher parts of the Ka'bah. It contains two footprints that are comparatively larger than average modern-day human feet. The stone is raised and housed in a golden hexagonal chamber beside the Ka'bah on the Mataf plate.
#### Safa and Marwa
Muslims believe that in the divine revelation to Muhammad, the Quran, Allah describes the mountains of Safa and Marwah as symbols of His divinity. Walking between the two mountains seven times, 4 times from Safa to Marwah and 3 times from Marwah interchangeably, is considered a mandatory pillar (*[rukn](Fard)*) of '[Umrah](Umrah).
### Hajj and 'Umrah
The Hajj pilgrimage, also called the greater pilgrimage, attracts millions of Muslims from all over the world and almost triples Mecca's population for one week in the twelfth and final Islamic month of *[al-Hijjah](Dhu)(Dhu al-Hijjah)*. In 2019, the Hajj attracted 2,489,406 pilgrims to the holy city. The 'Umrah, or the lesser pilgrimage, can be done at anytime during the year. Every adult, healthy Muslim who has the financial and physical capacity to travel to Mecca must perform the Hajj at least once in a lifetime. Umrah, the lesser pilgrimage, is not obligatory, but is recommended in the Quran. In addition to the *Masjid al-Haram*, pilgrims also must visit the nearby towns of [Mina/Muna](Mina, Saudi Arabia), [Muzdalifah](Muzdalifah) and [Arafat](Mount)(Mount Arafat) for various rituals that are part of the Hajj.
### Jabal an-Nur
[[File:Jabal Nur.JPG|thumb|[al-Nour](Jabal)(Jabal al-Nour), the mountain atop which is the Hira cave, where it is believed Muhammad received his first revelation.]]This is a mountain believed by Muslims to have been the place where Muhammad spent his time away from the bustling city of Mecca in seclusion.http://www.witness-pioneer.org . Retrieved 3 February 2013. The mountain is located on the eastern entrance of the city and is the highest point in the city at 642 meters (2,106 feet).
#### Hira'a Cave
Situated atop Jabal an-Nur, this is the cave where Muslims believe Muhammad received the first revelation from Allah through the archangel [Gabriel](Gabriel) ([Jibril](Angels in Islam) in Islamic tradition) at the age of 40.
## Geography
[[File:Mecca seen from international space station.png|thumb|Mecca as seen from the [Space Station](International)(International Space Station). Haram is visible in the center while Mina is visible in the east.]] Mecca is located in the [region](Hejaz)(Hejaz), a 200 km (124 mi) wide strip of mountains separating the [desert](Nafud)(An Nafud) from the [Sea](Red)(Red Sea). The city is situated in a valley with the same name around 70 km (44 mi) east of the port city of [Jeddah](Jeddah). Mecca is one of the lowest cities in elevation in the Hejaz region, located at an elevation of 277 m (909 ft) above sea level at 21º23' north latitude and 39º51' east longitude. Mecca is divided into 34 districts.
The city centers on the al-Haram area, which contains the Masjid al-Haram. The area around the mosque is the old city and contains the most famous district of Mecca, Ajyad. The main street that runs to *al-Haram* is the Ibrahim al-Khalil Street, named after [Ibrahim](Abraham in Islam). Traditional, historical homes built of local rock, two to three stories long are still present within the city's central area, within view of modern hotels and shopping complexes. The total area of modern Mecca is over .
### Elevation
Mecca is at an elevation of above sea level, and approximately 70 km (44 mi) inland from the Red Sea.[World*](*Islamic)(#iw), p. 13 It is one of the lowest in the [Hejaz](Hejaz) region. Although some mountain peaks in Mecca reach 1,000m in height.
### Topography
The city center lies in a corridor between mountains, which is often called the "Hollow of Mecca". The area contains the valley of al-Taneem, the valley of Bakkah and the valley of Abqar."Makka – The Modern City", *Encyclopaedia of Islam* This mountainous location has defined the contemporary expansion of the city.
### Sources of water
Due to Mecca's climatic conditions [scarcity](water)(water scarcity) has been an issue throughout its history. In pre-modern Mecca, the city used a few chief sources of water. Among them were local wells, such as the [Well](Zamzam)(Zamzam Well), that produced generally brackish water. Finding a sustainable water source to supply Mecca's permanent population and the large number of annual pilgrims was an undertaking that began in the Abbasid era under the auspices of [Zubayda](Zubaidah bint Ja'far), the wife of the caliph [ar-Rashid](Harun)(Harun al-Rashid). She donated funds for the deepening of Zamzam Well and funded a massive construction project likely costing 1.75 Million [dinar](gold)(gold dinar)s. The project encompassed the construction of an underground [aqueduct](Aqueduct (water supply)) from the and smaller water sources in the area to Mecca in addition to the construction of a waterworks on [Arafat](Mount)(Mount Arafat) called using a separate conduit to connect it to Mecca and the Masjid al-Haram. Over time however the system deteriorated and failed to fulfil its function. Thus in 1245 CE, 1361 CE, 1400 CE, 1474 CE, and 1510 CE different rulers invested into extensive repairs of the system. In 1525 CE due to the system's troubles persisting however the [Ottoman](Ottoman Empire) sultan [the Magnificent](Suleiman)(Suleiman the Magnificent) began a construction project to rebuild the aqueduct in its entirety, the project took until 1571 CE to be completed. Its water quality was greatly lacking during the 19th century until a restoration and cleaning project by Osman Pasha began.
Another source which sporadically provided water was rainfall which was stored by the people in small reservoirs or [cistern](cistern)s. According to al-Kurdī, there had been 89 floods by 1965. In the last century, the most severe flood was that of 1942. Since then, dams have been built to ameliorate this problem.
In the modern day [treatment plants](water)(Water treatment) and [facilities](desalination)(Desalination) have been constructed and are being constructed to provide suitable amounts of water fit for human consumption to the city. GE News |url=https://www.ge.com/news/reports/sun-sand-and-water-solar-powered-desalination-plant-will-help-supply-saudi-arabia-with |access-date=2022-10-11 |website=www.ge.com |language=en}}
### Climate
Mecca features a [desert climate](hot)(hot desert climate) ([Köppen](Köppen climate classification): *BWh*), in three different [hardiness zones](plant)(Hardiness zone): 10, 11 and 12. Like most Saudi Arabian cities, Mecca retains warm to hot temperatures even in winter, which can range from at night to in the afternoon. Summer temperatures are extremely hot and consistently break the mark in the afternoon, dropping to in the evening, but humidity remains relatively low, at 30–40%. Rain usually falls in Mecca in small amounts scattered between November and January, with heavy thunderstorms also common during the winter.
| source 2 = [Wetterdienst](Deutscher)(Deutscher Wetterdienst) (sunshine hours, 1986–2000)
| source =
}}
## Economy
[[e Noor area Makkah.jpg|thumb|Pilgrims are the driving force of Mecca's economy](File:Jabl)]
The Meccan economy has been heavily dependent on pilgrimages coming for Umrah and Hajj. Income generated through pilgrims not only powers the Meccan economy but has historically had far-reaching effects on the economy of the entire [Peninsula](Arabian)(Arabian Peninsula). The income was generated in a number of ways. One method was taxing the pilgrims. Taxes were especially increased during the [Depression](Great)(Great Depression), and many of these taxes existed to as late as 1972. Another way the Hajj generates income is through services to pilgrims. For example, the Saudi [carrier](flag)(flag carrier), [Saudia](Saudia), generates 12% of its income from the pilgrimage. Fares paid by pilgrims to reach Mecca by land also generate income; as do the hotels and lodging companies that house them. The city takes in more than $100 million, while the Saudi government spends about $50 million on services for the Hajj. There are some industries and factories in the city, but Mecca no longer plays a major role in Saudi Arabia's economy, which is mainly based on oil exports.*Mecca.* World Book Encyclopedia. 2003 edition. Volume M. p. 353 The few industries operating in Mecca include textiles, furniture, and utensils. The majority of the economy is service-oriented.
Nevertheless, many industries have been set up in Mecca. Various types of enterprises that have existed since 1970 in the city include [iron manufacturing](corrugated)(Iron mining), [extraction](copper)(copper extraction), carpentry, [upholstery](upholstery), bakeries, farming and banking. The city has grown substantially in the 20th and 21st centuries, as the convenience and affordability of [jet](jet aircraft) travel has increased the number of pilgrims participating in the [Hajj](Hajj). Thousands of Saudis are employed year-round to oversee the Hajj and staff the hotels and shops that cater to pilgrims; these workers in turn have increased the demand for housing and services. The city is now ringed by freeways, and contains shopping malls and skyscrapers.
## Human resources
Formal education started to be developed in the late Ottoman period continuing slowly into Hashemite times. The first major attempt to improve the situation was made by a Jeddah merchant, Muhammad ʿAlī Zaynal Riḍā, who founded the Madrasat al-Falāḥ in Mecca in 1911–12 that cost £400,000. The school system in Mecca has many public and private schools for both males and females. As of 2005, there were 532 [public](State school) and private schools for males and another 681 public and private schools for female students.Statistical information department of the ministry of education:[Statistical summary for education in Saudi Arabia](http://www.moe.gov.sa/statscenter/tawzee.rar) (AR) The medium of instruction in both public and private schools is Arabic with emphasis on English as a [language](second)(second language), but some private schools founded by foreign entities such as International schools use the English language as the medium of instruction. Some of these are coeducational while other schools are not. For higher education, the city has only one university, [Al-Qura University](Umm)(Umm Al-Qura University), which was established in 1949 as a college and became a public university in 1981.
Healthcare is provided by the Saudi government free of charge to all pilgrims. There are ten main hospitals in Mecca:["المستشفيات – قائمة المستشفيات"](http://www.moh.gov.sa/Sectors/Hospitals/Pages/default.aspx) . moh.gov.sa.
* [Hospital](Ajyad)(Ajyad Hospital) (}})
* King Faisal Hospital (}})
* King Abdulaziz Hospital (}})
* Al Noor Specialist Hospital (}})
* Hira'a Hospital (}})
* Maternity and Children's Hospital (}})
* King Abdullah Medical City (}})
* Khulais General Hospital (}})
* Al Kamel General Hospital (}})
* Ibn Sina Hospital (}})
There are also many walk-in clinics available for both residents and pilgrims. Several temporary clinics are set up during the Hajj to tend to wounded pilgrims.
## Culture
[[File:Mecca.JPG|thumb|Al-Haram Mosque and the [Kaaba](Kaaba)]]Mecca's culture has been affected by the large number of pilgrims that arrive annually, and thus boasts a rich [heritage](cultural)(cultural heritage). As a result of the vast numbers of pilgrims coming to the city each year, Mecca has become by far the most diverse city in the Muslim world.
[Baik](Al)(Al Baik), a local fast-food chain, is very popular among pilgrims and locals alike. Until 2018, it was available only in Mecca, [Medina](Medina) and [Jeddah](Jeddah), and traveling to Jeddah just to get a taste of the fried chicken was common.
### Sports
In pre-modern Mecca, the most common sports were impromptu wrestling and foot races. [Football](Association football) is now the most popular sport in Mecca and the kingdom, and the city hosts some of the oldest sport clubs in Saudi Arabia such as [Wahda FC](Al)(Al-Wahda (Mecca)) (established in 1945). [Abdulaziz Stadium](King)(King Abdul Aziz Stadium) is the largest stadium in Mecca with a capacity of 38,000.[Asian Football Stadiums](http://www.fussballtempel.net/afc/listeafc.html) – Stadium King Abdul Aziz
### Demographics
Mecca is very densely populated. Most long-term residents live in the Old City, the area around the [Mosque](Great)(Great Mosque of Mecca) and many work to support pilgrims, known locally as the *Hajj* industry. 'Iyad Madani, the Saudi Arabian Minister for Hajj, was quoted saying, "We never stop preparing for the Hajj."
Year-round, pilgrims stream into the city to perform the rites of '[Umrah](Umrah), and during the last weeks of eleventh Islamic month, [al-Qi'dah](Dhu)(Dhu al-Qi'dah), on average 2–4 million Muslims arrive in the city to take part in the rites known as Hajj. Pilgrims are from varying [ethnicities](ethnic group) and backgrounds, mainly [South](South Asia) and Southeast Asia, Europe and Africa. Many of these pilgrims have remained and become residents of the city. The Burmese are an older, more established community who number roughly 250,000. Adding to this, the discovery of oil in the past 50 years has brought hundreds of thousands of working immigrants.
Non-Muslims are not permitted to enter Mecca under [law](Saudi)(Basic Law of Saudi Arabia), and using fraudulent documents to do so may result in arrest and prosecution. The prohibition extends to [Ahmadis](Ahmadiyya), as they are considered non-Muslims. Nevertheless, many non-Muslims and Ahmadis have visited the city as these restrictions are loosely enforced. The first such recorded example of a non-Muslim entering the city is that of [di Varthema](Ludovico)(Ludovico di Varthema) of [Bologna](Bologna) in 1503. [Nanak](Guru)(Guru Nanak), the founder of Sikhism, is said to have visited Mecca in December 1518.Dr Harjinder Singh Dilgeer says that Mecca was not banned to non-Muslim till nineteenth century; *Sikh History in 10 volumes*, Sikh University Press, (2010–2012), vol. 1, pp. 181–182 One of the most famous was [Francis Burton](Richard)(Richard Francis Burton), who traveled as a [Qadiriyya](Qadiriyyah) [Sufi](Sufism) from [Afghanistan](Afghanistan) in 1853.
[Province](Mecca)(Mecca Province) is the only province where [expatriate](expatriate)s outnumber [Saudis](Saudis).
### Architectural landmarks
Adorning the southern facade of the Masjid al-Haram, the [al-Bait Complex](Abraj)(Abraj Al Bait), which towers over the Great Mosque, is a seven-building complex with the central clock tower having a length of 601 m (1,972 feet), making it the world's fourth-tallest building. All seven buildings in the complex also form the [building by floor area](third-largest)(List of largest buildings in the world).
The [Gate](Mecca)(Mecca Gate), known popularly as the Quran Gate, on the western entrance of the city, or from Jeddah. Located on Highway 40, it marks the boundary of the [area](Haram)(Haram (site)) where non-Muslims are prohibited from entering. The gate was designed in 1979 by an Egyptian architect, Samir Elabd, for the architectural firm IDEA Center. The structure is that of a book, representing the Quran, sitting on a [*rehal*](Rehal (book rest)), or bookrest. – Makkah Gate
## Communications
### Press and newspapers
The first press was brought to Mecca in 1885 by [Nuri Pasha](Osman)(Osman Nuri Pasha), an Ottoman [Wāli](Wali (administrative title)). During the Hashemite period, it was used to print the city's official gazette, *[Qibla](Al)(Al Qibla)*. The Saudi regime expanded this press into a larger operation, introducing the new Saudi official gazette of Mecca, *Umm al-Qurā*. Mecca also has its own paper owned by the city, *[Nadwa](Al)(Al Nadwa)*. However, other Saudi newspapers are also provided in Mecca such as the *[Gazette](Saudi)(Saudi Gazette)*, *[Madinah](Al)(Al Madinah)*, *[Okaz](Okaz)* and *[Bilad](Al)(Al-Bilad (Saudi newspaper)),* in addition to other international newspapers.
### TV
Telecommunications in the city were emphasized early under the Saudi reign. King [Abdulaziz](Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia) pressed them forward as he saw them as a means of convenience and better governance. While under [bin Ali](Hussein)(Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca), there were about 20 public telephones in the entire city; in 1936, the number jumped to 450, totaling about half the telephones in the country. During that time, telephone lines were extended to Jeddah and Ta’if, but not to the capital, [Riyadh](Riyadh). By 1985, Mecca, like other Saudi cities, possessed modern telephone, telex, radio and television communications. Many television stations serving the city area include [TV1](Saudi)(Saudi T.V. Channel 1), [TV2](Saudi)(Saudi T.V. Channel II), [TV Sports](Saudi)(Saudi TV Sports), [Al-Ekhbariya](Al-Ekhbariya), [Radio and Television Network](Arab)(Arab Radio and Television Network) and various cable, satellite and other specialty television providers.
### Radio
Limited radio communication was established within the Kingdom under the Hashemites. In 1929, wireless stations were set up in various towns in the region, creating a network that would become fully functional by 1932. Soon after [War II](World)(World War II), the existing network was greatly expanded and improved. Since then, radio communication has been used extensively in directing the pilgrimage and addressing the pilgrims. This practice started in 1950, with the initiation of broadcasts on the [of 'Arafah](Day)(Day of Arafa) (9 Dhu al-Hijjah), and increased until 1957, at which time Radio Makkah became the most powerful station in the Middle East at 50 kW. Later, power was increased 9-fold to 450 kW. Music was not immediately broadcast, but gradually folk music was introduced.
## Transportation
### Air
The only airport near the city is the Mecca East airport, which is not active. Mecca is primarily served by [Abdulaziz International Airport](King)(King Abdulaziz International Airport) in [Jeddah](Jeddah) for international and regional connections and [Regional Airport](Ta'if)(Ta'if Regional Airport) for regional connections. To cater the large number of Hajj pilgrims, Jeddah Airport has Hajj Terminal, specifically for use in the *Hajj* season, which can accommodate 47 planes simultaneously and can receive 3,800 pilgrims per hour during the Hajj season.
### Roads
[[Gate of Mecca on Highway 40](File:Entry-Gate-of-Mecca-on-Jaddah-Makkah-Highway.jpg|thumb|Entry)]
[[Ring Road makkah.jpg|thumb|3rd Ring Road passing through Kudai Area](File:3rd)]
Mecca, similar to Medina, lies at the junction of two of the most important highways in Saudi Arabia, [40](Highway)(Highway 40 (Saudi Arabia)), connecting it to the important port city of [Jeddah](Jeddah) in the west and the capital of [Riyadh](Riyadh) and the other major port city, [Dammam](Dammam), in the east. The other, Highway 15, connects Mecca to the other holy Islamic city of Medina approximately 400 km (250 mi) in the north and onward to [Tabuk](Tabuk, Saudi Arabia) and [Jordan](Jordan). While in the south, it connects Mecca to [Abha](Abha) and [Jizan](Jizan).["Roads"](http://saudinf.com/main/g11.htm) . saudinf.com.["The Roads and Ports Sectors in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia"](http://www.saudia-online.com/newsnov01/news06.shtml) . saudia-online.com. 5 November 2001 Mecca is served by four ring roads, and these are very crowded compared to the three ring roads of Medina.
Mecca also has many tunnels.
### Rapid transit
'''Al Masha'er Al Muqaddassah Metro'''
The [Masha'er Al Muqaddassah Metro](Al)(Al Mashaaer Al Mugaddassah Metro) is a metro line in Mecca opened on 13 November 2010. The 18.1-kilometer (11.2-mile) elevated metro transports pilgrims to the holy sites of '[Arafat](Mount Arafat), [Muzdalifah](Muzdalifah) and [Mina](Mina, Saudi Arabia) in the city to reduce congestion on the road and is only operational during the *[Hajj](Hajj)* season.
It consists of nine stations, three in each of the aforementioned towns.
**Mecca Metro**
The [Metro](Mecca)(Mecca Metro), officially known as **Makkah Mass Rail Transit**, is a planned four-line [metro](Rapid transit) system for the city. This will be in addition to the [Masha'er Al Muqaddassah Metro](Al)(Al Mashaaer Al Mugaddassah Metro) which carries pilgrims.
### Rail
#### Intercity
In 2018, a high speed intercity rail line, part of the [High Speed Rail Project](Haramain)(Haramain High Speed Rail Project), named the [high-speed railway](Haramain)(Haramain high-speed railway) line entered operation, connecting the holy cities of Mecca and [Medina](Medina) together via [Jeddah](Jeddah), [Abdulaziz International Airport](King)(King Abdulaziz International Airport) and [Abdullah Economic City](King)(King Abdullah Economic City) in [Rabigh](Rabigh). The railway consists of 35 [trains](electric)(Electric locomotive) and is capable of transporting 60 million passengers annually. Each train can achieve speeds of up to 300 kmh (190 mph), traveling a total distance of 450 km (280 mi), reducing the travel time between the two cities to less than two hours.
## See also
* *[al-Mawlid](Bayt)(Bayt al-Mawlid)*, the [house](Makkah Al Mukarramah Library) where Muhammad is believed to have been born
* [Province](Mecca)(Mecca Province)
* [al-Haram](Masjid)(Masjid al-Haram)
* [of Mecca](Sharifate)(Sharifate of Mecca)
## Notes
## References
## Bibliography
*
*
## Further reading
*
*
*
*
* Watt, W. Montgomery. "Makka – The pre-Islamic and early Islamic periods." *[of Islam](Encyclopaedia)(Encyclopaedia of Islam)*. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2008. Brill Online. 6 June 2008
* Winder, R.B. "Makka – The Modern City." *Encyclopaedia of Islam*. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2008. Brill Online. 2008
*
### Online
* [Mecca Saudi Arabia](https://www.britannica.com/place/Mecca), in *Encyclopædia Britannica Online*, by John Bagot Glubb, Assʿad Sulaiman Abdo, Swati Chopra, Darshana Das, Michael Levy, Gloria Lotha, Michael Ray, Surabhi Sinha, Noah Tesch, Amy Tikkanen, Grace Young and Adam Zeidan
## External links
* [Holy Makkah Municipality](https://web.archive.org/web/20170317055002/http://www.holymakkah.gov.sa/en/Pages/default.aspx)
* [Saudi Information Resource – Holy Makkah](http://www.saudinf.com/main/a83.htm)
* [Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Al Madinah and Makkahh, by Richard Burton](https://web.archive.org/web/20050721135336/https://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/b/burton/richard/b97p/chapter27.html)
[ ](Category:Mecca)
[sites of the House of Saud](Category:Burial)(Category:Burial sites of the House of Saud)
[of caliphates](Category:Capitals)(Category:Capitals of caliphates)
[cities](Category:Closed)(Category:Closed cities)
[Category:Hajj](Category:Hajj)
[cities](Category:Holy)(Category:Holy cities)
[holy places](Category:Islamic)(Category:Islamic holy places)
[places in Mecca Province](Category:Populated)(Category:Populated places in Mecca Province)
[capitals of Saudi Arabia](Category:Provincial)(Category:Provincial capitals of Saudi Arabia)
[Sea](Category:Red)(Category:Red Sea)
|
Iranian Revolution
|
iranian_revolution
|
# Iranian Revolution
*Revision ID: 1157149957 | Timestamp: 2023-05-26T17:19:58Z*
---
*1979 Revolution: Black Friday*}}
– ()
| place = [Iran](Pahlavi Iran)
| coordinates =
| causes = *Discontent with the [Shah](Mohammad Reza Pahlavi)'s rule
*Exile of [Khomeini](Ruhollah)(Ruhollah Khomeini)
*[injustice](Social)(Social injustice)
*Religious motives
**[others](and)(Background and causes of the Iranian Revolution)*
| goals = Overthrow of the [dynasty](Pahlavi)(Pahlavi dynasty)
| methods = *[Demonstrations](Political demonstration)
*[Strikes](General strike)
*[resistance](Civil)(Civil resistance)
*[Riot](Riot)ing
*Armed street fighting
| status =
| result = Revolutionaries Victory
*Overthrow of the Shah and monarchy
*[oil crisis](1979)(1979 oil crisis)
*[of the Islamic Republic](Constitution)(Constitution of Iran) replaced [Constitution of 1906](Persian)(Persian Constitution of 1906) with [referendum](December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum)
*[Ayatollah](Ayatollah) [Khomeini](Ruhollah)(Ruhollah Khomeini) becomes the new [Leader of Iran](Supreme)(Supreme Leader of Iran)
*[hostage crisis](Iran)(Iran hostage crisis)
*[of the Iranian Revolution](Consolidation)(Consolidation of the Iranian Revolution)
*Beginning of the [War](Iran–Iraq)(Iran–Iraq War)
*[for all women by law](Hijab)(Hijab in Iran)
*Massive exile that characterizes a large portion of today's [diaspora](Iranian)(Iranian diaspora)
*[revival](Islamic)(Islamic revival) worldwide
| side1 = [State of Iran](Imperial)(Pahlavi Iran)
|[Party](Rastakhiz)(Rastakhiz Party)
|[Army](Imperial)(Military history of Iran#Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979))
|[Guard](Imperial)(Imperial Guard (Iran))
|[SAVAK](SAVAK)
|[Shahrbani](Shahrbani)
|[Gendarmerie](Iranian Gendarmerie)}}
| side2 = [Council](Revolutionary)(Council of the Islamic Revolution)}}
* [Government](Interim)(Interim Government of Iran)}}
----
| side3 =
| leadfigures1 = [Reza Pahlavi](Mohammad)(Mohammad Reza Pahlavi)
[Amouzegar](Jamshid)(Jamshid Amouzegar)
| [Sharif-Emami](Jafar)(Jafar Sharif-Emami)
| [Reza Azhari](Gholam)(Gholam Reza Azhari)
| [Bakhtiar](Shapour)(Shapour Bakhtiar)
}}
[Nassiri](Nematollah)(Nematollah Nassiri)}}| [Moghaddam](Nasser)(Nasser Moghaddam)}}}}
[Reza Azhari](Gholam)(Gholam Reza Azhari)
| [Gharabaghi](Abbas)(Abbas Gharabaghi)
| [Ali Oveissi](Gholam)(Gholam Ali Oveissi)}}
| leadfigures2 = [Khomeini](Ruhollah)(Ruhollah Khomeini)
*}}}}
| leadfigures3 =
| howmany1 =
| howmany2 =
| howmany3 =
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
| casualties3 = See [of the Iranian Revolution](Casualties)(Casualties of the Iranian Revolution)
| fatalities =
| injuries =
| arrests =
| detentions =
| charged =
| fined =
| casualties_label =
| notes =
| sidebox =
}}
The **Iranian Revolution** (, ), or the **Islamic Revolution** (, ),*["Islamic Revolution | History of Iran](http://www.iranchamber.com/history/islamic_revolution/islamic_revolution.php)." *Iran Chamber Society*. .
*Brumberg, Daniel. [2004] 2009."[Islamic Revolution of Iran](https://web.archive.org/web/20091028082940/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588431/Islamic_Revolution_of_Iran.html)." *[Encarta](MSN)(Encarta)*. Archived on 31 October 2009.
*[Mohammad Mehdi](Khorrami,)(Mohammad Mehdi Khorrami). 1998."[The Islamic Revolution](http://www.internews.org/visavis/BTVPagesTXT/Theislamicrevolution.html) ." *Vis à Vis Beyond the Veil*. [Internews](Internews). Archived from the [original](https://internews.org/visavis/BTVPagesTXT/Theislamicrevolution.html) on 27 February 2009.
*"[Revolution](https://iranian.com/revolution.html) ." *[Iranian](The)(Iranian.com)*. 2006. from the original on 29 June 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2020.
*"[Iran](https://web.archive.org/web/20060806025221/http://www.jubileecampaign.org/home/jubilee/iran_profile.pdf)." *Jubilee Campaign*. Archived from the [original](http://www.jubileecampaign.org/home/jubilee/iran_profile.pdf) on 6 August 2006.
*[Fereydoon](Hoveyda,)(Fereydoon Hoveyda). *The Shah and the Ayatollah: Iranian Mythology and Islamic Revolution*. . refers to a series of events that culminated in the overthrow of the [dynasty](Pahlavi)(Pahlavi dynasty) in 1979. It led to the replacement of the [State of Iran](Imperial)(Pahlavi Iran) by the present-day [Republic of Iran](Islamic)(Iran), as the monarchical government of [Reza Pahlavi](Mohammed)(Mohammad Reza Pahlavi) was superseded by the theocratic government of [Khomeini](Ruhollah)(Ruhollah Khomeini), a religious cleric who had headed one of the rebel factions. The ouster of Pahlavi, the last [of Iran](Shah)(List of monarchs of Persia), formally marked the end of [historical monarchy](Iran's)(List of monarchs of Persia).
After the [Iranian coup d'état](1953)(1953 Iranian coup d'état), Pahlavi aligned Iran with the [Bloc](Western)(Western Bloc) and cultivated a close relationship with the [States](United)(United States) in order to consolidate his power as an authoritarian ruler. Relying heavily on American support amidst the [War](Cold)(Cold War), he remained the Shah of Iran for 26 years after the coup, effectively keeping the country from swaying towards the influence of the [Bloc](Eastern)(Eastern Bloc) and the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union). Beginning in 1963, Pahlavi implemented a number of reforms aimed at modernizing Iranian society, in what is known as the [Revolution](White)(White Revolution). In light of his continued vocal opposition to the modernization campaign after being arrested twice, [was exiled from Iran in 1964](Khomeini)(Ruhollah Khomeini's life in exile). However, as major ideological tensions persisted between Pahlavi and Khomeini, anti-government demonstrations began in October 1977, eventually developing into a campaign of civil resistance that included elements of [secularism](Secularism in Iran) and [Islamism](Islamism).[Ervand](Abrahamian,)(Ervand Abrahamian). 2009. "Mass Protests in the Islamic Revolution, 1977–79." Pp. 162–78 in *Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present*, edited by [Roberts](A.)(Adam Roberts (scholar)) and [G. Ash](T.)(Timothy Garton Ash). Oxford: [University Press](Oxford)(Oxford University Press). In August 1978, the deaths of between 377 and 470 people in the [Rex fire](Cinema)(Cinema Rex fire) — claimed by the opposition as having been orchestrated by Pahlavi's [SAVAK](SAVAK) — came to serve as a catalyst for a popular revolutionary movement across all of Iran,[Roy](Mottahedeh,)(Roy Mottahedeh). 2004. *The Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in Iran*. p. 375. and large-scale strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the entire country for the remainder of that year.
On 16 January 1979, Pahlavi left the country and went into exile as the last Iranian monarch, leaving behind his duties to Iran's [Council](Regency)(Regency Council (Iran)) and [Bakhtiar](Shapour)(Shapour Bakhtiar), the opposition-based [prime minister](Iranian)(Prime Minister of Iran). On 1 February 1979, [returned to Iran](Khomeini)(Ruhollah Khomeini's return to Iran), following an invitation by the government; several thousand Iranians gathered to greet him as he landed in the capital city of [Tehran](Tehran)."[1979: Exiled Ayatollah Khomeini returns to Iran](http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/1/newsid_2521000/2521003.stm)." *[On This Day](BBC:)(On This Day)*. 2007. By 11 February 1979, the monarchy was officially brought down and Khomeini assumed leadership over Iran while guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed Pahlavi loyalists in armed combat. Following the [1979 Islamic Republic referendum](March)(March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum), in which 98% of Iranian voters approved the country's shift to an [republic](Islamic)(Islamic republic), the new government began efforts to draft the present-day [of the Islamic Republic of Iran](Constitution)(Constitution of Iran);"[Islamic Republic | Iran](https://web.archive.org/web/20060316040030/https://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-202892)." *Britannica Student Encyclopedia*. [Britannica](Encyclopædia)(Encyclopædia Britannica). Archived from the [original](https://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-202892) on 16 March 2006. Khomeini emerged as the [Leader of Iran](Supreme)(Supreme Leader of Iran) in December 1979. Vol. 194, No. 15 International |url=https://time.com/magazine/south-pacific/5691730/october-14th-2019-vol-194-no-15-international/ |access-date=2023-03-20 |website=TIME.com}}
The success of the Iranian Revolution was met with surprise throughout the world, and was considered by many to be unusual in nature: it lacked many of the customary causes of revolutionary sentiment (e.g., defeat in war, a financial crisis, [rebellion](peasant)(List of peasant revolts), or disgruntled military); occurred in a country that was experiencing relative prosperity; produced profound change at great speed; was massively popular; resulted in the massive exile that characterizes a large portion of today's [diaspora](Iranian)(Iranian diaspora); and replaced a pro-[Western](Western world) secular and authoritarian monarchy with an [anti-Western](Anti-Western sentiment) Islamist theocracy*[Journal of Middle East Studies](International)(International Journal of Middle East Studies)* 19, 1987, p. 261 that was based on the concept of (or [of the Islamic Jurist](Guardianship)(Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist)), straddling between [authoritarianism](authoritarianism) and [totalitarianism](totalitarianism). In addition to these, the Iranian Revolution sought the spread of [Islam](Shia)(Shia Islam) across the [East](Middle)(Middle East) through the ideological tenets of [Khomeinism](Khomeinism) — particularly as a means of uprooting the region's , which favoured [Islam](Sunni)(Sunni Islam). After the [of Khomeinist factions](consolidation)(Consolidation of the Iranian Revolution), Iran began to back Shia militancy across the region in an attempt to combat Sunni influence and establish Iranian dominance within the [world](Arab)(Arab world), ultimately aiming to achieve an Iranian-led Shia political order.
## Background (1891–1977)
Reasons advanced for the revolution and its [populist](Populism), [nationalist](Nationalism), and later [Islam](Shia)(Shia Islam)ic character include:
# A backlash against [imperialism](imperialism);
# The [Iranian ''coup d'état''](1953)(1953 Iranian coup d'état);
# A rise in expectations created by the [oil revenue windfall](1973)(1973 oil crisis);
# An overly ambitious economic program;
# Anger over a short, sharp [contraction](economic)(economic contraction) in 1977–1978; and
* Shaul Bakhash|group=Note}}
# Other shortcomings of the previous regime.
The Shah's regime was seen as an oppressive, brutal, corrupt, and lavish [regime](regime) by some of the society's classes at that time. It also suffered from some basic functional failures that brought economic [bottlenecks](Bottleneck (production)), [shortage](shortage)s, and [inflation](inflation). The Shah was perceived by many as beholden to—if not a puppet of—a non-Muslim [power](Western)(Western world) (i.e., the [States](United)(United States))}} whose culture was affecting that of Iran. At the same time, support for the Shah may have waned among Western politicians and media—especially under the [administration](Presidency of Jimmy Carter) of U.S. President [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter)—as a result of the Shah's support for [petroleum price increases](OPEC)(1973 oil crisis) earlier in the decade.Cooper, Andrew Scott. 2011. *[Oil Kings: How the U.S., Iran, and Saudi Arabia Changed the Balance of Power in the Middle East](The)(The Oil Kings).* [& Schuster](Simon)(Simon & Schuster). . When President Carter enacted a [human-rights](Human rights) policy which said that countries guilty of human-rights violations would be deprived of American arms or aid, this helped give some Iranians the courage to post [letter](open)(open letter)s and [petition](petition)s in the hope that the repression by the government might subside.
The revolution that substituted the monarchy of [Reza Shah Pahlavi](Mohammad)(Mohammad Reza Pahlavi) with [Islam](Islam) and [Khomeini](Ruhollah Khomeini) is credited in part to the spread of the [Shi'a](Shia Islam) version of the [revival](Islamic)(Islamic revival). It resisted [westernization](westernization) and saw [Ayatollah](Ayatollah) Khomeini as following in the footsteps of the Shi'a [Imam](Imam) [ibn Ali](Husayn)(Husayn ibn Ali), with the Shah playing the role of Husayn's foe, the hated tyrant [I](Yazid)(Yazid I). Other factors include the underestimation of Khomeini's [Islamist](Islamism) movement by both the Shah's reign—who considered them a minor threat compared to the [Marxists](Leftist guerrilla groups of Iran) and [socialists](Islamic)(People's Mujahedin of Iran)—and by the [secularist](secularist) opponents of the government—who thought the [Khomeinist](Khomeinist)s could be sidelined.
### Tobacco Protest (1891)
At the end of the [century](19th)(19th century), the Shi'a clergy (*[ulama](ulama)*) had a significant influence on [society](Iranian)(Iranian society). The clergy first showed itself to be a powerful political force in opposition to the monarchy with the 1891 [Protest](Tobacco)(Tobacco Protest). On 20 March 1890, the long-standing Iranian monarch [al-Din Shah](Nasir)(Naser al-Din Shah Qajar) granted a concession to [British](British Empire) Major G. F. Talbot for a full [monopoly](monopoly) over the production, sale, and export of tobacco for 50 years.[Nikki](Keddie,)(Nikki Keddie). 1966. *Religion and Rebellion in Iran: The Tobacco Protest of 1891–92*. [Cass](Frank)(Frank Cass). p. 38.
At the time, the Persian tobacco industry employed over 200,000 people, so the concession represented a major blow to Persian farmers and [bazaari](bazaari)s whose livelihoods were largely dependent on the lucrative tobacco business. The boycotts and protests against it were widespread and extensive as result of [Hasan Shirazi](Mirza)(Mirza Shirazi)'s *[fatwa](fatwa)* (judicial decree).Lambton, Ann (1987). *Qajar Persia*. University of Texas Press, p. 248 Within 2 years, Nasir al-Din Shah found himself powerless to stop the popular movement and cancelled the concession.[Roy](Mottahedeh,)(Roy Mottahedeh). 2000. *The Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in Iran*. [Oneworld](Oneworld Publications). p. 218.
The Tobacco Protest was the first significant Iranian resistance against the Shah and foreign interests, revealing the power of the people and the *ulama* influence among them.
### Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911)
The growing dissatisfaction continued until the Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1911. The revolution led to the establishment of a [parliament](parliament), the [Consultative Assembly](National)(National Consultative Assembly) (also known as the *[Majlis](Majlis)*), and approval of the first constitution. Although the constitutional revolution was successful in weakening the [autocracy](autocracy) of the [regime](Qajar)(Qajar dynasty), it failed to provide a powerful alternative government. Therefore, in the decades following the establishment of the new parliament, a number of critical events took place. Many of these events can be viewed as a continuation of the struggle between the constitutionalists and the Shahs of Persia, many of whom were backed by foreign powers against the parliament.
### Reza Shah (1921–1935)
Insecurity and chaos created after the Constitutional Revolution led to the rise of General Reza Khan, the commander of the elite [Cossack Brigade](Persian)(Persian Cossack Brigade) who seized power in a ''[d'état](coup)(coup d'état)'' in February 1921. He established a [monarchy](constitutional)(constitutional monarchy), deposing the last Qajar [Shah](Shah), [Shah](Ahmed)(Ahmad Shah Qajar), in 1925 and being designated monarch by the National Assembly, to be known thenceforth as Reza Shah, founder of the [dynasty](Pahlavi)(Pahlavi dynasty).
There were widespread social, economic, and political reforms introduced during his reign, a number of which led to public discontent that would provide the circumstances for the Iranian Revolution. Particularly controversial was the replacement of [laws](Islamic)(fiqh) with Western ones and the forbidding of traditional [clothing](Islamic)(Islamic clothing), [of the sexes](separation)(Sex segregation and Islam), and veiling of women's faces with the [niqab](niqab). Police forcibly removed and tore [chador](chador)s off women who resisted his ban on the public [hijab](hijab).
In 1935, dozens were killed and hundreds injured in the [Mosque rebellion](Goharshad)(Goharshad Mosque rebellion). On the other hand, during the early rise of Reza Shah, [Ha'eri Yazdi](Abdul-Karim)(Abdul-Karim Ha'eri Yazdi) founded the [Seminary](Qom)(Qom Seminary) and created important changes in [seminaries](Seminary). However, he would avoid entering into political issues, as did other religious leaders who followed him. Hence, no widespread anti-government attempts were organized by clergy during the rule of Reza Shah. However, the future Ayatollah [Khomeini](Khomeini) was a student of Sheikh Abdul Karim Ha'eri.
### Mosaddegh and The Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (1951–1952)
From 1901 on, the [Oil Company](Anglo-Persian)(Anglo-Persian Oil Company) (renamed the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company in 1931), a British oil company, enjoyed a monopoly on sale and production of Iranian oil. It was the most profitable British business in the world. Most Iranians lived in poverty while the wealth generated from Iranian oil played a decisive role in maintaining Britain at the top of the world. In 1951, Iranian Prime Minister [Mosaddegh](Mohammad)(Mohammad Mosaddegh) pledged to throw the company out of Iran, reclaim the [reserves](petroleum)(Oil reserves) and free Iran from foreign powers.
In 1952, Mosaddegh [nationalized](Nationalization) the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company and became a national hero. The British, however, were outraged and accused him of stealing. The British unsuccessfully [punishment](sought)(Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. case) from the [Court](World)(World court) and the [Nations](United)(United Nations), sent warships to the [Gulf](Persian)(Persian Gulf), and finally imposed a crushing [embargo](embargo). Mosaddegh was unmoved by Britain's campaign against him. One European newspaper, the *[Neue Presse](Frankfurter)(Frankfurter Neue Presse)*, reported that Mosaddegh "would rather be fried in Persian oil than make the slightest concession to the British." The British considered an armed invasion, but UK Prime Minister [Churchill](Winston)(Winston Churchill) decided on a coup after being refused American military support by U.S. President [S. Truman](Harry)(Harry S. Truman), who sympathized with nationalist movements like Mosaddegh's and had nothing but contempt for old-style [imperialists](Imperialism) like those who ran the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. Mosaddegh, however, learned of Churchill's plans and ordered the [embassy](British)(Embassy of the United Kingdom, Tehran) to be closed in October 1952, forcing all British diplomats and agents to leave the country.
Although the British were initially turned down in their request for American support by President Truman, the election of [D. Eisenhower](Dwight)(Dwight D. Eisenhower) as U.S. president in November 1952 changed the American stance toward the conflict. On 20 January 1953, [Secretary of State](U.S.)(United States Secretary of State) [Foster Dulles](John)(John Foster Dulles) and his brother, [C.I.A.](C.I.A.) Director [Dulles](Allen)(Allen Dulles), told their British counterparts that they were ready to move against Mosaddegh. In their eyes, any country not decisively allied with the United States was a potential enemy. Iran had immense oil wealth, a long border with the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union), and a [nationalist](Iranian nationalism) prime minister. The prospect of a fall into [communism](communism) and a "second [China](China)" (after [Zedong](Mao)(Mao Zedong) won the [Civil War](Chinese)(Chinese Civil War)) terrified the Dulles brothers. [Ajax](Operation)(Operation Ajax) was born, in which the only [government](democratic)(Democracy) Iran ever had was [deposed](List of deposed politicians).[the Shah's Men](All)(All the Shah's Men)
### Iranian coup d'état (1953)
In 1941, an [of allied British and Soviet troops](invasion)(Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran) [deposed](List of deposed politicians) Reza Shah, who was considered friendly to [Germany](Nazi)(Nazi Germany), and installed his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi as Shah. In 1953, following the [of the Iranian oil industry](nationalization)(nationalization of the Iranian oil industry) by the democratically elected prime minister [Mossadegh](Mohammad)(Mohammad Mossadegh), American and British forces instituted a highly effective embargo of Iranian oil, and covertly destabilized the legislature and helped return control to their ally, Pahlavi. The American *"Operation Ajax"*, orchestrated by the [CIA](CIA), was aided by the British [MI6](MI6) in organizing a [coup d'état](military)(1953 Iranian coup d'état) to oust Mossadegh. The Shah fled to [Italy](Italy) when the initial coup attempt on August 15 failed, but returned after a successful second attempt on August 19.
Pahlavi maintained a close relationship with the U.S. government, as both regimes shared opposition to the expansion of the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union), Iran's powerful northern neighbor. Like his father, the Shah's government was known for its [autocracy](autocracy), its focus on [modernization](Modernization theory) and [Westernization](Westernization), and for its disregard for [religious](Iranian Constitution of 1906#The supplementary fundamental laws of 7 October 1907) and democratic measures in [constitution](Iran's)(Iranian Constitution of 1906). [Leftist](Iranian Reformists) and [Islamist](Islamism) groups attacked his government (often from outside Iran as they were suppressed within) for violating the Iranian constitution, political corruption, and the political oppression, torture, and killings, by the [SAVAK](SAVAK) secret police.
### White Revolution (1963–1978)
[[fullsize.jpg|thumb|Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi](File:Shah)]
The White Revolution was a far-reaching series of reforms in [Iran](Iran) launched in 1963 by [Shah](Shah) [Reza Pahlavi](Mohammad)(Mohammad Reza Pahlavi) and lasted until 1978. Mohammad Reza Shah's reform program was built especially to weaken those classes that supported the traditional system. It consisted of several elements including [reform](land)(land reform); sales of some [state-owned](State ownership) factories to finance the land reform; the [of women](enfranchisement)(Women's suffrage); [nationalization](nationalization) of forests and pastures; formation of a literacy [corps](corps); and the institution of [profit-sharing](Profit sharing) schemes for workers in industry.
The Shah advertised the White Revolution as a step towards [westernization](westernization), and it was a way for him to [legitimize](Legitimation) the [dynasty](Pahlavi)(Pahlavi dynasty). Part of the reason for launching the White Revolution was that the Shah hoped to get rid of the influence of landlords and to create a new base of support among the peasants and working class. Thus, the White Revolution in Iran was an attempt to introduce reform from above and preserve traditional power patterns. Through land reform, the essence of the White Revolution, the Shah hoped to ally himself with the [peasant](peasant)ry in the countryside, and hoped to sever their ties with the [aristocracy](aristocracy) in the city.
What the Shah did not expect, however, was that the White Revolution led to new [tensions](social)(Civil disorder) that helped create many of the problems the Shah had been trying to avoid. The Shah's reforms more than quadrupled the combined size of the two classes that had posed the most challenges to his monarchy in the past—the [intelligentsia](intelligentsia) and the urban [class](working)(Iranian working class). Their resentment towards the Shah also grew as they were now stripped of organizations that had represented them in the past, such as political parties, professional associations, [union](trade)(trade union)s, and independent newspapers. The land reform, instead of allying the peasants with the government, produced large numbers of independent farmers and landless laborers who became loose political cannons, with no feeling of loyalty to the Shah. Many of the masses felt resentment towards the increasingly corrupt government; their loyalty to the clergy, who were seen as more concerned with the fate of the populace, remained consistent or increased. As [Abrahamian](Ervand)(Ervand Abrahamian) pointed out: "The White Revolution had been designed to preempt a [Revolution](Red)(Russian revolution). Instead, it paved the way for an Islamic Revolution." The White Revolution's economic "[trickle-down](Trickle-down economics)" strategy also did not work as intended. In theory, oil money funneled to the elite was supposed to be used to create jobs and factories, eventually distributing the money, but instead the wealth tended to get stuck at the top and concentrated in the hands of the very few.
### Rise and exile of Ayatollah Khomeini (1963–1979)
[[Khomeini portrait 1.jpg|thumb|upright|Ayatollah Sayyid Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini](File:Ruhollah)]
The post-revolutionary leader—[Shia](Shia Islam) cleric [Ayatollah](Ayatollah) [Khomeini](Ruhollah)(Ruhollah Khomeini)—first came to political prominence in 1963 when he led opposition to the Shah and his [Revolution](White)(White Revolution). Khomeini was arrested in 1963 after declaring the Shah a "wretched miserable man" who had "embarked on the [toward](path) destruction of Islam in Iran."*Nehzat* by Ruhani vol. 1, p. 195, quoted in Three days of major riots throughout Iran followed, with 15,000 dead from police fire as reported by opposition sources. However, [anti-revolutionary](Counter-revolutionary) sources conjectured that just 32 were killed.
Khomeini was released after eight months of house arrest and continued his agitation, condemning Iran's close cooperation with [Israel](Israel) and its [capitulations](Capitulation (treaty)), or extension of [immunity](diplomatic)(diplomatic immunity), to American government personnel in Iran. In November 1964, Khomeini was re-arrested and [into exile](sent)(Ruhollah Khomeini's return to Iran#Exile) where he remained for 15 years (mostly in [Iraq](Najaf,)(Najaf, Iraq)), until the revolution.
#### Ideology of the Iranian Revolution
[[File:15khordad1.jpg|thumb|left|Residents of Tehran participating in the [of 5 June 1963](demonstrations)(Movement of 15 Khordad) with pictures of Ruhollah Khomeini in their hands]]
In this interim period of "disaffected calm," the budding Iranian revival began to undermine the idea of [Westernization](Westernization) as progress that was the basis of the Shah's secular reign, and to form the ideology of the 1979 revolution: [Al-e-Ahmad](Jalal)(Jalal Al-e-Ahmad)'s idea of *[Gharbzadegi](Gharbzadegi)*—that Western culture was a plague or an intoxication to be eliminated; [Shariati](Ali)(Ali Shariati)'s vision of Islam as the one true liberator of the [World](Third)(Third World) from oppressive [colonialism](colonialism), [neo-colonialism](neo-colonialism), and [capitalism](capitalism); and [Motahhari](Morteza)(Morteza Motahhari)'s popularized retellings of the Shia faith all spread and gained listeners, readers and supporters.
Most importantly, Khomeini preached that revolt, and especially [martyrdom](martyrdom), against injustice and tyranny was part of Shia Islam,Wright, Robin (2000) ["The Last Great Revolution Turmoil and Transformation in Iran"](https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/w/wright-revolution.html?_r=1) . *The New York Times*. and that Muslims should reject the influence of both liberal capitalism and communism, ideas that inspired the revolutionary slogan "Neither East, nor West – Islamic Republic!"
Away from public view, Khomeini developed the ideology of *[faqih](velayat-e)(Hokumat-e Islami : Velayat-e faqih (book by Khomeini))* (guardianship of the jurist) as government, that Muslims—in fact everyone—required "guardianship," in the form of rule or supervision by the leading Islamic jurist or jurists.Dabashi, *Theology of Discontent* (1993), pp. 419, 443 Such rule was ultimately "more necessary even than prayer and fasting" in Islam, as it would protect Islam from deviation from traditional *[sharia](sharia)* law and in so doing eliminate poverty, injustice, and the "[plundering](Looting)" of Muslim land by foreign non-believers.
This idea of rule by Islamic jurists was spread through his book *[Government](Islamic)(Hokumat-e Islami : Velayat-e faqih (book by Khomeini))*, mosque sermons, and smuggled cassette speeches by Khomeini Radiolab|date=November 12, 2021|url=https://www.wnycstudios.org/podcasts/radiolab/articles/mixtape-cassetternet|access-date=2021-12-24|website=WNYC Studios|archive-date=12 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112152233/https://www.wnycstudios.org/podcasts/radiolab/articles/mixtape-cassetternet|url-status=live}} among his opposition network of students (*talabeh*), ex-students (able clerics such as [Motahhari](Morteza)(Morteza Motahhari), [Beheshti](Mohammad)(Mohammad Beheshti), [Bahonar](Mohammad-Javad)(Mohammad-Javad Bahonar), [Hashemi Rafsanjani](Akbar)(Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani), and [Mofatteh](Mohammad)(Mohammad Mofatteh)), and traditional businessmen (*[bazaari](bazaari)*) inside Iran.
#### Opposition groups and organizations
[[File:Enghlab Iran.jpg|thumb|Two armed militants outside the [of the United States, Tehran](Embassy)(Embassy of the United States, Tehran), where diplomats are held hostage. Behind them is a banner written: *Long live anti-imperialism and democratic forces*. Photograph by [Abbas](Abbas (photographer)), dated 1979, from the *Iran Diary* series.]]
Other opposition groups included [constitutionalist](constitutionalist) liberals—the democratic, reformist Islamic [Movement of Iran](Freedom)(Freedom Movement of Iran), headed by [Bazargan](Mehdi)(Mehdi Bazargan), and the more secular [Front](National)(National Front of Iran). They were based in the urban middle class, and wanted the Shah to adhere to the [Constitution of 1906](Iranian)(Iranian Constitution of 1906) rather than to replace him with a theocracy, but lacked the cohesion and organization of Khomeini's forces.
[Communist](Communism) groups—primarily the [Party of Iran](Tudeh)(Tudeh Party of Iran) and the [guerrillas](Fedaian)(Organization of Iranian People's Fedaian (Majority))|group=Note}}—had been weakened considerably by government repression. Despite this the guerrillas did help play an important part in the final February 1979 overthrow delivering "the regime its [de grace](coup)(Coup de grâce)." The most powerful guerrilla group—the [Mujahedin](People's)(People's Mujahedin of Iran)—was leftist Islamist and opposed the influence of the clergy as reactionary.
Some important clergy did not follow Khomeini's lead. Popular ayatollah [Taleghani](Mahmoud)(Mahmoud Taleghani) supported the left, while perhaps the most senior and influential ayatollah in Iran—[Kazem Shariatmadari](Mohammad)(Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari)—first remained aloof from politics and then came out in support of a democratic revolution.
Khomeini worked to unite this opposition behind him (except for the unwanted '[atheistic](Atheism) [Marxists](Marxism)'), focusing on the [socio-economic](Socioeconomics) problems of the Shah's government (corruption and unequal income and development), while avoiding specifics among the public that might divide the factions—particularly his plan for [rule](clerical)(Hokumat-e Islami : Velayat-e faqih (book by Khomeini)), which he believed most Iranians had become prejudiced against as a result of propaganda campaign by Western [imperialist](imperialist)s.
In the post-Shah era, some revolutionaries who clashed with his theocracy and were suppressed by his movement complained of deception, but in the meantime anti-Shah unity was maintained.
### 1970–1977
Several events in the 1970s set the stage for the 1979 revolution.
The 1971 [celebration of the Persian Empire](2,500-year)(2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire) at [Persepolis](Persepolis), organized by the government, was attacked for its extravagance. "As the foreigners reveled on drink forbidden by Islam, Iranians were not only excluded from the festivities, some were starving." Five years later, the Shah angered [pious](Piety) Iranian Muslims by changing the first year of the Iranian solar calendar from the Islamic *[hijri](Hijri year)* to the ascension to the throne by [the Great](Cyrus)(Cyrus the Great). "Iran jumped overnight from the Muslim year 1355 to the royalist year 2535."
[[File:The Shah with Atherton, Sullivan, Vance, Carter and Brzezinski, 1977.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|The Shah of Iran (left) meeting with members of the U.S. government: [Atherton](Alfred)(Alfred Atherton), [Sullivan](William)(William H. Sullivan), [Vance](Cyrus)(Cyrus Vance), [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter), and [Brzezinski](Zbigniew)(Zbigniew Brzezinski), 1977]]
The [boom of the 1970s](oil)(1973 oil crisis) produced an "alarming" increase in inflation, waste and an "accelerating gap" between the rich and poor, the city and the country, along with the presence of tens of thousands of unpopular skilled foreign workers. Many Iranians were also angered by the fact that the Shah's family was the foremost beneficiary of the income generated by oil, and the line between state earnings and family earnings blurred. By 1976, the Shah had accumulated upward of $1 billion from oil revenue; his family – including 63 princes and princesses had accumulated between $5 and $20 billion; and the family foundation controlled approximately $3 billion. By mid-1977 economic austerity measures to fight inflation disproportionately affected the thousands of poor and unskilled male migrants settling in the cities working in the construction industry. Culturally and religiously conservative, many went on to form the core of the revolution's demonstrators and "martyrs".
All Iranians were required to join and pay dues to a new political party, the *[Rastakhiz](Ḥezb-e)(Ḥezb-e Rastakhiz)* party—all other parties were banned. That party's attempt to fight inflation with populist "anti-[profiteering](Profiteering (business))" campaigns—fining and jailing merchants for high prices – angered and politicized merchants while fueling [market](black)(black market)s.
In 1977 the Shah responded to the "polite reminder" of the importance of political rights by the new American president, [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter), by granting amnesty to some prisoners and allowing the [Cross](Red)(International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement) to visit prisons. Through 1977 liberal opposition formed organizations and issued open letters denouncing the government. Against this background a first crucial manifestation of public expression of social discontent and political protest against the regime took place in October 1977, when the German-Iranian Cultural Association in Tehran hosted a series of literature reading sessions, organized by the newly revived Iranian Writers Association and the German [Goethe-Institut](Goethe-Institut)e. In these "Ten Nights" (Dah Shab) 57 of Iran's most prominent poets and writers read their works to thousands of listeners. They demanded the end of censorship and claimed the freedom of expression.Gölz, Olmo. ["Dah Šab – Zehn Literaturabende in Teheran 1977: Der Kampf um das Monopol literarischer Legitimität."](https://www.academia.edu/12363318) Die Welt des Islams 55, Nr. 1 (2015): 83–111.
Also in 1977, the popular and influential modernist Islamist theorist [Shariati](Ali)(Ali Shariati) died under mysterious circumstances. This both angered his followers, who considered him a martyr at the hands of [SAVAK](SAVAK), and removed a potential revolutionary rival to Khomeini. Finally, in October Khomeini's son Mostafa died of an alleged heart attack, and his death was also blamed on SAVAK. A subsequent memorial service for Mostafa in Tehran put Khomeini back in the spotlight.
#### Outbreak
By 1977, the Shah's policy of political [liberalization](liberalization) was underway. Secular opponents of the Shah began to meet in secret to denounce the government. Led by the leftist intellectual [Soltanpour](Saeed)(Saeed Soltanpour), the Iranian Writers Association met at the [Institute](Goethe)(Goethe-Institut) in Tehran to read anti-government poetry. [Shariati](Ali)(Ali Shariati)'s death in the United Kingdom shortly after led to another public demonstration, with the opposition accusing the Shah of murdering him.
The chain of events began with the death of [Khomeini](Mostafa)(Mostafa Khomeini), chief aide and eldest son of [Khomeini](Ruhollah)(Ruhollah Khomeini). He mysteriously died at midnight on 23 October 1977 in [Iraq](Najaf,)(Najaf, Iraq). [SAVAK](SAVAK) and the [government](Iraqi)(Federal government of Iraq) declared heart attack as the cause of death, though many believed his death was attributed to SAVAK. Khomeini remained silent after the incident, while in Iran with the spread of the news came a wave of protest and mourning ceremonies in several cities. The mourning of Mostafa was given a political cast by Khomeini's political credentials, their enduring opposition to the monarchy and their exile. This dimension of the ceremonies went beyond the religious credentials of the family.
## Approaching revolution (1978)
### Beginning of protests (January)
On 7 January 1978, an article titled "[and Red and Black Colonization](Iran)(Iran and Red and Black Colonization)" appeared in the national daily ''[Ettela'at](Ettela'at)'' newspaper. Written under a [pseudonym](pseudonym) by a government agent, it denounced Khomeini as a "British agent" and a "mad Indian poet" conspiring to sell out Iran to [neo-colonialists](Neocolonialism) and [communists](Communism).
The developments initiated by seminaries closing on 7 January 1978 were followed by the bazaar and seminary closing, and students rallied towards the homes of the religious leaders on the next day. On 9 January 1978, seminary students and other people demonstrated in the city, which was cracked down by the [Shah](Mohammad Reza Pahlavi)'s security forces who shot live ammunition to disperse the crowd when the peaceful demonstration turned violent. Between 5–300 of the demonstrators were reportedly killed in the protest. 9 January 1978 (19 Dey) is regarded as a bloody day in Qom.
### Consolidation of the opposition (February–March)
According to [Shia](Shia Islam) customs, memorial services (*chehelom*) are held 40 days after a person's death. Encouraged by Khomeini (who declared that the blood of [martyr](martyr)s must water the "tree of Islam"), radicals pressured the mosques and moderate clergy to commemorate the deaths of the students, and used the occasion to generate protests. The informal network of mosques and bazaars, which for years had been used to carry out religious events, increasingly became consolidated as a coordinated protest organization.
On 18 February, 40 days after the Qom protests, demonstrations broke out in various different cities.}} The [was](largest)(1978 Tabriz protests) in [Tabriz](Tabriz), which descended into a full-scale [riot](riot). "[Western](Western world)" and government symbols such as [cinemas](Movie theater), [bars](Bar (establishment)), [banks](state-owned)(National bank), and [station](police)(police station)s were set ablaze. Units of the [Iranian Army](Imperial)(Imperial Iranian Army) were deployed to the city to restore order. The death toll, according to the government was 6, while Khomeini claimed hundreds were "martyred."
Forty days later, on 29 March, demonstrations were organized in at least 55 cities, including [Tehran](Tehran). In an increasingly predictable pattern, deadly riots broke out in major cities, and again 40 days later, on 10 May. It led to an incident in which army [commando](commando)s opened fire on [Shariatmadari](Ayatollah)(Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari)'s house, killing one of his students. Shariatmadari immediately made a public announcement declaring his support for a "constitutional government," and a return to the policies of the [Constitution](1906)(Iran Constitution of 1906).
### Government reaction
[[File:RastakhizPartyDemoAgainstTerrorTabrizFarvardin2537.jpg|thumb|Pro-Shah demonstration organized by the [Party](Resurgence)(Resurgence Party) in [Tabriz](Tabriz), April 1978]]
The Shah was taken completely by surprise by the protests and, to make matters worse, he often became indecisive during times of crisis; virtually every major decision he would make backfired on his government and further inflamed the revolutionaries.
The Shah decided to continue on his plan of [liberalization](liberalization) and to negotiate rather than to use force against the still-nascent protest movement: he promised that fully [election](democratic)(democratic election)s for the [Majlis](Majlis) would be held in 1979; [censorship](censorship) was relaxed; a resolution was drafted to help reduce corruption within the royal family and the government; and protesters were tried in civilian courts rather than by military [court-martial](court-martial)s and were quickly released.}}
Iran's security forces had not received any [riot-control](riot control) training nor equipment since 1963. As result, police forces were unable to control demonstrations, thus the army was frequently deployed. Soldiers were instructed not to use [force](deadly)(deadly force), yet there were instances of inexperienced soldiers reacting excessively, inflaming the violence without [cowing](Intimidation) the opposition, and receiving official condemnation from the Shah. The [administration](Carter)(Presidency of Jimmy Carter) in the US also refused to sell [non-lethal](Non-lethal weapon) [gas](tear)(tear gas) and [bullets](rubber)(rubber bullets) to Iran.
As early as the February riots in [Tabriz](Tabriz), the Shah fired all [SAVAK](SAVAK) officials in the city as a [concession](Concession (politics)) to the opposition, and soon began to dismiss [servants](civil)(Civil service) and government officials whom he felt the public blamed. In the first national concession, he replaced the hardline SAVAK chief General [Nassiri](Nematollah)(Nematollah Nassiri) with the more moderate General [Moghaddam](Nasser)(Nasser Moghaddam). The government also negotiated with moderate religious leaders such as [Shariatmadari](Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari), apologizing to him for the raid on his house.
#### Early summer (June)
By summer, the protests had stagnated, remaining at a steady rate for four months, with about 10,000 participants in each major city—with the exception of [Isfahan](Isfahan), where protests were larger, and [Tehran](Tehran), where they were smaller—protesting every 40 days. This amounted to a small minority of the more than 15 million adults in Iran.
Against the wishes of Khomeini, Shariatmadari called for 17 June [mourning](mourning) protests to be carried out as a one-day stay. Although tensions remained in the [milieu](Social environment), the Shah's policy appeared to have worked, leading Amuzegar to declare that "the crisis is over." A [CIA](CIA) analysis in August concluded that Iran "is not in a revolutionary or even a pre-revolutionary situation."[Jimmy](Carter,)(Jimmy Carter). 1982. [the Faith: Memoirs of a President*](*Keeping)(iarchive:keepingfaithmemo00cart). [Books](Bantam)(Bantam Books). . p. 438. These and later events in Iran are frequently cited as one of the most consequential strategic surprises that the United States has experienced since the CIA was established in 1947.Jones, Milo L., and Philippe Silberzahn. 2013. *Constructing Cassandra, Reframing Intelligence Failure at the CIA, 1947–2001*. Stanford: [University Press](Stanford)(Stanford University Press). . pp. 80–101.
As a sign of easing of government restrictions, three prominent opposition leaders from the secular [Front](National)(National Front (Iran))—[Sanjabi](Karim)(Karim Sanjabi), [Bakhtiar](Shahpour)(Shahpour Bakhtiar), and [Forouhar](Dariush)(Dariush Forouhar)—were allowed to pen an [letter](open)(open letter) to the Shah demanding that he reign according to the [of Iran](constitution)(constitution of Iran).
### Renewed protests (August–September)
#### Appointment of Jafar Sharif-Emami as prime minister (11 August)
By August, the protests had "kick[ed]…into high gear," and the number of demonstrators mushroomed to hundreds of thousands. In an attempt to dampen inflation, the [Amuzegar](Jamshid Amouzegar) administration cut spending and reduced business. However, the cutbacks led to a sharp rise in layoffs—particularly among young, unskilled, male workers living in the working-class districts. By summer 1978, the working class joined the street protests in massive numbers. In addition, it was the Islamic holy month of [Ramadan](Ramadan), bringing a sense of increased religiosity among many people.
A series of escalating protests broke out in major cities, and deadly riots broke out in [Isfahan](Isfahan) where protesters fought for the release of [Jalaluddin Taheri](Ayatollah)(Ayatollah Jalaluddin Taheri). [law](Martial)(Martial law) was declared in the city on 11 August as symbols of [culture](Western)(Western culture) and government buildings were burned, and a bus full of American workers was bombed. Due to his failure to stop the protests, Prime Minister Amuzegar offered his resignation.
The Shah increasingly felt that he was losing control of the situation and hoped to regain it through complete [appeasement](appeasement). He decided to appoint [Sharif-Emami](Jafar)(Jafar Sharif-Emami) to the post of prime minister, himself a veteran prime minister. Emami was chosen due to his family ties to the clergy, although he had a reputation of corruption during his previous premiership.
Under the Shah's guidance, Sharif-Emami effectively began a policy of "appeasing the opposition's demands before they even made them." The government abolished the [Party](Rastakhiz)(Rastakhiz Party), legalized all political parties and released political prisoners, increased freedom of expression, curtailed SAVAK's authority and dismissed 34 of its commanders, closed down casinos and nightclubs, and abolished the imperial calendar. The government also began to prosecute corrupt government and royal family members. Sharif-Emami entered into negotiations with Ayatollah Shariatmadari and National Front leader [Sanjabi](Karim)(Karim Sanjabi) in order to help organize future elections. Censorship was effectively terminated, and the newspapers began reporting heavily on demonstrations, often highly critically and negatively of the Shah. The [Majlis](Majlis) (Parliament) also began issuing resolutions against the government.
#### Cinema Rex fire (19 August)
On 19 August, in the southwestern city of [Abadan](Abadan), four [arson](arson)ists barred the door of the **Cinema Rex** movie theatre and set it on fire. In what would be the [terrorist attack](largest)(List of terrorist incidents) in history prior to the [11 attacks](September)(September 11 attacks) in the US in 2001, 422 people inside the theatre were [to death](burned)(Death by burning). Khomeini immediately blamed the Shah and [SAVAK](SAVAK) for setting the fire, and, due to the pervasive revolutionary atmosphere, the public also blamed the Shah for starting the fire, despite the government's insistence that they were uninvolved. Tens of thousands of people took to the streets shouting "Burn the Shah!" and "The Shah is the guilty one!"}}
After the revolution, many claimed that [militants](Islamist)(Islamic terrorism) had started the fire.Afkhami, R. Gholam. 2009. *The life and times of the Shah*. [of California Press](University)(University of California Press). . pp. 459, 465.Ansari, M. Ali. 2007. *Modern Iran: the Pahlavis and After*. [Education](Pearson)(Pearson Education). . p. 259.[Research Division](Federal)(Federal Research Division). 2004. *Iran A Country Study*. [Publishing](Kessinger)(Kessinger Publishing). . p. 78.Bahl, Taru, and M. H. Syed. 2003. *Encyclopaedia of the Muslim World*. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. . p. 105.Curtis, Glenn Eldon, and [of Congress](Library)(Library of Congress). 2008. *Iran: a Country Study*. [Printing Office](Government)(United States Government Publishing Office). . p. 48. After the [Republic](Islamic)(Islamic republic) government executed a police officer for the act, a man claiming to be the lone surviving arsonist claimed he was responsible for starting the fire. After forcing the resignation of the presiding judges in an attempt to hamper the investigation, the new government finally executed Hossein Talakhzadeh for "setting the fire on the Shah's orders," despite his insistence that he did it on his own accord as an ultimate sacrifice for the revolutionary cause.
#### Declaration of martial law and the Jaleh Square Massacre (8 September)
[[Government (17 Shahrivar).jpg|thumb|Demonstration of 8 September 1978. The placard reads: *We want an Islamic government, led by Imam Khomeini*.](File:Islamic)]
[[(17 Shahrivar).jpg|thumb|Demonstration of "Black Friday" (8 September 1978)](File:Demonstration)]
The 4th of September marked [al-Fitr](Eid)(Eid al-Fitr), the holiday celebrating the end of the month of [Ramadan](Ramadan). A permit for an [open-air](Open-air preaching) prayer was granted, in which 200,000–500,000 people attended. Instead, the clergy directed the crowd on a large march through the center of Tehran, whilst the Shah reportedly watched the march from his helicopter, unnerved, and confused. A few days later, even larger protests took place, and, for the first time, protesters called for [return](Khomeini's)(Khomeini's return) and the establishment of an [republic](Islamic)(Islamic republic).
At midnight on 8 September, the Shah declared [law](martial)(martial law) in Tehran and 11 other major cities throughout the country. All street demonstrations were banned, and a night-time [curfew](curfew) was established. Tehran's martial law commander was [Gholam-Ali Oveissi](General)(Gholam Ali Oveissi), who was known for his severity against opponents. However, the Shah made clear that once martial law was lifted, he intended to continue with the liberalization. He retained Sharif-Emami's civilian government, hoping that protesters would avoid taking the streets.
However, 5,000 protesters took to the streets, either in defiance or because they had missed hearing the declaration, and faced off with soldiers at Jaleh Square. After the firing of [shot](warning)(warning shot)s failed to disperse the crowd, troops fired directly into the mob, killing 64, while General Oveissi claimed that 30 soldiers were killed by armed snipers in surrounding buildings. Additional clashes throughout the day, which would be called **Black Friday** by the opposition, brought the opposition death toll to 89.
##### Reactions to Black Friday
[[File:Dead Revolutionaries (17 Shahrivar).jpg|thumb|Victims of [Friday](Black)(Black Friday (1978))]]
The deaths shocked the country and damaged any attempt at reconciliation between the Shah and the opposition. Khomeini immediately declared that "4,000 innocent protesters were massacred by [Zionists](Zionism)," which gave him a pretext to reject any further compromise with the government.
The Shah himself was horrified by the events of Black Friday, and harshly criticized the events, though this did little to sway public perception of him as being responsible for the shooting. While martial law officially remained in effect, the government decided not to break up any more demonstrations or strikes (in effect, "martial law without there exactly being martial law," according to Sharif-Emami), instead continuing to negotiate with protest leaders. Consequently, protest gatherings often took place without any serious intervention by soldiers.
### Nationwide strikes (September–November)
On 9 September, 700 workers at Tehran's main [refinery](oil)(oil refinery) went on strike, and on 11 September, the same occurred at refineries in five other cities. On 13 September, central government workers in Tehran simultaneously went on strike.
By late October, a nationwide [strike](general)(general strike) was declared, with workers in virtually all major industries walking off their jobs, most damagingly in the oil industry and the print media. Special "strike committees" were set up throughout major industries to organize and coordinate the activities.
The Shah did not attempt to crack down on strikers, but instead gave them generous wage increases, and allowed strikers who lived in government housing to remain in their homes. By the beginning of November, many important officials in the Shah's government were demanding from the Shah forceful measures to bring the strikers back to work.
### Khomeini moves to France (November)
Hoping to break Khomeini's contacts with the opposition, the Shah pressured the [government](Iraqi)(Federal government of Iraq) to expel him from [Najaf](Najaf). Khomeini left [Iraq](Iraq), instead moving to a house bought by Iranian exiles in [Neauphle-le-Château](Neauphle-le-Château), a village near [France](Paris,)(Paris). The Shah hoped that Khomeini would be cut off from the mosques of Najaf and be cut off from the protest movement. Instead, the plan backfired badly. With superior French telephone and postal connections (compared to Iraqi ones), Khomeini's supporters flooded Iran with tapes and recordings of his sermons.
[[in Paris.jpg|thumb|Ayatollah Khomeini in Neauphle-le-Château surrounded by journalists](File:Imam)]
Worse for the Shah was that the [media](Western)(Western media), especially the [Broadcasting Corporation](British)(British Broadcasting Corporation) (BBC), immediately put Khomeini into the spotlight. Khomeini rapidly became a household name in the West, portraying himself as an "Eastern mystic" who did not seek power, but instead sought to "free" his people from "[oppression](oppression)." Many western media outlets, usually critical of such claims, became one of Khomeini's most powerful tools.
In addition, the media coverage eroded the influence of other, more moderate clergy such as [Shariatmadari](Ayatollah)(Ayatollah Shariatmadari) and [Taleghani](Ayatollah)(Ayatollah Taleghani). The BBC itself later issued a statement admitting to having a "critical" disposition to the Shah, saying that its broadcasts helped to "change the collective perception of the population."
In November, secular [Front](National)(National Front (Iran)) leader [Sanjabi](Karim)(Karim Sanjabi) flew to Paris to meet Khomeini. There the two signed an agreement for a draft constitution that would be "Islamic and democratic". It signaled the now official alliance between the clergy and the secular opposition. In order to help create a democratic façade, Khomeini placed [Westernized](Westernization) figures (such as [Ghotbzadeh](Sadegh)(Sadegh Ghotbzadeh) and [Yazdi](Ebrahim)(Ebrahim Yazdi)) as the public spokesmen of the opposition, and never spoke to the media of his intentions to create a [theocracy](theocracy).
### University of Tehran protest (5 November)
Street demonstrations continued at full force with little response from the military; by late October, government officials effectively even ceded the [of Tehran](University)(University of Tehran) to student protesters. Worse, the opposition was increasingly becoming armed with weapons, firing at soldiers and attacking banks and government buildings in an attempt to destabilize the country.
On 5 November, demonstrations at University of Tehran became deadly after a fight broke out with armed soldiers. Within hours, [Tehran](Tehran) broke out into a full-scale riot. Block after block of Western symbols such as movie theaters and department stores, as well as government and police buildings, were seized, looted, and burned. The [embassy in Tehran](British)(Embassy of the United Kingdom, Tehran) was partially burned and vandalized as well, and the [embassy](American)(Embassy of the United States, Tehran) nearly suffered the same fate. The event became known to foreign observers as "The Day Tehran Burned."
Many of the rioters were young teenage boys, often organized by the mosques in southern Tehran, and encouraged by their [mullah](mullah)s to attack and destroy western and secular symbols. The army and police, confused about their orders and under pressure from the Shah not to risk initiating violence, effectively gave up and did not intervene.
### Appointment of a military government (6 November)
As the situation on the streets spiraled out of control, many well known and reputable figures within the country began to approach the Shah, begging him to stop the chaos.
On 6 November, the Shah dismissed Sharif-Emami from the post of prime minister, and chose to appoint a military government in its place. The Shah chose General [Azhari](Gholam-Reza)(Gholam-Reza Azhari) to be prime minister because of his mild-mannered approach to the situation. The cabinet he would choose was a military cabinet in name only and consisted primarily of civilian leaders.
The same day, the Shah made a speech on Iranian television. He referred to himself as [*Padeshah*](Padishah) ('Master King'), instead of the more grandiose [Shahanshah](Shahanshah) (king of kings), which he insisted on being called previously. In his speech he stated "I have heard the voice of your revolution...this revolution cannot but be supported by me, the king of Iran". He apologized for mistakes that were committed during his reign, and promised to ensure that corruption would no longer exist. He stated he would begin to work with the opposition to bring democracy, and would form a coalition government. In effect, the Shah intended to restrain the military government (which he described as a temporary caretaker government) from carrying out a full crackdown.
The speech backfired when the revolutionaries sensed weakness from the Shah and "smelled blood". Khomeini announced that there would be no reconciliation with the Shah and called on all Iranians to overthrow him.
Military authorities declared martial law in [Khuzestan](Khuzestan) province (Iran's main oil producing province) and deployed troops to its oil facilities. Navy personnel were also used as [strikebreakers](strikebreakers) in the oil industry. Street marches declined and oil production began increasing once again, nearly reaching pre-revolutionary levels. In a symbolic blow to the opposition, [Sanjabi](Karim)(Karim Sanjabi), who had visited Khomeini in Paris, was arrested upon his return to Iran.
However, the government still continued the policy of [appeasement](appeasement) and negotiation. The Shah ordered the arrest of 100 officials from his own government for charges of corruption, including former prime minister [Abbas-Hoveyda](Amir)(Amir Abbas Hoveida) and former SAVAK head [Nassiri](Nematollah)(Nematollah Nassiri).
### Muharram protests (early December)
[[File:Tehran Ashura Demonstration, 11 December 1978 (04).jpg|thumb|[Beheshti](Mohammad)(Mohammad Beheshti) in the Tehran Ashura demonstration, 11 December 1978]]
[[of the marching of the people during the Iranian Revolution 1979.webm|thumb|People marching during the Iranian Revolution, 1979](File:Part)]
Khomeini condemned the military government and called for continued protests. He and the protest organizers planned a series of escalating protests during the holy Islamic month of [Muharram](Muharram), to culminate with massive protests on the days of [Tasu'a](Tasu'a) and [Ashura](Ashura), the latter commemorating the [martyrdom](Battle of Karbala) of [Hussein ibn Ali](Imam)(Hussein ibn Ali), the third Shia Muslim [imam](imam).
While the military authorities banned street demonstrations and extended the curfew, the Shah faced deep misgivings about the potential violence.
On 2 December 1978, the Muharram protests began. Named for the Islamic month they began in, the Muharram protests were impressively huge and pivotal. Over two million protesters (many of whom were teenagers proselytized by the [mullah](mullah)s from the mosques of southern Tehran) took to the streets, crowding [Square](Shahyad)(Azadi Square). Protesters frequently went out at night, defying the set curfew, often taking to rooftops and shouting "[*Allahu-akbar*](Allahu akbar)" ('God is great'). According to one witness, many of the clashes on the street had an air of playfulness rather than seriousness, with security forces using "kid gloves" against the opposition. Nevertheless, the government reported at least 12 opposition deaths.
The protesters demanded that Shah [Reza Pahlavi](Mohammad)(Mohammad Reza Pahlavi) step down from power and that [Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini](Grand)(Ruhollah Khomeini) be returned from [exile](exile). The protests grew incredibly fast, reaching between six million and nine million in strength in the first week. About 5% of the population had taken to the streets in the Muharram protests. Both beginning and ending in the month of Muharram, the protests succeeded, and the Shah stepped down from power later that month.
After the success of what would become known as a [revolution](revolution), Ayatollah [returned to Iran](Khomeini)(Khomeini returned to Iran) as its religious and political leader for life. Khomeini had been an opposition leader to Shah for many years, rising to prominence after the death of his mentor, renowned scholar [Ha'iri](Yazdi)(Yazdi Ha'iri), in the 1930s. Even in his years in exile, Khomeini remained relevant in Iran. Supporting the protests from beyond Iran's borders, he proclaimed that "freedom and liberation from the bonds of imperialism" was imminent.
#### Tasu'a and Ashura marches (10–11 December)
As the days of [Tasu'a](Tasu'a) and [Ashura](Ashura) (10 and 11 December) approached, in order to prevent a deadly showdown the Shah began to draw back. In negotiations with [Shariatmadari](Ayatollah)(Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari), the Shah ordered the release of 120 political prisoners and [Sanjabi](Karim)(Karim Sanjabi), and on 8 December revoked the ban on street demonstrations. Permits were issued for the marchers, and troops were removed from the procession's path. In turn, Shariatmadari pledged that to make sure that there would be no violence during the demonstrations.
On 10 and 11 December 1978, the days of Tasu'a and Ashura, between 6 and 9 million anti-Shah demonstrators marched throughout Iran. According to one historian, "even discounting for exaggeration, these figures may represent the largest protest event in history." The marches were led by Ayatollah [Taleghani](Mahmoud Taleghani) and National Front leader Karim Sanjabi, thus symbolizing the "unity" of the secular and religious opposition. The [mullah](mullah)s and [bazaari](bazaari)s effectively policed the gathering, and protesters who attempted to initiate violence were restrained.
More than 10% of the country marched in anti-Shah demonstrations on the two days, possibly a higher percentage than any previous revolution. It is rare for a revolution to involve as much as 1 percent of a country's population; the French, Russian, and Romanian revolutions may have passed the 1 percent mark.
[[File:The shah is gone.jpg|thumb|*The Shah is Gone* — headline of Iranian newspaper ''[Ettela'at](Ettela'at)'', 16 January 1979, when the last monarch of Iran left the country]]
## Revolution (late 1978–1979)
Much of Iranian society was in [euphoria](euphoria) about the coming revolution. Secular and leftist politicians piled onto the movement hoping to gain power in the aftermath, ignoring the fact that Khomeini was the very antithesis to all of the positions they supported. While it was increasingly clear to more secular Iranians that Khomeini was not a liberal, he was widely perceived as a figurehead, and that power would eventually be handed to the secular groups.
### Demoralization of the army (December, 1978)
[[Islamic Revolution.jpg|thumb|A protester giving flowers to an army officer](File:1979)]
The military leadership was increasingly paralyzed by indecision, and rank-and-file soldiers were demoralized, having been forced to confront demonstrators while prohibited from using their own weapons (and being condemned by the Shah if they did). Increasingly, Khomeini called on the soldiers of the armed forces to defect to the opposition.}} Revolutionaries gave flowers and civilian clothes to deserters, while threatening retribution to those who stayed.
On 11 December, a dozen officers were shot dead by their own troops at Tehran's [Lavizan](Lavizan) barracks. Fearing further [mutinies](Mutiny), many soldiers were returned to their barracks. [Mashhad](Mashhad) (the second largest city in Iran) was abandoned to the protesters, and in many provincial towns demonstrators were effectively in control.
### American and internal negotiations with the opposition (late December, 1978)
The [administration](Carter)(Presidency of Jimmy Carter) increasingly became locked in a debate about continued support for the monarchy. As early as November, ambassador William Sullivan sent a telegram to Carter (the "[the Unthinkable](Thinking)(Thinking the Unthinkable)" telegram). The telegram effectively declared his belief that the Shah would not survive the protests and that the US should consider withdrawing its support for his government and persuading the monarch to abdicate. The United States would then help assemble a coalition of pro-Western military officers, middle class professionals, and moderate clergy, with Khomeini installed as a [Gandhi](Mahatma Gandhi)-like spiritual leader.
The telegram touched off a vigorous debate in the American cabinet, with some, such as National Security Advisor [Brzezinski](Zbigniew)(Zbigniew Brzezinski), rejecting it outright. Secretary of State [Vance](Cyrus)(Cyrus Vance) rejected a military crackdown; he and his supporters believed in the "moderate and progressive" intentions of Khomeini and his circle.
Increasing contact was established with the pro-Khomeini camp. Based on the revolutionaries' responses, some American officials (especially Ambassador Sullivan) felt that Khomeini was genuinely intent on creating a democracy. According to historian [Milani](Abbas)(Abbas Milani), this resulted in the United States effectively helping to facilitate Khomeini's rise to power.
The Shah began to search for a new prime minister, one who was a civilian and a member of the opposition. On 28 December, he secured an agreement with another major National Front figure, [Bakhtiar](Shahpour)(Shapour Bakhtiar). Bakhtiar would be appointed prime minister (a return to civilian rule), while the Shah and his family would leave the country. His royal duties would be carried out by a Regency Council, and three months after his departure a referendum would be submitted to the people deciding on whether Iran would remain a monarchy or become a republic. A former opponent of the Shah, Bakhtiar became motivated to join the government because he was increasingly aware of Khomeini's intentions to implement hard-line religious rule rather than a democracy. Karim Sanjabi immediately expelled Bakhtiar from the National Front, and Bakhtiar was denounced by Khomeini (who declared that acceptance of his government was the equivalent of "obedience to false gods").
### The Shah leaves (16 January 1979)
[[File:Shah's exit from Iran 01.jpg|thumb|Shah and his wife, [Shahbanu](Shahbanu) [Farah](Farah Pahlavi), leaving Iran on 16 January 1979]]
[[File:Bakhtiar and mosaddegh cartoon.jpg|thumb|Cartoon depicting [Bakhtiar](Shapour)(Shapour Bakhtiar) and [Mosaddegh](Mosaddegh) on 22 January 1978 issue of ''[Ettela'at](Ettela'at)'', during the revolution]]
The Shah, hoping to see Bakhtiar established, kept delaying his departure. Consequently, to the Iranian public, Bakhtiar was seen as the Shah's last prime minister, undermining his support.
American General [Huyser](Robert)(Robert Huyser), the Deputy Commander of [NATO](NATO), entered Iran. While the option of a pro-Shah military coup still was a possibility, Huyser met with military leaders (but not the Shah) and established meetings between them and Khomeini allies for the purpose of agreeing on Bakhtiar's transitional government. Ambassador Sullivan disagreed, and attempted to pressure Huyser to ignore the military and work directly with Khomeini's opposition. Nevertheless, Huyser won out and continued to work with both the military and opposition. He left Iran on 3 February. The Shah was privately embittered by Huyser's mission, and felt that the United States no longer wanted him in power.
On the morning of 16 January 1979, Bakhtiar was officially appointed prime minister. The same day, a tearful Shah and his family left Iran for exile in [Egypt](Egypt), never to return.
### Bakhtiar's premiership and Khomeini's return (January–February, 1979)
When news of the Shah's departure was announced, there were spontaneous scenes of joy throughout the country. Millions poured onto the streets, and virtually every remaining sign of the monarchy was torn down by the crowds. Bakhtiar dissolved SAVAK and freed all remaining political prisoners. He ordered the army to allow mass demonstrations, promised free elections and invited the revolutionaries into a government of "national unity".["Demonstrations allowed"](http://tvnews.vanderbilt.edu/program.pl?ID=56102) , ABC Evening News for Monday, 15 January 1979.
[[on The path of welcoming Imam Khomeini .webm|thumb|left|Video of people welcoming Ayatollah Khomeini in the streets of Tehran after his return from exile](File:People)]
Bakhtiar invited Khomeini back to Iran, with the intention of creating a [Vatican](Vatican City)-like state in the holy city of [Qom](Qom), declaring that "We will soon have the honor of welcoming home the Ayatollah Khomeini". On 1 February 1979 Khomeini returned to Tehran in a chartered Air France [747](Boeing)(Boeing 747). The welcoming crowd of several million Iranians was so large he was forced to take a helicopter after the car taking him from the airport was overwhelmed by an enthusiastic welcoming crowd.
Khomeini was now not only the undisputed leader of the revolution, he had become what some called a "semi-divine" figure, greeted as he descended from his airplane with cries of 'Khomeini, O Imam, we salute you, peace be upon you.' Crowds were now known to chant "Islam, Islam, Khomeini, We Will Follow You," and even "Khomeini for King."[What Are the Iranians Dreaming About?](http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/007863.html) by Michel Foucault, Chicago: University Press. When asked by a reporter how he felt returning to his home country after a long exile, Khomeini replied "Nothing".
On the day of his arrival Khomeini made clear his rejection of Bakhtiar's government in a speech promising, "I shall kick their teeth in. I appoint the government, I appoint the government in support of this nation". On 5 February at his headquarters in the [School](Refah)(Refah School (Tehran, Iran)) in southern Tehran, he declared a provisional revolutionary government, appointed opposition leader [Bazargan](Mehdi)(Mehdi Bazargan) (from the religious-nationalist [Movement](Freedom)(Freedom Movement of Iran), affiliated with the National Front) as his own prime minister, and commanded Iranians to obey Bazargan as a religious duty.
[[File:BazarganMehdi.jpg|thumb|upright|Iranian prime minister [Bazargan](Mehdi)(Mehdi Bazargan) was an advocate of democracy and civil rights. He also opposed the [revolution](cultural)(Iran's cultural revolution) and US embassy takeover.]]
[چرا و چگونه بازرگان به نخست وزیری رسید؟](http://www.irdc.ir/article.asp?id=822) The commandment of Ayatollah Khomeini for Bazargan and his sermon on 5 February.}}
Angered, Bakhtiar made a speech of his own. Reaffirming himself as the legitimate leader, he declared that:
### Armed battles and collapse of the monarchy (February, 1979)
Tensions between the two rival governments increased rapidly. To demonstrate his support, Khomeini called for demonstrators to occupy the streets throughout the country. He also sent a letter to American officials warning them to withdraw support for Bakhtiar. Bakhtiar became increasingly isolated, with members of the government (including the entire [Council](Regency)(Regency Council (Iran))) defecting to Khomeini. The military was crumbling, with its leadership completely paralyzed, unsure of whether to support Bakhtiar or act on their own, and rank-and-file soldiers either demoralized or deserting.
On 9 February, a rebellion of pro-Khomeini air force technicians broke out at the [Tappeh Air Base](Doshan)(Doshan Tappeh Air Base). A unit of the pro-Shah [Guards](Immortal)(Imperial Guard (Iran)) attempted to apprehend the rebels, and an armed battle broke out. Soon large crowds took to the streets, building barricades and supporting the rebels, while Islamic-Marxist guerillas with their weapons joined in support.
[[مسلح انقلابی.JPG|thumb|Iranian armed rebels during the revolution](File:مردم)]
The armed rebels attacked a weapons factory, capturing nearly 50,000 machine guns and distributing them to civilians who joined in the fighting. The rebels began storming police stations and military bases throughout Tehran. The city's martial law commander General [Rahimi](Mehdi)(Mehdi Rahimi) decided not to use his 30,000 loyal Immortal Guards to crush the rebellion for fear of producing civilian casualties.
The final collapse of the provisional non-Islamist government came at 2 pm on 11 February when the Supreme Military Council declared itself "neutral in the current political disputes... in order to prevent further disorder and bloodshed." All military personnel were ordered back to their bases, effectively yielding control of the entire country to Khomeini. Revolutionaries took over government buildings, TV and radio stations, and palaces of the [dynasty](Pahlavi)(Pahlavi dynasty), marking the end of the monarchy in Iran. Bakhtiar escaped the palace under a hail of bullets, fleeing Iran in disguise. He was later assassinated by an agent of the [Republic](Islamic)(Islamic republic) in 1991 in Paris.
This period, from 1 to 11 February, is celebrated every year in Iran as the "[of Fajr](Decade)(Decade of Fajr)." 11 February is "Islamic Revolution's Victory Day", a national holiday with state sponsored demonstrations in every city.
### Casualties
Some sources (such as [Baghi](Emadeddin)(Emadeddin Baghi), a researcher at the [Foundation](Martyrs)(Bonyad#Islamic Republic)) claim 2,781 protesters and revolutionaries were killed in 1978–79 during the Revolution.["A Question of Numbers"](http://www.emadbaghi.com/en/archives/000592.php#more) IranianVoice.org, 8 August 2003 Rouzegar-Now Cyrus Kadivar Khomeini reported of a much larger number; he said that "60,000 men, women and children were martyred by the Shah's regime".E. Baqi, 'Figures for the Dead in the Revolution', *Emruz*, 30 July 2003.[A Question of Numbers](http://www.emadbaghi.com/en/archives/000592.php#more) IranianVoice.org 8 August 2003 Rouzegar-Now Cyrus Kadivar In reference to this 60,000 figure, the military historian [C. Tucker](Spencer)(Spencer C. Tucker) notes that "Khomeini's regime grossly overstated the revolution's death toll for propaganda purposes". Tucker explains that the consensus of historians regarding estimated deaths during the Iranian Revolution (from January 1978 to February 1979), numbers between 532 and 2,781. According to the historian [Abrahamian](Ervand)(Ervand Abrahamian), the number executed by revolutionary courts as the revolution was consolidated (8,000 opponents between June 1981 and June 1985)[Khalq](Mojahedin-e)(Mojahedin-e Khalq), but also "Fedayins and Kurds as well as Tudeh, National Front, and Shariatmadari supporters" exceeded those killed by the royalist government trying to stop the revolution. According to Tucker's estimations, in the period of 1980 to 1985, between 25,000 and 40,000 Iranians were arrested, 15,000 Iranians were tried and 8,000 to 9,500 Iranians were executed.
### Songs of Iranian Revolution
The songs most closely associated with the revolution are epic ballads, composed during and in support of the Islamic Revolution and in opposition to the Pahlavi dynasty. Before the revolution was consolidated, these chants were made by various political supporters, and were often recorded on cassette tapes in underground and home studios. In schools, these songs were sung by students as part of the celebrations of Fajr Decades. "Iran Iran" or "Allah Allah" chants are famous revolutionary songs.
## Women's role
[[Revolution Women.jpg|thumb|left|Iranian women protesting](File:Iranian)]
The Iranian Revolution was a gendered revolution; much of the new regime's rhetoric was centered on the position of women in Iranian society. Beyond rhetoric, thousands of women were also heavily mobilized in the revolution itself, and different groups of women actively participated alongside their male counterparts. Not only participating through voting, women contributed to the revolution through marches, demonstrations and chanting slogans. Women were involved in caring for the wounded, including doctors who responded to calls for help and opened their homes for those who needed assistance. While women themselves were often killed, tortured, arrested or injured and some were involved in guerilla activities, most contributed in non-violent ways.}} Many women were instrumental not only in being involved in the revolution themselves but in mobilizing men and other non-political women. Many women protested while carrying children and their presence was one of the main reasons for disarming soldiers (who were there on behalf of the regime) who were ordered to shoot if necessary.}}
### Khomeini's rhetoric on women's participation
[Khomeini](Ayatollah)(Ayatollah Khomeini) asserted that "You ladies here have proved that you are at the forefront of this movement. You have a great share in our Islamic movement. The future of our country depends on your support." He invoked the image of the [hijab](hijab) as a symbol of the revolution, saying that, "a nation whose respected women demonstrate in modest garb [*hejab*] to express their disgust with the Shah's regime- such a nation will be victorious." He also said that, "women from all levels of society took part in the recent demonstrations, which we are calling the 'referendum of the streets'... women fought side by side with men in the struggle for their independence and their liberty." Khomeini pleaded for women to participate in anti-Shah demonstrations in various cities. Furthermore, women later responded to Khomeini's urgings to vote in favor of the Islamic Republic and the new constitution. Women were so pivotal to the revolution that in response to a suggestion from a top aid to ban women from coming to group audience, Khomeini said "I threw the Shah out with these women, there's no problem in their coming."
After the revolution, Khomeini credited much of the success of the movement to women, even commending the women for mobilizing men, "you ladies have proved that you are in the vanguard of the movement, you have proved that you lead the men, men get their inspiration from you, the men of Iran have learnt lessons from the honourable ladies of Iran ...You are in the vanguard of the movement."
It has been argued that Khomeini and his fellow leaders danced around the issue of women's rights and rather focused their rhetoric on mobilizing women through encouraging them to participate in protests and fueling their anti-Shah sentiments.
### Variation within women's participation
The contributions of women to the revolutions and the intentions behind these contributions are complex and layered. The motivations of women for being part of the revolutions were complex and varied among a plethora of religious, political and economic reasons and women participating were from various classes and backgrounds. Many Western educated upper-middle-class women from secular, urban and professional families were involved as well as many women from working-class and rural backgrounds.}} There were groups as varied as the [Khalq](Fida'iyan-i)(Fida'iyan-i Khalq), and the [Mujahedin](People's Mujahedin of Iran) were functioning as guerrilla units during the revolutions in opposition to the Shah's regime.}} There were also other groups of women with various agendas that sometimes converged and sometimes diverged from the Islamic Republic's political positions. For example, organized feminism which was around since the Pahlavi dynasty, joined the revolutionary movement after the Shah dropped the cabinet position on Women's Affairs to appease the Islamists. Members of the [Organization of Iran](Women's)(Women's Organization of Iran) marched in support for the revolution and it was important that women very much linked to the government also turned against the Shah's regime. Yet, there was some tension later between feminists' dress and the revolution's stance on women's clothing and they began to feel uncomfortable at opposition events.
Some argue that this politicization and mobilization of women made it difficult for the new regime to push them out of the public and political spheres. The revolution resulted in an unprecedented opening for Iranian women into politics (mostly through demonstrations and voting), and some authors argue that this had a lasting impact on Iranian women's political participation and role in the public sphere. Some women were also part of the inner circle of the leaders of the new regime such as [Hadidchi](Marzieh)(Marzieh Hadidchi). Other than the politicization of women, there were particular circumstances during the revolution which pushed women into being involved with politics. For example, "the combination of martial law with its curfew hours and the closing down of shops and workplaces, together with the cold of the fall and winter months resulted in the centers of political discussion often being within the home." Women engaged with news and media as well as political discussions alongside their male counterparts as "the revolution was the only topic of interest to anyone, regardless of age or sex." During 1978 and 1979 there were many gatherings in women's homes where they exchanged interpersonal news and anecdotes. These personal accounts were valuable in a time where the official coverage of news was not trusted by many people.}}
Women who were activists, religious women and women dissatisfied with the regime were able to unite under the anti-Shah umbrella. However "women were not united in their opinions of the revolution and its outcome as much as they were not united in their reasons for joining the revolution". Despite this mobilization and high participation rate of women, they were still kept out of leadership positions which were exclusive to men; women are thought to be part of the rank and file rather than the elite strata of the revolution.
### Academic literature on women's participation
While there has been some academic literature exploring individual narratives of women on the revolution, most of the academic work produced focuses on the effect of the revolution on women rather than the role of Iranian women during the revolution. Scholar [Nashat](Guity)(Guity Nashat) highlights this neglected aspect of the revolution, "Although women's participation in the events leading to the 11 February revolution was instrumental in its success, most studies have not addressed the reasons for their involvement or their contribution." Janet Baur argues the necessity of examining the daily lives of women, their living conditions and their relationship to other groups in order to understand their participation in the socio-political events of the revolution. She further explains that the cultural, ideological, social and material factors shaping the social life and class differences in the period just prior to the revolution need to be studied in order to understand how the Iranian women's social consciousness developed and how it led them to take part in public protests.}} Caroline M. Brooks argues that women were left to express their concerns through the protest rather than in the [Majlis](Majlis of Iran). Thus, this created a "dangerous bargaining position for activist women" since rather than arguing their position through intellect they were only able to "argue by numbers in the streets and be repelled by force".
There are some contesting understandings in academic literature regarding the reasons behind the mobilization of women. While some argue that the micro-level actions of women can be understood through religious and political ideologies, others argue that it is in fact the effect of manipulations of information, symbols and context which should be studied.}}
## Aftermath
From early 1979 to either 1982 or 1983 [Iran](Iran) was in a "revolutionary crisis mode." After the system of [monarchy](despotic)(Absolute monarchy) had been overthrown, the economy and the apparatus of government had collapsed, and military and security forces were in disarray. Yet, by 1982 Khomeini and his supporters had crushed the rival factions, defeated local rebellions and consolidated power.
At the same time, events that made up both the crisis and its resolution were the [hostage crisis](Iran)(Iran hostage crisis), the [of Iran](invasion)(Iran–Iraq War) by [Hussein](Saddam)(Saddam Hussein)'s Iraq, and the presidency of [Banisadr](Abolhassan)(Abolhassan Banisadr).
### Khomeini's consolidation of power
#### Conflicts among revolutionaries
[[File:Banisadr Fallaci Khomeini.jpg|thumb|[Khomeini](Ruhollah Khomeini) told questioners that "the religious dignitaries do not want to rule".[Democracy? I meant theocracy](http://www.iranian.com/Opinion/2003/August/Khomeini/) , by Dr. Jalal Matini, translation & introduction by Farhad Mafie, 5 August 2003, *The Iranian*.]]
Some observers believe "what began as an authentic and anti-dictatorial popular revolution based on a broad coalition of all anti-Shah forces was soon transformed into an [fundamentalist](Islamic)(Islamic fundamentalism) power-grab," that except for his core supporters, the members of the coalition thought Khomeini intended to be more of a spiritual guide than a ruler. Khomeini was in his mid-70s, never held public office, been out of Iran for more than a decade, and told questioners "the religious dignitaries do not want to rule." However, nobody could deny the unanimous central role of the [Imam](Imam), and the other factions were too small to have any real impact.
Another view is Khomeini had "overwhelming ideological, political and organizational hegemony," and non-theocratic groups never seriously challenged Khomeini's movement in popular support. An impressive margin even allowing for electoral manipulation|group=Note}} Supporters of the new rule themselves have claimed that Iranians who opposed Khomeini were "[column](fifth)(fifth column)ists" led by foreign countries attempting to overthrow the Iranian government.Ansari, Hamid, ''Narrative of Awakening : A Look at Imam Khomeini's Ideal, Scientific and Political Biography from Birth to Ascension'' by Hamid Ansari, Institute for Compilation and Publication of the Works of Imam Khomeini, International Affairs Division, [publication date, preface dated 1994](no) translated by Seyed Manoochehr Moosavi, pp. 165–76
Khomeini and his loyalists in the [organizations](revolutionary)(Organizations of the Iranian Revolution) implemented Khomeini's [faqih](velayat-e)(Hokumat-e Islami : Velayat-e faqih (book by Khomeini)) design for an Islamic republic led by himself as [Leader](Supreme)(Supreme Leader) by exploiting temporary allies such as Mehdi Bazargan's [Government of Iran](Provisional)(Provisional Government of Iran), whom they later eliminated from Iran's political stage one by one.
#### Organizations of the revolution
The most important bodies of the revolution were the [Council](Revolutionary)(Council of Islamic revolution (Iran)), the [Guards](Revolutionary)(Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps), [Tribunals](Revolutionary)(Islamic Revolutionary Court), [Republican Party](Islamic)(Islamic Republican Party), and [Committees](Revolutionary)(Islamic Revolution Committees) (*komitehs*).
While the moderate Bazargan and his government (temporarily) reassured the middle class, it became apparent they did not have power over the "Khomeinist" revolutionary bodies, particularly the [Council](Revolutionary)(Council of the Islamic Revolution) (the "real power" in the revolutionary state), and later the [Republican Party](Islamic)(Islamic Republican Party). Inevitably, the overlapping authority of the [Council](Revolutionary)(Council of the Islamic Revolution) (which had the power to pass laws) and Bazargan's government was a source of conflict, despite the fact that both had been approved by and/or put in place by Khomeini.
This conflict lasted only a few months however. The provisional government fell shortly after American Embassy officials were taken [hostage](Iran hostage crisis) on 4 November 1979. Bazargan's resignation was received by Khomeini without complaint, saying "Mr. Bazargan ... was a little tired and preferred to stay on the sidelines for a while." Khomeini later described his appointment of Bazargan as a "mistake."
The [Guard](Revolutionary)(Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps), or *Pasdaran-e Enqelab*, was established by Khomeini on 5 May 1979, as a counterweight both to the armed groups of the left, and to the Shah's military. The guard eventually grew into "a full-scale" military force, becoming "the strongest institution of the revolution."
Serving under the Pasdaran were/are the ''[Mostaz'afin](Baseej-e)(Basij)*, ("Oppressed Mobilization") volunteers in everything from earthquake emergency management to attacking opposition demonstrators and newspaper offices. The [Republican Party](Islamic)(Islamic Republican Party) then fought to establish a theocratic government by *[faqih](velayat-e)(velayat-e faqih)*.
Thousands of *komiteh'' or [Committees](Revolutionary)(Islamic Revolution Committees) served as "the eyes and ears" of the new rule and are credited by critics with "many arbitrary arrests, executions and confiscations of property".
Also enforcing the will of the government were the [Hezbollahi](Hezbollah of Iran) (the Party of God), "strong-arm thugs" who attacked demonstrators and offices of newspapers critical of Khomeini.
Two major political groups that formed after the fall of the Shah that clashed with and were eventually suppressed by pro-Khomeini groups, were the moderate religious [People's Republican Party](Muslim)(Muslim People's Republican Party) (MPRP) which was associated with Grand Ayatollah [Kazem Shariatmadari](Mohammad)(Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari), and the secular leftist [Democratic Front](National)(National Democratic Front (Iran)) (NDF).
#### 1979 ethnic uprisings
Following the events of the revolution, Marxist guerrillas and federalist parties revolted in some regions comprising [Khuzistan](1979 Khuzestan uprising), [Kurdistan](1979 Kurdish rebellion in Iran) and [Qabus](Gonbad-e)(Gonbad-e Qabus (city)), which resulted in fighting between them and revolutionary forces. These revolts began in April 1979 and lasted between several months to over a year, depending on the region.
### Establishment of Islamic republic government
#### Referendum of 12 Farvardin
On 30 and 31 March (Farvardin 10, 11) [referendum was held](a)(March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum) over whether to replace the monarchy with an "Islamic republic". Khomeini called for a massive turnout and only the [Democratic Front](National)(National Democratic Front of Iran), [Fadayan](Organization of Iranian People's Fedaian (Majority)), and several Kurdish parties opposed the vote. The results showed that 98.2% had voted in favor of the Islamic Republic.
#### Writing of the constitution
In June 1979 the [Movement](Freedom)(Freedom Movement of Iran) released its draft constitution for the Islamic Republic that it had been working on since Khomeini was in exile. It included a [Council](Guardian)(Guardian Council) to [veto](veto) un-Islamic legislation, but had no guardian jurist ruler. Leftists found the draft too conservative and in need of major changes but Khomeini declared it 'correct'. To approve the new constitution and prevent leftist alterations, a relatively small seventy-three-member [of Experts](Assembly)(1st Assembly of Experts) for Constitution was elected that summer. Critics complained that "vote-rigging, violence against undesirable candidates and the dissemination of false information" was used to "produce an assembly overwhelmingly dominated by clergy, all took active roles during the revolution and loyal to Khomeini."
Khomeini (and the assembly) now rejected the constitution – its correctness notwithstanding – and Khomeini declared that the new government should be based "100% on Islam."
In addition to the president, the new constitution included a more powerful post of guardian jurist ruler intended for Khomeini, with control of the military and security services, and power to appoint several top government and judicial officials. It increased the power and number of clerics on the [of Guardians](Council)(Council of Guardians) and gave it control over electionsArticles 99 and 108 of the constitution as well as laws passed by the legislature.
The new constitution was also approved overwhelmingly by the December 1979 constitutional referendum, but with more opposition and smaller turnout.
### Hostage crisis
In late October 1979, the exiled and dying Shah was admitted into the United States for cancer treatment. In Iran there was an immediate outcry, and both Khomeini and leftist groups demanded the Shah's return to Iran for trial and execution. On 4 November 1979 youthful Islamists, calling themselves [Student Followers of the Imam's Line](Muslim)(Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line), invaded the US embassy compound in Tehran and [its staff](seized)(Iran hostage crisis). Revolutionaries were angry because of how the Shah had left Iran which spawned rumors of another U.S.–backed coup in Iran that would re-install him. The occupation was also intended as leverage to demand the return of the Shah to stand trial in exchange for the hostages, and depose Prime Minister Mehdi Bazargan, who they believed was plotting to normalize relations with the U.S. The students held 52 American diplomats hostage for 444 days, which played a role in helping to pass the constitution, suppressing moderates, and otherwise radicalising the revolution.[Mark](Bowden,)(Mark Bowden) (2006). ''[of the Ayatollah](Guests)(Guests of the Ayatollah): The Iran Hostage Crisis: The First Battle in America's War with Militant Islam''. p. 10, New York: Grove Press.
Holding the hostages was very popular and continued even after the death of the Shah. As Khomeini explained to his future President [Banisadr](Abolhassan Banisadr), "This action has many benefits. ... This has united our people. Our opponents do not dare act against us. We can put the constitution to the people's vote without difficulty ..."
With great publicity the students released documents from the American embassy, which they labeled a "den of spies", showing that moderate Iranian leaders had met with U.S. officials (and did not release similar evidence of high-ranking Islamists having done the same). Among the casualties of the hostage crisis was Prime Minister Bazargan and his government, who resigned in November unable to enforce the government's order to release the hostages.
The prestige of Khomeini and the hostage taking was further enhanced with the failure of a hostage rescue attempt, widely credited to divine intervention.Bowden, Mark, *Guests of the Ayatollah*, Atlantic Monthly Press, 2006, p. 487
The hostage crisis ended with the signing of the [Accords](Algiers)(Algiers Accords) in Algeria on 19 January 1981. The hostages were formally released to United States custody the following day, just minutes after [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan) was sworn in as the new American president.
### Suppression of opposition
[[Squad in Iran.jpg|thumb|A revolutionary firing squad in 1979](File:Firing)]
In early March 1979, Khomeini announced, "do not use this term, 'democratic.' That is the Western style," giving pro-democracy liberals (and later leftists) a taste of disappointments to come. In succession the [Democratic Front](National)(National Democratic Front (Iran)) was banned in August 1979, the provisional government was disempowered in November, the [People's Republican Party](Muslim)(Muslim People's Republican Party) was banned in January 1980, the [Mujahedin of Iran](People's)(People's Mujahedin of Iran) guerrillas came under attack in February 1980, a purge of universities started in March 1980, and the liberal Islamist President [Banisadr](Abolhassan)(Abolhassan Banisadr) was [impeached](Impeachment) in June 1981.
[[File:ExecutionGenerals150279.jpg|thumb|left|Executed generals of the Imperial Iranian Army: [Naji](Reza)(Reza Naji (Iranian general)), [Rahimi](Mehdi)(Mehdi Rahimi), and [Khosrodad](Manouchehr)(Manouchehr Khosrodad)]]
After the revolution, human rights groups estimated the number of casualties suffered by protesters and prisoners of the new system to be several thousand. The first to be executed were members of the old system – senior generals, followed by over 200 senior civilian officials – as punishment and to eliminate the danger of a coup d'état. Brief trials lacking defense attorneys, juries, transparency or the opportunity for the accused to defend themselves were held by revolutionary judges such as [Khalkhali](Sadegh)(Sadegh Khalkhali), the *[Sharia](Sharia)* judge. By January 1980 "at least 582 persons had been executed." Among those executed was [Abbas Hoveida](Amir)(Amir Abbas Hoveida), former Prime Minister of Iran. Between January 1980 and June 1981, when Bani-Sadr was impeached, at least 900 executions took place,Source: Letter from Amnesty International to the Shaul Bakhash, 6 July 1982. Quoted in for everything from drug and sexual offenses to "corruption on earth", from plotting counter-revolution and spying for Israel to membership in opposition groups.
#### The 1981 massacre
Between June 1981 and March 1982, the theocratic regime carried out the largest political massacre in Iranian history, targeting communists, socialists, social democrats, liberals, monarchists, moderate Islamists, and members of the Baha'i faith as part of the Iranian Cultural Revolution decreed by Khomeini on 14 June 1980 with the intent of "purifying" Iranian society of non-Islamic elements. Between June 1981 and June 1982, Amnesty International documented 2,946 executions, with several thousand more killed in the next two years according to the anti-government guerilla [Mujahedin of Iran](People's)(People's Mujahedin of Iran). More recently, Rastyad Collective has verified the identities of more than 3,400 political dissidents who were executed between June 1981 and March 1982. These dissidents were sentenced to death by the Islamic Revolutionary Courts during show trials in more than eighty-five cities across the country on charges of spreading "corruption on Earth" (*ifsad-fi-alarz*), "espionage", "terrorism", or "enmity against Allah" (*Moharebeh*). Most victims of the 1981 massacre were young activists aged eleven to twenty-four. These activists were either high school students or had recently graduated from universities in Iran and abroad. During the massacre, hundreds of minors were also subjected to arbitrary detention, torture, and summary executions on ideologically motivated charges of *ifsad-fi-alarz* and *moharebeh* by the revolutionary courts.
#### Closing of non-Islamist newspapers
In mid-August 1979, shortly after the election of the constitution-writing assembly, several dozen newspapers and magazines opposing Khomeini's idea of theocratic rule by jurists were shut down.*Kayhan*, 20.8.78–21.8.78, quoted in , also *New York Times,* 8 August 1979 When protests were organized by the [Democratic Front](National)(National Democratic Front (Iran)) (NDF), Khomeini angrily denounced them saying, "we thought we were dealing with human beings. It is evident we are not."
}}
Hundreds were injured by "rocks, clubs, chains and iron bars" when [Hezbollahi](Hezbollah of Iran) attacked the protesters, and shortly after, a warrant was issued for the arrest of the NDF's leader.
#### Muslim People's Republican Party
[[File:Shariatmadari and Khomeini.jpg|thumb|[Shariatmadari](Kazem)(Kazem Shariatmadari) and Khomeini]]
In December the moderate Islamic party [People's Republican Party](Muslim)(Muslim People's Republican Party) (MPRP) and its spiritual leader [Kazem Shariatmadari](Mohammad)(Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari) had become a rallying point for Iranians who wanted democracy not theocracy. Riots broke out in Shariatmadari's Azeri home region with members of the MPRP and Shariatmadari's followers seizing the [Tabriz](Tabriz) television station and using it to "broadcast demands and grievances." The regime reacted quickly, sending Revolutionary Guards to retake the TV station, mediators to defuse complaints and activists to stage a massive pro-Khomeini counter-demonstration. The party was suppressed, and in 1982 Shariatmadari was "demoted" from the rank of Grand Ayatollah and many of his clerical followers were purged.
#### Islamist left
In January 1980, [Banisadr](Abolhassan)(Abolhassan Banisadr) was elected president of Iran. Though an adviser to Khomeini, he was a leftist who clashed with another ally of Khomeini, the theocratic [Republic Party](Islamic)(Islamic Republic Party) (IRP) – the controlling power in the new parliament.
[[File:Abolhassan Banisadr sign.jpg|thumb|left|[Banisadr](Banisadr) in 1980]]
At the same time, erstwhile revolutionary allies of Khomeini – the Islamist modernist guerrilla group [Mujahedin of Iran](People's)(People's Mujahedin of Iran) (or MEK) – were being suppressed by Khomeini's forces. Khomeini attacked the MEK, referring to them as *[monafeqin](Munafiq) *(hypocrites) and *[kafer](kafir)* (unbelievers). *Hezbollahi* people attacked meeting places, bookstores, and newsstands of Mujahideen and other leftists, driving them underground. Universities were closed to purge them of opponents of theocratic rule as a part of the "[Revolution](Cultural)(Iranian Cultural Revolution)", and 20,000 teachers and nearly 8,000 military officers deemed too westernized were dismissed.
By mid-1981 matters came to a head. An attempt by Khomeini to forge a reconciliation between Banisadr and IRP leaders had failed, and now it was Banisadr who was the rallying point "for all doubters and dissidents" of the theocracy, including the MEK.
When leaders of the [Front](National)(National Front (Iran)) called for a demonstration in June 1981 in favor of Banisadr, Khomeini threatened its leaders with the death penalty for [apostasy](Apostasy in Islam) "if they did not repent". Leaders of the [Movement of Iran](Freedom)(Freedom Movement of Iran) were compelled to make and publicly broadcast apologies for supporting the Front's appeal. Those attending the rally were menaced by Hezbollahi and Revolutionary Guards and intimidated into silence.
On 28 June 1981, a bombing of the office of the IRP killed around 70 high-ranking officials, cabinet members and members of parliament, including [Beheshti](Mohammad)(Mohammad Beheshti), the secretary-general of the party and head of the Islamic Republic's judicial system. The government arrested thousands, and there were hundreds of executions against the MEK and its followers. Despite these and other assassinations the hoped-for mass uprising and armed struggle against the Khomeiniists was crushed.
In May 1979, the [Group](Furqan)(Furqan Group) (*Guruh-i Furqan*) assassinated an important lieutenant of Khomeini, [Motahhari](Morteza)(Morteza Motahhari).
## Impacts
### International impact
Internationally, the initial impact of the revolution was immense. In the non-Muslim world, it changed the image of Islam, generating much interest in Islam—both sympatheticShawcross, William, ''The Shah's Last Ride* (1988), p. 110. and hostileNasr, Vali, *The Shia Revival'', Norton, (2006), p. 138—and even speculation that the revolution might change "the world balance of power more than any political event since Hitler's conquest of Europe."
The Islamic Republic positioned itself as a revolutionary beacon under the slogan "neither East nor West, only Islamic Republic ("Na Sharq, Na Gharb, Faqat Jumhuri-e Islami," i.e. neither Soviet nor American / West European models), and called for the overthrow of [capitalism](capitalism), American influence, and social injustice in the Middle East and the rest of the world. Revolutionary leaders in Iran gave and sought support from non-Muslim activists such as the [Sandinistas](Sandinistas) in Nicaragua, [IRA](Provisional Irish Republican Army) in Ireland and anti-[apartheid](apartheid) struggle in South Africa, even so far as favoring leftist revolutionaries over Islamist, but ideologically different and strategically harmful causes, such as the neighboring [Mujahideen](Afghan)(Soviet–Afghan War). The revolution itself was supported by the [Liberation Organization](Palestine)(Palestine Liberation Organization). In terms of future relevance, the conflicts that originated from the Iranian Revolution continued to define geo-politics for the last three decades, continuing to do so today.
### Persian Gulf and the Iran–Iraq War
Supporters of the revolution both within and outside of Iran began calling for the overthrow of monarchies in the region and for them to be replaced by Islamic republics. This alarmed many of Iran's neighbours, particularly Kuwait, Iraq and Saudi Arabia as well as Western nations dependent on Middle Eastern oil for their energy needs.
In September 1980, Iraq took advantage of the febrile situation and [Iran](invaded)(Iraqi invasion of Iran). At the centre of Iraq's objectives was the annexation of the East Bank of the Shaat Al-Arab waterway that makes up part of the border between the two nations and which had been the site of numerous border skirmishes between the two countries going back to the late 1960s. The president of Iraq, [Hussein](Saddam)(Saddam Hussein), also wanted to annex the Iranian province of [Khuzestan](Khuzestan province), substantially populated by Iranian Arabs. There was also concern that a Shia-centric revolution in Iran may stimulate a similar uprising in Iraq, where the country's Sunni minority ruled over the Shia majority.
Hussein was confident that with Iraq's armed forces being well-equipped with new technology and with high morale would enjoy a decisive strategic advantage against an Iranian military that had recently had much of its command officers purged following the Revolution. Iran was also struggling to find replacement parts for much of its US- and British-supplied equipment. Hussein believed that victory would therefore come swiftly.
However Iran was "galvanized" by the invasion and the populace of Iran rallied behind their new government in an effort to repel the invaders. After some early successes, the Iraqi invasion stalled and was then repelled and by 1982, Iran had recaptured almost all of its territories. In June 1982, with Iraqi forces all but expelled from Iranian territory, the Iraqi government offered a ceasefire. This was rejected by Khomeini, who declared that the only condition for peace was that "the regime in [Baghdad](Baghdad) must fall and must be replaced by an Islamic republic".Wright, Robin (1989) *In the Name of God*. Simon & Schuster. p. 126. .
The war would continue for another six years during which time countries like Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and other Gulf states provided financial assistance to Iraq in an effort to prevent an Iranian victory, even though their relations with Iraq were often hostile - Kuwait itself was [by Iraq](invaded)(Iraqi invasion of Kuwait) two years after the peace agreement between Iraq and Iran was signed.
Like the hostage crisis, the war served in part as an opportunity for the government to strengthen revolutionary ardour and revolutionary groups; the [Guard](Revolutionary)(Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps) and committees at the expense of its remaining allies-turned-opponents, such as the MEK. While enormously costly and destructive, the war "rejuvenate[d] the drive for national unity and Islamic revolution" and "inhibited fractious debate and dispute" in Iran.
### Foreign relations
The Islamic Republic of Iran experienced difficult relations with some Western countries, especially the United States and the Eastern Bloc nations led by the Soviet Union. Iran was under constant [unilateral sanctions](US)(Sanctions against Iran), which were tightened under the presidency of [Clinton](Bill)(Bill Clinton). Most European countries, despite their significant investments within Iran, stood in solidarity with the United States and also imposed economic sanctions on the theocratic regime. Britain suspended all diplomatic relations with Iran and did not re-open their embassy in Tehran until 1988. The European country that maintained the closest relations with the new Iranian government was [Switzerland](Switzerland), which was neither a part of the [Economic Community](European)(European Economic Community) or the [Atlantic Treaty Organization](North)(North Atlantic Treaty Organization). Relations with the USSR became strained as well after the Soviet government condemned Khomeini's repression of certain minorities after the Revolution. Diplomatic relations between Iran and the [apartheid](apartheid) government of [Africa](South)(South Africa) were completely severed following Khomeini's rise to power.
Israel had relations with Iran under the Shah, but relations were cut on 18 February 1979 when Iran adopted an [anti-Zionist](anti-Zionism) stance. The former Israeli embassy in Tehran was handed over to the PLO, and Iran has allied itself with several [Islamist militant groups](anti-Israeli)(Iran–Israel proxy conflict) since.
After the U.S. sanctions were tightened and the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russian Federation and the People's Republic of China became the main principal allies for Iran. Relations between the two countries became improved [Vladimir Putin took office in 2000](after)(Russia under Vladimir Putin) and increasingly warmer in recent years following an international backlash over the annexation of Crimea in 2014 which led to sanctions by the Western powers. Russia had sought Iran on expanding arms trade over the past three decades especially with the cooperation with the Assad government during the [civil war](Syrian)(Syrian civil war). Iran also began its [cooperation](economic)(Iran–China 25-year Cooperation Program) with China that includes “political, strategic and economic” components between the two nations. اخبار ایران و جهان Mehr News Agency|language=fa|archive-date=2020-07-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702233824/https://www.mehrnews.com/news/4954940/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%87-%DB%B2%DB%B5-%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87-%D9%87%D9%85%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C-%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%88-%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86-%D8%AA%D8%B5%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%A8-%D8%B4%D8%AF|url-status=live}}
### In the Muslim world
In the Muslim world, particularly in its early years, the revolution inspired enormous enthusiasm and redoubled opposition to western imperialism, intervention and influence. Islamist insurgents rose in [Arabia (1979)](Saudi)(Grand Mosque Seizure), [(1981)](Egypt)(Anwar Al Sadat#Assassination), [(1982)](Syria)(Hama massacre), and [(1983)](Lebanon)(April 1983 United States Embassy bombing).[Fundamentalist Power](https://web.archive.org/web/20101226222601/http://www.martinkramer.org/sandbox/reader/archives/fundamentalist-islam-the-drive-for-power/), Martin Kramer.
In [Pakistan](Pakistan), it has been noted that the "press was largely favorable towards the new government"; the [Islamist](Islamist) parties were even more enthusiastic; while the ruler, [Zia-ul-Haq](General)(General Zia-ul-Haq), himself on an [Islamization](Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq's Islamization) drive since he took power in 1977, talked of "simultaneous triumph of Islamic ideology in both our countries" and that "Khomeini is a symbol of Islamic insurgence." Some American analysts noted that, at this point, Khomeini's influence and prestige in Pakistan was greater than Zia-ul-Haq's himself.[Vatanka](Alex)(Alex Vatanka), *Iran and Pakistan: Security, Diplomacy and American Influence*, I.B.Tauris (2015), pp. 148 & 155 After Khomeini claimed that Americans were behind the [Grand Mosque seizure](1979)(1979 Grand Mosque seizure), student protesters from the [University](Quaid-e-Azam)(Quaid-e-Azam University) in [Islamabad](Islamabad) [the US embassy](attacked)(1979 U.S. embassy burning in Islamabad), setting it on fire and taking hostages. While the crisis was quickly defused by the Pakistan military, the next day, before some 120 Pakistani army officers stationed in Iran on the road to [hajj](hajj), Khomeini said "it is a cause of joy that… all Pakistan has risen against the United States" and the struggle is not that of the US and Iran but "the entire world of disbelief and the world of Islam". According to journalist [Trofimov](Yaroslav)(Yaroslav Trofimov), "the Pakistani officers, many of whom had graduated from Western military academies, seemed swayed by the ayatollah’s intoxicating words."Yaroslav Trofimov, ''The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam's Holiest Shrine*, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group (2008), p. 140
Ultimately only the Lebanese Islamists succeeded. The Islamic revolutionary government itself is credited with helping establish [Hezbollah](Hezbollah) in LebanonHarik, Judith Palmer, *Hezbollah, the Changing Face of Terrorism* (2004), p. 40 and the [Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq](Supreme)(Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq).
On the other side of the ledger, at least one observer argues that despite great effort and expense the only countries outside Iran the revolution had a "measure of lasting influence" on are Lebanon and Iraq.Nasr, Vali, *The Shia Revival'' Norton, (2006), p. 141 Others claim the devastating [War](Iran–Iraq)(Iran–Iraq War) "mortally wounded ... the ideal of spreading the Islamic revolution," or that the Islamic Republic's pursuit of an ideological rather than a "nationalist, pragmatic" foreign policy has weakened Iran's "place as a great regional power".
### Domestic impact
Views differ on the impact of the revolution. By Afshin Molavi p. 225|group=Note}} For some it was "the most significant, hopeful and profound event in the entirety of contemporary Islamic history",Hamid Algar quoted in imamreza.net [Professor Hamid Algar, the Distinguished Shia Muslim Scholar in USA](http://www.imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?id=7094) , imamreza.net 1998, (assessed 1 June 2010) while other Iranians believe that the revolution was a time when "for a few years we all lost our minds", and which "promised us heaven, but... created a hell on earth."Akhbar Ganji talking to [Molavi](Afshin)(Afshin Molavi). Molavi, Afshin (2005), *The Soul of Iran*, Norton paperback, p. 156.
[[File:Feb 2 2014 - Martyrs Sq - Mashhad (1).jpg|thumb|People celebrating anniversary of the revolution in [Mashhad](Mashhad) in 2014]]
Internally, Iran has had some success with the [promotion of Islam](governmental)(Islamic Cultural Revolution), and the elimination of [secularism](secularism) and [American](Culture of the United States) [influence](Americanization (foreign culture and media)) in government. Criticisms have been raised with regards to [freedom](political)(Freedom (political)), governmental [honesty](Political corruption) and [efficiency](Good governance), [equality](economic)(Economic egalitarianism) and [self-sufficiency](self-sufficiency), or even popular religious devotion. Opinion polls and observers report widespread dissatisfaction, including a "rift" between the revolutionary generation and younger Iranians who find it "impossible to understand what their parents were so passionate about." To honor the 40th anniversary of revolution around 50,000 prisoners were forgiven by order [Khamenei](Ali)(Ali Khamenei) to receive "Islamic [clemency](clemency)". Many religious minorities such as [Christians](Christians), [Baháʼís](Baháʼí Faith), [Jews](Jews) and [Zoroastrians](Zoroastrians) have left since the Islamic Revolution of 1979.
### Human development
Literacy has continued to increase under the Islamic Republic.[Iran](http://www2.unesco.org/wef/countryreports/iran/rapport_1.html) , the [UNESCO](UNESCO) EFA 2000 Assessment: Country Reports.*Iran, the Essential Guide to a Country on the Brink*, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2006, p. 212 By 2002, illiteracy rates dropped by more than half.[Adult education offers new opportunities and options to Iranian women](http://www.ungei.org/infobycountry/iran_550.html) , UNGEI. Maternal and infant mortality rates have also been cut significantly.Howard, Jane. ''Inside Iran: Women's Lives'', Mage publishers, 2002, p. 89 Population growth was first encouraged, but discouraged after 1988. Overall, Iran's Human development Index rating has climbed significantly from 0.569 in 1980 to 0.732 in 2002, on a par with neighbouring Turkey. In the latest HDI, however, Iran has since fallen 8 ranks below Turkey.
### Politics and government
Iran has elected governmental bodies at the national, provincial, and local levels. Although these bodies are subordinate to theocracy – which has veto power over who can run for parliament (or [Consultative Assembly](Islamic)(Islamic Consultative Assembly)) and whether its bills can become law – they have more power than equivalent organs in the Shah's government.
Iran's Sunni minority (about 8%) has seen some unrest. Five of the 290 parliamentary seats are allocated to their communities.
The members of the [Faith](Baháʼí)(Baháʼí Faith) have been declared [and subversive](heretical)(Persecution of Baháʼís). While persecution occurred before the Revolution since then more than 200 Baháʼís have been executed or presumed killed, and many more have been imprisoned, deprived of jobs, pensions, businesses, and educational opportunities. Baháʼí holy places have been confiscated, vandalized, or destroyed. More recently, Baháʼís in Iran have been deprived of education and work. Several thousand young Baháʼís between the ages of 17 and 24 have been expelled from universities.
Whether the Islamic Republic has brought more or less severe political repression is disputed. Grumbling once done about the tyranny and corruption of the Shah and his court is now directed against "the Mullahs."}} Fear of [SAVAK](SAVAK) has been replaced by fear of [Guards](Revolutionary)(Revolutionary Guards), and other religious revolutionary enforcers. Violations of human rights by the theocratic government is said to be worse than during the monarchy,Taheri, Amir (25 July 2005) "[Ganji: Iran's Boris YELTSIN](http://www.benadorassociates.com/article/17253) ," *Arab News* and in any case extremely grave. Reports of [torture](torture), imprisonment of dissidents, and the murder of prominent critics have been made by human rights groups.
[Censorship](Censorship in Iran) is handled by the [of Culture and Islamic Guidance](Ministry)(Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance), without whose official permission, "no books or magazines are published, no audiotapes are distributed, no movies are shown and no cultural organization is established. Men and women are not allowed to dance or swim with each other."
### Women
Throughout the beginning of the 20th century and prior to the revolution, many women leaders emerged and demanded basic social rights for women. During the reign of [Shah](Reza)(Reza Shah), the government [the removal of the veil](mandated)(Kashf-e hijab) and promoted the education of young girls. However, the push-back of the Shii clerics made progress difficult, and the government had to contain its promotion of basic women's rights to the norms of the patriarchal social hierarchy in order to accommodate the clerics. After the abdication of [Shah](Reza)(Reza Shah) in 1941, the discipline of the government decreased, and women were able to further exercise their rights, including the ability to wear the veil if they wanted. More organization of women's groups occurred in the 1960s and 70s, and they used the government's modernization to define and advocate for women's issues. During these decades, women became active in formerly male domains such as the parliament, the cabinet, armed forces, legal professions, and fields of science and technology. Additionally, women achieved the right to vote in 1963. Many of these achievements and rights that Iranian women had gained in the decades leading up to the revolution were reversed by the Islamic Revolution.
The revolutionary government rewrote laws in an attempt to force women to leave the workforce by promoting the early retirement of female government employees, the closing of childcare centers, enforcing full Islamic cover in offices and public places, as well as preventing women from studying in 140 fields in higher education. Women [back](fought)(International Women's Day Protests in Tehran, 1979) against these changes, and as activist and writer [Afkhami](Mahnaz)(Mahnaz Afkhami) writes, "The regime succeeded in putting women back in the veil in public places, but not in resocializing them into fundamentalist norms." After the revolution, women often had to work hard to support their families as the post-revolutionary economy suffered. Women also asserted themselves in the arts, literature, education, and politics.
Women – especially those from traditional backgrounds – participated on a large scale in demonstrations leading up to the revolution. They were encouraged by [Khomeini](Ayatollah)(Ruhollah Khomeini) to join him in overthrowing the [dynasty](Pahlavi)(Pahlavi dynasty). However, most of these women expected the revolution to lead to an increase in their rights and opportunities rather than the restrictions that actually occurred. The policy enacted by the revolutionary government and its attempts to limit the rights of women were challenged by the mobilization and politicization of women that occurred during and after the revolution. Women's resistance included remaining in the work force in large numbers and challenging Islamic dress by showing hair under their head scarves. The Iranian government has had to reconsider and change aspects of its policies towards women because of their resistance to laws that restrict their rights.
Since the revolution, university enrollment and the number of women in the civil service and higher education has risen.|group=Note}} and several women have been elected to the [parliament](Iranian)(Islamic Consultative Assembly).
### Homosexuality
[Homosexuality](Homosexuality) has a long history in pre-modern Iran. [Empiricus](Sextus)(Sextus Empiricus) asserts in his *Outlines of Scepticism* (written circa C.E. 200) that the laws of the [Empire](Parthian)(Parthian Empire) were tolerant towards homosexual behaviour, and [Persian](Persians) men were known to "indulge in intercourse with males." (1:152)Julia Annas (ed), *Sextus Empiricus: Outlines of Scepticism*, University of Cambridge Press, 2000, p76 These ancient practices continued into the Islamic period of Iran, with one scholar noting how "...homosexuality and homoerotic expressions were tolerated in numerous public places, from monasteries and seminaries to taverns, military camps, bathhouses and coffee houses. In the early Safavid era (1501-1723), male houses of prostitution (*amard khaneh*) were legally recognized and paid taxes." It was during the late [Qajar](Qajar Iran) period that following modernization the society was heteronormalized.Najmabadi, Afsaneh. Women with Mustaches and Men without Beards: Gender and Sexual Anxieties of Iranian Modernity. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.
During the reign of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, a faux same-sex wedding occurred between two young men with ties to the royal court, which became a source of shame and outrage for some citizens and was utilized by Islamists as further evidence of the "immoral" monarchy. This also tied the monarchy to the West, which had begun to be regarded in [reactionary](reactionary) Islamic discourse as immoral due to "...female nudity and open adult male homosexuality.".
When Ruhollah Khomeini came to power in 1979, he called for homosexuals to be "exterminated", and one of his first political actions was to institute [imprisonment](imprisonment), [punishment](corporal)(corporal punishment), and the [penalty](death)(death penalty) for any sexual acts outside traditional Islamic heterosexual marriage. In a 1979 interview with [New York Times](The)(The New York Times), a journalist asked Khomeini to justify the state-sanctioned shootings of homosexuals. In reply Khomeini compared them as well as other adulterers to gangrene, thieves, and murderers.
Iran is currently one of the world's only jurisdictions to actively execute gay men. [International](Amnesty)(Amnesty International) reports that approximately 5,000 gays have been executed in Iran since the revolution, including two gay men executed in 2014, both hanged for engaging in consensual homosexual relations.
### Economic impact
[post-revolutionary economy](Iran's)(Economy of Iran) has a significant state-owned or [parastatal](State-owned enterprise) sector, including businesses owned by the [Guards](Revolutionary)(Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps) and [Bonyad](Bonyad) foundations.
Since the revolution Iran's GDP (PPP) has grown from [$](Geary–Khamis dollar)114 billion in 1980 to $858 billion in 2010. GDP per capita (PPP) has grown from [$](Geary–Khamis dollar)4,295 in 1980 to $11,396 in 2010.
Since the revolution Iran's GDP (Nominal) has grown from $90.392 billion in 1979 to $385.874 in 2015. GDP per capita (nominal) has grown from $2290 in 1979 to $5470 in 2016. Real GNI per capita in 2011 constant international dollars decreased after the revolution and during the Iran-Iraq war from $7762 in 1979 to $3699 at the end of the war in 1989. After three decades of reconstruction and growth since then, it has not yet reached its 1979 level and has only recovered to $6751 in 2016. Data |website=data.worldbank.org |access-date=1 July 2018 |archive-date=1 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701223827/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.KD?locations=IR |url-status=live }} Data on GNI per capita in PPP terms is only available since 1990 globally. In PPP terms, GNI per capita has increased from Int. $11,425 in 1990 to Int. $18,544 in 2016. But most of this increase can be attributed to the rise in oil prices in the 2000s. Data|website=data.worldbank.org|access-date=1 July 2018|archive-date=2 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702012516/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.PP.KD?locations=IR|url-status=live}}
The value of Iran's currency declined precipitously after the revolution. Whereas on 15 March 1978, 71.46 rials equaled one U.S. dollar, in January 2018, 44,650 rials amounted to one dollar.
The economy has become slightly more diversified since the revolution, with 80% of Iranian GDP dependent on oil and gas as of 2010, comparing to above 90% at the end of the Pahlavi period. The Islamic Republic lags some countries in transparency and ease of doing business according to international surveys. [International](Transparency)(Transparency International) ranked Iran 136th out of 175 countries in transparency (i.e. lack of corruption) for its 2014 index; and the IRI was ranked 130th out of the 189 countries surveyed in the [Bank](World)(World Bank) 2015 Doing Business Report.
### Islamic political culture
It is said that there were attempts to incorporate modern political and social concepts into Islamic canon since 1950. The attempt was a reaction to the secular political discourse namely [Marxism](Marxism), liberalism and nationalism. Following the death of Ayatollah Boroujerdi, some of the scholars like [Mutahhari](Murtaza)(Morteza Motahhari), [Beheshti](Muhammad)(Mohammad Beheshti) and [Taleghani](Mahmoud)(Mahmoud Taleghani) found new opportunity to change conditions. Before them, Boroujerdi was considered a conservative Marja. They tried to reform conditions after the death of the ayatollah. They presented their arguments by rendering lectures in 1960 and 1963 in Tehran. The result of the lectures was the book "[inquiry into principles of Mar'jaiyat](An)(An inquiry into principles of Mar'jaiyat)". Some of the major issues highlighted were the government in Islam, the need for the clergy's independent financial organization, Islam as a way of life, advising and guiding youth and necessity of being community. Allameh Tabatabei refers to velayat as a political philosophy for Shia and velayat faqih for Shia community. There are also other attempts to formulate a new attitude of Islam such as the publication of three volumes of Maktab Tashayyo. Also some believe that it is indispensable to revive the religious gathered in Hoseyniyeh-e-Ershad.
## Gallery
File:زخمی انقلابی.JPG|An injured revolutionary during protests against Pahlavi regime
File:اعتراض مردم انقلابی.JPG|Protests in summer 1978
File:شهیدان انقلابی.JPG|Revolutionary victims
File:Ali Khamenei in Iranian Revolution protests.jpg|Current Iranian leader, [Khamenei](Ali)(Ali Khamenei), in a Revolutionary protest in [Mashhad](Mashhad)
File:Shapour Bakhtiar Cabinet.jpg|Shah visiting Bakhtiar cabinet before his exit from Iran
File:Shah's exit from Iran 04.jpg|People celebrating Shah's exit from the country
File:Statue of Shah Revolution.jpg|Removal of Shah's statue by the people in [of Tehran](University)(University of Tehran)
File:خمینی در مهرآباد.JPG|Khomeini at [Airport](Mehrabad)(Mehrabad Airport)
File:خمینی میان مردم.JPG|People accompanying Khomeini from Mehrabad to [Zahra](Behesht)(Behesht Zahra)
File:خمینی در بهشت زهرا.JPG|Khomeini in Behesht Zahra
File:Imam Khomeini and Taleghani (2).jpg|Khomeini before a speech at Alavi school
## Depictions in Western media
* *[Argo](Argo (2012 film))*, starring [Affleck](Ben)(Ben Affleck), a film on the US government rescuing Americans in [hostage crisis](Iranian)(Iranian hostage crisis).
* *[Persepolis](Persepolis (comic))* is an autobiographical series of comics by [Satrapi](Marjane)(Marjane Satrapi) first published in 2000 that depicts the author's childhood in Iran during and after the Islamic Revolution. The 2007 animated film *[Persepolis](Persepolis (film))* is based upon on it.
* *[of Shiraz](Septembers)(Septembers of Shiraz)* is a movie about an Iranian Jewish family. After creating a prosperous life in Iran, they may be forced to abandon everything as a revolution looms on the horizon. It is based on the 2007 novel *[Septembers of Shiraz](The)(The Septembers of Shiraz)* by [Sofer](Dalia)(Dalia Sofer).
## See also
; Revolution-related topics
* [energy crisis](1979)(1979 energy crisis)
* [and causes of the Iranian Revolution](Background)(Background and causes of the Iranian Revolution)
* [Revolution](White)(White Revolution)
* [resistance](Civil)(Civil resistance)
* [decade](Fajr)(Fajr decade)
* [conference](Guadeloupe)(Guadeloupe conference)
* [of Iran](History)(History of Iran)
* [of political Islam in Iran](History)(History of political Islam in Iran)
* [of the Islamic Republic of Iran](History)(History of the Islamic Republic of Iran)
* [hostage crisis](Iran)(Iran hostage crisis)
* [Carter's engagement with Khomeini](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter's engagement with Khomeini)
* [of the Iranian Revolution](Organizations)(Organizations of the Iranian Revolution)
* [falsification](Preference)(Preference falsification)
* [Khomeini](Ruhollah)(Ruhollah Khomeini)
* [Revolution](Russian)(Russian Revolution)
; Related conflicts
* [Iranian coup d'état](1953)(1953 Iranian coup d'état)
* [War](Iran–Iraq)(Iran–Iraq War)
* [Rebellion of 1983](Kurdish)(Kurdish Rebellion of 1983)
* [of modern conflicts in the Middle East](List)(List of modern conflicts in the Middle East)
* [Constitutional Revolution](Persian)(Persian Constitutional Revolution)
; General
* [rights in Islamic Republic of Iran](Human)(Human rights in Islamic Republic of Iran)
* [rankings of Iran](International)(International rankings of Iran)
* [of Stability (speech)](Island)(Island of Stability (speech))
* [guerrilla groups of Iran](Leftist)(Leftist guerrilla groups of Iran)
* [Mujahedin of Iran](People's)(People's Mujahedin of Iran)
* [of Baháʼís](Persecution)(Persecution of Baháʼís)
## Notes
## References
### Citations
### Sources
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## Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
* [Ryszard](Kapuściński,)(Ryszard Kapuściński). *[of Shahs](Shah)(Shah of Shahs (book)).* Translated from Polish by William R. Brand and Katarzyna Mroczkowska-Brand. New York: Vintage International, 1992.
*
* Habib Ladjevardi (editor), *Memoirs of Shapour Bakhtiar*, Harvard University Press, 1996.
*
* Legum, Colin, et al., eds. *Middle East Contemporary Survey: Volume III, 1978–79.* New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1980.
* [Abbas](Milani,)(Abbas Milani), *The Persian Sphinx: Amir Abbas Hoveyda and the Riddle of the Islamic Revolution*, Mage Publishers, 2000, .
* Munson, Henry, Jr. *Islam and Revolution in the Middle East.* New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
* Nafisi, Azar. "Reading Lolita in Tehran." New York: Random House, 2003.
* [Ali Reza](Nobari,)(Ali Reza Nobari), ed. *Iran Erupts: Independence: News and Analysis of the Iranian National Movement.* Stanford: Iran-America Documentation Group, 1978.
* Nomani, Farhad & Sohrab Behdad, *Class and Labor in Iran; Did the Revolution Matter?* Syracuse University Press. 2006.
* [Mohammad Reza](Pahlavi,)(Mohammad Reza Pahlavi), *Response to History*, Stein & Day Pub, 1980, .
* Rahnema, Saeed & Sohrab Behdad, eds. *Iran After the Revolution: Crisis of an Islamic State.* London: [Tauris](I.B.)(I.B. Tauris), 1995.
* Sick, Gary. ''All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran.* New York: Penguin Books, 1986.
* [William](Shawcross,)(William Shawcross), *The Shah's last ride: The death of an ally*, Touchstone, 1989, .
* Smith, Frank E. *[The Islamic Revolution.](http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch29ir.html) * 1998.
* Society for Iranian Studies, *Islamic Revolution in Perspective.* Special volume of Iranian Studies, 1980. Volume 13, nos. 1–4.
* [magazine](Time)(Time magazine), 7 January 1980. *Man of the Year* (Ayatollah Khomeini).
* U.S. Department of State, *American Foreign Policy Basic Documents, 1977–1980.* Washington, DC: GPO, 1983. JX 1417 A56 1977–80 REF – 67 pages on Iran.
* [M.E.](Yapp,)(M. E. Yapp) *The Near East Since the First World War: A History to 1995.* London: Longman, 1996. Chapter 13: Iran, 1960–1989.
## External links
* [Revolution](Islamic)(Islam and Revolution) Portal *[The Iran Revolution.](http://revolution.ir/portal/)''
* ["Iran after the victory of 1979's Revolution,"](http://www.iranchamber.com/history/islamic_revolution/revolution_and_iran_after1979_1.php) on *Iran Chamber Society*
* [Islamic Revolution of Iran, Encarta](http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588431/Islamic_Revolution_of_Iran.html)( 2009-10-31)
* [The Islamic revolution, Britannica](https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-32981/international-relations)
* [The Islamic revolution: 30 years on, its legacy still looms large](https://www.theguardian.com/world/audioslideshow/2009/feb/03/iran-iranian-revolution) – audio slideshow by *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*
### Historical articles
* [The Story of the Revolution](http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/revolution/) – a detailed web resource from the [World Service](BBC)(BBC World Service) Persian Branch
* [The Reunion – The Shah of Iran's Court](http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/reunion/reunion4.shtml) – [Radio 4](BBC)(BBC Radio 4) an audio program featuring the pre-Revolutionary elite
* [The Islamic Revolution](http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch29ir.html).
* [The Islamic revolution](http://www.cyberessays.com/History/120.htm).
* [The Islamic revolution](https://web.archive.org/web/20090227000031/http://internews.org/visavis/BTVPagesTXT/Theislamicrevolution.html), Internews.
### Analytical articles
* [Lewis](Bernard)(Bernard Lewis), ["Islamic Revolution,"](http://www.nybooks.com/articles/4557), *The New York Review of Books* (21 January 1988).
* [Islamic Revolution: An Exchange](http://www.nybooks.com/articles/4444) by [Milani](Abbas)(Abbas Milani), with reply by Bernard Lewis
* [What Are the Iranians Dreaming About?](http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/007863.html) by [Foucault](Michel)(Michel Foucault)
* [The Seductions of Islamism, Revisiting Foucault and the Islamic Revolution](https://web.archive.org/web/20040926063841/http://www.wpunj.edu/newpol/issue37/Afary37.htm) by Janet Afary and Kevin B. Anderson, *New Politics*, vol. 10, no. 1, whole no. 37 (Summer 2004).
* Moojan Momen, ["The Religious Background of the 1979 Revolution in Iran"](https://web.archive.org/web/19970126220214/http://www.northill.demon.co.uk/relstud/shia.htm)
* [The Islamic Revolution](http://www.marxist.com/iranian-revolution-grant090279.htm) by Ted Grant, "In Defence of Marxism" website, International Marxist Tendency (Friday, 9 February 1979).
* [Class Analysis of the Islamic Revolution of 1979](http://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/sgabriel/iran.htm) by Satya J. Gabriel
* [The Cause of The Islamic Revolution](https://web.archive.org/web/20060930053541/http://www.ccds.charlotte.nc.us/History/MidEast/02/curme/curme.htm) by Jon Curme
* [History of Undefeated, A few words in commemoration of the 1979 Revolution](http://www.marxists.org/archive/hekmat-mansoor/1995/undefeated.htm) By Mansoor Hekmat, Communist Thinker and Revolutionary
* [Revolution and Counter-revolution in Iran](http://www.marxist.com/revolution-counterrevolution-iran120903.htm) by HKS, Iranian Socialist Workers Party
### In pictures and videos
* [Iran: Revolution and Beyond ](https://web.archive.org/web/20090619171514/http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/28202/iran-revolution-and-beyond) – slideshow by *[magazine](Life)(Life magazine)*
* [iranrevolution.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20080112205438/http://www.iranrevolution.com/index_05.html) by Akbar Nazemi
* [Islamic Revolution, Photos](https://iranianrial.blogspot.com/p/islamic-revolution-photos-by-kaveh.html) by [Golestan](Kaveh)(Kaveh Golestan)
* [Photos from Kave Kazemi](https://web.archive.org/web/20181006204231/http://www.kavehkazemi.com/english/gallery/detail.php?act=pics&caid=47&coid=ir)
* [The Islamic Revolution in Pictures](http://iranianrial.globalcurrencyreset.net/iranian-revolution/)
* [Islamic revolution in pictures](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/pop_ups/04/middle_east_the_iranian_revolution/html/1.stm), BBC World
* [Slideshow with audio commentary of the legacy of Islamic revolution after 30 years](https://www.theguardian.com/world/audioslideshow/2009/feb/03/iran-iranian-revolution)
* [Pictures of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini after the revolution, Shah and wife in Morocco ](http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/template/2.0-0/element/pictureGalleryPopup.jsp?id=5694301&offset=0§ionName=TimesArchive)
* [Documentary: Anatomy of a Revolution](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CDifaCVanaM)
* [NIGHT AFTER THE REVOLUTION English Version ](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ot0GSG6LMOA)
}}
[Revolution](Category:Iranian)(Category:Iranian Revolution)
[protests](Category:1978)(Category:1978 protests)
[in Iran](Category:1978)(Category:1978 in Iran)
[protests](Category:1979)(Category:1979 protests)
[in Iran](Category:1979)(Category:1979 in Iran)
[in politics](Category:1979)(Category:1979 in politics)
[in Islam](Category:1979)(Category:1979 in Islam)
[in Iran](Category:Protests)(Category:Protests in Iran)
[in Iran](Category:Rebellions)(Category:Rebellions in Iran)
[civil wars](Category:Iranian)(Category:Iranian civil wars)
[revolutions](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century revolutions)
[involving the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran](Category:Conflicts)(Category:Conflicts involving the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran)
[of civil rights and liberties in Iran](Category:History)(Category:History of civil rights and liberties in Iran)
[Reza Pahlavi](Category:Mohammad)(Category:Mohammad Reza Pahlavi)
[Khomeini](Category:Ruhollah)(Category:Ruhollah Khomeini)
[States relations](Category:Iran–United)(Category:Iran–United States relations)
[containing video clips](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles containing video clips)
|
Marisa Tomei
|
marisa_tomei
|
# Marisa Tomei
*Revision ID: 1159247149 | Timestamp: 2023-06-09T05:36:35Z*
---
| birth_place = [Brooklyn](Brooklyn), New York, U.S.
| education = [University](Boston)(Boston University)
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 1983–present
| partner = [Marshall-Green](Logan)(Logan Marshall-Green) (2008–2012)
| works = [list](Full)(List of Marisa Tomei performances)
| awards = [list](Full)(List of awards and nominations received by Marisa Tomei)
}}
**Marisa Tomei** ( , ; born December 4, 1964) is an American actress. She was a cast member on the *[Show](Cosby)(The Cosby Show)* spin-off *[Different World](A)(A Different World)* in 1987. For her role in the 1992 comedy *[Cousin Vinny](My)(My Cousin Vinny)*, she won the [Award for Best Supporting Actress](Academy)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress). She has received two additional [Oscar](Academy Awards) nominations for *[the Bedroom](In)(In the Bedroom)* (2001) and *[Wrestler](The)(The Wrestler (2008 film))* (2008), with the latter also earning her nominations at the [BAFTA](British Academy Film Awards) and [Globe Awards](Golden)(Golden Globe Awards).
Tomei has appeared in a number of notable films, including *[Chaplin](Chaplin (film))* (1992), ** (1994), *[Women Want](What)(What Women Want)* (2000), ''[the Devil Knows You're Dead](Before)(Before the Devil Knows You're Dead)* (2007), *[Ides of March](The)(The Ides of March (2011 film))* (2011), *[Stupid, Love](Crazy,)(Crazy, Stupid, Love)* (2011), *[Guidance](Parental)(Parental Guidance (film))* (2012), *[Is Strange](Love)(Love Is Strange (film))* (2014), and *[Big Short](The)(The Big Short (film))* (2015). She also portrayed [Parker](May)(May Parker) in the [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe) (MCU), having appeared in *[America: Civil War](Captain)(Captain America: Civil War)* (2016), *[Homecoming](Spider-Man:)(Spider-Man: Homecoming)* (2017), *[Endgame](Avengers:)(Avengers: Endgame)* (2019), *[Far From Home](Spider-Man:)(Spider-Man: Far From Home)* (2019), and *[No Way Home](Spider-Man:)(Spider-Man: No Way Home)* (2021).
Tomei was formerly involved with the [Angels Theater Company](Naked)(Naked Angels (theater company)) and appeared in *Daughters* (1986) before making her [Broadway](Broadway (theatre)) debut in *[Until Dark](Wait)(Wait Until Dark)* (1998). She earned a nomination for the [Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actress in a Play](Drama)(Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actress in a Play) for her role in *[Girls](Top)(Top Girls)* (2008), and a special [Desk Award](Drama)(Drama Desk Award) for *[Realistic Joneses](The)(The Realistic Joneses)* (2014). She returned to Broadway in the revival of *[Rose Tattoo](The)(The Rose Tattoo)'' in 2019.
## Early life
Tomei was born on December 4, 1964, in Brooklyn, New York, to Adelaide "Addie" ([née](née) Bianchi), an English teacher, and Gary A. Tomei, a trial lawyer. She has a younger brother, actor Adam Tomei, and was partly raised by her paternal grandparents. Tomei's parents are both of [Italian](Italians) [descent](Italian Americans); her father's ancestors came from [Tuscany](Tuscany), [Calabria](Calabria), and [Campania](Campania), while her mother's ancestors are from Tuscany and [Sicily](Sicily).Euvino, Gabrielle. Marisa Tomei is happy mother of three kids that she rises in some part of Toscany [''The Complete Idiot's Guide to Italian History and Culture*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bEkR3iJtHSoC&dq=%22MARISA+TOMEI%22+ITALIAN&pg=RA1-PA319). Alpha Books, 2002. .["Film professor researches how female stardom links to American views on immigration and ethnicity"](http://web2.unt.edu/news/story.cfm?story=8221) . University of North Texas. October 25, 2001. She graduated from [R. Murrow High School](Edward)(Edward R. Murrow High School) in 1982.Stated on *[Do You Think You Are?](Who)(Who Do You Think You Are? (U.S. TV series))'', February 10, 2012
Tomei grew up in the [Midwood](Midwood, Brooklyn) neighborhood of Brooklyn.Collins, Glenn. ["Actress's Challenge in Change of Pace and Diction"](https://www.nytimes.com/1992/08/10/theater/actress-s-challenge-in-change-of-pace-and-diction.html) , *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, August 10, 1992. Retrieved October 23, 2007. While there, she became captivated by the [Broadway](Broadway theatre) shows to which her theater-loving parents took her and was drawn to acting as a career. At Andries Hudde Junior High School, she played Hedy LaRue in a school production of *[to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying](How)(How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying (musical))*. She also attended Albee School of Dance. After graduating from high school, she attended [University](Boston)(Boston University) for a year.
## Career
### 1980s: Early work
Tomei followed up *[the World Turns](As)(As the World Turns)* in 1986 with a role on the sitcom *[Different World](A)(A Different World)* as Maggie Lauten during the first season. Her film debut was a minor role in the 1984 [film](comedy)(comedy film) *[Flamingo Kid](The)(The Flamingo Kid)*, in which she played Mandy, a waitress. She had only one line in the film. During this phase, she made her stage debut in 1987 at the age of 22 in the off-Broadway play *Daughters*, playing Cetta. The role earned her rave reviews and the [World Award](Theatre)(Theatre World Award) for outstanding debut on stage.
### 1990s: Breakthrough with *My Cousin Vinny*
Following several small films, including *[Oscar](Oscar (1991 film))*, Tomei came to international prominence with her comedic performance in the 1992 film *[Cousin Vinny](My)(My Cousin Vinny)*, for which she received critical praise.
Critic [Canby](Vincent)(Vincent Canby) wrote, "Ms. Tomei gives every indication of being a fine comedian, whether towering over [Pesci](Mr.)(Joe Pesci) and trying to look small, or arguing about a leaky faucet in terms that demonstrate her knowledge of plumbing. Mona Lisa is also a first-rate auto mechanic, which comes in handy in the untying of the knotted story." For her performance, Tomei was named [Supporting Actress](Best)(Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress) at the [Academy Awards](1993)(65th Academy Awards), prevailing over [Richardson](Miranda)(Miranda Richardson), [Plowright](Joan)(Joan Plowright), [Redgrave](Vanessa)(Vanessa Redgrave) and [Davis](Judy)(Judy Davis).
American film critic [Reed](Rex)(Rex Reed) created controversy (and a minor Hollywood myth) Movie Answer Man |url= https://www.rogerebert.com/answer-man/the-questions-that-will-not-die |website= RogerEbert.com |access-date= September 8, 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190426235721/https://www.rogerebert.com/answer-man/the-questions-that-will-not-die |archive-date= April 26, 2019 |url-status= live }} when he suggested that [Palance](Jack)(Jack Palance) had announced the wrong name after opening the envelope. While this allegation was repeatedly disproved—even the [Academy](Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences) officially denied it—Tomei called the story "extremely hurtful". A [Waterhouse](Price)(Price Waterhouse) accountant explained that if such an event had occurred, "we have an agreement with the Academy that one of us would step on stage, introduce ourselves, and say the presenter misspoke." In 2015, when *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* polled hundreds of academy members, asking them to re-vote on some past decisions, academy members indicated that, given a second chance, they would still award the 1992 Best Supporting Actress award to Tomei.
After her Oscar win, Tomei appeared as [film](silent)(silent film) star [Normand](Mabel)(Mabel Normand) in the film *[Chaplin](Chaplin (film))*, with her then-boyfriend [Downey Jr.](Robert)(Robert Downey Jr.) playing [Chaplin](Charlie)(Charlie Chaplin). The following year, she starred in the romantic drama *[Heart](Untamed)(Untamed Heart)* with [Slater](Christian)(Christian Slater), for which they won the [Movie Award for Best Kiss](MTV)(MTV Movie Award for Best Kiss). Tomei had won the previous year for [Breakthrough Performance](Best)(MTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance) for *My Cousin Vinny*. The next year, Tomei appeared alongside Downey again in the romantic comedy *[You](Only)(Only You (1994 film))*. She then appeared in [Cassavetes](Nick)(Nick Cassavetes)' *[the Stars](Unhook)(Unhook the Stars)*. Of Tomei's performance, [Holden](Stephen)(Stephen Holden) of *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* compared her favorably to the film's star, [Rowlands](Gena)(Gena Rowlands), writing, "Ms. Tomei is equally fine as Mildred's [character's](Rowlands') younger, hot-tempered neighbor, whose raw working-class feistiness and bluntly profane vocabulary initially repel the genteel older woman." She received her first [Actors Guild](Screen)(Screen Actors Guild) award nomination for Outstanding [Supporting Actor](Female)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Supporting Female Actor - Motion Picture) for her performance. In 1998, she was nominated for the [Comedy Award](American)(American Comedy Award) for Funniest Supporting Actress for [Jenkins](Tamara)(Tamara Jenkins)' [film](cult)(cult film) *[of Beverly Hills](Slums)(Slums of Beverly Hills)*. The independent feature was well received by critics and the public, with [Maslin](Janet)(Janet Maslin) of *The New York Times* writing, "Jenkins makes the most of an especially ingratiating cast, with Ms. Tomei very charming and funny as Rita," and [Levy](Emanuel)(Emanuel Levy) of *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* describing Tomei as "spunky and sexy... more subdued than she usually is." Tomei spent several years away from high-profile roles and major motion pictures in the late 1990s before rising again to prominence in the early 2000s.
During the 1990s, Tomei made several television appearances. In 1996, she made a guest appearance on the sitcom *[Seinfeld](Seinfeld)*, playing herself in the two-part episode "[Cadillac](The)(The Cadillac (Seinfeld))". In the episode, [Costanza](George)(George Costanza) attempts to get a date with her through a friend of [Benes](Elaine)(Elaine Benes). She also made an appearance on *[Simpsons](The)(The Simpsons)* as movie star Sara Sloane, who falls in love with [Flanders](Ned)(Ned Flanders). Former *[Night Live](Saturday)(Saturday Night Live)* cast member [Mohr](Jay)(Jay Mohr) wrote in his book *[for Airtime](Gasping)(Gasping for Airtime)* that, as guest host in October 1994, Tomei insisted that the proposed sketch "Good Morning Brooklyn" not be used because she did not like the idea of being stereotyped. This displeased SNL's writers and performers given the show's penchant for satirizing celebrities. Tomei did parody her *My Cousin Vinny* role and its considerable Brooklyn influence in a skit spoofing the 1995 [Simpson murder trial](O.J.)(O.J. Simpson murder trial).
### 2000s: *In the Bedroom* and *The Wrestler*
[[File:MarisaTomeiAAFeb09.jpg|thumb|upright|Tomei at the [Academy Awards](81st)(81st Academy Awards) in 2009, where she received her third [Award](Academy)(Academy Award) nomination for [Wrestler*](*The)(The Wrestler (2008 film))|alt=A photo of a brown-haired woman wearing a white dress]]
Tomei appeared in the 2000 film *What Women Want*, a commercial success, and had a supporting role in the romantic comedy *[Like You](Someone)(Someone Like You (film))*. In 2001, she appeared in [Field](Todd)(Todd Field)'s [Picture](Best)(Academy Award for Best Picture) nominee *[the Bedroom](In)(In the Bedroom)*, earning several awards including a ShoWest Award for Best Supporting Actress in 2002. *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* wrote, "Tomei is winning in what is surely her most naturalistic and unaffected performance," while *The New York Times* writer [Holden](Stephen)(Stephen Holden) exclaimed, "Ms. Tomei's ruined, sorrowful Natalie is easily her finest screen role." *In the Bedroom* earned Tomei a second Academy Award nomination and her first [Globe Award](Golden)(Golden Globe Award) nomination for [Supporting Actress](Best)(Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress - Motion Picture). Tomei also shared a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for [Performance by a Cast](Outstanding)(Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture). In 2002, she appeared in the [Bollywood](Bollywood)-inspired film *[Guru](The)(The Guru (2002 film))* and voiced the role of Bree Blackburn, one of the two main antagonists in the animated feature film *[Wild Thornberrys Movie](The)(The Wild Thornberrys Movie)*.
In 2003, Tomei appeared in one of her biggest commercial hits, *[Management](Anger)(Anger Management (film))*. The following year, she appeared in the film *[Alfie](Alfie (2004 film))*, based on the [British film of the same name](1966)(Alfie (1966 film)). In 2006, Tomei had a recurring role in *[Me](Rescue)(Rescue Me (U.S. TV series))*, playing Johnny Gavin's ex-wife Angie. She won a Gracie Allen Award for Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for her work in the four episodes in which she appeared. The following year, she appeared in the comedy *[Hogs](Wild)(Wild Hogs)*. The film was the 13th-highest-grossing movie of 2007 ($168,273,550 domestic box office). She also starred in the [Lumet](Sidney)(Sidney Lumet)-directed ''[the Devil Knows You're Dead](Before)(Before the Devil Knows You're Dead)*.
In 2008, Tomei played Cassidy/Pam, a struggling [stripper](stripper), in the [Aronofsky](Darren)(Darren Aronofsky) film *[Wrestler](The)(The Wrestler (2008 film))''. She appeared in several nude dance numbers in the film. Aronofsky said, "This role shows how courageous and brave Marisa is. And ultimately she's really sexy. We knew nudity was a big part of the picture, and she wanted to be that exposed and vulnerable." Numerous critics heralded this performance as a standout in her career. *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* wrote, "Tomei delivers one of her most arresting performances, again without any trace of vanity." [Burr](Ty)(Ty Burr) of *[Boston Globe](The)(The Boston Globe)* wrote, "Tomei gives a brave and scrupulously honest performance, one that's most naked when Pam has her clothes on."Burr, Ty *The Boston Globe* December 25, 2008 [The Wrestler film review](https://www.boston.com/movies/display?display=movie&id=12579) Retrieved February 1, 2011. *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* exclaimed, "Tomei is in top, emotionally forthright form as she charts a life passage similar to Pam's."McCarthy, Todd September 5, 2008 *Variety* [*The Wrestler*](https://www.variety.com/review/VE1117938197?refcatid=31) Retrieved February 1, 2010. For her performance she was nominated for her first [BAFTA](BAFTA), second [Globe](Golden)(Golden Globe) and third [Award](Academy)(Academy Award) for Best Supporting Actress. In 2009, Tomei recorded the role of [Magdalene](Mary)(Mary Magdalene) in [Nelson](Thomas)(Thomas Nelson (publisher))'s audio Bible production *The Word of Promise*.
### 2010s–present: Continued screen work
[[File:Marisa Tomei TIFF 2012.jpg|thumb|upright|Tomei attending the premiere of *[Inescapable](Inescapable (film))* at the [Toronto International Film Festival](2012)(2012 Toronto International Film Festival)]]
In 2010, Tomei appeared in *[Cyrus](Cyrus (2010 comedy-drama film))*, a comedy-drama co-starring [C. Reilly](John)(John C. Reilly) and [Hill](Jonah)(Jonah Hill). Tomei hosted the 2011 [and Technical Awards](Scientific)(Academy Scientific and Technical Award), which was followed by an appearance at the [Academy Awards](83rd)(83rd Academy Awards).Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences Press Release February 12, 2011 [Marisa Tomei to Host Academy's Sci-Tech Awards](http://www.oscars.org/press/pressreleases/2011/20110204b.html) Retrieved February 5, 2011. She starred in the mystery-suspense film *[Lincoln Lawyer](The)(The Lincoln Lawyer (film))*. She also appeared in *[Boulevard](Salvation)(Salvation Boulevard)*, which premiered at the 2011 [Film Festival](Sundance)(Sundance Film Festival). Tomei's other 2011 films included *[Stupid, Love](Crazy,)(Crazy, Stupid, Love)* and the [Clooney](George)(George Clooney) film *[Ides of March](The)(The Ides of March (2011 film))*. She is in talks to star in the indie comedy *Married and Cheating*. In an interview, [Gaga](Lady)(Lady Gaga) said she would want Tomei to portray her in a film about the singer. Tomei responded, "I was thrilled when I heard. I love her. I love her music. And she's an awesome businesswoman. So I was so touched, really. I think it's incredible that she likes my work and that she'd think of me."
Tomei was featured in the second episode of the third season of [NBC](NBC)'s *[Do You Think You Are?](Who)(Who Do You Think You Are? (U.S. TV series))*, on February 10, 2012. In the episode, she traveled to Tuscany and to the island of Elba to uncover the truth about the 100-year-old murder of her great-grandfather, Francesco Leopoldo Bianchi.
Tomei portrayed a single mom back in school at [University](Binghamton)(Binghamton University) taking a class taught by [Grant](Hugh)(Hugh Grant) in [Lawrence](Marc)(Marc Lawrence)’s 2014 written and directed *[Rewrite](The)(The Rewrite)*. In 2018, Tomei played Dr. May Updale in *[First Purge](The)(The First Purge)*. She portrays Aunt May in the [Cinematic Universe](Marvel)(Marvel Cinematic Universe), appearing in *[America: Civil War](Captain)(Captain America: Civil War)* (2016), *[Homecoming](Spider-Man:)(Spider-Man: Homecoming)* (2017), *[Endgame](Avengers:)(Avengers: Endgame)* (2019), *[Far From Home](Spider-Man:)(Spider-Man: Far From Home)* (2019) and *[No Way Home](Spider-Man:)(Spider-Man: No Way Home)* (2021). She was also cast to play *[in the Family](All)(All in the Family)*’s [Bunker](Edith)(Edith Bunker) in [ABC](American Broadcasting Company)’s *[in Front of a Studio Audience](Live)(Live in Front of a Studio Audience)* specials.
## Public image
Tomei has been highly ranked on various magazines' most attractive lists. In 2009, Tomei was placed at number 18 on the ''[FHM](FHM's 100 Sexiest Women (UK))''[100 Sexiest Women]('s)(FHM's 100 Sexiest Women (UK)) list.
During her career, Tomei has appeared on the cover of numerous lifestyle and fashion magazines, such as *[Greece](Vogue)(Vogue Greece)*, *[Paper](Paper (magazine))*, *[Redbook](Redbook),* *[Shape](Shape (magazine)), [Gotham](Gotham (magazine))* and *[More](More (magazine)).* In 2005, she was featured in an advertising campaign and a television commercial for clothing retailer [Hanes](Hanes) alongside [Jordan](Michael)(Michael Jordan), [Wayans](Damon)(Damon Wayans), and [Perry](Matthew)(Matthew Perry). She appeared in [Céline](Celine (brand))'s fall 2014 campaign, and has also appeared in campaigns for [& Riley](Briggs)(Briggs & Riley) and [Coach](Coach New York), [of Outsiders](Band)(Band of Outsiders (clothing brand)).
## Personal life
[[File:Marisa Tomei 2009.jpg|thumb|upright|Tomei at the [inauguration of Barack Obama](first)(first inauguration of Barack Obama) in 2009]]
Between 2008 and 2012, Tomei was in a relationship with actor [Marshall-Green](Logan)(Logan Marshall-Green). They were rumored to be engaged, but a representative for Tomei denied this. To date, Tomei has never been married. Tomei said in 2009, "I'm not that big a fan of marriage as an institution, and I don't know why women need to have children to be seen as complete human beings." They separated in 2012.
Tomei has supported voting, drawing attention to the Voter ID assistance available through [VoteRiders](VoteRiders).:
Tomei was featured in two programs dealing with genealogical research: *[Do You Think You Are?](Who)(Who Do You Think You Are? (American TV series))* and the PBS program *[Your Roots](Finding)(Finding Your Roots)*. Researchers mapped out Tomei's family tree and analyzed her DNA. When Tomei's friend, actress [Moore](Julianne)(Julianne Moore), appeared on *Finding Your Roots*, Tomei and Moore learned they are distant cousins.
## Awards and nominations
## References
}}
## External links
*
*
*
*
*
}}
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[American actresses](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American actresses)
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Master and Commander_ The Far Side of the World
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master_and_commander__the_far_side_of_the_world
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# Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World
*Revision ID: 1158399222 | Timestamp: 2023-06-03T21:02:20Z*
---
| screenplay =
| based_on =
| starring =
| music =
| cinematography = [Boyd](Russell)(Russell Boyd)
| editing = [Smith](Lee)(Lee Smith (film editor))
| production_companies =
| distributor = [Century Fox](20th)(20th Century Fox)|group=note}}
| released =
| runtime = 138 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $150 million
| gross = $211.6 million
}}
***Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World*** is a 2003 American [epic](Epic film) [period](historical drama) [war](war film)-[film](drama)(Drama (film and television)) co-written, produced and directed by [Weir](Peter)(Peter Weir), set during the [Wars](Napoleonic)(Napoleonic Wars). The film's plot and characters are adapted from three novels in author [O'Brian](Patrick)(Patrick O'Brian)'s [series](Aubrey–Maturin)(Aubrey–Maturin series), which includes 20 completed novels of [Aubrey](Jack)(Jack Aubrey)'s naval career. The film stars [Crowe](Russell)(Russell Crowe) as Aubrey, captain in the [Navy](Royal)(Royal Navy), and [Bettany](Paul)(Paul Bettany) as [Stephen Maturin](Dr.)(Stephen Maturin), the ship's surgeon. This is the second onscreen collaboration for Crowe and Bettany, both of whom previously co-starred in 2001’s *[Beautiful Mind](A)(A Beautiful Mind (film))*.
The film was a personal project of Fox executive [Rothman](Tom)(Tom Rothman), who recruited Weir to helm the project. Filming took place on the open sea, on replica ships in the water tanks of [Studios](Baja)(Baja Studios), and on the [Islands](Galápagos)(Galápagos Islands). The film, which cost $150 million to make, was a co-production of [Century Fox](20th)(20th Century Fox), [Films](Miramax)(Miramax Films), [Pictures](Universal)(Universal Studios), and [Goldwyn Films](Samuel)(Samuel Goldwyn Films), and released on November 14, 2003. It was a moderate success at the box office, grossing $212 million worldwide.
The film was critically well received and garnered Weir the [Award for Best Direction](BAFTA)(BAFTA Award for Best Direction). At the [Academy Awards](76th)(76th Academy Awards), the film was nominated for 10 Oscars, including [Picture](Best)(Academy Award for Best Picture) and [Director](Best)(Academy Award for Best Director). It won [Cinematography](Best)(Academy Award for Best Cinematography) and [Sound Editing](Best)(Academy Award for Best Sound Editing), but the rest of the categories were swept by *[Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King](The)(The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King)*. In June 2021, a [prequel](prequel) film was announced to be in active development.
## Plot
During the [Wars](Napoleonic)(Napoleonic Wars), Captain [Aubrey](Jack)(Jack Aubrey) of [HMS](Her Majesty's Ship) [*Surprise*](HMS Surprise (O'Brian novels)) is ordered to intercept the [frigate](heavy)(heavy frigate) *Acheron*, a French [privateer](privateer). *Acheron* ambushes *Surprise* off the coast of Brazil, causing heavy damage while remaining undamaged by the British guns. The ship deploys rowboats to tow *Surprise* into a fog bank to evade pursuit. Aubrey's officers tell him that *Surprise* is no match for *Acheron*, and that they should abandon the chase. Aubrey responds that *Acheron* must not be allowed to plunder the British whaling fleet and orders *Surprise* refitted at sea, rather than a lengthy return to port for repairs. Midshipman Blakeney has his arm amputated due to injuries sustained in battle. Shortly afterward, *Acheron* again ambushes *Surprise*, but Aubrey slips away in the night by using a decoy raft and ship's lamps.
Following the privateer south, *Surprise* rounds [Horn](Cape)(Cape Horn) and heads to the [Islands](Galápagos)(Galápagos Islands), where Aubrey is convinced that *Acheron* will prey on Britain's whaling fleet. The ship's surgeon, [Maturin](Stephen)(Stephen Maturin), is interested in the islands' unique flora and fauna, and Aubrey promises his friend several days' exploration time. However, when *Surprise* reaches the Galápagos, they recover the survivors of a whaling ship destroyed by *Acheron*. Aubrey hastily pursues the privateer, dashing Maturin's expectation of more time to explore.
*Surprise* is becalmed for several days. The crew becomes restless and disorderly, and superstition begins to take hold among them. Midshipman Hollom, already unpopular with the crew, is named a "[Jonah](Jonah#Cultural influence)" by the sailors (someone who brings bad luck to a ship). As the tension rises, crew member Nagle deliberately bumps shoulders with Hollom as he passes him on the deck and is flogged for insubordination. That night, Hollom commits suicide by jumping overboard with a cannonball; Aubrey holds a service for Hollom the next morning. The wind picks up again, and *Surprise* resumes the chase.
The next day, Royal Marine officer Captain Howard attempts to shoot an [albatross](waved albatross) but accidentally hits Maturin instead. The surgeon's mate informs Aubrey that unless the bullet and a piece of cloth it took with it are removed soon, they will fester. He also recommends the delicate operation be performed on land. Despite closing on *Acheron*, Aubrey takes the doctor back to the Galápagos. Maturin performs [on himself](surgery)(Self-surgery) using a mirror. Finally giving up the pursuit of the privateer, Aubrey grants Maturin the chance to explore the Galápagos Islands and gather specimens before they head for home. While looking for a species of [cormorant](flightless)(flightless cormorant), the doctor discovers *Acheron* on the other side of the island. Maturin abandons most of his specimens and hurries to warn Aubrey. *Surprise* readies for battle once more. Due to *Acheron*s stronger hull, *Surprise* must be at close quarters to damage her. After observing the [camouflage](camouflage) ability of one of Maturin's specimens, Aubrey disguises *Surprise* as a whaling ship; he hopes the French will be lured in to capture the valuable ship rather than destroy it. *Acheron* falls for the disguise, and *Surprise* launches her attack. With the back wheels of the cannons taken off, the cannons are angled upward and fire upon *Acheron*s mainmast while Captain Howard's Marine sharpshooters pick off the crew of *Acheron* from above. *Acheron* is disabled when the mainmast snaps and falls into the sea. Aubrey leads boarding parties, engaging in fierce hand-to-hand combat. Upon capturing the ship, Aubrey is informed by the ship's doctor that the French captain is dead and is given the Captain's sword.
*Acheron* and *Surprise* are repaired and *Surprise* remains in the Galápagos. Pullings is promoted to captain and ordered to sail the captured *Acheron* to [Valparaíso](Valparaíso). As *Acheron* sails away, Maturin mentions that their doctor had died months ago. Realising the French captain deceived him by pretending to be the ship's doctor, Aubrey gives the order to change course to intercept *Acheron* and escort her to Valparaíso, and for the crew to assume battle stations. Maturin is again denied the chance to explore the Galápagos, but Aubrey wryly notes that since the bird he seeks is flightless, "it's not going anywhere." The two then play *[notturna delle strade di Madrid](Musica)(Musica notturna delle strade di Madrid)* by [Boccherini](Luigi)(Luigi Boccherini) as *Surprise* turns in pursuit of *Acheron* once more.
## Cast
* [Crowe](Russell)(Russell Crowe) as [Aubrey](Jack)(Jack Aubrey)
* [Bettany](Paul)(Paul Bettany) as [Maturin](Stephen)(Stephen Maturin), [Surgeon](Ship's doctor#Royal Navy)
* [D'Arcy](James)(James D'Arcy) as First Lieutenant [Pullings](Thomas)(Recurring characters in the Aubrey–Maturin series#Shipmates)
* Edward Woodall as Second Lieutenant [Mowett](William)(Recurring characters in the Aubrey–Maturin series#Shipmates)
* [Larkin](Chris)(Chris Larkin) as [Captain](Captain (OF-2)) Howard, [Marines](Royal)(Royal Marines)
* [Pugh](Robert)(Robert Pugh) as John Allen, [Master](Master (naval))
* [Benitz](Max)(Max Benitz) as [Midshipman](Midshipman)/Acting Third Lieutenant Peter Myles Calamy
* [Pirkis](Max)(Max Pirkis) as Midshipman Lord William Blakeney
* [Ingleby](Lee)(Lee Ingleby) as Midshipman Hollom
* [McCabe](Richard)(Richard McCabe) as Mr. Higgins, [Mate](Surgeon's)(Surgeon's Mate)
* [Mercer](Ian)(Ian Mercer) as Mr. Hollar, [Boatswain](Boatswain)
* [Dolan](Tony)(Tony Dolan) as Mr. Lamb, [Carpenter](Carpenter)
* [Threlfall](David)(David Threlfall) as [Killick](Preserved)(Recurring characters in the Aubrey–Maturin series#Shipmates), [Steward](Captain's)(Chief steward)
* [Boyd](Billy)(Billy Boyd (actor)) as [Bonden](Barrett)(Recurring characters in the Aubrey–Maturin series#Shipmates), [Coxswain](Coxswain)
* [Dick](Bryan)(Bryan Dick) as Joseph Nagle, Carpenter's Mate
* [Morgan](Joseph)(Joseph Morgan (actor)) as William Warley, Captain of the [Mizzentop](Top (sailing ship))
* [Innes](George)(George Innes) as [Plaice](Joe)(Recurring characters in the Aubrey–Maturin series#Shipmates), [Seaman](Able)(Able Seaman)
* [Gallagher](Patrick)(Patrick Gallagher (actor)) as [Davies](Awkward)(Recurring characters in the Aubrey–Maturin series#Shipmates), Able Seaman
* [DeSantis](John)(John DeSantis) as [Colman](Padeen)(Recurring characters in the Aubrey–Maturin series#Shipmates), [Boy](Loblolly)(Loblolly boy)
* [Lewis Jones](Mark)(Mark Lewis Jones) as Mr. Hogg, Master of the [Whaler](Whaler) *Albatross*
In trying to find men who looked as though they were from the 19th century, Weir recruited many extras from [Poland](Poland). [French](Philip)(Philip French) noted that the casting of Crowe, an Australian, as a British naval hero followed a tradition in film (e.g. [Flynn](Errol)(Errol Flynn) as Geoffrey Thorpe in *[Sea Hawk](The)(The Sea Hawk (1940 film))*, [Finch](Peter)(Peter Finch) as [Nelson](Lord)(Lord Nelson) in *[to the Nation](Bequest)(Bequest to the Nation (film))*, and [Gibson](Mel)(Mel Gibson) as [Christian](Fletcher)(Fletcher Christian) in *[Bounty](The)(The Bounty (1984 film))*).
## Production
### Source material
[[File:Patrick45.jpg|thumb|The film was adapted from the [novels](Aubrey-Maturin)(Aubrey-Maturin series) written by [O'Brian](Patrick)(Patrick O'Brian) (pictured).]]
The film is drawn from the [novels](Aubrey–Maturin)(Aubrey–Maturin series) by [O'Brian](Patrick)(Patrick O'Brian), but matches the events in no one novel. The author drew from real events in the Napoleonic Wars, as he describes in the introduction to the first novel, *[and Commander](Master)(Master and Commander)*. Many have speculated as to which Royal Navy captain matches the fictional character most. The Royal Navy Museum considers Captain [Cochrane](Lord)(Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald) as the inspiration for the character in the first novel, *[and Commander](Master)(Master and Commander)*. No specific real life captain completely matches Aubrey, but the exploits of two naval captains inspired events in the novels, Captain [Cochrane](Thomas)(Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald), and Captain William Woolsey. Cochrane used the ruse of placing a light on a floating barrel at night to avoid capture. Woolsey, aboard HMS *Papillon*, disguised a ship under his command as a commercial boat; on discovering information that a rogue ship was on the other side of a small island, he sailed around the island and captured the Spanish ship by stratagem, on April 15, 1805.
The film combines elements from three different novels of Patrick O'Brian, but the basic plot mostly comes from his tenth novel *[Far Side of the World](The)(The Far Side of the World)*. However, in the film version, the action takes place in 1805, during the Napoleonic wars, instead of 1812 during the [of 1812](War)(War of 1812), as the producers wished to avoid offending American audiences. In consequence, the fictional opponent was changed from USS *Norfolk* to the French privateer [frigate](frigate) *Acheron*. *Acheron* in the film was reconstructed by the film's special-effects team who took stem-to-stern digital scans of [*Constitution*](USS)(USS Constitution) at her berth in Boston, from which the computer model of *Acheron* was rendered. Retrieved on 25 August 2009. The film excludes scenes in ports, and, besides Brazilian women in a single scene, the novels' female characters were not adapted.
The episode in which Aubrey deceives the enemy by means of a raft bearing lanterns is taken from *[and Commander](Master)(Master and Commander)*, while the episode in which Maturin directs surgery on himself, while gritting his teeth in pain, to remove a bullet is taken from [*Surprise*](HMS)(HMS Surprise (novel)).) The stern chase around [Horn](Cape)(Cape Horn) is taken from the novel *[Island](Desolation)(Desolation Island (novel))*, although *Acheron* replaced the Dutch [warship](74-gun)(Seventy-four (ship)) *Waakzaamheid*, *Surprise* replaced *Leopard*, and in the book it is Aubrey who is being pursued around the [of Good Hope](Cape)(Cape of Good Hope).
### Development
[Century Fox](20th)(20th Century Fox) executive [Rothman](Tom)(Tom Rothman) had wished to adapt O'Brian's novels since first reading them, recognizing the potential for a film franchise. Becoming CEO, he recruited director [Weir](Peter)(Peter Weir) to helm the project.
### Filming
Great efforts were made to reproduce the authentic look and feel of life aboard an early nineteenth-century [man-of-war](man-of-war). In addition to 2,000 hats and 1,900 pairs of shoes, some 400 pounds of hair were used on actors.
However, only ten days of the filming took place at sea aboard *[Rose](HMS Rose (replica ship))* (a reproduction of the 18th-century [ship](post)(post ship) [*Rose*](HMS)(HMS Rose (1757))). Other scenes were shot on a full-scale replica mounted on [gimbal](gimbal)s in a nearly 20-million-gallon tank at [Studios](Baja)(Baja Studios) in Mexico, built for the filming of *[Titanic](Titanic (1997 film))* (1997).
There was a third HMS *Surprise* which was a scale model built by [Workshop](Weta)(Weta Workshop). A storm sequence was enhanced using digitally composited footage of waves shot on board a [replica](modern)(HM Bark Endeavour Replica) of [Cook](James Cook)'s *[Endeavour](HMS Endeavour)* rounding [Horn](Cape)(Cape Horn). All of the actors were given a thorough grounding in the naval life of the period in order to make their performances as authentic as possible. The ship's boats used in the film were Russian Naval six- and four-oared [yawl](yawl)s supplied by Central Coast Charters and Boat Base Monterey. Their faithful 18th-century appearance complemented the historical accuracy of the rebuilt "Rose," whose own boat, the "Thorn", could be used only in the Brazilian scene.
*Master and Commander* was the first non-documentary film to shoot on-location in the [Galápagos](Galápagos). Filming took place from June to November 2002.
### Sound
Sound designer Richard King earned *Master and Commander* an Oscar for its sound effects by going to great lengths to record realistic sounds, particularly for the battle scenes and the storm scenes. King and director Peter Weir began by spending months reading the Patrick O'Brian novels in search of descriptions of the sounds that would have been heard on board the ship—for example, the "screeching bellow" of cannon fire and the "deep howl" of a cannonball passing overhead.
King worked with the film's Lead Historical Consultant Gordon Laco, who located collectors in Michigan who owned a 24-pounder and a 12-pounder cannon. King, Laco, and two assistants went to Michigan and recorded the sounds of the cannon firing at a nearby National Guard base. They placed microphones near the cannon to get the "crack" of the cannon fire, and also about downrange to record the "shrieking" of the chain shot as it passed overhead. They also recorded the sounds of bar shot and grape shot passing overhead, and later mixed the sounds of all three types of shot for the battle scenes.
For the sounds of the shot hitting the ships, they set up wooden targets at the artillery range and blasted them with the cannon, but found the sonic results underwhelming. Instead, they returned to Los Angeles and there recorded sounds of wooden barrels being destroyed. King sometimes added the "crack" of a rifle shot to punctuate the sound of a cannonball hitting a ship's hull.
For the sound of wind in the storm as the ship rounds Cape Horn, King devised a wooden frame rigged with one thousand feet of line and set it in the back of a pickup truck. By driving the truck at into a wind, and modulating the wind with barbecue and refrigerator grills, King was able to create a range of sounds, from "shrieking" to "whistling" to "sighing", simulating the sounds of wind passing through the ship's rigging.
[Tognetti](Richard)(Richard Tognetti), who scored the film's music, taught Crowe how to play the violin, as Aubrey plays the violin with Maturin on his cello in the movie. Crowe purchased the violin personally as the budget did not allow for the expense. The violin was made in 1890 by the Italian violin maker [Bisiach](Leandro)(Leandro Bisiach), and sold at auction in 2018 for US$104,000. Bettany learned how to play the [cello](cello) for the role of Maturin, so the pair could be filmed playing with proper posture and technique instead of miming. The recording was dubbed in the final version of the film.
### Music
[Davies](Iva)(Iva Davies), lead singer of the Australian band [Icehouse](Icehouse (band)), traveled to Los Angeles to record the soundtrack to the film with [Gordon](Christopher)(Christopher Gordon (composer)) and [Tognetti](Richard)(Richard Tognetti). Together, they won the 2004 APRA/[AGSC](AGSC) Screen Music Award in the "Best Soundtrack Album" category. The score includes an assortment of [baroque](baroque) and [music](classical)(classical music), notably the first of [Sebastian Bach](Johann)(Johann Sebastian Bach)'s [for Unaccompanied Cello](Suites)(Cello Suites (Bach)), Suite No. 1 in [major](G)(G major), [BWV](BWV) 1007, played by [Ma](Yo-Yo)(Yo-Yo Ma); the Strassburg theme in the third movement of [Amadeus Mozart](Wolfgang)(Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart)'s [Concerto No. 3](Violin)(Violin Concerto No. 3 (Mozart)); the third (Adagio) movement of [Corelli](Arcangelo Corelli)'s [Concerto](Christmas)(Christmas Concerto) ([grosso](Concerto)(Concerto grosso) in [minor](G)(G minor), Op. 6, No. 8); and a recurring rendition of [Vaughan Williams](Ralph)(Ralph Vaughan Williams)'s [on a Theme of Thomas Tallis](Fantasia)(Fantasia on a Theme of Thomas Tallis). The music played on [violin](violin) and [cello](cello) before the end is [Boccherini](Luigi)(Luigi Boccherini)'s [Quintet](String)(String Quintet) (Quintettino) for 2 [violin](violin)s, [viola](viola) & 2 [cello](cello)s in [major](C)(C major) ("[notturna delle strade di Madrid](Musica)(Musica notturna delle strade di Madrid)"), G. 324 Op. 30. The two arrangements of this cue contained in the CD differ significantly from the one heard in the movie.
The song sung in the [wardroom](wardroom) is "[Forget Your Old Shipmates](Don't)(Don't Forget Your Old Shipmates)", a British Navy song written in the early 1800s and arranged in 1978 by [Mageean](Jim)(Jim Mageean) from his album *Of Ships... and Men*. The tunes sung and played by the crew on deck at night are "O'Sullivan's March", "[Ladies](Spanish)(Spanish Ladies)" and "The British Tars" ("The shipwrecked tar"), which was set to tune of "Bonnie Ship the Diamond" and called "Raging Sea/Bonnie Ship the Diamond" on the soundtrack.
## Release and reception
### Theatrical release
On November 17, 2003, *Master and Commander* had its UK Premiere at the 57th [Film Performance](Royal)(Royal Film Performance), a fundraising event held in aid of [Film and TV Charity](The)(The Film and Television Charity).
### Box office
Hoping to draw adults during the [awards seasons](film)(film awards seasons), *Master and Commander* was slated for a release in mid-November 2003. However, the film failed to reach the No. 1 spot on its opening weekend. It opened #2 behind Christmas comedy *[Elf](Elf (film))* in the first weekend of North American release, November 14–16, 2003, earning $25,105,990. It dropped to the #4 position in the second weekend and #6 in the third, and finished the domestic run with $93,927,920 in gross receipts. Outside the U.S. and Canada, the film grossed $118,083,191, doing best in Italy (at $15,111,841). The film grossed $212 million globally, barely recouping its $150 million budget.
Despite the success of *[Gladiator](Gladiator (2000 film))* in 2000, also starring Crowe, the [epic](historical)(Epic film) had lost much of its popularity among general audiences by the time of the *Master and Commander* release. In 2003, the box office was largely dominated by escapist and fantasy films, such as *[X-Men United](X2:)(X2 (film))*, *[Nemo](Finding)(Finding Nemo)*, *[of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl](Pirates)(Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl)*, and *[Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King](The)(The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King)*. In addition to being more erudite, *Master and Commander* realistic and gruesome depiction of combat may have been too serious for audiences during the holiday season. O'Brian's novels also had little [recognition](name)(name recognition).
### Critical response
On review aggregate website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), 85% of 219 critics gave the film an overall positive review, with an average rating of 7.6/10. The site's critics consensus states: "Russell Crowe's rough charm is put to good use in this masterful adaptation of Patrick O'Brian's novel." On [Metacritic](Metacritic), the film has a weighted average score of 81 out of 100 based on 42 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.
[Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) gave the film 4 stars out of 4, saying that "it achieves the epic without losing sight of the human". *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*s [Bradshaw](Peter)(Peter Bradshaw) praised the film and Crowe's performance. *[York Times](New)(New York Times)* critic [O. Scott](A.)(A. O. Scott) described the film as "stupendously entertaining". However, [Epstein](Jason)(Jason Epstein), also writing for *The New York Times*, criticized the film, taking issue with changes from the novel, Crowe's "one-dimensional action hero", and implausible events in the script.
[Hitchens](Christopher)(Christopher Hitchens) gave a mixed review: "Any cinematic adaptation of O'Brian must stand or fall by its success in representing this figure [Stephen Maturin](Dr.). On this the film doesn't even fall, let alone stand. It skips the whole project." (The film omits completely the fact that the doctor and naturalist is also a spy for England—a key plot element in the novels.) Hitchens nonetheless praised the action scenes, writing: "In one respect the action lives up to its fictional and actual inspiration. This was the age of [Bligh](William Bligh) and Cook and of voyages of discovery as well as conquest, and when HMS *Surprise* makes landfall in the Galapagos Islands we get a beautifully filmed sequence about how the dawn of scientific enlightenment might have felt."
*[Francisco Chronicle](San)(San Francisco Chronicle)* film reviewer [LaSalle](Mick)(Mick LaSalle) was generally downbeat and, after praising director Weir's handling of scenes with no dialogue, observed that "Weir is less surefooted as a screenwriter. Having not read any of O'Brian's novels, I can't say if the fault is in Weir's adaptation or in the source material, but halfway into 'Master and Commander,' the friendship of the captain and the doctor begins to seem schematic, as if all the positive traits that an individual could have were divided equally between these two guys, just so they can argue. Their interaction takes on a preening quality, reminiscent of the interaction of the '[Trek](Star)(Star Trek)' characters four or five movies down the line. We come to realize that the specific adventure matters little except as a showcase for these personalities. Once that happens, the story involving the French ship loses much of its interest and all of its danger, and the movie starts taking on water. 'Master and Commander' stays afloat to the finish, but that's all that can be said."
### Accolades
At the [Academy Awards](76th)(76th Academy Awards) in 2004, *Master and Commander* received ten nominations: [Cinematography](Best)(Academy Award for Best Cinematography), [Sound Editing](Best)(Academy Award for Best Sound Editing), [Picture](Best)(Academy Award for Best Picture), [Director](Best)(Academy Award for Best Director), [Art Direction](Best)(Academy Award for Best Production Design), [Costume Design](Best)(Academy Award for Best Costume Design), [Film Editing](Best)(Academy Award for Best Film Editing), [Makeup](Best)(Academy Award for Best Makeup and Hairstyling), [Sound Mixing](Best)(Academy Award for Best Sound Mixing) and [Visual Effects](Best)(Academy Award for Best Visual Effects). It won the awards for Best Cinematography and Best Sound Editing but lost the rest to *The Return of the King*. The film also garnered Weir the [Award for Best Direction](BAFTA)(BAFTA Award for Best Direction).
## Legacy
[[File:Hmssurprise.jpg|thumb|upright|The replica of [*Surprise*](HMS)(HMS Surprise (1796)) used in the film docked in San Diego, 2012|alt=HMS *Surprise* (replica)]]
Weir, asked in 2005 if he would make a [sequel](sequel), stated he thought it "most unlikely", and after internet rumors to the contrary, stated "I think that while it did well...*ish* at the box office, it didn't generate that monstrous, rapid income that provokes a sequel." In 2007 the film was included on a list of "13 Failed Attempts To Start Film Franchises" by [A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club), noting that "this surely stands as one of the most exciting opening salvos in nonexistent-series history, and the Aubrey–Maturin novels remain untapped cinematic ground."
In December 2010, Crowe launched an appeal on [Twitter](Twitter) to get the sequel made: "If you want a *Master and Commander* sequel I suggest you e-mail [Rothman](Tom)(Tom Rothman) at Fox and let him know your thoughts".
Film critic Scott Tobias wrote a positive retrospective article about this film in 2019, begrudging the fact that *[of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl](Pirates)(Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl)*, another sea-faring film also released in 2003, had led to a string of *[of the Caribbean](Pirates)(Pirates of the Caribbean (film series))* fantasy films, but there was no demand for a sequel featuring Captain Jack Aubrey and deeply rooted in historical facts of the Napoleonic Wars, the [of Sail](Age)(Age of Sail) and the [of Discovery](Age)(Age of Discovery).
In summer 2020, *[Vulture](Vulture.com)* noted that the "film is ripe for reappraisal." In January 2021, Crowe publicly defended the film from criticism. A March 2023 story in *[GQ](GQ)* noted the film's continued popularity among millennial men who were watching the film on streaming services. It theorized that this was in part due to the film's portrayal of "non-toxic masculinity" and strong male friendships, particularly the one between Aubrey and Maturin. "Overall, the masculinity of *Master and Commander* ... is overwhelmingly wholesome and positive," reporter Gabriella Paiella wrote. "Any nostalgia for the traditionalism in the movie is less reactionary and more about the healthy male bonding between the characters." That was contrasted with continued problems with [bonding](male)(male bonding) among 2020s American men.
### Prequel
In June 2021, it was reported that a second film is in development by [Century Studios](20th)(20th Century Studios), a [prequel](prequel) based on the first novel only, with [Ness](Patrick)(Patrick Ness) penning the script.
## Notes
## References
## Bibliography
*
*
## Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
## External links
* [A Literary Companion to the Film](https://web.archive.org/web/20150415012706/http://www.agbfinebooks.com/Publications/Movie/Master%20and%20Commander.htm) which explores the film's connections to the Aubrey Maturin series
*
*
*
*
*
*[*Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World with Gordon Laco*](https://www.basedonatruestorypodcast.com/181-master-and-commander-the-far-side-of-the-world-with-gordon-laco/) at Based on a True Story
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Dikembe Mutombo
|
dikembe_mutombo
|
# Dikembe Mutombo
*Revision ID: 1160003977 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T21:18:59Z*
---
| birth_place = [Kinshasa](Kinshasa), [Congo-Kinshasa](Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville))
| nationality = Congolese / American
| height_ft = 7
| height_in = 2
| weight_lb = 260
| weight_footnote =
| high_school = [Boboto](Institute)(Boboto College) (Kinshasa, DR Congo)
| college = [Georgetown](Georgetown Hoyas men's basketball) (1988–1991)
| draft_year = 1991
| draft_round = 1
| draft_pick = 4
| draft_team = [Nuggets](Denver)(Denver Nuggets)
| career_position = [Center](Center (basketball))
| career_number = 55
| career_start = 1991
| career_end = 2009
| years1 = –
| team1 = [Nuggets](Denver)(Denver Nuggets)
| years2 = –
| team2 = [Hawks](Atlanta)(Atlanta Hawks)
| years3 = –
| team3 = [76ers](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia 76ers)
| years4 =
| team4 = [Jersey Nets](New)(Brooklyn Nets)
| years5 =
| team5 = [York Knicks](New)(New York Knicks)
| years6 = –
| team6 = [Rockets](Houston)(Houston Rockets)
| highlights =
* 8× [All-Star](NBA)(NBA All-Star) (, –, –)
* [Second Team](All-NBA)(All-NBA Second Team) ()
* 2× [Third Team](All-NBA)(All-NBA Third Team) (, )
* 4× [Defensive Player of the Year](NBA)(NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award) (, , , )
* 3× [All-Defensive First Team](NBA)(NBA All-Defensive First Team) (, , )
* 3× [All-Defensive Second Team](NBA)(NBA All-Defensive Second Team) (, , )
* [All-Rookie First Team](NBA)(NBA All-Rookie First Team) ()
* 2× [rebounding leader](NBA)(List of National Basketball Association annual rebounding leaders) (2000, 2001)
* 3× [blocks leader](NBA)(List of National Basketball Association annual blocks leaders) (1994–1996)
* [Award](IBM)(IBM Award) ()
* No. 55 [by Atlanta Hawks](retired)(Atlanta Hawks#Retired numbers)
* No. 55 [by Denver Nuggets](retired)(Denver Nuggets#Retired numbers)
* Third-team [All-American](NCAA Men's Basketball All-Americans) – [AP](Associated Press), [UPI](United Press International) ([1991](1991 NCAA Men's Basketball All-Americans))
* First-team [East](All-Big)(List of All-Big East Conference men's basketball teams) (1991)
* Second-team All-Big East (1990)
* 2× [East Defensive Player of the Year](Big)(Big East Conference Men's Basketball Defensive Player of the Year) (1990, 1991)
| stats_league = NBA
| stat1label = [Points](Point (basketball))
| stat1value = 11,729 (9.8 ppg)
| stat2label = [Rebounds](Rebound (basketball))
| stat2value = 12,359 (10.3 rpg)
| stat3label = [Blocks](Block (basketball))
| stat3value = 3,289 (2.8 bpg)
| HOF_player = Dikembe-Mutombo
}}
**Dikembe Mutombo Mpolondo Mukamba Jean-Jacques Wamutombo**[Dikembe Mutombo](https://www.basketball-reference.com/players/m/mutomdi01.html) . basketball-reference.com (born June 25, 1966) is a Congolese-American former professional [basketball](basketball) player. Mutombo played 18 seasons in the [Basketball Association](National)(National Basketball Association) (NBA). Outside of basketball, he has become well known for his [humanitarian](humanitarian) work.
The , [center](center (basketball)), who began his career with the [Hoyas](Georgetown)(Georgetown Hoyas men's basketball), is commonly regarded as one of the best [blockers](shot)(block (basketball)) and defensive players of all time, winning the [Defensive Player of the Year Award](NBA)(NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award) four times; he was also an eight-time [All-Star](NBA All-Star). On January 10, 2007, he surpassed [Abdul-Jabbar](Kareem)(Kareem Abdul-Jabbar) as the second [prolific shot blocker](most)(List of National Basketball Association career blocks leaders) in NBA history, behind only [Olajuwon](Hakeem)(Hakeem Olajuwon), and he averaged a [double-double](Double-double (basketball)) for most of his career.
At the conclusion of the [NBA playoffs](2009)(2009 NBA playoffs), Mutombo announced his retirement. On September 11, 2015, he was inducted into the [Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame](Naismith)(Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame).
## Early life
Mutombo was born on June 25, 1966, in [Kinshasa](Kinshasa), [Republic of the Congo](Democratic)(Republic of the Congo (Leopoldville)), as one of 10 children to Samuel and Biamba Marie Mutombo. His father worked as a school principal and then in Congo's department of education. Mutombo speaks English, [French](French language), [Spanish](Spanish language), [Portuguese](Portuguese language), and five Central African languages, including [Lingala](Lingala) and [Tshiluba](Luba-Kasai language). He is a member of the [ethnic group](Luba)(Luba people). For high school, Mutombo went to [College](Boboto)(Boboto College) in Kinshasa to lay the groundwork for his medical career as the classes were more challenging there. He played [football](Association football) and participated in [arts](martial)(martial arts). At around age 16, Mutombo decided to also work on his basketball career at the encouragement of his father and brother due to his height. He moved to the United States in 1987 at the age of 21 to enroll in college.
## College
Mutombo attended [University](Georgetown)(Georgetown University) on a [USAID](United States Agency for International Development) scholarship. He originally intended to become a doctor, but the [Hoyas](Georgetown)(Georgetown Hoyas men's basketball) basketball coach [Thompson](John)(John Thompson (basketball)) recruited him to play basketball. He spoke almost no English when he arrived at Georgetown and studied in the [ESL](English as a second language) program. During his first year of college basketball as a sophomore, Mutombo once blocked 12 shots in a game. Building on the shot-blocking power of Mutombo and teammate [Mourning](Alonzo)(Alonzo Mourning), Georgetown fans created a "Rejection Row" section under the basket, adding a big silhouette of an outstretched hand to a banner for each shot blocked during the game. Mutombo was named the [East Defensive Player of the Year](Big)(Big East Conference Men's Basketball Defensive Player of the Year) twice, in 1990 (shared with Mourning) and in 1991.
At Georgetown, Mutombo's international background and interests stood out. Like many other Washington-area college students, he served as a summer intern, once for the [of the United States](Congress)(Congress of the United States) and once for the [Bank](World)(World Bank). In 1991, he graduated with [degrees](bachelor's)(Bachelor of Arts) in [linguistics](linguistics) and [diplomacy](diplomacy).
## NBA career
### Denver Nuggets
[[mutombo as a nugget.jpg|thumb|left|Mutombo playing for the Denver Nuggets against Olden Polynice of the Clippers](file:Dikembe)]
In the [NBA draft](1991)(1991 NBA draft), the [Nuggets](Denver)(Denver Nuggets) drafted Mutombo with the fourth overall pick. The Nuggets ranked last in the NBA in opponent points-per-game and Defensive Rating, and Mutombo's shot-blocking ability made an immediate impression across the league. He developed his signature move in 1992 as a way to become more marketable and gain product endorsement contracts. After blocking a player's shot, he would point his right index finger at that player and move it side to side. That year, Mutombo starred in an [Adidas](Adidas) advertisement that used the catchphrase "Man does not fly ... in the house of Mutombo", a reference to his prolific shot-blocking. As a rookie, Mutombo was selected for the [team](All-Star)(1992 NBA All-Star Game) and averaged 16.6 points, 12.3 rebounds, and nearly three blocks per game.
Mutombo began establishing himself as one of the league's best defensive players, regularly putting up big rebound and block numbers. The [season](1993–94)(1993–94 Denver Nuggets season) saw Denver continue to improve with Mutombo as the franchise cornerstone. During that season, Mutombo averaged 12.0 points per game, 11.8 rebounds per game, and 4.1 blocks per game. With that, he helped the Nuggets finish with a 42-40 record and qualify as the eighth seed in the playoffs. They were matched up with the top-seeded [Seattle SuperSonics](63–19)(1993–94 Seattle SuperSonics season) in the first round.
After falling to an 0-2 deficit in the five-game series, Denver won three straight games to pull off a major [upset](playoff)(1994 NBA playoffs), becoming the first eighth seed to defeat a number one seed in an NBA playoff series. At the end of Game 5, Mutombo memorably grabbed the game-winning rebound and fell to the ground, holding the ball over his head in a moment of joy. Mutombo's defensive presence was the key to the upset victory; his total of 31 blocks remains a record for a five-game series. In the second round of the playoffs, the Nuggets fell to the [Jazz](Utah)(1993–94 Utah Jazz season), 4-3.
The following season, he was selected for his second All-Star game and received the [Defensive Player of the Year Award](NBA)(NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award). Denver failed to build on its success from the previous playoffs, as Mutombo lacked a quality supporting cast around him. During his last season with the Nuggets, Mutombo averaged 11.0 points per game, 11.8 rebounds per game and a career-high 4.5 blocks per game.
At the conclusion of the 1995–96 season, Mutombo became a free agent, and reportedly sought a 10-year contract, something the Nuggets considered impossible to offer. [Bickerstaff](Bernie)(Bernie Bickerstaff), then the Nuggets' general manager, later said not bringing back Mutombo was his biggest regret as GM.
### Atlanta Hawks
[[vs rodman.jpg|thumb|170px|Mutombo v Dennis Rodman in 1996](File:Mutombo)]
After the [NBA season](1995–96)(1995–96 NBA season), Mutombo signed a 5-year, $55 million [agent](free)(free agent) contract with the [Hawks](Atlanta)(Atlanta Hawks). He and Hawks All-Star [Smith](Steve)(Steve Smith (basketball)) led Atlanta to back-to-back 50+-win seasons in 1996–97 (56–26) and 1997–98 (50–32). Mutombo won Defensive Player of the Year both years, continuing to put up excellent defensive numbers with the Hawks. In the 1997 NBA Playoffs, the Hawks defeated the [Pistons](Detroit)(Detroit Pistons) in five games. In Game 1 of that series, Mutombo led all scorers and rebounders, with 26 points and 15 rebounds respectively, in a 89-75 win over the Pistons. In the next round, despite Mutombo averaging a [double-double](double-double) and 2.6 blocks per game, the Hawks lost in five games to the defending champion [Bulls](Chicago)(Chicago Bulls). The following season, on April 9, 1998, Mutombo scored 20 points and grabbed 24 rebounds in a 105-102 loss to the [Pacers](Indiana)(Indiana Pacers). That season ended in disappointment for Mutombo and the Hawks, as despite finishing with a similar record to the previous season, Mutombo averaged only 8.0 points and 12.8 rebounds a game while the Hawks lost to their division rival [Hornets](Charlotte)(Charlotte Hornets) three games to one in the first round. During the [lockout](lockout (industry))-shortened [season](1998–99)(1998–99 NBA season), he was the NBA's [Award](IBM)(IBM Award) winner, a player of the year award determined by a computerized formula. That year, the NBA banned the Mutombo finger wag, and after a period of protest, he complied with the new rule.
In what would be his last full season with the Hawks during the 1999-00 season, Mutombo averaged 11.5 points per game, a career and league-high 14.1 rebounds per game, and 3.3 blocks per game. On December 14, 1999, Mutombo scored 27 points, on 11-for-11 shooting from the field, grabbed a season-high 29 rebounds and recorded a game-high 6 blocks to pull out the win over the Minnesota Timberwolves.
### Philadelphia 76ers
[[Mutombo.jpg|thumb|left|Mutombo with the 76ers in 2002](Image:Lipofsky-Dikembe)]
At the February 2001 trade deadline, the Hawks traded Mutombo to the Eastern Conference-leading [76ers](Philadelphia)(Philadelphia 76ers), along with [McLeod](Roshown)(Roshown McLeod), in exchange for [Kukoč](Toni)(Toni Kukoč), future teammates [Sánchez](Pepe)(Juan Ignacio Sánchez) and [Mohammed](Nazr)(Nazr Mohammed), and injured center [Ratliff](Theo)(Theo Ratliff). One week earlier, Mutombo played in the [game](All-Star)(2001 NBA All-Star Game); he led the game with 22 rebounds and 3 blocks. Along with game MVP [Iverson](Allen)(Allen Iverson) and coach [Brown](Larry)(Larry Brown (basketball)), both of the 76ers, the East rallied from a 95–74 fourth-quarter deficit to win 111-110 on Mutombo and Iverson's strong performances. After the game, rumors began of a trade sending Mutombo to Philadelphia. With Ratliff out for the remainder of the year, the Sixers needed a big man to compete with potential matchups against Western Conference powers [Divac](Vlade)(Vlade Divac), [Duncan](Tim)(Tim Duncan), [Robinson](David)(David Robinson (basketball)) or [O'Neal](Shaquille)(Shaquille O'Neal), should they reach the [Finals](NBA)(NBA Finals).
In arguably his best season as a pro, Mutombo earned his fourth Defensive Player of the Year award that season. During the 2001 Playoffs, they defeated the [Pacers](Indiana)(Indiana Pacers) in 4 games, [Raptors](Toronto)(Toronto Raptors) in 7 games and [Bucks](Milwaukee)(Milwaukee Bucks) in a 7-game series. During Game 7 against the Bucks, Mutombo scored 23 points, grabbed 19 rebounds and blocked 7 shots to win the series. Mutombo helped the Sixers reach the [Finals](NBA)(2001 NBA Finals). After pulling off an upset and winning Game 1 against the [Angeles Lakers](Los)(Los Angeles Lakers) (the only playoff game the Lakers lost in 2001), the Sixers lost the next four games and the series. Matched up against [Shaq](Shaquille O'Neal), Mutombo averaged 16.8 points, 12.2 rebounds and 2.2 blocks. A free-agent, he re-signed with the Sixers after the season to a four-year, $68 million contract.
The 2001–02 season saw a change in the Eastern conference hierarchy; the Sixers were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs, while the New Jersey Nets surged to the top of the standings, making it all the way to the Finals against the Lakers (the Nets were swept).
### New Jersey Nets
Looking for a big man to compete with the likes of [O'Neal](Shaquille)(Shaquille O'Neal) and [Duncan](Tim)(Tim Duncan), the Nets sent future teammate [Van Horn](Keith)(Keith Van Horn) and [MacCulloch](Todd)(Todd MacCulloch) to Philadelphia in exchange for Mutombo. But Mutombo spent most of that season with a nagging injury that limited him to just 24 games. He was generally unable to play in the playoffs, typically serving as a sixth man during the Nets' second consecutive Finals run (they lost to the Spurs in six games). After one contentious season in New Jersey, the Nets bought out the remaining two years on his contract.
### New York Knicks
In October 2003, he signed a two-year deal with the [York Knicks](New)(New York Knicks). After a dominant performance against the crosstown rival [Jersey Nets](New)(Brooklyn Nets) that included 10 blocks, Knicks fans began waving their fingers at Mutombo.
He chose to respond in kind after a referee told him that as long as the gesture was not directed at a particular player, the league would not punish him. In August 2004, the Knicks traded him to the [Bulls](Chicago)(Chicago Bulls), along with [Trybański](Cezary)(Cezary Trybański), [Harrington](Othella)(Othella Harrington), and [Williams](Frank)(Frank Williams (basketball)) in exchange for [Williams](Jerome)(Jerome Williams (basketball)) and [Crawford](Jamal)(Jamal Crawford).
### Houston Rockets
Prior to the [season](2004–05)(2004–05 NBA season), the Bulls traded Mutombo to the [Rockets](Houston)(Houston Rockets) for [Wilks](Mike)(Mike Wilks (basketball)), [Piatkowski](Eric)(Eric Piatkowski) and [Griffin](Adrian)(Adrian Griffin). [Ming](Yao)(Yao Ming) and Mutombo formed one of the NBA's most productive center combos. In his first season with the Rockets, Mutombo averaged 15.2 MPG, 5.3 RPG, 4.0 PPG, and 1.3 BPG. The Rockets lost in the first round to the Dallas Mavericks.
On March 2, 2007, in a win over the [Nuggets](Denver)(Denver Nuggets) at age 40, Mutombo became the oldest player in NBA history to record more than 20 rebounds in a game, with 22.
In the [season](2007–08)(2007–08 NBA season), Mutombo received extensive playing time when Yao went down with a broken bone and averaged double digits in rebounding as a starter. In midst of a 10-game winning streak at the time of Yao's injury, Mutombo stepped in and helped the Rockets win 12 more games to complete a 22-game winning streak, then a team record.
On January 10, 2008, in a 102–77 rout of the [Angeles Lakers](Los)(Los Angeles Lakers), Mutombo recorded 5 blocked shots and surpassed [Abdul-Jabbar](Kareem)(Kareem Abdul-Jabbar) in [career blocked shots](total)(List of National Basketball Association career blocks leaders), trailing only [Olajuwon](Hakeem)(Hakeem Olajuwon).
After contemplating retirement and spending the first part of 2008 as an unsigned free agent, on December 31, 2008, Mutombo signed with the Houston Rockets for the remainder of the 2008–09 season. He said that 2009 would be his "farewell tour" and his final season; he was the oldest player in the NBA in 2009. In Game 1 of Houston's first-round playoff series against [Portland](Portland Trail Blazers), Mutombo played for 18 minutes and had nine rebounds, two blocks, and a steal.
In the 2nd quarter of Game 2, Mutombo landed awkwardly and had to be carried from the floor. After the game, he said, "it's over for me for my career" and that surgery would be needed. It was later confirmed that the quadriceps tendon of his left knee was ruptured in Game 2. Mutombo announced retirement on April 23, 2009, after 18 seasons in the NBA.
## Player profile
The , Mutombo played [center](Center (basketball)), where he was regarded as one of the top inside defenders of all time. Nicknamed "Mt. Mutombo", his combination of height, power, and long arms led to a record-tying four [Defensive Player of the Year](NBA)(NBA Defensive Player of the Year) awards, a feat equaled only by [Wallace](Ben)(Ben Wallace (basketball)). Mutombo was among the top three players in Defensive Player of the Year voting for nine consecutive seasons from [1994](1993-94 NBA season) to [2002](2001-02 NBA season). Staples of Mutombo's defensive prowess were his outstanding shot-blocking and rebounding power. Over his career, he averaged 2.8 blocks and 10.3 rebounds per game. He is second [in registered blocks](all-time)(List of National Basketball Association career blocks leaders), behind only [Olajuwon](Hakeem)(Hakeem Olajuwon), and is the 20th [prolific rebounder ever](most)(List of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders). He was also an eight-time All-Star and was elected into three All-NBA and six All-Defensive Teams. Along with his defensive prowess, Mutombo also contributed offensively, averaging at least 10 points per game until he reached age 35.
Mutombo also achieved a certain level of on-court notoriety. After a successful block, he was known for taunting his opponents by waving his index finger, like a parent reproaching a disobedient child. Later in his career, NBA officials would respond to the gesture with a technical foul for unsportsmanlike conduct. To avoid the technical foul, Mutombo took to waving his finger at the crowd or the TV cameras after a block, which is not considered taunting by the rules. Additionally, his flailing elbows were known for injuring several NBA players, including [Jordan](Michael)(Michael Jordan), [Rodman](Dennis)(Dennis Rodman), [Oakley](Charles)(Charles Oakley), [Ewing](Patrick)(Patrick Ewing), [Billups](Chauncey)(Chauncey Billups), [Allen](Ray)(Ray Allen), [Ming](Yao)(Yao Ming), [James](LeBron)(LeBron James) and [McGrady](Tracy)(Tracy McGrady). His former teammate Yao Ming made a joke about it: "I need to talk to Coach to have Dikembe held out of practice, because if he hits somebody in practice, it's our teammate. At least in the games, it's 50/50."
## Personal life
[[Mutombo.jpg|thumb|Mutombo speaks at a 2006 press briefing](File:Dikembe)]
In 1987, Mutombo's 6'10" older brother, Ilo, began playing college basketball in [II](Division)(NCAA Division II) for the [Indiana Screaming Eagles](Southern)(Southern Indiana Screaming Eagles) as a 26-year-old freshman. The brothers played against each other in a 1990 game at the [Centre](Capital)(Capital Centre (Landover, Maryland)).
He met his wife, Rose, during a visit to Kinshasa in 1995. They live in Atlanta and have three children together. They also adopted four children from Rose's deceased brothers. His son, Ryan, was ranked as the 16th best center in high school and committed in 2021 to play at Georgetown.
Mutombo was awarded an honorary [of Humane Letters](Doctor)(Doctor of Humane Letters) by the [University of New York College at Cortland](State)(State University of New York College at Cortland) in 2004 for his humanitarian work in Africa. More recently, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by Georgetown University in 2010. There he delivered the commencement address for Georgetown College of Arts and Sciences, of which he is an alumnus. He also received an honorary doctorate from [College](Haverford)(Haverford College) in May 2011.
In November 2015, the [NCAA](National Collegiate Athletic Association) announced Mutombo as a recipient of its [Anniversary Awards](Silver)(Silver Anniversary Awards) for 2016. The awards are presented annually to six former NCAA athletes on the 25th anniversary of the final academic year of their college careers, recognizing both excellence of play while in college and professional achievement after college. The announcement cited both his basketball career and [humanitarian work](extensive)(#Humanitarian work).
Mutombo's nephew Harouna Mutombo played college basketball for the [Carolina Catamounts](Western)(Western Carolina Catamounts men's basketball) and professionally in Europe. Harouna was the team's leading scorer for the 2009 season and was named [Conference](Southern)(Southern Conference) Freshman of the Year. His nephew Haboubacar Mutombo also committed to play basketball at Western Carolina beginning in 2013. His nephew [Kabengele](Mfiondu)(Mfiondu Kabengele) played college basketball at Florida State University and was the 2018–19 ACC Sixth Man of the Year. He later was drafted in the first round of the 2019 NBA draft and signed a playing contract with the Los Angeles Clippers.
His son, Ryan Mutombo, currently plays [basketball](college)(college basketball) for [Georgetown](Georgetown Hoyas men's basketball). Ryan is listed at and plays [center](Center (basketball)). Coming out of high school, Ryan was a highly touted 4 star recruit in the 2021 recruiting class.
Mutombo was among those who witnessed the [Brussels bombings](2016)(2016 Brussels bombings) at [Airport](Brussels)(Brussels Airport) on March 22, 2016. Shortly after the bombings, he posted a report on his [Facebook](Facebook) page saying that he was safe. His first post said, "God is good. I am in the Brussels Airport with this craziness. I am fine."
On October 15, 2022, he announced that he was undergoing treatment for a [tumor](brain)(brain tumor).
## Media
Mutombo made a cameo appearance in the 2002 films *[Mann](Juwanna)(Juwanna Mann)* and *[Mike](Like)(Like Mike)*, which also mentioned his name in its theme song "[Basketball](Basketball (song))".
In 2012, Mutombo lent his voice and likeness to a 16-bit style Flash game released by [Spice](Old)(Old Spice) humorously titled ''Dikembe Mutombo's 4 1/2 Weeks to Save the World''.
Mutombo appeared in a [GEICO](GEICO) [insurance](auto)(auto insurance) [commercial](Advertising) in February 2013, parodying his shot-blocking ability by applying it to real world situations.
Mutombo co-starred with [Harvick](Kevin)(Kevin Harvick) in a [1](Mobil)(Mobil 1) [commercial](Advertising) for its annual protection brand, saying "Don't change your oil."
Mutombo had a brief cameo in the 2021 film *[2 America](Coming)(Coming 2 America)* as himself.
## Humanitarian work
[[speaks to the Senegalese population about the importance of sleeping under mosquito nets](File:Dikembe-Mutombo.jpg|thumb|Mutombo)]
A well-known humanitarian, Mutombo started the Dikembe Mutombo Foundation to improve living conditions in his native [Republic of Congo](Democratic)(Democratic Republic of Congo) in 1997. His efforts earned him the NBA's [Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award](J.)(J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award) in 2001 and 2009. For his feats, *[News](Sporting)(Sporting News)* named him as one of the "Good Guys in Sports" in 1999 and 2000, and in 1999, he was elected as one of 20 winners of the President's Service Awards, the nation's highest honor for volunteer service. In 2004, he participated in the [Without Borders](Basketball)(Basketball Without Borders) NBA program, where NBA stars like [Bradley](Shawn)(Shawn Bradley), [Rose](Malik)(Malik Rose) and [Diop](DeSagana)(DeSagana Diop) toured Africa to spread the word about basketball and to improve the infrastructure. He paid for uniforms and expenses for the Zaire women's basketball team during the 1996 Centennial Olympic Games in Atlanta. Mutombo is a spokesman for the international relief agency, [CARE](CARE (relief)) and is the first youth emissary for the [Nations Development Program](United)(United Nations Development Program).
Mutombo is a longtime supporter of [Olympics](Special)(Special Olympics) and is currently a member of the Special Olympics International Board of Directors, as well as a Global Ambassador. He has been a pioneer of Unified Sports, which brings together people with and without intellectual disabilities. He also played in the Unity Cup in South Africa before the 2010 World Cup Quarterfinal, along with South African President [Zuma](Jacob)(Jacob Zuma) and Special Olympics athletes from around the world. Mutombo joined his second Unity Cup team in 2012.
In honor of his humanitarianism, Mutombo was invited to President [W. Bush](George)(George W. Bush)'s [State of the Union Address](2007)(2007 State of the Union Address) and was referred to as a "son of the Congo" by the President in his speech. Mutombo later said, "My heart was full of joy. I didn't know the President was going to say such great remarks."
On April 13, 2011, the [Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health](Johns)(Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health) gave Mutombo the Goodermote Humanitarian Award "for his efforts to reduce polio globally as well as his work improving the health of neglected and underserved populations in the Democratic Republic of Congo." [J. Klag](Michael)(Michael J. Klag), dean of the Bloomberg School of Public Health, said "Mr. Mutombo is a winner in many ways—on the court and as a humanitarian. His work has improved the health of the people of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the Biamba Marie Mutombo Hospital and Research Center is a model for the region. Likewise, Mr. Mutombo has been instrumental in the fight against [polio](polio) by bolstering vaccination efforts and bringing treatment to victims of the disease."
In 2012, the Mutombo Foundation, in partnership with Mutombo's alma mater, Georgetown University, began a new initiative that aims to provide care for visually impaired children from low-income families in the Washington, D.C. region. In 2020, the foundation began construction of a modern pre-K through 6th-grade school in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Named for his father, who died in 2003, the Samuel Mutombo Institute of Science & Entrepreneurship is located outside the city of [Mbuji-Mayi](Mbuji-Mayi).
### Biamba Marie Mutombo Hospital
In 1997, the Mutombo Foundation began plans to open a $29 million, 300-bed hospital on the outskirts of his hometown, the Congolese capital of [Kinshasa](Kinshasa). Ground was broken in 2001, but construction didn't start until 2004, as Mutombo had trouble getting donations early on although he personally donated $3.5 million toward the hospital's construction. Initially Mutombo had some other difficulties, almost losing the land to the government because it was not being used and having to pay refugees who had begun farming the land to leave. He also struggled to reassure some that he did not have any ulterior or political motives for the project. The project has been on the whole very well received at all social and economic levels in Kinshasa.
On August 14, 2006, Mutombo donated $15 million to the completion of the hospital for its ceremonial opening on September 2, 2006. It was by then named Biamba Marie Mutombo Hospital, for his late mother, who died of a stroke in 1997.
When it opened in 2007, the $29 million facility became the first modern medical facility to be built in that area in nearly 40 years. His hospital is on a site on the outskirts of Kinshasa in [Masina](Masina, Kinshasa), where about a quarter of the city's 7.5 million residents live in poverty. It is minutes from Kinshasa's airport and near a bustling open-air market.
### National Constitution Center
Mutombo serves on the board of trustees of the [Constitution Center](National)(National Constitution Center) in [Philadelphia](Philadelphia), which is a museum dedicated to the [Constitution](U.S.)(U.S. Constitution).
### SportsUnited
In 2011, Mutombo also traveled to South Sudan as a [SportsUnited](SportsUnited) sports envoy for the [Department of State](U.S.)(Department of State). In this capacity, he worked with [Perkins](Sam)(Sam Perkins) to lead a series of basketball clinics and team-building exercises with 50 youth and 36 coaches. This helped contribute to the State Department's mission to remove barriers and create a world in which individuals with disabilities enjoy dignity and full inclusion in society. Exchange Programs|website=exchanges.state.gov|access-date=May 1, 2016}}
### Ask The Doctor
In April 2020, Dikembe Mutombo officially joined the team at [The Doctor](Ask)(Ask The Doctor) as their chief global officer. Ask The Doctor is a platform that connects people from all over the world to top doctors and healthcare professionals.
### Economic development and gender parity
In 2021, he created his eponymous coffee company, initially focused on the Congo, to foster women growers' participation in international commerce.[Dikembe Mutombo's New Coffee Venture Aims to Make an Impact](https://www.si.com/nba/2021/04/08/dikembe-mutombo-post-career-coffee-company), *[Illustrated](Sports)(Sports Illustrated)*, Justin Barfrassoa, April 8, 2021. Retrieved March 28, 2022.
## Career summary and highlights
* 4-time NBA [Player of the Year](Defensive)(NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award): 1995, 1997, 1998, 2001
* 8-time NBA All-Star: 1992, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002
* 3-time [All-NBA](All-NBA):
** Second Team: 2001
** Third Team: 1998, 2002
* 6-time [All-Defensive](All-Defensive):
** First Team: 1997, 1998, 2001
** Second Team: 1995, 1999, 2002
* NBA All-Rookie First Team: 1992
* 2nd in Career NBA Blocks: 3,256
* 2-time NBA regular-season leader, rebounding average: 2000 (14.1), 2001 (13.5)
* 4-time NBA regular-season leader, total rebounds: 1995 (1029), 1997 (929), 1999 (610), 2000 (1157)
* NBA regular-season leader, offensive rebounds: 2001 (307)
* 2-time NBA regular-season leader, defensive rebounds: 1999 (418), 2000 (853)
* 3-time NBA regular-season leader, blocked shots average: 1994 (4.1), 1995 (3.9), 1996 (4.5)
* 5-time NBA regular-season leader, total blocks: 1994 (336), 1995 (321), 1996 (332), 1997 (264), 1998 (277)
* Invited to be a special guest at [President George W. Bush's State of the Union address](2007)(2007 State of the Union Address); commended for his humanitarian aid to his homeland
* Oldest player in NBA history to collect over 20 rebounds in a game (40 years old, March 2, 2007 vs. Denver Nuggets)
* Retired NBA alumnus in Team Africa at the [NBA Africa exhibition game](2015)(NBA Africa Game 2015).
* Hall of Fame Class of 2015
* NCAA [Anniversary Award](Silver)(Silver Anniversary Awards) (Class of 2016)
* No. 55 retired by the Atlanta Hawks (November 24, 2015)
* No. 55 retired by the Denver Nuggets (October 29, 2016)
* [Strong Award](Sager)(Sager Strong Award) ([25, 2018](June)(2018 NBA Awards))
## NBA career statistics
### Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [1991–92](1991–92 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Denver](1991-92 Denver Nuggets season)
| 71 || 71 || **38.3** || .493 || .000 || .642 || 12.3 || **2.2** || .6 || 3.0 || **16.6**
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [1992–93](1992–93 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Denver](1992-93 Denver Nuggets season)
| **82** || **82** || 36.9 || .510 || .000 || .681 || 13.0 || 1.8 || .5 || 3.5 || 13.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [1993–94](1993–94 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Denver](1993-94 Denver Nuggets season)
| **82** || **82** || 34.8 || **.569** || .000 || .583 || 11.8 || 1.5 || **.7** || style="background:#cfecec;"|4.1* || 12.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [1994–95](1994–95 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Denver](1994-95 Denver Nuggets season)
| **82** || **82** || 37.8 || .556 || .000 || .654 || 12.5 || 1.4 || .5 || style="background:#cfecec;"|3.9* || 11.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [1995–96](1995–96 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Denver](1995-96 Denver Nuggets season)
| 74 || 74 || 36.7 || .499 || .000 || .695 || 11.8 || 1.5 || .5 || style="background:#cfecec;"|**4.5*** || 11.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [1996–97](1996–97 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Atlanta](1996-97 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 80 || 80 || 37.2 || .527 || .000 || .705 || 11.6 || 1.4 || .6 || 3.3 || 13.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [1997–98](1997–98 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Atlanta](1997-98 Atlanta Hawks season)
| **82** || **82** || 35.6 || .537 || .000 || .670 || 11.4 || 1.0 || .4 || 3.4 || 13.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [1998–99](1998–99 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Atlanta](1998-99 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 50 || 50 || 36.6 || .512 || .000 || .684 || 12.2 || 1.1 || .3 || 2.9 || 10.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [1999–00](1999–2000 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Atlanta](1999-2000 Atlanta Hawks season)
| **82** || **82** || 36.4 || .562 || .000 || .708 || style="background:#cfecec;"|**14.1*** || 1.3 || .3 || 3.3 || 11.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2000–01](2000–01 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Atlanta](2000-01 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 49 || 49 || 35.0 || .477 || .000 || .695 || **14.1** || 1.1 || .4 || 2.8 || 9.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2000–01](2000–01 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Philadelphia](2000-01 Philadelphia 76ers season)
| 26 || 26 || 33.7 || .495 || .000 || .759 ||style="background:#cfecec;"| 12.4* || .8 || .3 || 2.5 || 11.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2001–02](2001–02 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Philadelphia](2001-02 Philadelphia 76ers season)
| 80 || 80 || 36.3 || .501 || .000 || **.764** || 10.8 || 1.0 || .4 || 2.4 || 11.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2002–03](2002–03 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Jersey](New)(2002-03 New Jersey Nets season)
| 24 || 16 || 21.4 || .374 || .000 || .727 || 6.4 || .8 || .2 || 1.5 || 5.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2003–04](2003–04 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [York](New)(2003-04 New York Knicks season)
| 65 || 56 || 23.0 || .478 || .000 || .681 || 6.7 || .4 || .3 || 1.9 || 5.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2004–05](2004–05 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Houston](2004-05 Houston Rockets season)
| 80 || 2 || 15.2 || .498 || .000 || .741 || 5.3 || .1 || .2 || 1.3 || 4.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2005–06](2005–06 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Houston](2005-06 Houston Rockets season)
| 64 || 23 || 14.9 || .526 || .000 || .758 || 4.8 || .1 || .3 || .9 || 2.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2006–07](2006–07 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Houston](2006-07 Houston Rockets season)
| 75 || 33 || 17.2 || .556 || .000 || .690 || 6.5 || .2 || .3 || 1.0 || 3.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2007–08](2007–08 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Houston](2007-08 Houston Rockets season)
| 39 || 25 || 15.9 || .538 || .000 || .711 || 5.1 || .1 || .3 || 1.2 || 3.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2008–09](2008–09 NBA season)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Houston](2008-09 Houston Rockets season)
| 9 || 2 || 10.7 || .385 || .000 || .667 || 3.7 || .0 || .0 || 1.2 || 1.8
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career
| 1196 || 997 || 30.8 || .518 || .000 || .684 || 10.3 || 1.0 || .4 || 2.8 || 9.8
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| All-Star
| 8 || 3 || 17.5 || .595 || .000 || .750 || 9.3 || .3 || .4 || 1.2 || 6.3
### Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [1994](1994 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Denver](1993-94 Denver Nuggets season)
| 12 || 12 || 42.6 || .463 || .000 || .602 || 12.0 || **1.8** || **.7** ||style="background:#cfecec;"| **5.8*** || 13.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [1995](1995 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Denver](1994-95 Denver Nuggets season)
| 3 || 3 || 28.0 || .600 || .000 || .667 || 6.3 || .3 || .0 || 2.3 || 6.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [1997](1997 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Atlanta](1996-97 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 10 || 10 || 41.5 || style="background:#cfecec;"|.628* || .000 || .719 || 12.3 || 1.3 || .1 || 2.6 || **15.4**
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [1998](1998 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Atlanta](1997-98 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 4 || 4 || 34.0 || .458 || .000 || .625 || 12.8 || .3 || .3 || 2.3 || 8.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [1999](1999 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Atlanta](1998-99 Atlanta Hawks season)
| 9 || 9 || 42.2 || .563 || .000 || .702 || style="background:#cfecec;"|**13.9*** || 1.2 || .6 || 2.6 || 12.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2001](2001 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Philadelphia](2000-01 Philadelphia 76ers season)
| **23** || **23** || **42.7** || .490 || .000 || .777 || 13.7 || .7 || .7 || style="background:#cfecec;"|3.1* || 13.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2002](2002 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Philadelphia](2001-02 Philadelphia 76ers season)
| 5 || 5 || 34.6 || .452 || .000 || .615 || 10.6 || .6 || .4 || 1.8 || 8.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2003](2003 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Jersey](New)(2002-03 New Jersey Nets season)
| 10 || 0 || 11.5 || .467 || .000 || **1.000** || 2.7 || .6 || .3 || .9 || 1.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2004](2004 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [York](New)(2003-04 New York Knicks season)
| 3 || 0 || 12.7 || .333 || .000 || **1.000** || 3.3 || .0 || .3 || 1.3 || 2.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2005](2005 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Houston](2004-05 Houston Rockets season)
| 7 || 0 || 14.4 || .545 || .000 || .769 || 5.0 || .3 || .3 || 1.0 || 3.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2007](2007 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Houston](2006-07 Houston Rockets season)
| 7 || 0 || 5.7 || **1.000** || .000 || **1.000** || 1.6 || .1 || .0 || .4 || 1.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2008](2008 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Houston](2007-08 Houston Rockets season)
| 6 || 6 || 20.5 || .615 || .000 || .636 || 6.5 || .3 || .2 || 1.8 || 3.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [2009](2009 NBA playoffs)
| style="text-align:left;"| [Houston](2008-09 Houston Rockets season)
| 2 || 0 || 10.0 || .000 || .000 || .000 || 4.5 || .0 || .5 || 1.0 || .0
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career
| 101 || 72 || 30.9 || .517 || .000 || .703 || 9.5 || .8 || .4 || 2.5 || 9.1
## See also
*[of National Basketball Association career games played leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders)
*[of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders)
*[of National Basketball Association career blocks leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career blocks leaders)
*[of National Basketball Association career playoff blocks leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association career playoff blocks leaders)
*[of National Basketball Association annual rebounding leaders](List)(List of National Basketball Association annual rebounding leaders)
*[of National Basketball Association players with most blocks in a game](List)(List of National Basketball Association players with most blocks in a game)
## References
## External links
* [NBA profile](https://stats.nba.com/player/87/career/)
* [Dikembe Mutombo](https://www.basketball-reference.com/players/m/mutomdi01.html) at Basketball-Reference.com
* ["Charting damage by Dikembe"](http://sports.espn.go.com/nba/news/story?id=1956133) at ESPN
* [Dikembe Mutombo Foundation](http://www.dmf.org)
* [Dikembe Mutombo Profile](http://www.clutchfans.net/players/dikembe_mutombo/) – ClutchFans.net (Houston Rocket Fan Site)
* ["On the Shoulders of a Giant"](http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,444885,00.html), [*Time*](Time (magazine)), April 20, 2003.
}}
[births](Category:1966)(Category:1966 births)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[college men's basketball players](Category:All-American)(Category:All-American college men's basketball players)
[men's basketball players](Category:American)(Category:American men's basketball players)
[Hawks players](Category:Atlanta)(Category:Atlanta Hawks players)
[players from Kinshasa](Category:Basketball)(Category:Basketball players from Kinshasa)
[(basketball)](Category:Centers)(Category:Centers (basketball))
[Republic of the Congo emigrants to the United States](Category:Democratic)(Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo emigrants to the United States)
[Republic of the Congo expatriate basketball people in the United States](Category:Democratic)(Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo expatriate basketball people in the United States)
[Republic of the Congo men's basketball players](Category:Democratic)(Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo men's basketball players)
[Nuggets draft picks](Category:Denver)(Category:Denver Nuggets draft picks)
[Nuggets players](Category:Denver)(Category:Denver Nuggets players)
[Hoyas men's basketball players](Category:Georgetown)(Category:Georgetown Hoyas men's basketball players)
[Rockets players](Category:Houston)(Category:Houston Rockets players)
[people](Category:Luba)(Category:Luba people)
[Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees](Category:Naismith)(Category:Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees)
[Basketball Association All-Stars](Category:National)(Category:National Basketball Association All-Stars)
[Basketball Association players from the Democratic Republic of the Congo](Category:National)(Category:National Basketball Association players from the Democratic Republic of the Congo)
[Basketball Association players with retired numbers](Category:National)(Category:National Basketball Association players with retired numbers)
[Jersey Nets players](Category:New)(Category:New Jersey Nets players)
[York Knicks players](Category:New)(Category:New York Knicks players)
[76ers players](Category:Philadelphia)(Category:Philadelphia 76ers players)
|
1980 United States presidential election
|
1980_united_states_presidential_election
|
# 1980 United States presidential election
*Revision ID: 1159521704 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T21:35:55Z*
---
0.6 [pp](percentage point)
| image_size = x160px
| image1 = Official Portrait of President Reagan 1981-cropped.jpg
| nominee1 = **[Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan)**
| party1 = Republican Party (United States)
| home_state1 = [California](California)
| running_mate1 = **[H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush)**
| electoral_vote1 = **489**
| states_carried1 = **44**
| popular_vote1 = **43,903,230**
| percentage1 = **50.7%**
| image2 = File:JimmyCarterPortrait2.jpg
| nominee2 = [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter)
| party2 = Democratic Party (United States)
| home_state2 = [Georgia](Georgia (U.S. state))
| running_mate2 = [Mondale](Walter)(Walter Mondale)
| electoral_vote2 = 49
| states_carried2 = 6 + [DC](Washington D.C.)
| popular_vote2 = 35,481,115
| percentage2 = 41.0%
| image3 = File: John B. Anderson in New Jersey (cropped).jpg
| nominee3 = [B. Anderson](John)(John B. Anderson)
| party3 = [Independent](Independent (United States))
| home_state3 = [Illinois](Illinois)
| running_mate3 = [Lucey](Patrick)(Patrick Lucey)
| electoral_vote3 = 0
| states_carried3 = 0
| popular_vote3 = 5,719,850
| percentage3 = 6.6%
| map_size = 350px
| map =
| map_caption = Presidential election results map. Red denotes states won by Reagan/Bush and blue denotes those won by Carter/Mondale. Numbers indicate [votes](electoral)(Electoral College (United States)) cast by each state.
| title = President
| before_election = [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter)
| before_party = Democratic Party (United States)
| after_election = [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan)
| after_party = Republican Party (United States)
| ongoing = no
}}
The **1980 United States presidential election** was the 49th [presidential election](quadrennial)(United States presidential election), held on Tuesday, November 4, 1980. The [Republican](Republican Party (United States)) ticket of [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan) and [H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush) defeated incumbent [Democratic](Democratic Party (United States)) [president](President of the United States) [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter) and incumbent [president](vice)(Vice President of the United States) [Mondale](Walter)(Walter Mondale) in a [victory](landslide)(landslide victory).
Carter's unpopularity and poor relations with Democratic leaders encouraged an unsuccessful [intra-party](1980 Democratic Party presidential primaries) challenge by United States senator [Kennedy](Ted)(Ted Kennedy). Meanwhile, [Republican primaries](the)(1980 Republican Party presidential primaries) were contested between former California governor Reagan, former Central Intelligence Agency director [H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush), United States congressman [B. Anderson](John)(John B. Anderson), and several other candidates. All of Reagan's opponents had dropped out by the end of the primaries, and the Republicans nominated a ticket consisting of Reagan and Bush.
Anderson entered the general election as [independent](an)(Independent (politician)) candidate with former Wisconsin governor [Lucey](Patrick)(Patrick Lucey) serving as his running mate. Reagan campaigned for increased defense spending, implementation of [economic](supply-side)(supply-side economic) policies, and a balanced budget. His campaign was aided by Democratic dissatisfaction with Carter, the [hostage crisis](Iran)(Iran hostage crisis), and a worsening economy at home marked by [stagflation](stagflation). Carter attacked Reagan as a dangerous right-wing extremist, and warned that Reagan would cut [Medicare](Medicare (United States)) and [Security](Social)(Social Security (United States)).
On Election Day, Reagan won the election by a landslide, taking 489 votes in [Electoral College](the)(Electoral College (United States)) and 50.8% of the popular vote with a margin of 9.7%. Reagan received the highest number of electoral votes ever won by a non-incumbent presidential candidate. In the simultaneous congressional elections, Republicans [control of the United States Senate](won)(1980 United States Senate elections) for the first time since 1952. Carter won 41% of the vote, but carried just six states and Washington, D.C. Anderson won 6.6% of the popular vote, and he performed best among liberal Republican voters dissatisfied with Reagan. Due to the rise of [conservatism](Conservatism in the United States) following Reagan's victory, historians have considered the election to be a [realignment](political)(political realignment) that began with [Goldwater](Barry)(Barry Goldwater)'s presidential campaign [1964](in)(1964 United States presidential election), and the 1980 election marked the start of the [era](Reagan)(Reagan era).
## Background
Throughout the 1970s, the United States underwent a wrenching period of [economic growth, high inflation and interest rates](low)(stagflation), and [energy crises](intermittent)(1970s energy crisis). By October 1978, [Iran](Pahlavi Iran)—a major oil supplier to the United States at the time—was experiencing a [uprising](major)(Iranian revolution) that severely damaged its oil infrastructure and greatly weakened its capability to produce oil. In January 1979, shortly after Iran's leader [Shah](Shah) [Reza Pahlavi](Mohammad)(Mohammad Reza Pahlavi) fled the country, Iranian opposition figure [Ayatollah](Ayatollah) [Khomeini](Ruhollah)(Ruhollah Khomeini) ended his 14-year exile in France and returned to Iran to establish an [Republic](Islamic)(Iran), largely hostile to American interests and influence in the country. In the spring and summer of 1979, inflation was on the rise and various parts of the United States were experiencing energy shortages.
Carter was widely blamed for the return of the long gas lines in the summer of 1979 that were last seen just after the 1973 [Kippur War](Yom)(Yom Kippur War). He planned on delivering his fifth major speech on energy, but he felt that the American people were no longer listening. Carter left for the presidential retreat of [David](Camp)(Camp David). "For more than a week, a veil of secrecy enveloped the proceedings. Dozens of prominent Democratic Party leaders—[of Congress](members)(Member of Congress), governors, labor leaders, academics and clergy—were summoned to the mountaintop retreat to confer with the beleaguered president." His pollster, [Caddell](Pat)(Pat Caddell), told him that the American people simply faced a crisis of confidence because of the assassinations of [F. Kennedy](John)(John F. Kennedy assassination), [F. Kennedy](Robert)(Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy) and [Luther King Jr.](Martin)(Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.); the [War](Vietnam)(Vietnam War); and [Watergate](Watergate scandal). On July 15, 1979, Carter gave a nationally televised address in which he identified what he believed to be a "crisis of confidence" among the American people. This came to be known as his "[speech](Malaise)(Malaise speech)", although Carter never used the word in the speech.
Many expected Senator Ted Kennedy to successfully challenge Carter in the upcoming Democratic primary. Kennedy's official announcement was scheduled for early November. A television [with Roger Mudd](interview)(Roger Mudd#Ted Kennedy interview) of CBS a few days before the announcement went badly, however. Kennedy gave an "incoherent and repetitive" answer to the question of why he was running, and the polls, which showed him leading the President by 58–25 in August now had him ahead 49–39.Time Magazine, 11/12/79
Meanwhile, Carter was given an opportunity for political redemption when the Khomeini regime again gained public attention and allowed the taking of [American hostages](52)(Iran hostage crisis) by a group of [Islamist](Islamism) students and militants at the U.S. embassy in [Tehran](Tehran) on November 4, 1979. Carter's calm approach towards the handling of this crisis resulted in his approval ratings jump in the 60-percent range in some polls, due to a "rally round the flag" effect.
By the beginning of the election campaign, the prolonged [hostage crisis](Iran)(Iran hostage crisis) had sharpened public perceptions of a national crisis. On April 25, 1980, Carter's ability to use the hostage crisis to regain public acceptance eroded when his high risk [to rescue the hostages](attempt)(Operation Eagle Claw) ended in disaster when eight servicemen were killed. The unsuccessful rescue attempt drew further skepticism towards his leadership skills.
Following the failed rescue attempt, Carter took overwhelming blame for the Iran hostage crisis, in which the followers of the Ayatollah Khomeini burned [flags](American)(Flag of the United States) and chanted anti-American slogans, paraded the captured American hostages in public, and burned Carter in [effigy](effigy). Carter's critics saw him as an inept leader who had failed to solve the worsening economic problems at home. His supporters defended the president as a decent, well-intentioned man being unfairly criticized for problems that had been escalating for years.
When [Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in late 1979](the)(Soviet–Afghan War), Carter seized international leadership in rallying opposition. He cut off American grain sales, which hurt Soviet consumers and annoyed American farmers. In terms of prestige, the Soviets were deeply hurt by the large-scale boycott of their [Summer Olympics](1980)(1980 Summer Olympics boycott). Furthermore, Carter began secret support of the opposition forces in Afghanistan that successfully tied down the Soviet army for a decade. The effect was to end détente and reopen the Cold War.Gaddis Smith, *Morality, Reason and Power: American Diplomacy in the Carter Years* (1986) pp 224-228.Odd Arne Westad, ed. "The Fall of Détente." in *Soviet-American Relations during the Carter Years* (Scandinavian University Press, 1997).
## Nominations
### Republican Party
#### Other major candidates
The following candidates were frequently interviewed by major broadcast networks and cable news channels, were listed in publicly published national polls, or had held a public office. Reagan received **7,709,793 votes** in the primaries.
Former governor [Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan) of [California](California) was the odds-on favorite to win his party's nomination for president after [beating](nearly)(Republican Party (United States) presidential primaries, 1976#Republican National Convention) incumbent President [Ford](Gerald)(Gerald Ford) just four years earlier. Reagan dominated the primaries early, driving from the field Senate Minority Leader [Baker](Howard)(Howard Baker) from Tennessee, former governor [Connally](John)(John Connally) of Texas, Senator [Dole](Robert)(Robert Dole) from Kansas, Representative [Crane](Phil)(Phil Crane) from Illinois, and Representative [Anderson](John)(John B. Anderson) from Illinois, who dropped out of the race to run as an Independent. [H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush) from Texas posed the strongest challenge to Reagan with his victories in the Pennsylvania and Michigan primaries, but it was not enough to turn the tide. Reagan won the nomination on the first round at the [Republican National Convention](1980)(1980 Republican National Convention) in [Michigan](Detroit,)(Detroit), in July, then chose Bush (his top rival) as his running mate. Reagan, Bush, and Dole would all go on to be the nominees in the next four elections. (Reagan in [1984](1984 United States presidential election), Bush in [1988](1988 United States presidential election) and [1992](1992 United States presidential election), and Dole in [1996](1996 United States presidential election))
### Democratic Party
#### Other major candidates
The following candidates were frequently interviewed by major broadcast networks, were listed in published national polls, or had held public office. Carter received 10,043,016 votes in the primaries.
The three major Democratic candidates in early 1980 were incumbent President [Carter](Jimmy)(Jimmy Carter), Senator [Kennedy](Ted)(Ted Kennedy) of Massachusetts, and Governor [Brown](Jerry)(Jerry Brown) of California. Brown withdrew on April 2. Carter and Kennedy faced off in 34 primaries. Not counting the [election](1968)(1968 United States presidential election) in which [Johnson](Lyndon)(Lyndon Johnson) withdrew his candidacy, this was the most tumultuous [race](primary)(Primary election#Primaries in the United States) that an elected incumbent president had encountered since [Taft](President)(William Howard Taft), during the highly contentious [of 1912](election)(1912 United States presidential election).
During the summer of 1980, there was a short-lived "Draft Muskie" movement; Secretary of State [Muskie](Edmund)(Edmund Muskie) was seen as a favorable alternative to a deadlocked convention. One poll showed that Muskie would be a more popular alternative to Carter than Kennedy, implying that the attraction was not so much to Kennedy as to the fact that he was not Carter. Muskie was polling even with Ronald Reagan at the time, while Carter was seven points behind. Although the underground "Draft Muskie" campaign failed, it became a political legend.
After defeating Kennedy in 24 of 34 primaries, Carter entered the party's [convention](1980 Democratic National Convention) in New York in August with 60 percent of the delegates pledged to him on the first ballot. Still, Kennedy refused to drop out. At the convention, after a futile last-ditch attempt by Kennedy to alter the rules to free delegates from their first-ballot pledges, Carter was renominated with 2,129 votes to 1,146 for Kennedy. Vice President [Mondale](Walter)(Walter Mondale) was also renominated. In his acceptance speech, Carter warned that Reagan's conservatism posed a threat to world peace and progressive social welfare programs from the [Deal](New)(New Deal) to the [Society](Great)(Great Society).William DeGregorio, *The Complete Book of U.S. Presidents*, Gramercy 1997
### Other candidates
[B. Anderson](John)(John B. Anderson) was defeated in the Republican primaries, but entered the general election as an independent candidate. He campaigned as a liberal Republican alternative to Reagan's conservatism. Anderson's campaign appealed primarily to frustrated anti-Carter voters from Republican and Democratic backgrounds. Despite maintaining the support of millions of liberal, pro-ERA, anti-Reagan and anti-Carter voters all the way up to election day to finish third with 5.7 million votes, Anderson's poll ratings had ebbed away through the campaign season as many of his initial supporters were pulled away by Carter and Reagan. Anderson's running mate was [Lucey](Patrick)(Patrick Lucey), a Democratic former [of Wisconsin](Governor)(Governor of Wisconsin) and then ambassador to Mexico, appointed by President Carter.
The [Party](Libertarian)(Libertarian Party (United States)) nominated [Clark](Ed)(Ed Clark) for president and [Koch](David)(David Koch) for vice president. They received almost one million votes and were on the ballot in all 50 states plus Washington, D.C. Koch, a co-owner of [Industries](Koch)(Koch Industries), pledged part of his personal fortune to the campaign. The Libertarian Party platform was the only political party in 1980 to contain a plank advocating for the [rights of homosexual men and women](equal)(LGBT rights in the United States) as well as the only party platform to advocate explicitly for "amnesty" for all illegal non-citizens.http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/platforms.php http://www.lpedia.org/1980_Libertarian_Party_Platform#3._Victimless_Crimes The platform was also unique in favoring the repeal of the [Labor Relations Act](National)(National Labor Relations Act of 1935), all state [to Work laws](Right)(Right-to-work law), Medicare, Medicaid, and "the increasingly oppressive" Social Security. Clark emphasized his support for an end to the [on drugs](war)(war on drugs).Ed Clark emphasized his opposition to the https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KT3LisckcdU He advertised his opposition to the draft and wars of choice.
The Clark–Koch ticket received 921,128 votes (1.1% of the total nationwide), finishing in fourth place nationwide. This was the highest overall number of votes earned by a Libertarian candidate until the [election](2012)(2012 United States presidential election), when [Johnson](Gary)(Gary Johnson) and [P. Gray](James)(Jim Gray (jurist)) became the first Libertarian ticket to earn more than a million votes, albeit with a lower overall vote percentage than Clark–Koch. The 1980 total remained the highest percentage of popular votes a Libertarian Party candidate received in a presidential race until Johnson and [Weld](William)(William Weld) received 3.3% of the popular vote in [2016](2016 United States presidential election). Clark's strongest support was in [Alaska](Alaska), where he came in third place with 11.7% of the vote, finishing ahead of Independent candidate John B. Anderson and receiving almost half as many votes as Jimmy Carter.
The [Party USA](Socialist)(Socialist Party USA) nominated [McReynolds](David)(David McReynolds) for president and Sister [Drufenbrock](Diane)(Diane Drufenbrock) for vice president, making McReynolds the first openly gay man to run for president and Drufenbrock the first nun to be a candidate for national office in the U.S.
The [Party](Citizens)(Citizens Party (United States)) ran [biologist](biologist) [Commoner](Barry)(Barry Commoner) for president and [Comanche](Comanche) [American](Native)(Native Americans in the United States) activist [Harris](LaDonna)(LaDonna Harris) for vice president. The Commoner–Harris ticket was on the ballot in twenty-nine states and in the [of Columbia](District)(District of Columbia).
The [Party USA](Communist)(Communist Party USA) ran [Hall](Gus)(Gus Hall) for president and [Davis](Angela)(Angela Davis) for vice president.
The [Party](American)(American Party (1969)) nominated [L. Greaves Jr.](Percy)(Percy L. Greaves Jr.) for president and Frank L. Varnum for vice president.
Rock star [Walsh](Joe)(Joe Walsh) ran a mock campaign as a [candidate](write-in)(write-in candidate), promising to make his song "[Been Good](Life's)(Life's Been Good)" the new national anthem if he won, and running on a platform of "Free Gas For Everyone." Though the 33-year-old Walsh was not old enough to actually assume the office, he wanted to raise public awareness of the election.
## General election
### Campaign
Reagan gained in former Democratic strongholds such as the South and white ethnics dubbed "[Democrat](Reagan)(Reagan Democrat)s",Julio Borquez, "Partisan Appraisals of Party Defectors: Looking Back at the Reagan Democrats." *American Review of Politics* 26 (2005): 323-346 [online](https://journals.shareok.org/arp/article/view/368/345). and exuded upbeat optimism. [Frum](David)(David Frum) says Carter ran an attack-based campaign based on "despair and pessimism" which "cost him the election." Carter emphasized his record as a peacemaker, and said Reagan's election would threaten [rights](civil)(civil rights) and social programs that stretched back to the [Deal](New)(New Deal). Reagan's platform also emphasized the importance of peace, as well as a prepared self-defense.
Immediately after the conclusion of the primaries, a [poll](Gallup)(Gallup poll) held that Reagan was ahead, with 58% of voters upset by Carter's handling of the Presidency. One analysis of the election has suggested that "Both Carter and Reagan were perceived negatively by a majority of the electorate."Wayne, Stephen J. (1984). *The Road to the White House* (2nd ed.), p. 210. New York: St. Martin's Press. . While the three leading candidates (Reagan, Anderson and Carter) were religious Christians, Carter had the most support of evangelical Christians according to a Gallup poll. However, in the end, [Falwell](Jerry)(Jerry Falwell)'s [Majority](Moral)(Moral Majority) lobbying group is credited with giving Reagan two-thirds of the white evangelical vote. According to Carter: "that autumn [1980] a group headed by Jerry Falwell purchased $10 million in commercials on southern radio and TV to brand me as a traitor to the South and no longer a Christian."
The election of 1980 was a key turning point in American politics. It signaled the new electoral power of the [suburb](suburb)s and the [Belt](Sun)(Sun Belt). Reagan's success as a [conservative](Conservatism in the United States) would initiate a realigning of the parties, as [Republicans](liberal)(Rockefeller Republican) and [Democrats](conservative)(Reagan Democrat) would either leave politics or change party affiliations through the 1980s and 1990s to leave the parties much more ideologically polarized. While during [Goldwater](Barry)(Barry Goldwater)'s [campaign](1964)(1964 United States presidential election), many voters saw his warnings about a too-powerful government as hyperbolic and only 30% of the electorate agreed that government was too powerful, by 1980 a majority of Americans believed that government held too much power.
#### Promises
Reagan promised a restoration of the nation's military strength, at the same time 60% of Americans polled felt defense spending was too low. Reagan also promised an end to "trust me government" and to restore economic health by implementing a [economic](supply-side)(supply-side economics) policy. Reagan promised a [budget](balanced)(balanced budget) within three years (which he said would be "the beginning of the end of inflation"), accompanied by a 30% reduction in tax rates over those same years. With respect to the economy, Reagan famously said, "A recession is when your neighbor loses his job. A depression is when you lose yours. And recovery is when Jimmy Carter loses his." Reagan also criticized the "[profit tax](windfall)(windfall profit tax)" that Carter and Congress enacted that year in regards to domestic oil production and promised to attempt to repeal it as president. The tax was not a tax on profits, but on the difference between the [control](price)(price controls)-mandated price and the market price., CRS Report RL33305, "The Crude Oil Windfall Profit Tax of the 1980s: Implications for Current Energy Policy," by Salvatore Lazzari, p. 5.
On the issue of [rights](women's)(Women's rights in the United States) there was much division, with many feminists frustrated with Carter, the only major-party candidate who supported the [Rights Amendment](Equal)(Equal Rights Amendment). After a bitter Convention fight between Republican feminists and antifeminists the Republican Party dropped their forty-year endorsement of the ERA. Reagan, however, announced his dedication to women's rights and his intention to, if elected, appoint women to his cabinet and the first female justice to the [Court](Supreme)(United States Supreme Court). He also pledged to work with all 50 state governors to combat discrimination against women and to equalize federal laws as an alternative to the ERA. Reagan was convinced to give an endorsement of women's rights in his nomination acceptance speech.
Carter was criticized by his own aides for not having a "grand plan" for the recovery of the economy, nor did he ever make any campaign promises; he often criticized Reagan's economic recovery plan, but did not create one of his own in response.
#### Events
[[File:Reagan 1980 campaign.jpg|thumb|Ronald Reagan campaigning with his wife Nancy and Senator [Thurmond](Strom)(Strom Thurmond) in Columbia, South Carolina, October 10, 1980]] [[File:Ronald Reagan campaigning in Florida (8102550796).jpg|thumb|right|[Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan) campaigning in Florida]]
In August, after the [National Convention](Republican)(1980 Republican National Convention), Ronald Reagan gave a campaign speech at the annual [County](Neshoba)(Neshoba County, Mississippi) Fair on the outskirts of [Mississippi](Philadelphia,)(Philadelphia, Mississippi), where three civil rights workers were [in 1964](murdered)(Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner). He was the first presidential candidate ever to campaign at the fair.Kornacki, Steve (February 3, 2011) [The "Southern Strategy," fulfilled](http://www.salon.com/news/politics/war_room/2011/02/03/reagan_southern_strategy/index.html) , *Salon.com* Reagan famously announced, "Programs like education and others should be turned back to the states and local communities with the tax sources to fund them. I believe in [rights](states')(states' rights). I believe in people doing as much as they can at the community level and the private level." Reagan also stated, "I believe we have distorted the balance of our government today by giving powers that were never intended to be given in the [Constitution](United States Constitution) to that federal establishment." He went on to promise to "restore to states and local governments the power that properly belongs to them." President Carter criticized Reagan for injecting "hate and racism" by the "rebirth of [words like 'states' rights'](code)(states' rights#States' rights as code word)".
[[File:Ronald Reagan Shaking Hands with Supporters on a Campaign Stop in Indiana.jpg|thumb|right|[Reagan](Ronald)(Ronald Reagan) shaking hands with supporters at a campaign stop in Indiana]]
Two days later, Reagan appeared at the [League](Urban)(Urban League) convention in New York, where he said, "I am committed to the protection and enforcement of the civil rights of black Americans. This commitment is interwoven into every phase of the plans I will propose." He then said that he would develop "[zones](enterprise)(Urban Enterprise Zone)" to help with urban renewal.
The media's main criticism of Reagan centered on his gaffes. When Carter kicked off his general election campaign in [Tuscumbia](Tuscumbia, Alabama), Reagan—referring to the Southern U.S. as a whole—claimed that Carter had begun his campaign in the birthplace of the [Klux Klan](Ku)(Ku Klux Klan). In doing so, Reagan seemed to insinuate that the KKK represented the South, which caused many Southern governors to denounce Reagan's remarks.*White House Diary*, by Jimmy Carter, pp 461–462. Additionally, Reagan was widely ridiculed by Democrats for saying that trees caused pollution; he later said that he meant only certain types of pollution and his remarks had been misquoted.
Meanwhile, Carter was burdened by a continued weak economy and the [hostage crisis](Iran)(Iran hostage crisis). Inflation, high interest rates, and unemployment continued through the course of the campaign, and the ongoing hostage crisis in Iran became, according to [Frum](David)(David Frum) in ''How We Got Here: The '70s'', a symbol of American impotence during the Carter years. John Anderson's independent candidacy, aimed at eliciting support from liberals, was also seen as hurting Carter more than Reagan, especially in reliably Democratic states such as Massachusetts and New York.
### Presidential debates
}}
The [of Women Voters](League)(League of Women Voters), which had sponsored the 1976 Ford/Carter debate series, announced that it would do so again for the next cycle in the spring of 1979. However, Carter was not eager to participate with any debate. He had repeatedly refused to a debate with Senator [M. Kennedy](Edward)(Edward M. Kennedy) during the primary season, and had given ambivalent signals as to his participation in the fall.
The League of Women Voters had announced a schedule of debates similar to 1976, three presidential and one vice presidential. No one had much of a problem with this until it was announced that Rep. [B. Anderson](John)(John B. Anderson) might be invited to participate along with Carter and Reagan. Carter steadfastly refused to participate with Anderson included, and Reagan refused to debate without him. It took months of negotiations for the League of Women Voters to finally put it together. It was held on September 21, 1980, in the [Convention Center](Baltimore)(Baltimore Convention Center). Reagan said of Carter's refusal to debate: "He [Carter] knows that he couldn't win a debate even if it were held in the [Garden](Rose)(White House Rose Garden) before an audience of Administration officials with the questions being asked by [Powell](Jody)(Jody Powell)." The League of Women Voters promised the Reagan campaign that the debate stage would feature an empty chair to represent the missing president. Carter was very upset about the planned chair stunt, and at the last minute convinced the league to take it out. The debate was moderated by [Moyers](Bill)(Bill Moyers). Anderson, who many thought would handily dispatch Reagan, managed only a narrow win, according to many in the media at that time, with Reagan putting up a much stronger performance than expected. Despite the narrow win in the debate, Anderson, who had been as high as 20% in some polls, and at the time of the debate was over 10%, dropped to about 5% soon after, although Anderson got back up to winning 6.6% of the vote on election day. In the debate, Anderson failed to substantively engage Reagan enough on their social issue differences and on Reagan's advocation of supply-side economics. Anderson instead started off by criticizing Carter: "Governor Reagan is not responsible for what has happened over the last four years, nor am I. The man who should be here tonight to respond to those charges chose not to attend," to which Reagan added: "It's a shame now that there are only two of us here debating, because the two that are here are in more agreement than disagreement." In one moment in the debate, Reagan commented on a rumor that Anderson had invited Senator [Kennedy](Ted)(Ted Kennedy) to be his running mate by asking the candidate directly, "John, would you really prefer Teddy Kennedy to me?"
As September turned into October, the situation remained essentially the same. Former Governor Reagan insisted Anderson be allowed to participate in a three-way debate, while President Carter remained steadfastly opposed to this. As the standoff continued, the second debate was canceled, as was the vice presidential debate.
With two weeks to go to the election, the Reagan campaign decided at that point that the best thing to do was to accede to all of President Carter's demands, including that Anderson not feature, and LWV agreed to exclude Congressman Anderson from the final debate, which was rescheduled for October 28 in [Cleveland](Cleveland), [Ohio](Ohio).
[[Reagan Debate 10-28-80.png|thumb|President Carter *(left)* and former Governor Reagan *(right)* at the presidential debate on October 28, 1980](File:Carter)]
The presidential debate between President Carter and former Governor Reagan was moderated by [K. Smith](Howard)(Howard K. Smith) and presented by the League of Women Voters. The showdown ranked among the highest ratings of any [television](television) program in the previous decade. Debate topics included the Iranian hostage crisis, and nuclear arms treaties and proliferation. Carter's campaign sought to portray Reagan as a reckless "war hawk", as well as a "dangerous right-wing radical". But it was President Carter's reference to his consultation with 12-year-old daughter [Amy](Amy Carter) concerning nuclear weapons policy that became the focus of post-debate analysis and fodder for late-night television [joke](joke)s. President Carter said he had asked Amy what the most important issue in that election was and she said, "the control of [arms](nuclear)(nuclear arms)." A famous political cartoon, published the day after Reagan's landslide victory, showed Amy Carter sitting in Jimmy's lap with her shoulders shrugged asking "the economy? the hostage crisis?"
When President Carter criticized Reagan's record, which included voting against [Medicare](Medicare (United States)) and [Security](Social)(Social Security (United States)) benefits, former Governor Reagan audibly sighed and replied: "[you go again](There)(There you go again)".
In describing the national debt that was approaching $1 trillion, Reagan stated "a billion is a thousand millions, and a trillion is a thousand billions." When Carter would criticize the content of Reagan's campaign speeches, Reagan began his counter with the words: "Well ... I don't know that I said that. I really don't."
In his closing remarks, Reagan asked viewers: "Are you better off now than you were four years ago? Is it easier for you to go and buy things in the stores than it was four years ago? Is there more or less unemployment in the country than there was four years ago? Is America as respected throughout the world as it was? Do you feel that our security is as safe, that we're as strong as we were four years ago? And if you answer all of those questions 'yes', why then, I think your choice is very obvious as to whom you will vote for. If you don't agree, if you don't think that this course that we've been on for the last four years is what you would like to see us follow for the next four, then I could suggest another choice that you have."
After trailing Carter by 8 points among registered voters (and by 3 points among likely voters) right before their debate, Reagan moved into a 3-point lead among likely voters immediately afterward.
### Endorsements
In September 1980, former [scandal](Watergate)(Watergate scandal) prosecutor [Jaworski](Leon)(Leon Jaworski) accepted a position as honorary chairman of [for Reagan](Democrats)(Democrats for Reagan). Five months earlier, Jaworski had harshly criticized Reagan as an "extremist"; he said after accepting the chairmanship, "I would rather have a competent extremist than an incompetent moderate."
Former Democratic Senator [McCarthy](Eugene)(Eugene McCarthy) of Minnesota (who in [1968](1968 United States presidential election) had challenged [Johnson](Lyndon)(Lyndon Johnson) from the left, causing the then-President to all but abdicate) endorsed Reagan.MacNeil-Lehrer NewsHour (December 12, 2005). [Online NewsHour: "Remembering Sen. Eugene McCarthy"](https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/remember/july-dec05/mccarthy_12-12.html). December 12, 2005. [PBS](Public Broadcasting Service).
Three days before the election, the [Rifle Association of America](National)(National Rifle Association of America) endorsed a presidential candidate for the first time in its history, backing Reagan. Reagan had received the California Rifle and Pistol Association's Outstanding Public Service Award. Carter had appointed [J. Mikva](Abner)(Abner J. Mikva), a fervent proponent of [control](gun)(gun control), to a federal judgeship and had supported the Alaska Lands Bill, closing to hunting.Facts on File 1980 Yearbook, p.844
#### General election endorsements
Anderson had received endorsements from:
;Former officeholders
* Former [Representative](United States House of Representatives) ([2nd congressional district](Arizona's)(Arizona's 2nd congressional district)) and [Secretary](Interior)(United States Secretary of the Interior) [Udall](Stewart)(Stewart Udall) (D-AZ)
;Current and former state and local officials and party officeholders
:**Massachusetts**
* [County Sheriff](Middlesex)(Middlesex County Sheriff's Office) [J. Buckley](John)(John J. Buckley (sheriff)) (D-MA)
* Former [State Representative](Massachusetts)(Massachusetts House of Representatives) [W. Hatch Jr.](Francis)(Francis W. Hatch Jr.) (R-MA)
* Former [Republican Party](Massachusetts)(Massachusetts Republican Party) chairman [Spaulding](Josiah)(Josiah Spaulding) (R-MA)
;Celebrities, political activists, and political commentators
;Newspapers
* *[Hutchinson News](The)(The Hutchinson News)* in [Kansas](Hutchinson,)(Hutchinson, Kansas)
* *[Burlington Free Press](The)(The Burlington Free Press)* in [VT](Burlington,)(Burlington, VT)
Carter had received endorsements from:
;Newspapers
* *[Des Moines Register](The)(The Des Moines Register)* in [Moines, Iowa](Des)(Des Moines, Iowa)
* The *[State](Penn)(Penn State University) Daily Collegian* in [College, Pennsylvania](State)(State College, Pennsylvania)
Commoner had received endorsements from:
;Celebrities, political activists, and political commentators
* [County](Montgomery)(Montgomery County, Pennsylvania) precinct committeeman and Consumer Party [General](Auditor)(Pennsylvania Auditor General) candidate Darcy Richardson (D-PA)
DeBerry had received endorsements from:
;Celebrities, political activists and political commentators
* American People's Historical Society director [Sanders](Bernie)(Bernie Sanders) of [Vermont](Vermont)
Reagan had received endorsements from:
;United States Senate
* [Senator](Arizona)(List of United States Senators from Arizona) [DeConcini](Dennis)(Dennis DeConcini) (D-AZ)
* [Senator](Virginia)(List of United States Senators from Virginia) [Byrd Jr.](Harry)(Harry Byrd Jr.) (D-VA)
* [York Senator](New)(List of United States Senators from New York) [Javits](Jacob)(Jacob Javits) (R-NY)
* Former [Senator](Massachusetts)(List of United States Senators from Massachusetts) [Brooke](Edward)(Edward Brooke) (R-MA)
* Former [Senator](Minnesota)(List of United States Senators from Minnesota) [McCarthy](Eugene)(Eugene McCarthy) (D-MN)
;United States House of Representatives
* [Representative](United States House of Representatives) ([12th congressional district](California's)(California's 12th congressional district)) [McCloskey](Pete)(Pete McCloskey) (R-CA)
* Former [Representative](United States House of Representatives) ([26th congressional district](California's)(California's 26th congressional district)) [Roosevelt](James)(James Roosevelt) (D-CA; son of [Delano Roosevelt](Franklin)(Franklin Delano Roosevelt))
;Governors and State Constitutional officers
* Former [Governor](Georgia)(Governor of Georgia) [Maddox](Lester)(Lester Maddox) (D-GA)
* Former [Governor](Alabama)(Governor of Alabama) [Malcolm Patterson](John)(John Malcolm Patterson) (D-AL)
* Former [Governor](Texas)(Governor of Texas) [Smith](Preston)(Preston Smith (governor)) (D-TX)
* Former [Governor](Mississippi)(Governor of Mississippi) [Bell Williams](John)(John Bell Williams) (D-MS)
;Current and former state and local officials and party officeholders
:**Florida**
* [Lauderdale](Fort)(Fort Lauderdale, Florida) City Advisory Board member [Naugle](Jim)(Jim Naugle) (D-FL)
:**New York**
* Former [York State Senator](New)(New York State Senate) [B. Bloom](Jeremiah)(Jeremiah B. Bloom) (D-NY)
;Celebrities, political activists and political commentators
* Former [men's basketball head coach](UCLA)(UCLA Bruins men's basketball) [Wooden](John)(John Wooden)
* Retired [States Navy](United)(United States Navy) [Admiral](Admiral (United States)) [Zumwalt](Elmo)(Elmo Zumwalt) (D-VA)
;Newspaper endorsements
* *[Arizona Republic](The)(The Arizona Republic)* in [Arizona](Phoenix,)(Phoenix, Arizona)
* *[Desert Sun](The)(The Desert Sun)* in [Springs, California](Palm)(Palm Springs, California)
* The *[World-Herald](Omaha)(Omaha World-Herald)* in [Nebraska](Omaha,)(Omaha, Nebraska)
* The *[Times](Quad-City)(Quad-City Times)* in [Iowa](Davenport,)(Davenport, Iowa)
* *[Record](The)(The Record (Stockton, California))* in [California](Stockton,)(Stockton, California)
* *[Repository](The)(The Repository)* in [Ohio](Canton,)(Canton, Ohio)
* *[Plain Dealer](The)(The Plain Dealer)* in [Ohio](Cleveland,)(Cleveland, Ohio)
* *[Blade](The)(The Blade (Toledo, Ohio))* in [Ohio](Toledo,)(Toledo, Ohio)
* *[Chronicle](Houston)(Houston Chronicle)* in [Texas](Houston,)(Houston, Texas)
* *[Times-Dispatch](Richmond)(Richmond Times-Dispatch)* in [Virginia](Richmond,)(Richmond, Virginia)
### Results
The election was held on November 4, 1980. Ronald Reagan and running mate [H. W. Bush](George)(George H. W. Bush) beat Carter by almost 10 percentage points in the popular vote. [Republicans](Republican Party (United States)) also gained control of the Senate on [coattails](Reagan's)(Reagan's coattails) for the first time since 1952. The electoral college vote was a landslide, with 489 votes (representing 44 states) for Reagan and 49 for Carter (representing six states and Washington, D.C.). [News](NBC)(NBC News) projected Reagan as the winner at 8:15 pm EST (5:15 PST), before voting was finished in the West, based on [polls](exit)(exit polls); it was the first time a broadcast network used exit polling to project a winner, and took the other broadcast networks by surprise. Carter conceded defeat at 9:50 pm EST.Facts on File Yearbook 1980 p. 865Facts on File Yearbook 1980 p. 838 Some of Carter's advisors urged him to wait until 11:00 pm EST to allow poll results from the West Coast to come in, but Carter decided to concede earlier in order to avoid the impression that he was sulking. [of the House](Speaker)(Speaker of the United States House of Representatives) [O'Neill](Tip)(Tip O'Neill) angrily accused Carter of weakening the party's performance in the [elections](Senate)(1980 United States Senate elections) for doing this. Carter's loss was the worst performance by an incumbent president since Herbert Hoover lost to Franklin D. Roosevelt by a margin of 18% in 1932, and his 49 electoral college votes were the fewest won by an incumbent since [Howard Taft](William)(William Howard Taft) won only 8 in 1912. Carter was the first incumbent Democrat to serve only one full term since [Buchanan](James)(James Buchanan) and also the first to serve one full term, seek re-election, and lose since [Van Buren](Martin)(Martin Van Buren); [Cleveland](Grover)(Grover Cleveland) served two non-consecutive terms while [S. Truman](Harry)(Harry S. Truman) and [B. Johnson](Lyndon)(Lyndon B. Johnson) served one full term in addition to respectively taking over following the deaths of [D. Roosevelt](Franklin)(Franklin D. Roosevelt) and [F. Kennedy](John)(John F. Kennedy). This was the most recent presidential election for the incumbent Democrat to lose re-election, as both Democrats [Clinton](Bill)(Bill Clinton) and [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama) were later respectively re-elected in [1996](1996 United States presidential election) and [2012](2012 United States presidential election), and served two full terms.
Carter carried only [Georgia](Georgia (U.S. state)) (his home state), [Maryland](Maryland), [Minnesota](Minnesota) (Mondale's home state), [Hawaii](Hawaii), [Virginia](West)(West Virginia), [Island](Rhode)(Rhode Island), and the [of Columbia](District)(District of Columbia). He is the third and most recent incumbent Democrat to lose re-election. He was the first to lose since [Cleveland](Grover)(Grover Cleveland) in 1888, and the first to lose the popular and electoral vote since [Van Buren](Martin)(Martin Van Buren) in 1840. Reagan was subsequently the first and only Republican to win the popular vote against an incumbent Democrat.
John Anderson won 6.6% of the popular vote but failed to win any state outright. He found the most support in [England](New)(New England), fueled by liberal and moderate Republicans who felt Reagan was too far to the right and with voters who normally leaned Democratic but were dissatisfied with the policies of the Carter Administration. His best showing was in [Massachusetts](Massachusetts), where he won 15% of the popular vote. Conversely, Anderson performed worst in the [South](Southern United States), receiving under 2% of the popular vote in South Carolina, Louisiana, Alabama, and Mississippi. Anderson claims that he was accused of [the election](spoiling)(Spoiler effect) for Carter by receiving votes that might have otherwise been cast for Carter. However, 37 percent of Anderson voters polled preferred Reagan as their second choice. Even if all Anderson votes had gone for Carter, Reagan would have still held enough majorities and pluralities to maintain 331 electoral votes.
[Party](Libertarian)(Libertarian Party (United States)) candidate [Clark](Ed)(Ed Clark) received 921,299 popular votes (1.06%). The Libertarians succeeded in getting Clark on the ballot in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Clark's best showing was in Alaska, where he received 11.66% of the vote. The 921,299 votes achieved by the Clark–Koch ticket was the best performance by a Libertarian presidential candidate until 2012, when the Johnson–Gray ticket received 1,273,667 votes. In addition, the popular vote percentage was the highest of a Libertarian presidential candidate until 2016, when the Johnson-Weld ticket received 3.28%.
#### Reagan coalition
Reagan won 53% of the vote in reliably Democratic [Boston](South)(South Boston). His electoral college victory of 489 electoral votes (90.9% of the electoral vote) was the most lopsided electoral college victory for a first-time President-elect, with the exception of George Washington's unanimous victory in 1788. Although Reagan was to win an even greater Electoral College majority in 1984, the 1980 election nonetheless stands as the last time some currently very strong Democratic counties gave a Republican majority or plurality. Notable examples are [County](Jefferson)(Jefferson County, Washington) in Washington State, [County, Oregon](Lane)(Lane County, Oregon), [Marin](Marin County, California) and [Cruz Counties](Santa)(Santa Cruz County, California) in California, [County, New Mexico](McKinley)(McKinley County, New Mexico), and [Island County, Illinois](Rock)(Rock Island County, Illinois).Sullivan, Robert David; ['How the Red and Blue Map Evolved Over the Past Century'](http://www.americamagazine.org/content/unconventional-wisdom/how-red-and-blue-map-evolved-over-past-century); *America Magazine* in *The National Catholic Review*; June 29, 2016 This election is the last time a Republican won the presidency without winning Georgia. This is the first time Massachusetts voted for a Republican candidate since 1956. 1980 is one of only two occurrences of pairs of consecutive elections seeing the incumbent presidents defeated, the other one happening in [1892](1892 United States presidential election). This is the first time since 1892 that a party was voted out after a single four-year term, and the first for Democrats since 1888. This would not occur again for either party until 2020.
Survey research and post-election polling indicated that the landslide result had been more a repudiation of Carter than an embrace of Reagan and his conservatism. However, the public was aware that Reagan would move the nation in a more conservative direction, and were, apparently, willing to give it a chance to avoid four more years of Carter.
At 69 years old, Reagan was the oldest non-incumbent to win a presidential election. Thirty-six years later, in [2016](2016 United States presidential election), this record was surpassed by [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) at 70 years old and, [years later](four)(2020 United States presidential election), by [Biden](Joe)(Joe Biden) at 77.[https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/18/us/politics/joe-biden-age-oldest-presidents.html]
## Results
**Source (popular vote):**
**Source (electoral vote):**
|50.75}}
|41.01}}
|6.61}}
|1.06}}
|0.27}}
}}
|90.89}}
|9.11}}
}}
File:1980 United States presidential election results map by county.svg|Results by county, shaded according to winning candidate's percentage of the vote
File:1980 Presidential Election, Results by Congressional District.png|Results by congressional district
### Results by state
Maine allowed its electoral votes to be split between candidates. Two electoral votes were awarded to the winner of the statewide race and one electoral vote to the winner of each congressional district. Reagan won all four votes.
### Close states
Margin of victory less than 1% (30 electoral votes):
# **Massachusetts, 0.15% (3,829 votes)**
# **Tennessee, 0.29% (4,710 votes)**
# **Arkansas, 0.61% (5,123 votes)**
Margin of victory less than 5% (135 electoral votes):
# **Alabama, 1.30% (17,462 votes)**
# **Mississippi, 1.32% (11,808 votes)**
# **Kentucky, 1.46% (18,857 votes)**
# **South Carolina, 1.53% (13,647 votes)**
# **Hawaii, 1.90% (5,767 votes)**
# **North Carolina, 2.12% (39,383 votes)**
# **Delaware, 2.33% (5,498 votes)**
# **New York, 2.67% (165,459 votes)**
# **Maryland, 2.96% (45,555 votes)**
# '''Maine's 1st Congressional District, 3.15% (8,661 votes)**
# **Maine, 3.36% (17,548 votes)**
# **Maine's 2nd Congressional District, 3.73% (8,887 votes)**
# **Minnesota, 3.94% (80,933 votes)**
# **West Virginia, 4.51% (33,256 votes)**
# **Wisconsin, 4.72% (107,261 votes)**
Margin of victory more than 5%, but less than 10% (113 electoral votes):
# **Louisiana, 5.45% (84,400 votes)**
# **Vermont, 5.96% (12,707 votes)**
# **Michigan, 6.49% (253,693 votes)**
# **Missouri, 6.81% (142,999 votes)**
# **Pennsylvania, 7.11% (324,332 votes)**
# ***Illinois, 7.93% (376,636 votes)*'* *([state](tipping-point)(tipping-point state))*
# **Connecticut, 9.64% (135,478 votes)**
# **Oregon, 9.66% (114,154 votes)**
#### Statistics
Counties with highest percentage of the vote (Republican)
# **[County, Nebraska](Banner)(Banner County, Nebraska) 90.41%**
# **[County, Idaho](Madison)(Madison County, Idaho) 88.41%**
# **[County, North Dakota](McIntosh)(McIntosh County, North Dakota) 86.01%**
# **[County, South Dakota](McPherson)(McPherson County, South Dakota) 85.60%**
# **[County, Idaho](Franklin)(Franklin County, Idaho) 85.31%**
Counties with highest percentage of the vote (Democratic)
# **[County, Alabama](Macon)(Macon County, Alabama) 80.10%**
# **[County, Georgia](Hancock)(Hancock County, Georgia) 78.50%**
# **[County, Texas](Duval)(Duval County, Texas) 77.91%**
# **[County, Mississippi](Jefferson)(Jefferson County, Mississippi) 77.84%**
# **[County, Alabama](Greene)(Greene County, Alabama) 77.09%**
Counties with highest percentage of the vote (Other)
# **[Massachusetts](Nantucket,)(Nantucket) 21.63%**
# **[County, Illinois](Winnebago)(Winnebago County, Illinois) 21.50%**
# **[County, Massachusetts](Dukes)(Dukes County, Massachusetts) 20.88%**
# **[County, Colorado](Pitkin)(Pitkin County, Colorado) 20.82%**
# **[County, Iowa](Story)(Story County, Iowa) 19.41%**
## Voter demographics
**Source:** [News](CBS)(CBS News) and *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* exit poll from the [Center for Public Opinion Research](Roper)(Roper Center for Public Opinion Research) (15,201 surveyed)
## See also
* [United States Senate elections](1980)(1980 United States Senate elections)
* [United States House of Representatives elections](1980)(1980 United States House of Representatives elections)
* [United States gubernatorial elections](1980)(1980 United States gubernatorial elections)
* [of the United States (1964–1980)](History)(History of the United States (1964–1980))
* [of the United States (1980–1991)](History)(History of the United States (1980–1991))
* *[v. Celebrezze](Anderson)(Anderson v. Celebrezze)''
* [activities of the Koch brothers](Political)(Political activities of the Koch brothers)
* [Debategate](Debategate) per allegations of Carter's briefing books being leaked to Reagan campaign prior to their debate
## Notes
## References
## Further reading
### Books
* . [online review by Michael Barone](https://web.archive.org/web/20070409014740/http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1103/article_detail.asp)
* Davies, Gareth, and Julian E. Zelizer, eds. *America at the Ballot Box: Elections and Political History* (2015) pp. 196–218.
*
*
*
* Hogue, Andrew P. *Stumping God: Reagan, Carter, and the Invention of a Political Faith* (Baylor University Press; 2012) 343 pages; A study of religious rhetoric in the campaign
* Johnstone, Andrew, and Andrew Priest, eds. *US Presidential Elections and Foreign Policy: Candidates, Campaigns, and Global Politics from FDR to Bill Clinton* (2017) pp 250–270. [online](https://muse.jhu.edu/book/50578/)
* Mason, Jim (2011). [*No Holding Back: The 1980 John B. Anderson Presidential Campaign*](https://web.archive.org/web/20120825102042/http://www.mit.edu/~mi22295/elections.html#1980). Lanham, MD: University Press of America. .
*
* . [online review by Lou Cannon](https://web.archive.org/web/20120825102042/http://www.mit.edu/~mi22295/elections.html#1980)
* Stanley, Timothy. ''Kennedy vs. Carter: The 1980 Battle for the Democratic Party's Soul'' (University Press of Kansas, 2010) 298 pages. A revisionist history of the 1970s and their political aftermath that argues that Ted Kennedy's 1980 campaign was more popular than has been acknowledged; describes his defeat by Jimmy Carter in terms of a "historical accident" rather than perceived radicalism.
*
*
*
### Journal articles
*
*
*
### Newspaper articles
*
## External links
* [The Election Wall's 1980 Election Video Page](https://web.archive.org/web/20120825102042/http://www.mit.edu/~mi22295/elections.html#1980)
* [1980 popular vote by counties](http://geoelections.free.fr/USA/elec_comtes/1980.htm)
* [1980 popular vote by states](https://web.archive.org/web/20070516080353/http://presidentelect.org/e1980.html)
* [1980 popular vote by states (with bar graphs)](https://web.archive.org/web/20120825102042/http://www.mit.edu/~mi22295/elections.html#1980)
* [Campaign commercials from the 1980 election](http://www.livingroomcandidate.org/commercials/1980)
* —Michael Sheppard, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
* [Portrayal of 1980 presidential elections in the U.S. by the Soviet television](https://web.archive.org/web/20101026115349/http://cccp.tv/video/Mezhdunarodnaja_panorama_u_finis/)
* [Election of 1980 in Counting the Votes](http://www.countingthevotes.com/1980/)
[ ](Category:1980 United States presidential election)
[United States Presidential Election](1980)(Category:Presidency of Ronald Reagan)
[1980](Category:Presidency of Jimmy Carter)
[Reagan](Category:Ronald)(Category:Ronald Reagan)
[Carter](Category:Jimmy)(Category:Jimmy Carter)
[Mondale](Category:Walter)(Category:Walter Mondale)
[H. W. Bush](Category:George)(Category:George H. W. Bush)
[1980 events in the United States](Category:November)(Category:November 1980 events in the United States)
|
Kansas City, Missouri
|
kansas_city,_missouri
|
# Kansas City, Missouri
*Revision ID: 1159043883 | Timestamp: 2023-06-07T21:30:34Z*
---
| image_flag = Flag of Kansas City, Missouri.svg
| image_seal = Kansas City, Missouri logo.png
| nickname = "KC", "KCMO", the "City of Fountains", "Paris of the Plains", and the "Heart of America"
| image_map = |zoom=8|raw=|overlay=|overlay-border=2px solid #505050}}
| map_caption = City boundaries and location within the U.S.
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = United States
| subdivision_type1 = [State](U.S. state)
| subdivision_type2 = [Counties](List of counties in Missouri)
| subdivision_name1 = [Missouri](Missouri)
| subdivision_name2 = [Jackson](Jackson County, Missouri), [Clay](Clay County, Missouri), [Platte](Platte County, Missouri), [Cass](Cass County, Missouri)
| established_title = [Incorporated](Municipal corporation)
| established_date = Town of Kansas: City of Kansas:
| named_for = [River](Kansas)(Kansas River)
| government_type = [Council-Manager](Council-manager government)
| leader_title = [Mayor](Mayor of Kansas City, Missouri)
| leader_name = [Lucas](Quinton)(Quinton Lucas) ([D](Democratic Party (United States)))
| leader_title1 = Body
| leader_name1 = [City, Missouri City Council](Kansas)(Kansas City, Missouri City Council)
| leader_title2 = City Manager
| leader_name2 = Brian Platt
| leader_title3 = City Clerk
| leader_name3 = Marilyn Sanders
| unit_pref = Imperial
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 825.69
| area_total_sq_mi = 318.80
| area_land_km2 = 815.14
| area_land_sq_mi = 314.73
| area_water_km2 = 10.55
| area_water_sq_mi = 4.07
| area_urban_km2 = 1,849.5
| area_urban_sq_mi = 714.10
| area_metro_km2 = 20,596
| area_metro_sq_mi =
| elevation_m = 277
| elevation_ft = 910
| population_total = 508090
| population_as_of = [2020](2020 United States census)
| population_footnotes =
| population_est =
| pop_est_as_of =
| pop_est_footnotes =
| population_rank = [36th](List of United States cities by population) in the United States[1st](List of cities in Missouri) in Missouri
| population_density_sq_mi = 1614.38
| population_density_km2 = 623.31
| population_urban = 1,674,218 ([34th](US:)(List of United States urban areas))
| population_density_urban_km2 = 905.2
| population_density_urban_sq_mi = 2,344.5
| population_metro_footnotes =
| population_metro = 2392035 ([31st](US:)(List of metropolitan statistical areas))
| population_demonym = Kansas Citian
| postal_code_type = [Code](ZIP)(ZIP Code)s
| postal_code = 64101-64102, 64105-64106, 64108-64114, 64116-64121, 64123-64134, 64136-64139, 64141, 64144-64158, 64161-64168, 64170-64171, 64179-64180, 64184, 64187-64188, 64190-64191, 64195-64199, 64999
| area_codes = [816](Area code 816), [975](Area code 975)
| website =
| footnotes =
| timezone = [CST](Central Time Zone)
| utc_offset = −06:00
| timezone_DST = [CDT](Central Time Zone)
| utc_offset_DST = −05:00
| blank_name = [code](FIPS)(Federal Information Processing Standard)
| blank_info = 29000-38000
| blank1_name = [GNIS](Geographic Names Information System) feature ID
| blank1_info = 748198
}}
**Kansas City, Missouri** (**KC** or **KCMO**) is the largest city in [Missouri](Missouri) by population and area. As of the [census](2020)(2020 United States census), the city had a population of 508,090 in 2020, making it the [most-populous city in the United States](36th)(List of United States cities by population). It is the central city of the [City metropolitan area](Kansas)(Kansas City metropolitan area), which straddles the [Missouri](Missouri)–[Kansas](Kansas) state line and has a population of 2,392,035. Most of the city lies within [County](Jackson)(Jackson County, Missouri), with portions spilling into [Clay](Clay County, Missouri), [Cass](Cass County, Missouri), and [Platte](Platte County, Missouri) counties. Kansas City was founded in the 1830s as a port on the [River](Missouri)(Missouri River) at its confluence with the [River](Kansas)(Kansas River) from the west. On June 1, 1850, the town of Kansas was incorporated; shortly after came the establishment of the [Territory](Kansas)(Kansas Territory). Confusion between the two ensued, and the name Kansas City was assigned to distinguish them soon after.
Sitting on Missouri's western boundary with [Kansas](Kansas), with [Downtown](Downtown Kansas City) near the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri Rivers, the city encompasses about , making it the [largest city by total area](23rd)(List of United States cities by area) in the United States. It serves as one of the two county seats of Jackson County, along with the major [city](satellite)(satellite city) of [Independence](Independence, Missouri). Other major suburbs include the Missouri cities of [Springs](Blue)(Blue Springs, Missouri) and [Summit](Lee's)(Lee's Summit, Missouri) and the Kansas cities of [Park](Overland)(Overland Park, Kansas), [Olathe](Olathe, Kansas), [Lenexa](Lenexa, Kansas), and [City, Kansas](Kansas)(Kansas City, Kansas).
The city is composed of several neighborhoods, including the [Market District](River)(River Market, Kansas City) in the north, the [and Vine District](18th)(18th and Vine District) in the east, and the [Club Plaza](Country)(Country Club Plaza) in the south. Celebrated cultural traditions include [City jazz](Kansas)(Kansas City jazz); theater, as a center of the [Vaudevillian](Vaudevillian) [circuit](Orpheum)(Orpheum circuit) in the 1920s; the [Chiefs](Kansas City Chiefs) and [Royals](Kansas City Royals) sports franchises; and famous cuisine based on [City-style barbecue](Kansas)(Kansas City-style barbecue), [City strip steak](Kansas)(Kansas City strip steak), and craft breweries.
## History
Kansas City, Missouri, was incorporated as a town on June 1, 1850, and as a city on March 28, 1853. The [area](Kansas City Metropolitan Area), straddling the border between Missouri and Kansas at the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri rivers, was considered a good place to build settlements.
The [Christian Church](Antioch)(Antioch Christian Church (Kansas City, Missouri)), [James Compton House](Dr.)(Dr. James Compton House), and [Woodneath](Woodneath) are listed on the [Register of Historic Places](National)(National Register of Historic Places).
### Exploration and settlement
[[File:Westport Pioneers Statue.jpg|thumb|upright|Kansas City Pioneer Square monument in Westport features [Express](Pony)(Pony Express) founder [Majors](Alexander)(Alexander Majors), Westport/Kansas City founder [Calvin McCoy](John)(John Calvin McCoy), and Mountain-man [Bridger](Jim)(Jim Bridger) who owned Chouteau's Store.]]
In past centuries, the area's tribal inhabitants include the [tradition](Hopewell)(Hopewell tradition), [culture](Mississippian)(Mississippian culture), [Kansa](Kaw people), [Osage](Osage Nation), [Otoe](Otoe), and [Missouri](Missouria). The first documented European visitor to the eventual site of Kansas City was [de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont](Étienne)(Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont), who was also the first European to explore the lower Missouri River. Criticized for his response to the [American](Native)(Native Americans in the United States) attack on [Détroit](Fort)(Fort Détroit), he had deserted his post as fort commander and was avoiding French authorities. Bourgmont lived with a Native American wife in a village about east near [Missouri](Brunswick,)(Brunswick, Missouri), where he illegally traded [furs](furs).
To clear his name, he wrote *Exact Description of Louisiana, of Its Harbors, Lands and Rivers, and Names of the Indian Tribes That Occupy It, and the Commerce and Advantages to Be Derived Therefrom for the Establishment of a Colony* in 1713 and *The Route to Be Taken to Ascend the Missouri River* in 1714. In the documents, he describes the junction of the "Grande Riv[ière] des Cansez" and Missouri River, as the first adoption of those names. French cartographer [Delisle](Guillaume)(Guillaume Delisle) used the descriptions to make the area's first reasonably accurate map.
The Spanish took over the region in the [of Paris](Treaty)(Treaty of Paris (1763)) in 1763, but were not to play a major role other than taxing and licensing Missouri River ship traffic. The French continued their [trade](fur)(fur trade) under Spanish license. The [Chouteau](Chouteau) family operated under Spanish license at [Louis](St.)(St. Louis, Missouri), in the lower [Valley](Missouri)(Missouri River Valley) as early as 1765 and in 1821 the Chouteaus reached Kansas City, where [Chouteau](François)(François Chouteau) established Chouteau's Landing.
### After the Louisiana Purchase (1803)
After the 1803 [Purchase](Louisiana)(Louisiana Purchase), [and Clark](Lewis)(Lewis and Clark) visited the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri rivers, noting it was a good place to build a fort. In 1831, a group of [Mormons](Mormons) from [York state](New)(New York state) led by [Smith](Joseph)(Joseph Smith) settled in what would become the city. They built the first school within Kansas City's current boundaries, but were forced out by [violence](mob)(mob violence) in 1833, and their settlement remained vacant.
In 1831, Gabriel Prudhomme Sr., a Canadian trapper, purchased 257 acres of land fronting the Missouri River. He established a home for his wife, Josephine, and six children. He operated a ferry on the river.
In 1833 [McCoy](John)(John Calvin McCoy), son of [Baptist](Baptist) missionary [McCoy](Isaac)(Isaac McCoy), established [Port](West)(Westport, Kansas City) along the [Fe Trail](Santa)(Santa Fe Trail), away from the river. In 1834 McCoy established [Landing](Westport)(Westport, Kansas City) on a bend in the Missouri to serve as a landing point for West Port. He found it more convenient to have his goods offloaded at the Prudhomme landing than in Independence. Several years after Gabriel Prudhomme's death, a group of fourteen investors purchased his land at auction on November 14, 1838. By 1839, the investors divided the property and the first lots were sold in 1846 after legal complications were settled. The remaining lots were sold by February 1850.
[[City in 1843, drawing from Centennial History of Oregon.png|thumb|Kansas City in 1843 was depicted in a history of Oregon.](File:Kansas)]
In 1850, the landing area was incorporated as the Town of Kansas. By that time, the Town of Kansas, Westport, and nearby [Independence](Independence, Missouri), had become critical points in the [expansion](westward)(Territorial acquisitions of the United States) of the United States. Three major [trail](Historical roads and trails of the United States)s – the [Fe](Santa)(Santa Fe Trail), [California](California Trail), and [Oregon](Oregon Trail) – all passed through Jackson County.
On February 22, 1853, the City of Kansas was created with a newly elected mayor. It had an area of and a population of 2,500. The boundary lines at that time extended from the middle of the Missouri River south to what is now Ninth Street, and from Bluff Street on the west to a point between Holmes Road and Charlotte Street on the east.
### American Civil War
During the Civil War, the city and its immediate surroundings were the focus of intense military activity. Although the [Battle of Independence](First)(First Battle of Independence) in August 1862 resulted in a [States Army](Confederate)(Confederate States Army) victory, the Confederates were unable to leverage their win in any significant fashion, as Kansas City was occupied by Union troops and proved too heavily fortified to assault. The [Battle of Independence](Second)(Second Battle of Independence), which occurred on October 21–22, 1864, as part of [Price](Sterling)(Sterling Price)'s [expedition of 1864](Missouri)(Price's Raid), also resulted in a Confederate triumph. Once again their victory proved hollow, as Price was decisively defeated in the pivotal [of Westport](Battle)(Battle of Westport) the next day, effectively ending Confederate efforts to regain Missouri.
General [Ewing](Thomas)(Thomas Ewing, Jr.), in response to a successful raid on nearby [Kansas](Lawrence,)(Lawrence, Kansas), led by [Quantrill](William)(William Quantrill), issued [Order No. 11](General)(General Order No. 11 (1863)), forcing the eviction of residents in four western Missouri counties – including Jackson – except those living in the city and nearby communities and those whose allegiance to the Union was certified by Ewing.
### After Civil War
After the Civil War, Kansas City grew rapidly. The selection of the city over [Kansas](Leavenworth,)(Leavenworth, Kansas), for the [& St. Joseph Railroad](Hannibal)(Hannibal & St. Joseph Railroad) bridge over the Missouri River brought about significant growth. The population exploded after 1869, when the Hannibal Bridge, designed by [Chanute](Octave)(Octave Chanute), opened. The boom prompted a name change to Kansas City in 1889, and the city limits to be extended south and east. Westport became part of Kansas City on December 2, 1897. In 1900, Kansas City was the 22nd largest city in the country, with a population of 163,752 residents.
[[of Main and Delaware Streets, Kansas City, Mo (NYPL b12647398-68704).tiff|thumb|Junction of Main and Delaware Streets in 1898](File:Junction)]
Kansas City, guided by landscape architect [Kessler](George)(George Kessler), became a leading example of the [Beautiful](City)(City Beautiful) movement, offering a network of boulevards and parks. New neighborhoods like [Southmoreland](Southmoreland) and the Rockhill District were conceived to accommodate the city's largest residencies of palatial proportions.
The relocation of [Station](Union)(Kansas City Union Station) to its current location in 1914 and the opening of the [Memorial](Liberty)(Liberty Memorial) in 1923 provided two of the city's most identifiable landmarks. [A. Long](Robert)(Robert A. Long), president of the Liberty Memorial Association, was a driving force in the funding for construction. Long was a longtime resident and wealthy businessman. He built the [Long Building](R.A.)(R.A. Long Building) for the [Lumber Company](Long-Bell)(Long-Bell Lumber Company), his home, [Hall](Corinthian)(Kansas City Museum) (now the [City Museum](Kansas)(Kansas City Museum)) and [Farm](Longview)(Longview Farm).
Further spurring Kansas City's growth was the opening of the innovative [Club Plaza](Country)(Country Club Plaza) development by [Nichols](J.C.)(Jesse Clyde Nichols) in 1925, as part of his [Club District](Country)(Country Club District) plan.
#### 20th century streetcar system
[Kansas City streetcar system](The)(Streetcars in Kansas City) once had hundreds of miles of streetcars running through the city and was one of the largest systems in the country. In 1903 the 8th Street Tunnel was built as an underground streetcar system through the city. The last run of the streetcar was on June 23, 1957, but the tunnel still exists.
### Pendergast era
At the start of the 20th century, [machines](political)(political machines) gained clout in the city, with the one led by [Pendergast](Tom)(Tom Pendergast) dominating the city by 1925. Several important buildings and structures were built during this time, including the [City City Hall](Kansas)(Kansas City City Hall) and the Jackson County Courthouse. During this time, he aided one of his nephew's friends, [S. Truman](Harry)(Harry S. Truman) in a political career. Truman eventually became a senator, then vice-president, then [president](Presidency of Harry S. Truman). The machine fell in 1939 when Pendergast, riddled with health problems, pleaded guilty to tax evasion after long federal investigations. His biographers have summed up his uniqueness:
|year=2013|publisher=University of Missouri Press|page=xi}}}}
### After World War II
Kansas City's suburban development began with a streetcar system in the early decades of the 20th century. The city's first suburbs were in the neighborhoods of Pendleton Heights and Quality Hill. After [War II](World)(World War II), many relatively affluent residents left for suburbs in [County, Kansas](Johnson)(Johnson County, Kansas), and eastern Jackson County, Missouri. Many also went north of the [River](Missouri)(Missouri River), where Kansas City had incorporated areas between the 1940s and 1970s.
#### Troost redlining and white flight
[Avenue](Troost)(Troost Avenue) was once the eastern edge of Kansas City, Missouri and a residential corridor nicknamed Millionaire Row. It is now widely seen as one of the city's most prominent racial and economic dividing lines due to urban decay, which was caused by [flight](white)(white flight). During the civil rights era the city blocked people of color from moving to homes west of Troost Avenue, causing the areas east of Troost to have one of the worst murder rates in the country. This led to the dominating economic success of neighboring [County](Johnson)(Johnson County, Kansas).
In 1950, African Americans represented 12.2% of Kansas City's population. The sprawling characteristics of the city and its environs today mainly took shape after 1960s race riots. The April 1968 [of Martin Luther King Jr.](assassination)(assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.) was a catalyst for the [Kansas City riot](1968)(1968 Kansas City riot). At this time, slums were forming in the inner city, and many who could afford to do so left for the suburbs and outer areas of the city. The post-World War II ideals of suburban life and the "American Dream" also contributed to the sprawl of the area. The city's population continued to grow, but the inner city declined. The city's most populous ethnic group, non-Hispanic whites, declined from 89.5% in 1930 to 54.9% in 2010.
In 1940, the city had about 400,000 residents; by 2000, it had about 440,000. From 1940 to 1960, the city more than doubled its physical size, while increasing its population by only about 75,000. By 1970, the city covered approximately , more than five times its size in 1940.
#### Hyatt Regency walkway collapse
The [Regency walkway collapse](Hyatt)(Hyatt Regency walkway collapse) was a major disaster that occurred on July 17, 1981, killing 114 people and injuring more than 200 others during a [dance](tea)(tea dance) in the 45-story [Regency hotel](Hyatt)(Sheraton Kansas City Hotel at Crown Center) in [Center](Crown)(Crown Center). It is the deadliest structural collapse in US history other than the [11 attacks](September)(September 11 attacks). In 2015 a memorial called the Skywalk Memorial Plaza was built for the families of the victims of the disaster, across the street from the hotel which is now a Sheraton.
### 21st century
#### Downtown Kansas City re-development
[[Kansas City looking over Union Station from the Liberty Memorial](File:Kansas_city_(16778782291).jpg|thumb|Downtown)]
In the 21st century, the Kansas City area has undergone extensive redevelopment, with more than $6 billion in improvements to the downtown area on the Missouri side. One of the main goals is to attract convention and tourist dollars, office workers, and residents to downtown KCMO. Among the projects include the redevelopment of the [& Light District](Power)(Power & Light District) into a retail and entertainment district; and the Sprint Center, an 18,500-seat arena that opened in 2007, funded by a 2004 ballot initiative involving a tax on car rentals and hotels, designed to meet the stadium specifications for a possible future NBA or NHL franchise, and was renamed [Center](T-Mobile)(T-Mobile Center) in 2020; Kemper Arena, which was functionally superseded by Sprint Center, fell into disrepair and was sold to private developers. By 2018, the arena was being converted to a sports complex under the name [Arena](Hy-Vee)(Hy-Vee Arena). The Kauffman Performing Arts Center opened in 2011 providing a new, modern home to the KC Orchestra and Ballet. In 2015, an 800-room Hyatt Convention Center Hotel was announced for a site next to the Performance Arts Center & Bartle Hall. Construction was scheduled to start in early 2018 with Loews as the operator.
From 2007 to 2017, downtown residential population in Kansas City quadrupled and continues to grow. The area has grown from almost 4,000 residents in the early 2000s to nearly 30,000 . Kansas City's downtown ranks as the sixth-fastest-growing downtown in America with the population expected to grow by more than 40% by 2022. Conversions of office buildings such as the Power & Light Building and the Commerce Bank Tower into residential and hotel space has helped to fulfill the demand. New apartment complexes like One, Two, and Three Lights, River Market West, and 503 Main have begun to reshape Kansas City's skyline. Strong demand has led to occupancy rates in the upper 90%.
The residential population of downtown has boomed, and the office population has dropped significantly from the early 2000s to the mid-2010s. Top employers like AMC moved their operations to modern office buildings in the suburbs. High office vacancy plagued downtown, leading to the neglect of many office buildings. By the mid-2010s, many office buildings were converted to residential uses and the Class A vacancy rate plunged to 12% in 2017. Swiss Re, Virgin Mobile, AutoAlert, and others have begun to move operations to downtown Kansas City from the suburbs and expensive coastal cities.
#### Transportation developments
The area has seen additional development through various transportation projects, including improvements to the [Triangle](Grandview)(Grandview Triangle), which intersects Interstates 435 and 470, and [Route 71](U.S.)(U.S. Route 71 (Missouri)).
In July 2005, the [City Area Transportation Authority](Kansas)(Kansas City Area Transportation Authority) (KCATA) launched Kansas City's first [rapid transit](bus)(bus rapid transit) line, the [Area Express](Metro)(Metro Area Express) (MAX), which links the River Market, Downtown, Union Station, Crown Center and the Country Club Plaza. The KCATA continues to expand MAX with additional routes on Prospect Avenue, Troost Avenue, and Independence Avenue. Transit Initiatives|publisher=KCATA|access-date=November 20, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112190613/http://www.kcata.org/transit-initiatives/prospect_max|archive-date=November 12, 2017|url-status=live}}
In 2013, construction began on a two-mile [streetcar](KC Streetcar) line in downtown Kansas City (funded by a $102 million ballot initiative that was passed in 2012) that runs between the River Market and Union Station, it began operation in May 2016. In 2017, voters approved the formation of a TDD to expand the streetcar line south 3.5 miles from Union Station to UMKC's Volker Campus. Additionally in 2017, the KC Port Authority began engineering studies for a Port Authority funded streetcar expansion north to Berkley Riverfront Park. Citywide, voter support for rail projects continues to grow with numerous light rail projects in the works.
In 2016, Jackson County, Missouri, acquired unused rail lines as part of a long-term commuter rail plan. For the time being, the line is being converted to a trail while county officials negotiate with railroads for access to tracks in Downtown Kansas City.
On November 7, 2017, Kansas City, Missouri, voters overwhelmingly approved a new single terminal at [City International Airport](Kansas)(Kansas City International Airport) by a 75% to 25% margin. The new single terminal will replace the three existing "Clover Leafs" at KCI Airport and is expected to open in March 2023.
## Geography
[[File:Kansas City by Sentinel-2.jpg|thumb|The Kansas City metropolitan area was photographed by the [Sentinel-2](Sentinel-2) satellite in July 2022.]]
The city has an area of , of which, is land and is water. Bluffs overlook the rivers and river bottom areas. Kansas City proper is bowl-shaped and is surrounded to the north and south by [glacier](glacier)-carved [limestone](limestone) and [bedrock](bedrock) cliffs. Kansas City is at the confluence between the [Dakota](Dakota ice lobe) and Minnesota ice lobes during the maximum late Independence glaciation of the [Pleistocene](Pleistocene) [epoch](Geologic time scale). The Kansas and Missouri rivers cut wide valleys into the terrain when the glaciers melted and drained. A partially filled spillway valley crosses the central city. This valley is an eastward continuation of the Turkey Creek Valley. It is the closest major city to the geographic center of the contiguous United States, or "Lower 48".
### Cityscape
Kansas City, Missouri, comprises more than 240 neighborhoods, some with histories as independent cities or as the sites of major events.
#### Architecture
[[File:Community Christian Church KCMO.jpg|thumb|[Christian Church](Community)(Community Christian Church (Kansas City, Missouri)) was designed by [Lloyd Wright](Frank)(Frank Lloyd Wright) and is next to the [Club Plaza](Country)(Country Club Plaza).]]
The [Museum of Art](Nelson-Atkins)(Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art) opened its Euro-Style Bloch addition in 2007, and the Safdie-designed [Center for the Performing Arts](Kauffman)(Kauffman Center for the Performing Arts) opened in 2011. The [and Light Building](Power)(Kansas City Power and Light Building) is influenced by the [Deco](Art)(Art Deco) style and sports a glowing sky beacon. The new world headquarters of [Block](H&R)(H&R Block) is a 20-story all-glass oval bathed in a soft green light. The four industrial artworks atop the support towers of the Kansas City Convention Center ([Hall](Bartle)(Bartle Hall Convention Center)) were once the subject of ridicule, but now define the night skyline near the [Center](T-Mobile)(T-Mobile Center) along with [Kansas City Place](One)(One Kansas City Place) (Missouri's tallest office tower), the [KCTV-Tower](KCTV-Tower) (Missouri's tallest freestanding structure) and the [Memorial](Liberty)(Liberty Memorial), a World War I memorial and museum that flaunts simulated flames and smoke billowing into the night skyline. It was designated as the [World War I Museum and Memorial](National)(National World War I Museum and Memorial) in 2004 by the United States Congress. Kansas City is home to significant national and international architecture firms including ACI Boland, [BNIM](BNIM), [Architecture](360)(360 Architecture), [HNTB](HNTB), [Populous](Populous (architects)). [Lloyd Wright](Frank)(Frank Lloyd Wright) designed two private residences and [Christian Church](Community)(Community Christian Church (Kansas City, Missouri)) there.
Kansas City hosts more than 200 working fountains, especially on the Country Club Plaza. Designs range from French-inspired traditional to modern. Highlights include the Black Marble H&R Block fountain in front of Union Station, which features synchronized water jets; the Nichols Bronze Horses at the corner of Main and J.C. Nichols Parkway at the entrance to the Plaza Shopping District; and the fountain at [Cards](Hallmark)(Hallmark Cards) World Headquarters in [Center](Crown)(Crown Center).
#### City Market
[[Town of Kansas Bridge connects pedestrian traffic from the Riverfront Heritage Trail (starting at Berkley Riverfront Park) to River Market.](File:BridgeTownofKansas.jpg|thumb|The)]
Since its inception in 1857, [Market](City)(River Market, Kansas City) has been one of the largest and most enduring public farmers' markets in the American Midwest, linking growers and small businesses to the community. More than 30 full-time merchants operate year-round and offer specialty foods, fresh meats and seafood, restaurants and cafes, floral, home accessories and more. The City Market is also home to the [Steamboat Museum](Arabia)(Arabia Steamboat Museum), which houses artifacts from a steamboat that sank near Kansas City in 1856.
#### Downtown
[Kansas City](Downtown)(Downtown Kansas City) is an area of bounded by the Missouri River to the north, 31st Street to the south, [Avenue](Troost)(Troost Avenue) to the East, and State Line Road to the west. Areas near Downtown Kansas City include the [Street District](39th)(39th Street (Kansas City)), which is known as Restaurant Row, and features one of Kansas City's largest selections of independently owned restaurants and boutique shops. It is a center of literary and visual arts, and [culture](bohemian)(bohemian culture). [Center](Crown)(Crown Center) is the headquarters of [Cards](Hallmark)(Hallmark Cards) and a major downtown shopping and entertainment complex. It is connected to Union Station by a series of covered walkways. The [Club Plaza](Country)(Country Club Plaza), or simply "the Plaza", is an upscale, outdoor shopping and entertainment district. It was the first suburban shopping district in the United States, designed to accommodate shoppers arriving by automobile, and is surrounded by apartments and condominiums, including a number of high rise buildings. The associated [Club District](Country)(Country Club District) to the south includes the Sunset Hill and [Brookside](Brookside (Kansas City)) neighborhoods, and is traversed by [Parkway](Ward)(Ward Parkway), a landscaped boulevard known for its statuary, fountains and large, historic homes. Kansas City's [Station](Union)(Union Station (Kansas City)) is home to [City](Science)(Science City at Union Station), restaurants, shopping, theaters, and the city's [Amtrak](Amtrak) facility.[[File:Alphamap.gif|thumb|The city's tallest buildings and characteristic skyline are roughly contained inside the [freeway loop](downtown)(downtown freeway loop (Kansas City)) (shaded in red). Downtown Kansas City itself is established by city [ordinance](Local ordinance) to stretch from the Missouri River south to 31st Street (beyond the bottom of this map), and from State Line Rd. to Troost Ave.]]After years of neglect and seas of parking lots, Downtown Kansas City is undergoing a period of change with over $6 billion in development since 2000. Many residential properties recently have been or are under redevelopment in three surrounding warehouse loft districts and the Central Business District. The [& Light District](Power)(Power & Light District), a new, nine-block entertainment district comprising numerous restaurants, bars, and retail shops, was developed by the [Company](Cordish)(Cordish Company) of [Baltimore](Baltimore), [Maryland](Maryland). Its first tenant opened on November 9, 2007. It is anchored by the [Center](T-Mobile)(T-Mobile Center), a 19,000-seat sports and entertainment complex.
### Climate
Kansas City lies in the [United States](Midwestern)(Midwestern United States), near the geographic center of the country, at the confluence of the [Missouri](Missouri River) and [rivers](Kansas)(Kansas River). The city either lies in the [continental](humid)(humid continental climate) zone when using the 0°C isotherm, or in the [subtropical](humid)(humid subtropical climate) zone when using the -3°C isotherm. Additionally, the city experiences roughly 104 air frosts on average per annum. The city is part of USDA plant [zone](hardiness)(hardiness zone)s 5b and 6a. In the center of North America, far removed from a significant body of water, there is significant potential for extreme hot and cold swings throughout the year. The warmest month is July, with a 24-hour average temperature of . The summer months are hot and humid, with moist air riding up from the [of Mexico](Gulf)(Gulf of Mexico), and high temperatures surpass on 5.6 days of the year, and on 47 days. The coldest month of the year is January, with an average temperature of . Winters are cold, with 22 days where the high temperature is at or below and 2.5 nights with a low at or below . The official record highest temperature is , set on August 14, 1936, at Downtown Airport, while the official record lowest is , set on December 22 and 23, 1989. Normal seasonal snowfall is at Downtown Airport and at Kansas City International Airport. The average window for freezing temperatures is October 31 to April 4, while for measurable () snowfall, it is November 27 to March 16 as measured at Kansas City International Airport. Precipitation, both in frequency and total accumulation, shows a marked uptick in late spring and summer.
Kansas City is located in "[Alley](Tornado)(Tornado Alley)", a broad region where cold air from Canada collides with warm air from the Gulf of Mexico, leading to the formation of powerful storms, especially during the spring. The Kansas City metropolitan area has experienced several significant outbreaks of [tornado](tornado)es in the past, including the [Heights tornado in 1957](Ruskin)(May 1957 Central Plains tornado outbreak) and the [2003 tornado outbreak sequence](May)(May 2003 tornado outbreak sequence). The region can also experience [storm](ice)(ice storm)s during the winter months, such as the [ice storm](2002)(2002 Central Plains Ice Storm) during which hundreds of thousands of residents lost power for days and (in some cases) weeks. Kansas City and its outlying areas are also subject to flooding, including the Great Floods of [1951](Great Flood of 1951) and [1993](Great Flood of 1993).
## Demographics
2010–2020
}}
[[and ethnicity 2010- Kansas City (5560459588).png|thumb|Map of racial distribution in Kansas City, 2010 U.S. Census. Each dot is 25 people: ](File:Race)]
Kansas City has the second largest [Somali](Somali Americans) and [Sudanese](Sudanese Americans) populations in the United States. The Latino/Hispanic population of Kansas City, which is heavily Mexican and [America](Central)(Central America)n, is spread throughout the metropolitan area, with some concentration in the northeast part of the city and southwest of downtown. The Asian population, mostly Southeast Asian, is partly concentrated within the northeast side to the Columbus Park neighborhood in the Greater Downtown area, a historically [American neighborhood](Italian)(List of Italian American neighborhoods), the UMKC area and in River Market, in northern Kansas City.
The Historic Kansas City boundary is roughly and has a population density of about . It runs from the Missouri River to the north, 79th Street to the south, the Blue River to the east, and State Line Road to the west. During the 1960s and 1970s, Kansas City annexed large amounts of land, which are largely undeveloped to this day.
Between the 2000 and 2010 Census counts, the urban core of Kansas City continued to drop significantly in population. The areas of Greater Downtown in the center city, and sections near I-435 and I-470 in the south, and Highway 152 in the north are the only areas of Kansas City, Missouri, to have seen an increase in population, with the Northland seeing the greatest population growth. Even so, the population of Kansas City as a whole from 2000 to 2010 increased by 4.1%.
As of February 2022, there were an estimated 3,000 [homeless](Homelessness) people in Kansas City. In spring 2022, more than 700 people were living unsheltered in Kansas City.
## Economy
The federal government is the largest employer in the Kansas City metro area, with more than 146 agencies. Kansas City is one of ten regional office cities for the US government.*The Federal Workforce by the Numbers – Kansas City*. Greater Kansas City Federal Executive Board. 2011. The [Revenue Service](Internal)(Internal Revenue Service) maintains a large service center in Kansas City that occupies nearly . It is one of only two sites to process paper returns. The IRS has approximately 2,700 full-time employees in Kansas City, growing to 4,000 during [season](tax)(tax season). The [Services Administration](General)(General Services Administration) has more than 800 employees. Most are at the [Federal Complex](Bannister)(Bannister Federal Complex) in South Kansas City. The Bannister Complex housed the [City Plant](Kansas)(Kansas City Plant), which is a [Nuclear Security Administration](National)(National Nuclear Security Administration) facility operated by [Honeywell](Honeywell). The Kansas City Plant has since been moved to a new location on Botts Road. [Honeywell](Honeywell) employs nearly 2,700 at the Kansas City Plant, which produces and assembles 85% of the non-nuclear components of the United States [bomb](nuclear)(nuclear bomb) arsenal. The [Security Administration](Social)(Social Security Administration) has more than 1,700 employees in the metro, with more than 1,200 at its downtown Mid-America Program Service Center (MAMPSC).
One of the largest US drug manufacturing plants is the [Sanofi-Aventis](Sanofi-Aventis) plant in south Kansas City on a campus developed by [Kauffman](Ewing)(Ewing Kauffman)'s [Laboratories](Marion)(Marion Laboratories). It has been developing academic and economic institutions related to [health](animal)(animal health) sciences, with [Kansas](Manhattan,)(Manhattan, Kansas) at one end of the Kansas City Animal Health Corridor, and Kansas City hosting the [Bio and Agro-Defense Facility](National)(National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility) which researches animal diseases. The [Institute for Medical Research](Stowers)(Stowers Institute for Medical Research) engages in medical basic science research, working with [University](Open)(Open University) and [of Kansas Medical Center](University)(University of Kansas Medical Center) in a joint Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Biomedical Science (IGPBS).
Agriculture companies include [Farmers of America](Dairy)(Dairy Farmers of America), the largest dairy co-op in the United States. The [Association of Intercollegiate Athletics](National)(National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics) and The [Association of Basketball Coaches](National)(National Association of Basketball Coaches) are based in Kansas City.
[[File:Kc-hr-block.jpg|thumb|[Block](H&R)(H&R Block)'s oblong headquarters is in downtown Kansas City.]]
The Kansas City [Reserve Bank](Federal)(Federal Reserve Bank) opened a new building in 2008 near Union Station. Missouri is the only state to have two of the 12 [Reserve Bank](Federal)(Federal Reserve Bank) headquarters, with the second in St. Louis. Kansas City's effort to get the bank was helped by former mayor [A. Reed](James)(James A. Reed (politician)), who as senator, broke a tie to pass the [Reserve Act](Federal)(Federal Reserve Act).
The national headquarters for the [of Foreign Wars](Veterans)(Veterans of Foreign Wars) is headquartered just south of Downtown.
With a [Metropolitan Product](Gross)(Gross Metropolitan Product) of $41.68 billion in 2004, Kansas City's (Missouri side only) economy makes up 20.5% of Missouri's [state product](gross)(gross state product). In 2014, Kansas City was ranked #6 for real estate investment.Roberts, Rob. "KC ranks among best places to own rental property." *Kansas City Business Journal*. February 2, 2014.
Three international law firms, Lathrop & Gage, Stinson Leonard Street, and [Hardy & Bacon](Shook,)(Shook, Hardy & Bacon) are based in the city.
, there were reportedly an estimated 3,000 [homeless](Homelessness) people in Kansas City, addressed by the Zero KC initiative.
### Headquarters
The following companies are headquartered in Kansas City, Missouri:
### Top employers
According to the city's Fiscal Year 2014–15 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top ten principal employers are as follows:
## Culture
### Abbreviations and nicknames
Kansas City, Missouri is abbreviated as KCMO and the [area](metropolitan)(Kansas City Metropolitan Area) as KC. Residents are Kansas Citians. It is officially nicknamed the [of Fountains](City)(List of fountains in the Kansas City metropolitan area). The fountains at [Stadium](Kauffman)(Kauffman Stadium), commissioned by original [City Royals](Kansas)(Kansas City Royals) owner Ewing Kauffman, are the largest privately funded fountains in the world. In 2018, [UNESCO](UNESCO) uniquely designated Kansas City as a [of Music](City)(City of Music (UNESCO)). The city has more [boulevard](boulevard)s than any other city except [Paris](Paris) and has been called **Paris of the [Plains](Great Plains)**. Soccer's popularity, and [Mercy Park](Children's)(Children's Mercy Park)'s popularity as a home stadium for the [Men's National Team](U.S.)(United States men's national soccer team), led to the appellation Soccer Capital of America. The city is called the Heart of America, in proximity to the [center](population)(Mean center of U.S. population) of the United States and the [center](geographic)(Geographic centers of the United States) of the 48 contiguous states.
### Performing arts
There were only two theaters in Kansas City when David Austin Latchaw, originally from rural [Pennsylvania](Pennsylvania), moved to Kansas City in 1886. Latchaw maintained friendly relations with several actors such as [Skinner](Otis)(Otis Skinner), [Mansfield](Richard)(Richard Mansfield), [Adams](Maude)(Maude Adams), [Anglin](Margaret)(Margaret Anglin), [Drew](John)(John Drew Jr.), [Maddern Fiske](Minnie)(Minnie Maddern Fiske), [Marlowe](Julia)(Julia Marlowe), [H. Sothern](E.)(E. H. Sothern), and [Mantell](Robert)(Robert Mantell).
Theater troupes in the 1870s toured the state, performing in cities or small towns forming along the railroad lines. Rail transport had enhanced the theater troupe tour market, by allowing full costumes, props, and sets. As theater grew in popularity after the mid-1880s, that number increased and by 1912, ten new theaters had been built in Kansas City. By the 1920s, Kansas City was the center of the [vaudevillian](vaudevillian) [circuit](Orpheum)(Orpheum circuit).
[[File:Kauffman Center.jpg|thumb|[Center for the Performing Arts](Kauffman)(Kauffman Center for the Performing Arts)]]
The [City Repertory Theatre](Kansas)(Kansas City Repertory Theatre) is the metro's top professional theatre company. The [Theatre](Starlight)(Starlight Theatre (Kansas City)) is an 8,105-seat outdoor theatre designed by [Delk](Edward)(Edward Buehler Delk). The [City Symphony](Kansas)(Kansas City Symphony) was founded by [Crosby Kemper Jr.](R.)(R. Crosby Kemper Jr.) in 1982 to replace the defunct Kansas City Philharmonic, which was founded in 1933. The symphony performs at the [Center for the Performing Arts](Kauffman)(Kauffman Center for the Performing Arts). [Stern](Michael)(Michael Stern (conductor)) is the symphony's music director and lead conductor. Lyric Opera of Kansas City, founded in 1958, performs at the Kauffman Center, offers one American contemporary opera production during its season, consisting of either four or five productions. The Civic Opera Theater of Kansas City performs at the downtown [Theater](Folly)(Folly Theater) and at the UMKC Performing Arts Center. Every summer from mid-June to early July, The Heart of America Shakespeare Festival performs at Southmoreland Park near the [Museum](Nelson-Atkins)(Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art); the festival was founded by Marilyn Strauss in 1993.
The [City Ballet](Kansas)(Kansas City Ballet), founded in 1957 by Tatiana Dokoudovska, is a ballet troupe comprising 25 professional dancers and apprentices. Between 1986 and 2000, it combined with Dance St. Louis to form the State Ballet of Missouri, although it remained in Kansas City. From 1980 to 1995, the Ballet was run by dancer and choreographer [Bolender](Todd)(Todd Bolender). Today, the Ballet offers an annual repertory split into three seasons, performing classical to contemporary ballets. The Ballet also performs at the Kauffman Center. Kansas City is home to The [City Chorale](Kansas)(Kansas City Chorale), a professional 24-voice chorus conducted by Charles Bruffy. The chorus performs an annual concert series and a concert in [Phoenix](Phoenix, Arizona) each year with their sister choir, the Phoenix Chorale. The Chorale has made nine recordings (three with the Phoenix Chorale).
### Jazz
[[League Baseball Museum and American Jazz Museum.jpg|thumb|Entrance of the American Jazz Museum](File:Negro)]
Kansas City jazz in the 1930s marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. The 1979 documentary *[Last of the Blue Devils](The)(The Last of the Blue Devils)* portrays this era in interviews and performances by local jazz notables. In the 1970s, Kansas City attempted to resurrect the glory of the jazz era in a family-friendly atmosphere. In the 1970s, an effort to open jazz clubs in the River Quay area of City Market along the Missouri ended in a [war](gang)(wikt:turf war). Three of the new clubs were blown up in what ultimately ended Kansas City mob influence in [Vegas](Las)(Las Vegas, Nevada) casinos. The annual Kansas City Blues and Jazz Festival attracts top jazz stars and large tourist audiences. It was rated Kansas City's "best festival" by *The Pitch*.
Live music venues are throughout the city, with the highest concentration in the Westport entertainment district centered on Broadway and Westport Road near [Club Plaza](Country)(Country Club Plaza), and the [and Vine](18th)(18th and Vine) neighborhood's flourish for jazz music. A variety of music genres can be heard or have originated there, including musicians [Monáe](Janelle)(Janelle Monáe), [of Mudd](Puddle)(Puddle of Mudd), [James](Isaac)(Isaac James (band)), [Get Up Kids](The)(The Get Up Kids), [Shiner](Shiner (band)), [The Seen](Flee)(Flee The Seen), [Life and Times](The)(The Life and Times), [and the Full Effect](Reggie)(Reggie and the Full Effect), [Coalesce](Coalesce (band)), [Casket Lottery](The)(The Casket Lottery), [Gadjits](The)(The Gadjits), [Rainmakers](The)(The Rainmakers (band)), [Vedera](Vedera), [Elders](The)(The Elders (band)), [Lights](Blackpool)(Blackpool Lights), [Republic Tigers](The)(The Republic Tigers), [N9ne](Tech)(Tech N9ne), [Kaliko](Krizz)(Krizz Kaliko), [Calhoun](Kutt)(Kutt Calhoun), [& Snug Brim](Skatterman)(Skatterman & Snug Brim), [Lethal](Mac)(Mac Lethal), [Cru](Ces)(Ces Cru), and [Solè](Solè). [City Jazz Orchestra](Kansas)(Kansas City Jazz Orchestra) is big band style.
In 2018, [UNESCO](UNESCO) named Kansas City a City of Music, as the only one in the United States. The designation is based on the city's rich musical heritage, and its budget for improving the [and Vine](18th)(18th and Vine – Downtown East, Kansas City) Jazz District in 2016.
[[City Convention Center, West 13th Street - Kansas City, Missouri, USA - panoramio.jpg|thumb|The Kansas City Convention Center](File:Kansas)]
### Irish culture
In 2021, the US Census Bureau estimated 253,040 people of Irish descent in the metro, with 123,934 in Jackson, Clay, and Platte Counties. The Irish were the first large immigrant group to settle in Kansas City following the lead of [Bernard Donnelly](Fr.)(Bernard Donnelly) () and founded its first newspaper.|author=O'Laughlin, Michael. |title=Missouri Irish, The Original History of the Irish in Missouri, including St. Louis, Kansas City and Trails West |access-date=November 21, 2014}} The Irish community includes bands, dancers, Irish stores, newspapers, and the [City Irish Center](Kansas)(Kansas City Irish Center) at Drexel Hall in Midtown. The first book detailing Irish history in Kansas City is *Missouri Irish: Irish Settlers on the American Frontier*, published in 1984. The Kansas City Irish Fest is held over Labor Day weekend in Crown Center and Washington Park.
### Casinos
Missouri voters approved riverboat [casino](casino) gaming on the [Missouri](Missouri River) and [River](Mississippi)(Mississippi River)s by referendum with a 63% majority on November 3, 1992. The first casino facility in the state opened in September 1994 in North Kansas City by [Entertainment](Harrah's)(Harrah's Entertainment) (now Caesar's Entertainment). The combined revenues for four casinos exceeded $153 million per month in May 2008. The metropolitan area is home to six casinos: [Kansas City](Ameristar)(Ameristar Casinos), [Kansas City](Argosy)(Argosy Gaming Company), [North Kansas City](Harrah's)(Harrah's Entertainment), [of Capri Kansas City](Isle)(Isle of Capri Casinos), the 7th Street Casino (which opened in Kansas City, Kansas, in 2008) and [Casino](Hollywood)(Hollywood Casino at Kansas Speedway) (which opened in February 2012 in Kansas City, Kansas).
### Cuisine
[[File:Bull-kemper.jpg|thumb|upright=2|The [Hereford Association](American)(American Hereford Association) bull, [Arena](Kemper)(Kemper Arena), and the [City Live Stock Exchange](Kansas)(Kansas City Live Stock Exchange) Building in the former [City Stockyard](Kansas)(Kansas City Stockyard) of [Bottoms](West)(West Bottoms)]]
Kansas City is famous for its [steak](steak) and [City-style barbecue](Kansas)(Kansas City-style barbecue), along with the typical array of Southern cuisine. During the heyday of the [City Stockyards](Kansas)(Kansas City Stockyards), the city was known for its Kansas City steaks or [City strip steaks](Kansas)(Strip steak). The most famous of its steakhouses is the [Ox](Golden)(Golden Ox) in the [City Live Stock Exchange](Kansas)(Kansas City Live Stock Exchange) in the [Bottoms](West)(West Bottoms) [stockyards](Feedlot). These stockyards were second only to those of Chicago in size, but they never recovered from the [Flood of 1951](Great)(Great Flood of 1951) and eventually closed. Founded in 1938, [& Jim's Steakhouse](Jess)(Jess & Jim's Steakhouse) in the Martin City neighborhood was also well known.
The Kansas City Strip cut of steak is similar to the New York Strip cut, and is sometimes referred to just as a [steak](strip)(strip steak). Along with [Texas](Texas), [Memphis](Memphis, Tennessee), [North](North Carolina), and [Carolina](South)(South Carolina), Kansas City is lauded as a "world capital of barbecue". More than 90 barbecue restaurants operate in the metropolitan area. The [Royal](American)(American Royal) each fall hosts what it claims is the world's biggest barbecue contest.
[[File:P072914PS-1794 (14992509108).jpg|thumb|[Obama](President)(President Obama) visits [Bryant's](Arthur)(Arthur Bryant's) barbecue.]]
Classic Kansas City-style barbecue was an inner-city phenomenon that evolved from the pit of [Perry](Henry)(Henry Perry (restaurateur)), a migrant from [Memphis](Memphis, Tennessee) who is generally credited with opening the city's first barbecue stand in 1921, and blossomed in the [and Vine](18th)(18th and Vine Historic District) neighborhood. [Bryant's](Arthur)(Arthur Bryant's) took over the Perry restaurant and added [sugar](sugar) to his sauce to sweeten the recipe a bit. In 1946 one of Perry's cooks, George W. Gates, opened Gates Bar-B-Q, later [and Sons Bar-B-Q](Gates)(Gates and Sons Bar-B-Q) when his son Ollie joined the family business. Bryant's and Gates are the two definitive Kansas City barbecue restaurants; native Kansas Citian and essayist Calvin Trillin famously called Bryant's "the single best restaurant in the world" in an essay he wrote for *Playboy* magazine in the 1960s. [Jack Stack Barbecue](Fiorella's)(Fiorella's Jack Stack Barbecue) is also well regarded. In 1977, [Davis](Rich)(Rich Davis), a psychiatrist, test-marketed his own concoction called K.C. Soul Style Barbecue Sauce. He renamed it [Masterpiece](KC)(KC Masterpiece), and in 1986, he sold the recipe to the [Kingsford](Kingsford (charcoal)) division of [Clorox](Clorox). Davis retained rights to operate restaurants using the name and sauce, whose recipe popularized the use of molasses as a sweetener in Kansas City-style barbecue sauces.
Kansas City has several [Beard Award](James)(James Beard Award)-winning/nominated chefs and restaurants. Winning chefs include Michael Smith, [Tio](Celina)(Celina Tio), Colby Garrelts, Debbie Gold, Jonathan Justus and Martin Heuser. A majority of the Beard Award-winning restaurants are in the Crossroads district, downtown and in Westport.
### Points of interest
### Religion
[[File:Kansas City Missouri Temple 11.jpg|thumb|[City Missouri Temple](Kansas)(Kansas City Missouri Temple)]]
The proportion of Kansas City area residents with a known religious affiliation is 50.75%. The most common religious denominations in the area are:
* None/No affiliation 49.25%
* [Catholic](Catholicism) 13.2%
* [Baptists](Baptists) 10.4%
* Other [Christian](Christianity) 10.3%
* [Methodist](Methodism) 6.0%
* [Pentecostal](Pentecostalism) 2.7%
* [Saint](Latter-day)(The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) 2.5%
* [Lutheran](Lutheranism) 2.3%
* [Presbyterian](Presbyterianism in the United States) 1.7%
* [Judaism](Judaism) 0.4%
* [religions](Eastern)(Eastern religions) 0.4%
* [Islam](Islam) 0.4%
### Walt Disney
In 1911, [Disney](Elias)(Elias Disney) moved [family](his)(Disney family) from [Marceline](Marceline, Missouri) to Kansas City. They lived in a new home at 3028 Bellefontaine with a garage he built, in which [Disney](Walt)(Walt Disney) made his first [animation](animation). In 1919, Walt returned from France where he had served as a [Cross ambulance driver](Red)(List of ambulance drivers during World War I) in [War I](World)(World War I). He started the first animation company in Kansas City, [Studio](Laugh-O-Gram)(Laugh-O-Gram Studio), in which he designed the character [Mouse](Mickey)(Mickey Mouse). When the company went bankrupt, Walt Disney moved to [Hollywood](Hollywood, Los Angeles) and started [Walt Disney Company](The)(The Walt Disney Company) on October 16, 1923.
## Sports
Professional sports teams in Kansas City include the [City Chiefs](Kansas)(Kansas City Chiefs) in the [Football League](National)(National Football League) (NFL), the [City Royals](Kansas)(Kansas City Royals) in [League Baseball](Major)(Major League Baseball) (MLB) and [Kansas City](Sporting)(Sporting Kansas City) in [League Soccer](Major)(Major League Soccer) (MLS).
The following table lists the professional teams in the Kansas City metropolitan area:
### Professional football
[[File:Chiefsgame.jpg|thumb|[Stadium](Arrowhead)(Arrowhead Stadium) is home of the [City Chiefs](Kansas)(Kansas City Chiefs).]]
The [Chiefs](Kansas City Chiefs), now a member of the [NFL's](National Football League) [Football Conference](American)(American Football Conference), started play in 1960 as the Dallas Texans of the [Football League](American)(American Football League) before moving to Kansas City in 1963. The Chiefs lost [Bowl I](Super)(Super Bowl I) to the [Bay Packers](Green)(Green Bay Packers) by a score of 35–10. In 1969, the team became the last AFL champion and won [Bowl IV](Super)(Super Bowl IV). In 2020, it won [Bowl LIV](Super)(Super Bowl LIV), in 2021 it lost [Bowl LV](Super)(Super Bowl LV), and in 2023, it won [Bowl LVII](Super)(Super Bowl LVII).
### Professional baseball
[[File:Kansas City Royals.jpg|thumb|The [City Royals](Kansas)(Kansas City Royals) became 1985 and 2015 World Series Champions.]]
The [Athletics](Oakland Athletics) baseball franchise played in the city from 1955, after moving from [Philadelphia](Philadelphia), to 1967, when the team relocated to [California](Oakland,)(Oakland, California). The city's current Major League Baseball franchise, the [Royals](Kansas City Royals), started play in 1969, and are the only major league sports franchise in Kansas City that has not relocated or changed its name. The Royals were the first [League](American)(American League) expansion team to reach the playoffs (in [1976](1976 American League Championship Series)) to reach the World Series (in 1980) and to win the World Series (in 1985). The Royals returned to the World Series in 2014 and won in 2015.
The [City Monarchs](Kansas)(Kansas City Monarchs), formerly the Kansas City T-Bones, is an unaffiliated minor league team. It played in the [Northern League](independent)(Northern League (baseball, 1993–2010)) from 2003 until 2010 and has been part of the [American Association](independent)(American Association of Independent Professional Baseball) since 2011. Its home is [Field](Legends)(Legends Field (Kansas City)) in [City, Kansas](Kansas)(Kansas City, Kansas).
### Professional soccer
[[File:Livestrong Sporting Park - Kansas City (7298623286).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[Kansas City](Sporting)(Sporting Kansas City) played the [England Revolution](New)(New England Revolution) at [Mercy Park](Children's)(Children's Mercy Park).]]
The Kansas City Wiz became a charter member of Major League Soccer in 1996. It was renamed the Kansas City Wizards in 1997. In 2011, the team was renamed [Kansas City](Sporting)(Sporting Kansas City) and moved to its new stadium [Mercy Park](Children's)(Children's Mercy Park) in [City, Kansas](Kansas)(Kansas City, Kansas). It won the [Cup](MLS)(MLS Cup) twice, the [Shield](Supporters')(Supporters' Shield) once, and the [Open Cup](US)(U.S. Open Cup) four times.
[Kansas City](FC)(FC Kansas City) played from 2013 to 2017 in the [Women's Soccer League](National)(National Women's Soccer League); the team's home games were held at [Soccer Village](Swope)(Swope Soccer Village). They won the NWSL in 2014 and 2015. The team folded after the 2017 season and its assets were transferred to [Royals FC](Utah)(Utah Royals FC). After the 2020 season, the Utah Royals folded and its assets were transferred to a new Kansas City team, now known as the [City Current](Kansas)(Kansas City Current). The Current moved to Children's Mercy Park after spending their first season at [Field](Legends)(Legends Field (Kansas City)), where they were known as KC NWSL. On October 6, 2022, the team's ownership broke ground on an 11,500-seat soccer-specific stadium on the Berkley Riverfront Park, with a goal to open by March 2024.
Kansas City was selected on June 16, 2022, as one of the eleven US host cities for the [FIFA World Cup](2026)(2026 FIFA World Cup).
### College athletics
In college athletics, Kansas City has been the home of the Big 12 College Basketball Tournaments. The [tournament](men's)(Big 12 men's basketball tournament) has been played at [Center](T-Mobile)(T-Mobile Center) since March 2008. The [tournament](women's)(Big 12 women's basketball tournament) is played at [Auditorium](Municipal)(Municipal Auditorium (Kansas City)).
The city has one [Division I](NCAA)(NCAA Division I) program, the [City Roos](Kansas)(Kansas City Roos), representing the [of Missouri–Kansas City](University)(University of Missouri–Kansas City) (UMKC). The program, historically known as the UMKC Kangaroos, adopted its current branding after the 2018–19 school year.
In addition to serving as the home stadium of the Chiefs, [Stadium](Arrowhead)(Arrowhead Stadium) serves as the venue for various intercollegiate football games. It has hosted the Big 12 Championship Game five times. On the last weekend in October, the [MIAA](Mid-America Intercollegiate Athletics Association) Fall Classic rivalry game between [Missouri State University](Northwest)(Northwest Missouri State Bearcats football) and [State University](Pittsburg)(Pittsburg State University) took place at the stadium.
### Rugby
Kansas City is represented on the [rugby](rugby union) pitch by the [City Blues RFC](Kansas)(Kansas City Blues RFC), a former member of the [Super League](Rugby)(Rugby Super League (United States)) and a Division 1 club. The team works closely with Sporting Kansas City and splits home-games between Sporting's training pitch and [University](Rockhurst)(Rockhurst University)'s stadium.
### Former teams
Kansas City briefly had four short-term major league baseball teams between 1884 and 1915: the [City Unions](Kansas)(Kansas City Cowboys (Union Association)) of the short-lived [Association](Union)(Union Association) in 1884, the [City Cowboys](Kansas)(Kansas City Cowboys (National League)) in the [League](National)(National League (baseball)) in 1886, a team of the [name](same)(Kansas City Cowboys (American Association)) in the then-major league [Association](American)(American Association (19th century)) in 1888 and 1889, and the [City Packers](Kansas)(Kansas City Packers) in the [League](Federal)(Federal League) in 1914 and 1915. The [City Monarchs](Kansas)(Kansas City Monarchs) of the now-defunct [National](Negro)(Negro National League (1920–1931)) and [American](Negro)(Negro American League) Leagues represented Kansas City from 1920 through 1955. The city also had a number of minor league baseball teams between 1885 and 1955. After the [City Cowboys](Kansas)(Kansas City Blues (1885–1901)) began play in the 1885 [League](Western)(Western League (1885–1899)), from 1903 through 1954, the [City Blues](Kansas)(Kansas City Blues (American Association)) played in the high-level [Association](American)(American Association (1902–1997)) minor league. In 1955, Kansas City became a major league city when the [Athletics](Philadelphia)(Oakland Athletics) baseball franchise relocated to the city in 1955. Following the 1967 season, the team relocated to [California](Oakland,)(Oakland, California).
Kansas City was represented in the [Basketball Association](National)(National Basketball Association) by the [City Kings](Kansas)(Sacramento Kings) (called the Kansas City-Omaha Kings from 1972 to 1975), when the former Cincinnati Royals moved to the Midwest. The team left for [Sacramento](Sacramento) in 1985.
In 1974, the [Hockey League](National)(National Hockey League) placed an expansion team in Kansas City called the [City Scouts](Kansas)(Kansas City Scouts). The team moved to [Denver](Denver) in 1976, then to [Jersey](New)(New Jersey) in 1982 where they have remained ever since as the [Jersey Devils](New)(New Jersey Devils).
[[File:Penn Valley Park.jpg|thumb|View of downtown from [Valley Park](Penn)(Penn Valley Park)]]
[[File:Loose Park Rose Garden.jpg|thumb|The rose garden in [Park](Loose)(Loose Park) is Kansas City's third-largest public park.]]
## Parks and boulevards
[[File:JC Nichols Fountain by Henri-Léon Gréber Kansas City.jpg|thumb|*J.C. Nichols Memorial Fountain*, by [Gréber](Henri-Léon)(Henri-Léon Gréber), is in Mill Creek Park, adjacent to Country Club Plaza.]]
Kansas City has of boulevards and parkways, 214 urban parks, 49 ornamental fountains, 152 baseball diamonds, 10 community centers, 105 tennis courts, 5 golf courses, 5 museums and attractions, 30 pools, and 47 park shelters. These amenities are found across the city. Much of the system, designed by [E. Kessler](George)(George E. Kessler), was constructed from 1893 to 1915.
Cliff Drive, in Kessler Park on the North Bluffs, is a designated State Scenic Byway. It extends from The Paseo and Independence Avenue through Indian Mound on Gladstone Boulevard at Belmont Boulevard, with many historical points and architectural landmarks.
[Parkway](Ward)(Ward Parkway), on the west side of the city near [Line Road](State)(State Line Road), is lined by many of the city's largest and most elaborate homes.
[Paseo](The)(The Paseo (Kansas City, Missouri)) is a major north–south parkway that runs through the center of the city beginning at Cliff Drive. It was modeled on the *[de la Reforma](Paseo)(Paseo de la Reforma)*, a fashionable [City](Mexico)(Mexico City) boulevard. It has been recently renamed [Luther King Jr. Boulevard](Martin)(Martin Luther King Jr. Drive (St. Louis)) and now the city has voted to change it back to the Paseo.
[Park](Swope)(Swope Park) is one of the nation's largest city parks, comprising , more than twice the size of New York City's [Park](Central)(Central Park). It features a [zoo](Kansas City Zoo), a woodland nature and wildlife rescue center, 2 golf courses, 2 lakes, an [amphitheatre](amphitheatre), a day-camp, and numerous picnic grounds. Hodge Park, in the Northland, covers (1.61 sq. mi.). This park includes the Shoal Creek Living History Museum, a village of more than 20 historical buildings dating from 1807 to 1885. [Riverfront Park](Berkley)(Berkley Riverfront Park), on the banks of the [River](Missouri)(Missouri River) on the north edge of downtown, holds annual [Day](Independence)(Independence Day (United States)) celebrations and other festivals.
A program went underway to replace many of the fast-growing [sweetgum](American Sweetgum) trees with [hardwood](hardwood) varieties.
### Civil Engineering Landmark
In 1974, the Kansas City Park and Boulevard System was recognized by the [Society of Civil Engineers](American)(American Society of Civil Engineers) (ASCE) as a [Historic Civil Engineering Landmark](National)(National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark)."Nomination of Park and Boulevard System, Kansas City, Missouri for Designation as National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark." American Society of Civil Engineers. Kansas City Section. 1974. The nomination noted that this park system was among "...the first to integrate the aesthetics of landscape architecture with the practicality of city planning, stimulating other metropolitan areas to undertake similar projects." The park's plan developed by landscape architect [Kessler](George)(George Kessler#Kansas City) included some of the "...first specifications for pavements, gutters, curbs, and walks. Other engineering advances included retaining walls, earth dams, subsurface drains, and an impoundment lake – all part of Kansas City's legacy that has influenced urban planning in cities throughout North America."
## Law and government
### City government
[[City Missouri City Hall.jpg|thumb|upright|City Hall, Kansas City, Missouri](File:Kansas)]
Kansas City is home to the largest [government](municipal)(Kansas City, Missouri Municipal Government) in the state of Missouri. The city has a council/manager form of government. The role of [manager](city)(city manager) has diminished over the years. The non-elective office of city manager was created following excesses during the Pendergast days.
The mayor is the head of the [City City Council](Kansas)(Kansas City, Missouri City Council), which has 12 members elected from six districts (one member elected by voters in the district and one at-large member elected by voters citywide). The mayor is the presiding member. By charter, Kansas City has a "weak-mayor" system, in which most of the power is formally vested in the city council. However, in practice, the mayor is very influential in drafting and guiding public policy.
Kansas City holds city elections in every fourth odd-numbered year. The last citywide election was held in May 2019. The officials took office in August 2019 and will hold the position until 2023.
Pendergast was the most prominent leader during the machine politics days. The most nationally prominent Democrat associated with the machine was [S Truman](Harry)(Harry S Truman), who became a Senator, Vice President and then [of the United States](President)(President of the United States) from 1945 to 1953. Kansas City is the seat of the [States District Court for the Western District of Missouri](United)(United States District Court for the Western District of Missouri), one of two [district courts](federal)(United States district courts) in Missouri. The [States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri](United)(United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri) is in St. Louis. It also is the seat of the Western District of the [Court of Appeals](Missouri)(Missouri Court of Appeals), one of three districts of that court (the Eastern District is in St. Louis and the Southern District is in [Springfield](Springfield, Missouri)).
The Mayor, City Council, and City Manager are listed below:
### National political conventions
Kansas City hosted the [Democratic National Convention](1900)(1900 Democratic National Convention), the [Republican National Convention](1928)(1928 Republican National Convention) and the [Republican National Convention](1976)(1976 Republican National Convention). The urban core of Kansas City consistently votes Democratic in presidential elections; however, on the state and local level Republicans often find success, especially in the Northland and other suburban areas of Kansas City.
### Federal representation
Kansas City is represented by three members of the [States House of Representatives](United)(United States House of Representatives):
*[4th congressional district](Missouri's)(Missouri's 4th congressional district) – the Cass County portion of Kansas City; represented by [Alford](Mark)(Mark Alford (politician)) (Republican)
*[5th congressional district](Missouri's)(Missouri's 5th congressional district) – all of Kansas City proper in Jackson County, Independence, and portions of Clay County; represented by [Cleaver](Emanuel)(Emanuel Cleaver) (Democrat)
*[6th congressional district](Missouri's)(Missouri's 6th congressional district) – Portions of Kansas City proper in [County](Clay)(Clay County, Missouri) and [County](Platte)(Platte County, Missouri); represented by [Graves](Sam)(Sam Graves) (Republican)
### Crime
[[File:Police Respond to Shooting.jpg|thumb|Police respond to a shooting in the [Crossroads](Crossroads, Kansas City) area during the early hours of New Years Day 2016.]]
Some of the earliest organized violence in Kansas City erupted during the [Civil War](American)(American Civil War). Shortly after the city's incorporation in 1850, so-called [Kansas](Bleeding)(Bleeding Kansas) erupted, affecting [ruffians](border)(border ruffians) and [Jayhawkers](Jayhawkers). During the war, Union troops [all occupied dwellings](burned)(General Order № 11 (1863)) in Jackson County south of Brush Creek and east of Blue Creek to Independence in an attempt to halt raids into Kansas. After the war, the *[City Times](Kansas)(Kansas City Times)* turned outlaw [James](Jesse)(Jesse James) into a folk hero via its coverage. James was born in the Kansas City metro area at [Missouri](Kearney,)(Kearney, Missouri), and notoriously robbed the Kansas City Fairgrounds at 12th Street and Campbell Avenue.
In the early 20th century under Pendergast, Kansas City became the country's "most wide open town". Though this gave rise to [City Jazz](Kansas)(Kansas City Jazz), and also led to the rise of the [City mob](Kansas)(Kansas City crime family) (initially under [Lazia](Johnny)(Johnny Lazia)), and the arrival of [crime](organized)(organized crime). In the 1970s, the Kansas City mob was involved in a gang war over control of the [Quay](River)(River Quay) entertainment district, in which three buildings were bombed and several gangsters were killed. Police investigations gained after boss [Civella](Nick)(Nick Civella) was recorded discussing gambling bets on [Bowl IV](Super)(Super Bowl IV) (where the Kansas City Chiefs defeated the Minnesota Vikings). The war and investigation led to the end of mob control of the [Casino](Stardust)(Stardust Casino), which was the basis for the film *[Casino](Casino (film))*, though the production minimizes the Kansas City connections.
, Kansas City [18th](ranked)(United States cities by crime rate) on the [Bureau of Investigation](Federal)(Federal Bureau of Investigation) (FBI)'s annual survey of crime rates for cities with populations over 100,000. Much of the city's violent crime occurs on the city's lower income East Side. Revitalizing the downtown and midtown areas has been fairly successful and now these areas have below average violent crime compared to other major downtowns. According to a 2007 analysis by *[Kansas City Star](The)(The Kansas City Star)* and the [of Missouri-Kansas City](University)(University of Missouri-Kansas City), downtown experienced the largest drop in crime of any neighborhood in the city during the 2000s.
## Education
### Colleges and universities
Many universities, colleges, and seminaries are in the Kansas City metropolitan area, including:
* [of Missouri–Kansas City](University)(University of Missouri–Kansas City) − one of four schools in the [of Missouri System](University)(University of Missouri System) − serving more than 15,000 students
* [University](Rockhurst)(Rockhurst University) − [Jesuit](Jesuit) university founded in 1910
* [City Art Institute](Kansas)(Kansas City Art Institute) − four-year college of fine arts and design founded in 1885
* [City University of Medicine and Biosciences](Kansas)(Kansas City University of Medicine and Biosciences) − medical and graduate school founded in 1916
* [University](Avila)(Avila University) − Catholic university of the [of St. Joseph of Carondelet](Sisters)(Sisters of St. Joseph of Carondelet)
* [University](Park)(Park University) − private institution established in 1875; Park University Graduate School is downtown
* [University](Baker)(Baker University) − multiple branches of the School of Professional and Graduate Studies
* [Jewell College](William)(William Jewell College) − private liberal arts institution founded in 1849
* [Community College (Kansas City)](Metropolitan)(Metropolitan Community College (Kansas City)) − a two-year college with multiple campuses in the city and suburbs
* [Baptist Theological Seminary](Midwestern)(Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary) − Southern Baptist Convention
* [Theological Seminary](Nazarene)(Nazarene Theological Seminary) − Church of the Nazarene
* [University](Calvary)(Calvary University)
* [Paul School of Theology](Saint)(Saint Paul School of Theology) − Methodist
### Primary and secondary schools
[[File:Kc board of ed 2017-05-25.jpg|thumb|upright|Headquarters of the [City Public Schools](Kansas)(Kansas City Public Schools), which serves the inner core of the city limits]]
The city is not served by one unified school district, but 15 separate districts due to the historical unwillingness of suburban voters to merge their existing school districts with the Kansas City district as the city expanded its limits in the 1950s and 1960s.
School outcomes vary between and even within districts, with a some high schools being nationally ranked, and others having some of the lowest graduation rates. There are also numerous private schools; Catholic schools are governed by the [of Kansas City](Diocese)(Diocese of Kansas City).
The following public school districts serve Kansas City:
In the Jackson County portion of the city:
* [City Public Schools](Kansas)(Kansas City Public Schools)
* [Springs R-4 School District](Blue)(Blue Springs R-IV School District)
* [School District](Center)(Center School District)
* [Osage R-1 School District](Fort)(Fort Osage R-1 School District)
* [C-4 School District](Grandview)(Grandview C-4 School District)
* [Mills C-1 School District](Hickman)(Hickman Mills C-1 School District)
* [School District](Independence)(Independence School District)
* [Summit R-7 School District](Lees)(Lee's Summit R-VII School District)
* [C-2 School District](Raytown)(Raytown C-2 School District)
In the Cass County portion:
* [School District](Belton)(Belton School District)
In the Clay County portion:
* [School District](Liberty)(Liberty Public School District)
* [Kansas City School District](North)(North Kansas City School District)
* [School District](Smithville)(Smithville School District)
In the Platte County portion:
* [Hill School District](Park)(Park Hill School District)
* [County R-3 School District](Platte)(Platte County R-3 School District)
### Libraries and archives
* [Hall Library](Linda)(Linda Hall Library) − internationally recognized independent library of science, engineering and technology, housing over one million volumes.
* [Public Library](Mid-Continent)(Mid-Continent Public Library) − largest public library system in Missouri, and among the largest collections in America.
* [City Public Library](Kansas)(Kansas City Public Library) − oldest library system in Kansas City.
* [of Missouri-Kansas City Libraries](University)(University of Missouri-Kansas City) − four collections: Leon E. Bloch Law Library and Miller Nichols Library, both on Volker Campus; and Health Sciences Library and Dental Library, both on Hospital Hill in Kansas City.
* [University](Rockhurst)(Rockhurst University) Greenlease Library
* The [Archives of Mid-America](Black)(Black Archives of Mid-America)− research center of the African American experience in the central Midwest.
* [Archives and Records Administration](National)(National Archives and Records Administration) (NARA), Central Plains Region − one of 18 national records facilities, holding millions of archival records and microfilms for Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska in a new facility adjacent to Union Station, which was opened to the general public in 2008.
## Media
[[Kansas City Star'' printing facility opened in 2006.](File:Kc-star-plant.jpg|thumb|*The)]
### Print media
*[Kansas City Star](The)(The Kansas City Star)'' is the area's primary newspaper. [Rockhill Nelson](William)(William Rockhill Nelson) and his partner, [Morss](Samuel)(Samuel Morss), first published the evening paper on September 18, 1880. The *Star* competed with the morning *Kansas City Times* before acquiring that publication in 1901. The "Times" name was discontinued in March 1990, when the morning paper was renamed the "Star".
Weekly newspapers include *The Call* (which is focused toward Kansas City's African-American community), the *[City Business Journal](Kansas)(Kansas City Business Journal)*, *[Pitch](The)(The Pitch (newspaper))*, *Ink*, and the bilingual publications *Dos Mundos* and *KC Hispanic News*.
Publications include ''Ingram's Magazine* and a local [society](upper class) journal, the *Independent*.
The city is served by two major faith-oriented newspapers: The *Kansas City Metro Voice*, serving the Christian community, and the *Kansas City Jewish Chronicle*, serving the Jewish community. It is the headquarters of the *[Catholic Reporter](National)(National Catholic Reporter)*, an independent Catholic newspaper.
### Broadcast media
[[File:Kctv-tower1.jpg|thumb|upright|Landmark [KCTV](KCTV) Tower on West 31st on Union Hill]]
The Kansas City media market (ranked 32nd by Arbitron and 31st by Nielsen) includes 10 television stations, 30 FM and 21 AM radio stations. Kansas City broadcasting jobs have been a stepping stone for national television and radio personalities, notably [Cronkite](Walter)(Walter Cronkite) and [Muller](Mancow)(Mancow Muller).
WDAF radio (now at 106.5 FM; original 610 AM frequency now occupied by [KCSP](KCSP (AM))) signed on in 1927 as an affiliate of the [Red Network](NBC)(NBC Red Network), under the ownership of *The Star.* In 1949, the *Star* signed on [WDAF-TV](WDAF-TV) as an affiliate of the [NBC](NBC) television network. The *Star'' sold off the WDAF stations in 1957, following an [antitrust](antitrust) investigation by the United States government (reportedly launched at Truman's behest, following a long-standing feud with the *Star*) over the newspaper's ownership of television and radio stations. [KCMO](KCMO (AM)) radio (originally at 810 AM, now at 710 AM) signed on KCMO-TV (now [KCTV](KCTV)) in 1953. The respective owners of [WHB](WHB (AM)) (then at 710 AM, now at 810 AM) and KMBC radio (980 AM, now [KMBZ](KMBZ (AM))), Cook Paint and Varnish Company and the Midland Broadcasting Company, signed on [WHB-TV/KMBC-TV](KMBC-TV) as a time-share arrangement on VHF channel 9 in 1953; KMBC-TV took over channel 9 full-time in June 1954, after Cook Paint and Varnish purchased Midland Broadcasting's stations.
The major broadcast television networks have affiliates in the Kansas City market (covering 32 counties in northwestern Missouri, with the exception of counties in the far northwestern part of the state that are within the adjacent [Joseph](Saint)(Saint Joseph, Missouri) market, and northeastern Kansas); including [WDAF-TV](WDAF-TV) 4 ([Fox](Fox Broadcasting Company)), [KCTV](KCTV) 5 ([CBS](CBS)), [KMBC-TV](KMBC-TV) 9 ([ABC](American Broadcasting Company)), [KCPT](KCPT) 19 ([PBS](PBS)), [KCWE](KCWE) 29 ([CW](The)(The CW)), [KSHB-TV](KSHB-TV) 41 ([NBC](NBC)) and [KSMO-TV](KSMO-TV) 62 ([MyNetworkTV](MyNetworkTV)). Other television stations in the market include Saint Joseph-based [KTAJ-TV](KTAJ-TV) 16 ([TBN](Trinity Broadcasting Network)), Kansas City, Kansas-based TV25.tv (consisting of three locally owned stations throughout northeast Kansas, led by [KCKS-LD](KCKS-LD) 25, affiliated with several [multicast](digital)(digital subchannel) networks), Lawrence, Kansas-based [KMCI-TV](KMCI-TV) 38 ([independent](Independent station (North America))), Spanish-language station [KUKC-LD](KUKC-LD) 20 ([Univision](Univision)), Spanish-language station [KGKC-LD](KGKC-LD) 39 ([Telemundo](Telemundo)), and [KPXE-TV](KPXE-TV) 50 ([Television](Ion)(Ion Television)). The Kansas City television stations also serve as alternates for the nearby Saint Joseph television market.
### Film community
Kansas City has been a locale for film and television productions. Between 1931 and 1982 Kansas City was home to the [Company](Calvin)(Calvin Company), a large film production company that specialized in promotional shorts for corporations and in educational films for schools and the government. Calvin was an important venue for Kansas City arts, training local filmmakers who went on to [careers](Hollywood)(Cinema of the United States) and also employing local actors, most of whom earned their main income in fields such as radio and television announcing. Kansas City native [Altman](Robert)(Robert Altman) directed movies at the Calvin Company, which led him to shoot his first feature film, *[Delinquents](The)(The Delinquents (1957 film))*, in Kansas City using many local players.
The 1983 television movie *[Day After](The)(The Day After)* was filmed in Kansas City and Lawrence, Kansas. The 1995 film *[Truman](Truman (1995 film))*, starring [Sinise](Gary)(Gary Sinise), was filmed in the city. Other films shot in or around Kansas City include *[99](Article)(Article 99)*, *[& Mrs. Bridge](Mr.)(Mr. and Mrs. Bridge)*, *[City](Kansas)(Kansas City (film))*, *[Moon](Paper)(Paper Moon (film))*, *[Cold Blood](In)(In Cold Blood (film))*, *[Street](Ninth)(Ninth Street)*, and *[They Come Back](Sometimes)(Sometimes They Come Back (film))* (in and around nearby [Missouri](Liberty,)(Liberty, Missouri)). More recently, a scene in the controversial film *[Brüno](Brüno)* was filmed in downtown Kansas City's historic Hotel Phillips.
Today, Kansas City is home to an active independent film community. The [Filmmaker's Coalition](Independent)(Independent Filmmaker's Coalition) is an organization dedicated to expanding and improving independent filmmaking in Kansas City. The city launched the KC Film Office in October 2014 with the goal of better marketing the city for prospective television shows and movies to be filmed there. The City Council passed several film tax incentives in February 2016 to take effect in May 2016; the KC Film Office is coordinating its efforts with the State of Missouri to reinstate film incentives on a statewide level. Kansas City was named as a top city to live and work in as a movie maker in 2020.
## Transportation
Originally, Kansas City was the launching point for travelers on the [Fe](Santa)(Santa Fe Trail), [Oregon](Oregon Trail), and [California](California Trail) trails. Later, with the construction of the [Bridge](Hannibal)(Hannibal Bridge) across the [River](Missouri)(Missouri River), it became the junction of 11 trunk railroads. More rail tonnage passes through the city than through any other U.S. city. [World Airlines](Trans)(Trans World Airlines) (TWA) located its headquarters in the city, and had ambitious plans to turn the city into an air hub.
### Highways
[[City is a major meeting place for several of the nation's busiest highways.](File:Alphamap.gif|thumb|Kansas)]
Missouri and Kansas were the first states to start building interstates with [70](Interstate)(Interstate 70). [435](Interstate)(Interstate 435), which encircles the entire city, is the second longest beltway in the [Highway System](Interstate)(Interstate Highway System). ([275](Interstate)(Interstate 275 (Ohio-Kentucky-Indiana)) around [Ohio](Cincinnati,)(Cincinnati, Ohio) is the longest.) The Kansas City metro area has more limited-access highway lane-miles per capita than any other large US metro area, over 27% more than the second-place [Worth metroplex](Dallas–Fort)(Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex), over 50% more than the average American metropolitan area. From 2013 to 2017 the average commuting time was 21.8 minutes. The [Club](Sierra)(Sierra Club) blames the extensive freeway network for excessive [sprawl](urban sprawl) and the decline of central Kansas City. On the other hand, the relatively uncongested road network contributes significantly to Kansas City's position as one of America's largest [logistics](logistics) hubs.
#### Interstate highways
Kansas City has a confluence of major U.S. [highways](interstate)(Interstate Highway System): [I-29](Interstate 29 in Missouri), [I-35](Interstate 35 in Missouri), [I-49](Interstate 49 in Missouri), [I-70](Interstate 70 in Missouri), [I-435](Interstate 435), [I-470](Interstate 470 (Missouri)), [I-635](Interstate 635 (Kansas–Missouri)), and [I-670](Interstate 670 (Kansas–Missouri)).
#### US highways
Kansas City includes these US highways: [24](US)(U.S. Route 24 in Missouri), [40](US)(U.S. Route 40 in Missouri), [50](US)(U.S. Route 50 in Missouri), [56](US)(U.S. Route 56 in Kansas), [69](US)(U.S. Route 69 in Missouri), [71](US)(U.S. Route 71 in Missouri), and [169](US)(U.S. Route 169 in Missouri).
#### Missouri state highways
Missouri highways in Kansas City include these: [1](Route)(Missouri Route 1), [9](Route)(Missouri Route 9), [12](Route)(Missouri Route 12), [45](Route)(Missouri Route 45), [78](Route)(Missouri Route 78), [92](Route)(Missouri Route 92), [150](Route)(Missouri Route 150), [152](Route)(Missouri Route 152), [210](Route)(Missouri Route 210), [269](Route)(Missouri Route 269), [283](Route)(Missouri Route 283), [291](Route)(Missouri Route 291), and [Route 350](Missouri)(Missouri Route 350).
#### Other routes
Other routes include the [City Expressway](Chicago–Kansas)(Chicago–Kansas City Expressway) and the [and Clark National Historic Trail](Lewis)(Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail).
### Airports
[[File:Kci.JPG|thumb|[City International Airport](Kansas)(Kansas City International Airport)]]
[City International Airport](Kansas)(Kansas City International Airport) (airport code MCI) was built to TWA's specifications to make a world hub. Its original passenger-friendly design placed each of its gates
from the street. Following the [11, 2001 attacks](September)(September 11, 2001 attacks), it required a costly overhaul to conform to the tighter security protocols. As of August 2021, an entirely new $1.5 billion terminal on the site of the old terminal A, is midway through construction. Designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM), it is a single, advanced technology terminal with 39 gates, initially, that will entirely replace the two remaining terminals, B and C.
[B. Wheeler Downtown Airport](Charles)(Charles B. Wheeler Downtown Airport) (airport code MKC) was TWA's original headquarters and houses the [History Museum](Airline)(Airline History Museum). It is still used for [aviation](general)(general aviation) and airshows.
### Public transportation
Like most American cities, Kansas City's mass transit system was originally rail-based. From 1870 to 1957, Kansas City's streetcar system was among the top in the country, with over of track at its peak. The rapid sprawl in the following years led this private system to be shut down.
Amtrak currently operates two routes via Kansas City, the Southwest Chief to Chicago or Los Angeles, and the Missouri River Runner to St. Louis
#### KCATA RideKC
On December 28, 1965, the [City Area Transportation Authority](Kansas)(Kansas City Area Transportation Authority) (KCATA) was formed via a bi-state compact created by the Missouri and Kansas legislatures. The compact gave the KCATA responsibility for planning, construction, owning and operating passenger transportation systems and facilities within the seven-county area.
##### RideKC Bus and MAX
[[Bus.jpg|thumb|A newly branded RideKC Bus](File:RideKC)]
In July 2005, the KCATA launched Kansas City's first [rapid transit](bus)(bus rapid transit) line, the [Area Express](Metro)(Metro Area Express) (MAX). MAX links the River Market, Downtown, [Station](Union)(Kansas City Union Station), Crown Center and the Country Club Plaza. MAX operates and is marketed more like a rail system than a local bus line. A unique identity was created for MAX, including 13 modern diesel buses and easily identifiable "stations". MAX features (real-time [GPS](global positioning system) tracking of buses, available at every station), and stoplights automatically change in their favor if buses are behind schedule. In 2010, a second MAX line was added on Troost Avenue. The city is planning another MAX line down Prospect Avenue. Light Rail and MAX|publisher=KCATA|access-date=May 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602120949/http://www.kcata.org/light_rail_max/prospect_ave_study|archive-date=June 2, 2016|url-status=live}}
The Prospect MAX line launched in 2019 and Mayor [Lucas](Quinton)(Quinton Lucas) announced the service would be fare-free indefinitely.
[[10main.jpg|thumb|KC Streetcar departing the Library stop, heading north to the River Market](File:Streetcar)]
##### RideKC Streetcar
On December 12, 2012, a ballot initiative to construct a $102 million, 2-mile (3200 m) modern [Streetcar](KC)(KC Streetcar) line in downtown Kansas City was approved by local voters. The streetcar route runs along Main Street from the [Market](River)(River Market) to [Station](Union)(Union Station (Kansas City, Missouri)); it debuted on May 6, 2016. A new non-profit corporation made up of private sector stakeholders and city appointees – the [City Streetcar Authority](Kansas)(Kansas City Streetcar Authority) – operates and maintains the system. Unlike many similar systems around the U.S., no fare is to be charged initially. Residents within the proposed Transportation Development District are determining the fate of the KC Streetcar's southern extension through Midtown and the Plaza to [UMKC](University of Missouri–Kansas City). The Port Authority of Kansas City is also studying running an extension to [Riverfront Park](Berkley)(Berkley Riverfront Park).
##### RideKC Bridj
In 2015, the KCATA, Unified Government Transit, Johnson County Transit, and IndeBus began merging from individual metro services into one coordinated transit service for the metropolitan area, called RideKC. The buses and other transit options are branded as RideKC Bus, RideKC MAX, RideKC Streetcar, and RideKC Bridj. RideKC Bridj is a micro transit service partnership between Ford Bridj and KCATA that began on March 7, 2016, much like a [taxicab](taxicab) service and with a [app](mobile)(mobile app). The merger and full coordination is expected to be complete by 2019.
### Walkability
A 2015 study by [Score](Walk)(Walk Score) ranked Kansas City as the 42nd most walkable out of the 50 largest U.S. cities. As a whole, the city has a score of 34 out of 100. However, several of the more densely populated neighborhoods have much higher scores: Westport has a score of 91, the Downtown Loop has a score of 85, the Crossroads scored 85, and the Plaza scored 83. Those ratings range from "A Walker's Paradise" to "Very Walkable". In April 2017, voters approved an $800 million general obligation bond, part of which is designated for sidewalk repairs and creating complete-streets.
### Modal characteristics
According to the American Community Survey, 81.6 percent of working Kansas City residents commuted to work by driving alone, 7.9 percent carpooled, 2.7 percent used public transportation, and 1.7 percent walked to work. About 1.5 percent commuted by other means, including taxi, bicycle, or motorcycle. About 4.6 percent of working Kansas City residents worked at home.
In 2015, 11.4 percent of Kansas City households were without a car, which was virtually unchanged in 2016 (11.3 percent). The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Kansas City averaged 1.58 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8 per household.
## Sister cities
Kansas City has 15 sister cities:
## Notable people
Current or former long-time residents include cartoonists [Disney](Walt)(Walt Disney), [Freleng](Friz)(Friz Freleng), and [Iwerks](Ub)(Ub Iwerks); musicians [Basie](Count)(Count Basie) and [N9ne](Tech)(Tech N9ne); actor [Cheadle](Don)(Don Cheadle); politicians [Cleaver](Emanuel)(Emanuel Cleaver) and [Pendergast](Tom)(Tom Pendergast); and reporter [Cronkite](Walter)(Walter Cronkite).
## See also
*[City Police Officers Association](Kansas)(Kansas City Police Officers Association)
*[of people from Kansas City, Missouri](List)(List of people from Kansas City, Missouri)
*[of interest of Kansas City](Sites)(Sites of interest of Kansas City)
*[*Kansas City*](USS)(USS Kansas City), 3 ships
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
*[Official Travel and Tourism Site](http://www.visitkc.com/)
*[Kansas City Chamber of Commerce](http://www.kcchamber.com/)
* Historic maps of Kansas City in the [Sanborn Maps of Missouri Collection](http://dl.mospace.umsystem.edu/mu/islandora/object/mu%3A138839) at the [of Missouri](University)(University of Missouri)
* [The Black Archives of Mid-America on Google Cultural Institute](https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/beta/partner/the-black-archives-of-mid-america)
}}
[ ](Category:Kansas City, Missouri)
[establishments in Missouri](Category:1850)(Category:1850 establishments in Missouri)
[in Cass County, Missouri](Category:Cities)(Category:Cities in Cass County, Missouri)
[in Clay County, Missouri](Category:Cities)(Category:Cities in Clay County, Missouri)
[in Jackson County, Missouri](Category:Cities)(Category:Cities in Jackson County, Missouri)
[in Kansas City metropolitan area](Category:Cities)(Category:Cities in Kansas City metropolitan area)
[in Missouri](Category:Cities)(Category:Cities in Missouri)
[in Platte County, Missouri](Category:Cities)(Category:Cities in Platte County, Missouri)
[populated places on the Missouri River](Category:Missouri)(Category:Missouri populated places on the Missouri River)
[places established in 1850](Category:Populated)(Category:Populated places established in 1850)
|
RoboCop _2014 film
|
robocop__2014_film
|
# RoboCop (2014 film)
*Revision ID: 1157377416 | Timestamp: 2023-05-28T06:40:07Z*
---
| based_on =
| starring =
| cinematography = [Carvalho](Lula)(Lula Carvalho)
| editing =
| music = [Bromfman](Pedro)(Pedro Bromfman)
| studio =
* [Pictures](Columbia)(Columbia Pictures)
* [Entertainment](Strike)(Strike Entertainment)
}}
| distributor = [Pictures Releasing](Sony)(Sony Pictures Releasing)
| released =
| runtime = 118 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $100–130 million
| gross = $242.6 million
}}
***RoboCop*** is a 2014 American [film](superhero)(superhero film) directed by [Padilha](José)(José Padilha) and written by Joshua Zetumer, [Neumeier](Edward)(Edward Neumeier), and Michael Miner. It is a [remake](remake) of the 1987 [of the same name](film)(RoboCop), and the fourth installment of the [franchise](*RoboCop*)(RoboCop (franchise)) overall. The film stars [Kinnaman](Joel)(Joel Kinnaman) as the [character](title)(RoboCop (character)), with [Oldman](Gary)(Gary Oldman), [Keaton](Michael)(Michael Keaton), [L. Jackson](Samuel)(Samuel L. Jackson), [Cornish](Abbie)(Abbie Cornish), [Earle Haley](Jackie)(Jackie Earle Haley), [K. Williams](Michael)(Michael K. Williams), [Ehle](Jennifer)(Jennifer Ehle), and [Baruchel](Jay)(Jay Baruchel) in supporting roles. Set in 2028, the film sees a detective become critically injured and turned into a [cyborg](cyborg) police officer whose programming blurs the line between man and machine.
[Gems](Screen)(Screen Gems) first announced a remake in 2005, but it was halted one year later. [Aronofsky](Darren)(Darren Aronofsky) and [Self](David)(David Self) were originally assigned to direct and write the film, respectively, for a tentative 2010 release. The film was delayed numerous times, and Padilha signed on in 2011. In March 2012, [Pictures](Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer)(Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures) (successor company to [Pictures](Orion)(Orion Pictures) until September 11, 2014, the studio that released the original film) announced an August 2013 release, but that was then changed to February 2014. The principal characters were cast from March to July 2012. [photography](Principal)(Principal photography) began in September 2012 in [Toronto](Toronto) and [Vancouver](Vancouver) in Canada, with additional locations in [Hamilton](Hamilton, Ontario), in Canada, and [Detroit](Detroit) in the United States.
*RoboCop* was released in the United States on February 12, 2014, by [Pictures Releasing](Sony)(Sony Pictures Releasing). The film received mixed reviews, with praise for some of the cast's performances, action, updates, style and political/media satire, but criticism for its lack of violence, social satire and humor compared to the original film, and grossed $242.6 million against its $100–130 million budget.
## Plot
In [2028](2028), multinational conglomerate OmniCorp revolutionizes warfare by introducing robotic [peacekeepers](Peacekeeping) capable of maintaining law and order. Led by CEO Raymond Sellars, the company moves to market its technology to domestic law enforcement. However, the passage of the Dreyfus Act, forbidding deployment of militarized drones in the United States, prevents this. Aware that most Americans oppose the use of military systems in their communities, Sellars asks Dr. Dennett Norton and his research team to come up with an alternative. The result is a proposal for a [cyborg](cyborg) police officer. However, Norton informs Sellars that only someone stable enough to handle being a cyborg can be turned into one, and some candidates are rejected.
A [Detroit](Detroit Police Department) police detective, [Murphy](Alex)(RoboCop (character)), is chosen after he is critically injured in a car bomb explosion arranged by crime boss Antoine Vallon as revenge for Murphy's investigation into his activities. Norton persuades Murphy's wife, Clara, to sign off on the procedure. Upon waking up and realizing the extent of his transformation, a frustrated Murphy escapes, but Norton shuts him down and brings him back to the lab. As Norton reveals to Murphy that the only remnants of his human body are most of his head (excluding parts of the brain), respiratory organs, heart, and right hand, a disgusted Murphy asks for [euthanasia](euthanasia). Norton reminds Murphy about his wife's and son's patience, convincing him to live. During combat training with trainer Rick Mattox, Murphy proves unable to compete with the standard OmniCorp drones efficiently. Norton alters Murphy's programming to make him more efficient by letting drone programming take over his actions, making Murphy think they are his. This reprogramming increases Murphy's efficiency dramatically but leaves him less [empathetic](Empathy), due to his human nature being bypassed. That night, Murphy goes to his house to meet Clara and his son David to make sure they are okay, comforting David.
Shortly before he is publicly unveiled, the entire police database is uploaded to RoboCop's system, including the Alex Murphy crime scene, leading Murphy to have an [breakdown](emotional)(emotional breakdown), forcing Norton to suppress his emotions. During the ceremony, RoboCop identifies and apprehends a criminal in the crowd. He goes on to reduce crime in Detroit dramatically, simultaneously increasing public support for repealing the Dreyfus Act. Aware that Clara has begun to ask questions, Sellars orders Norton to keep her away from her husband.
Clara nevertheless manages to confront RoboCop, telling him of their son David's nightmares, social withdrawal, and unresponsive behavior. The experience drives Murphy to override his programming and access the previously sealed files on his attempted murder. From them, he learns his son had [PTSD](Posttraumatic stress disorder) after witnessing the explosion. Murphy pursues Vallon's gang to exact revenge. He takes heavy damage from their armor-piercing weapons but manages to kill Vallon and his men. Murphy returns to the station and joins with his old partner, Jack Lewis. They confront the two corrupt police officers who betrayed him to Vallon, shooting one and tasing the other. Learning that the [of Police](Chief)(Chief of police) was also involved, Murphy moves to arrest her but is remotely shut down by Mattox.
With the help of pro-OmniCorp talk show host Pat Novak, Sellars uses the incident to get the Dreyfus Act repealed. Clara goes to the press and fiercely demands to see her husband. Fearful of being exposed, Sellars orders Mattox to destroy RoboCop while being repaired and tricks Clara into thinking that Murphy died. Norton reaches him first and reveals the truth. RoboCop narrowly escapes from the building just as it undergoes a lockdown.
Murphy returns and storms the building, fighting his way through the [ED-209](ED-209) drones sent to stop him, while Lewis and his fellow police arrive to hold off the rest of OmniCorp's forces. Mattox subdues Murphy, preparing to finish him off, but is killed by Lewis. Murphy then makes his way to the roof, where Sellars is waiting for a helicopter with Clara and David as hostages. Murphy's programming initially prevents him from arresting Sellars. However, he overcomes his programming long enough to kill Sellars when Sellars overestimated his silver tongue.
OmniCorp's parent company, [OCP](Omni Consumer Products (RoboCop)), shuts down the project. The [president](President of the United States) vetoes the repeal of the Dreyfus Act based on Norton's testimony, much to Novak's anger. Murphy's body is rebuilt in Norton's laboratory, and he waits for Clara and David, who are coming to visit him.
## Cast
* [Kinnaman](Joel)(Joel Kinnaman) as [Murphy / RoboCop](Alex)(RoboCop (character)): A young [detective](police)(police detective) who is injured in an explosion and transformed into the cyborg [RoboCop](RoboCop (character))
* [Oldman](Gary)(Gary Oldman) as Dr. Dennett Norton: Omni foundation chief scientist who creates RoboCop
* [Keaton](Michael)(Michael Keaton) as Raymond Sellars: The [CEO](CEO) of OmniCorp
* [Cornish](Abbie)(Abbie Cornish) as Clara Murphy: Alex's wife
* [Earle Haley](Jackie)(Jackie Earle Haley) as Rick Mattox: A drone controller and automated military tactician expert responsible for training RoboCop
* [K. Williams](Michael)(Michael K. Williams) as Jack Lewis: Alex's best friend and former partner
* [Ehle](Jennifer)(Jennifer Ehle) as Liz Kline: The head of OmniCorp legal affairs
* [Baruchel](Jay)(Jay Baruchel) as Tom Pope: The head of marketing for OmniCorp
* [Jean-Baptiste](Marianne)(Marianne Jean-Baptiste) as Karen Dean: Detroit chief of police
* [L. Jackson](Samuel)(Samuel L. Jackson) as Pat Novak: Host of *The Novak Element* and prominent supporter of mechanized crime control
* [Grenier](Zach)(Zach Grenier) as Dreyfus: A senator of Michigan
* [Garcia](Aimee)(Aimee Garcia) as Jae Kim: A scientist who works with Dr. Dennett Norton
* [Urbanski](Douglas)(Douglas Urbanski) as Durant: The mayor of Detroit
* [Paul Ruttan](John)(John Paul Ruttan) as David Murphy: Alex and Clara's son
* Patrick Garrow as Antoine Vallon: A sadistic [boss](gang)(gang boss)
* [C. Collins](K.)(K. C. Collins) as Andre Daniels
* [Kash](Daniel)(Daniel Kash) as John Lake
## Production
### Development
}}
[Gems](Screen)(Screen Gems) first announced that it was working on a new *RoboCop* film in late 2005; no further details were given. In November 2006, *[Disgusting](Bloody)(Bloody Disgusting)* reported that the *RoboCop* remake had been halted. In March 2008, *RoboCop* was mentioned in an [Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer](Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer) (MGM) press release regarding franchises it would be developing in the future. An MGM poster displayed at the Licensing International Expo of June 2008 read, "*RoboCop* coming 2010." The studio met with [Aronofsky](Darren)(Darren Aronofsky) to discuss the possibility of him directing the film. At the 2008 [Diego Comic-Con](San)(San Diego Comic-Con), Aronofsky was confirmed to direct the "2010 *RoboCop*" film, with [Self](David)(David Self) writing the script. The release date was postponed to 2011. At the [Diego Comic-Con](San)(San Diego Comic-Con) in July 2009, MGM representatives stated only that the film would be pushed back to Summer 2010 or a later date, due to scheduling conflicts with the director (most likely Aronofsky). MGM representatives would neither confirm nor deny if Aronofsky was still connected with the project.
On January 5, 2010, it was reported that the *RoboCop* remake was indeed on hold and Aronofsky was still attached to direct. When MGM executives, particularly MGM chairperson Mary Parent, saw the immense success of the [Cameron](James)(James Cameron) film *[Avatar](Avatar (2009 film))* (2009), it was clear that they wanted a 3D film for the new *RoboCop*. Due to the financial state of MGM at the time, without an owner, and creative disagreements between the studio and Aronofsky, the film remained on hold. On March 2, 2011, it was announced that Brazilian director [Padilha](José)(José Padilha) was attached to direct, instead of Aronofsky, mainly because of his commercial success with *[Squad](Elite)(Elite Squad)* (2007) and *[Squad: The Enemy Within](Elite)(Elite Squad: The Enemy Within)* (2010). On March 11, 2011, Sean O'Neal of *[A.V. Club](The)(The A.V. Club)* stated that up-and-coming screenwriter Joshua Zetumer would write the script. Although Zetumer had been involved with a number of canceled or otherwise stagnant projects, he had also worked on the screenplay for *[of Solace](Quantum)(Quantum of Solace)* (2008). Comparing the new work to the 1987 film, Padilha said in 2011, "the environment nowadays is different than the environment in the 80's and the way to explore the concept is different." It was announced in October 2013 that the film would get an IMAX release in February 2014. Columbia Pictures and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer distributed the film in United States, Canada, and worldwide with the exclusion of United Kingdom, France, Germany, Switzerland and Austria, where [StudioCanal](StudioCanal) handled distribution.
### Pre-production
On April 12, 2011, rumors stated that MGM was looking at A-list stars such as [Cruise](Tom)(Tom Cruise), [Depp](Johnny)(Johnny Depp), and [Reeves](Keanu)(Keanu Reeves) to star in the lead role of Alex Murphy/RoboCop in the upcoming remake. On June 16, 2011, pictures of promotional art were released, as well as a sales sheet from the Licensing International Expo 2011 in Las Vegas, NV, promoting a future release of *RoboCop* which would re-invent the franchise. The promotional material had sparse details of the film but clearly stated that MGM was targeting a 2013 release and Padilha was confirmed as director of the film. [Fassbender](Michael)(Michael Fassbender), [Schoenaerts](Matthias)(Matthias Schoenaerts), and [Crowe](Russell)(Russell Crowe) were considered to play the title role. On March 3, 2012, it was confirmed that actor [Kinnaman](Joel)(Joel Kinnaman) would be playing the lead role,Silas Lesnick (2011-06-16) and on March 9, 2012, the film was given a release date of August 9, 2013. [Laurie](Hugh)(Hugh Laurie) was set to play the role of the CEO of OmniCorp on June 13, 2012, but he later declined. [Owen](Clive)(Clive Owen) was in the running to replace him until [Keaton](Michael)(Michael Keaton) was cast in the role in August 2012. [Norton](Edward)(Edward Norton), [Penn](Sean)(Sean Penn), [García Bernal](Gael)(Gael García Bernal), and [Hall](Rebecca)(Rebecca Hall) were initially considered for the roles of Dr. Dennett Norton, Novak, Jack Lewis, and Clara Murphy, respectively. The roles ended up being cast with [Oldman](Gary)(Gary Oldman), [L. Jackson](Samuel)(Samuel L. Jackson), [K. Williams](Michael)(Michael K. Williams), and [Cornish](Abbie)(Abbie Cornish). [Earle Haley](Jackie)(Jackie Earle Haley) officially signed on in July 2012 to play a "military man named Mattox responsible for training Kinnaman's RoboCop". [Baruchel](Jay)(Jay Baruchel) was confirmed to have signed onto the film on July 25, 2012, as Pope, a marketing exec for OmniCorp. [Urbanski](Douglas)(Douglas Urbanski), cast as Mayor Durant, is typically a non-actor who is also the decades-long manager and producing partner of [Oldman](Gary)(Gary Oldman). [Bottin](Rob)(Rob Bottin)'s original costume for the title character was re-imagined. Initial reactions were unfavorable and some compared it with [Bale](Christian)(Christian Bale)'s [Batman](Batman) suit in [Nolan](Christopher)(Christopher Nolan)'s *[Dark Knight](The)(The Dark Knight (film))* films. News reports discussed a "rather derivative" design which "looks more like [kevlar](kevlar) body armor than Detroit steel". *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* described the new RoboCop as "a crime-fighting machine who is not so much cyborg as skinny bloke in matte-black body armour" and said, "The new Robosuit has a scaly, insectoid look to it, with a blacked-out visor rather than the original's steel extended helmet."
Before starting filming, Brazilian director [Meirelles](Fernando)(Fernando Meirelles) revealed that Padilha called him to admit he was having "the worst experience of his life" and "for every ten ideas he has, nine are cut". Padilha, according to Meirelles, said, "It's hell here. The film will be good, but I have never suffered so much and I don't want to do it again." However, Padilha talked enthusiastically about the project at the 2013 [Diego Comic-Con International](San)(San Diego Comic-Con International) and in his introduction to the second trailer. Production began in September 2012.
### Filming
[Filming](Principal photography) took place in Toronto, other parts of [Ontario](Ontario), and Vancouver. Shooting locations within the city included the [of Toronto](University)(University of Toronto) where a scene was filmed that appeared to be RoboCop being unveiled to the city of Detroit. Filming in [Hamilton](Hamilton, Ontario) began on Monday, September 24, 2012, for five nights. Streets were closed for each of those days from 6pm to 7am. A spokesperson for MGM confirmed that the film was partially shot in Detroit.
## Music
Pedro Bromfman, who collaborated with José Padilha on his *[Squad](Elite)(Elite Squad)* films, composed the score.
| extra_column = Artist
| title1 = Mattox and Reporters
| extra1 = Pedro Bromfman
| length1 = 1:35
| title2 = First Day
| extra2 = Pedro Bromfman
| length2 = 3:23
| title3 = Title Card
| extra3 = Pedro Bromfman and [Poledouris](Basil)(Basil Poledouris)
| length3 = 0:49
| title4 = Restaurant Shootout
| extra4 = Pedro Bromfman
| length4 = 2:47
| title5 = Omnicorp
| extra5 = Pedro Bromfman
| length5 = 1:40
| title6 = Calling Home
| extra6 = Pedro Bromfman
| length6 = 2:45
| title7 = Made in China
| extra7 = Pedro Bromfman
| length7 = 2:28
| title8 = Fixing RoboCop
| extra8 = Pedro Bromfman
| length8 = 1:56
| title9 = Uploading Data
| extra9 = Pedro Bromfman
| length9 = 1:35
| title10 = Reputation on the Line
| extra10 = Pedro Bromfman
| length10 = 1:31
| title11 = Explosion
| extra11 = Pedro Bromfman
| length11 = 1:05
| title12 = RoboCop Presentation
| extra12 = Pedro Bromfman
| length12 = 1:43
| title13 = If I Had a Pulse
| extra13 = Pedro Bromfman
| length13 = 2:41
| title14 = Going After Jerry
| extra14 = Pedro Bromfman
| length14 = 3:12
| title15 = Vallon's Warehouse
| extra15 = Pedro Bromfman
| length15 = 2:21
| title16 = Murphy's Case is Filed
| extra16 = Pedro Bromfman
| length16 = 1:19
| title17 = They're Going to Kill Him
| extra17 = Pedro Bromfman
| length17 = 3:16
| title18 = Rooftop
| extra18 = Pedro Bromfman
| length18 = 2:56
| title19 = Mattox Is Down
| extra19 = Pedro Bromfman
| length19 = 1:40
| title20 = Clara and David
| extra20 = Pedro Bromfman
| length20 = 2:56
| title21 = Sellars Lies
| extra21 = Pedro Bromfman
| length21 = 2:28
| title22 = Code Red
| extra22 = Pedro Bromfman
| length22 = 2:00
| title23 = 2.6 Billion
| extra23 = Pedro Bromfman
| length23 = 1:23
| title24 = Iran Inspection
| extra24 = Pedro Bromfman
| length24 = 2:12
| title25 = Battling Robots
| extra25 = Pedro Bromfman
| length25 = 2:47
}}
## Release
### Marketing
An OmniCorp website was set up in early 2012. A film-specific *RoboCop* site was launched nearer the release date. A rough trailer and some film footage featuring [L. Jackson](Samuel)(Samuel L. Jackson)'s and [Keaton](Michael)(Michael Keaton)'s characters was shown at the 2013 [Diego Comic-Con International](San)(San Diego Comic-Con International). According to director Padilha, the first theatrical trailer was supposed to debut with *[Elysium](Elysium (film))*, but it was instead released online on September 5, 2013, and was attached to showings of *[Riddick](Riddick (film))*. Two further trailers were also released, one of which was uploaded to [Movies](Yahoo!)(Yahoo! Movies) with an introduction from Padilha, in which he said, "I'm thrilled to have had the chance to direct this movie ... I'm a fan of the original movie because it was ahead of its time both aesthetically and thematically. Back in '87, it was talking already about automated violence — both in war and law enforcement. And now, we actually have that happening in our lives and it's going to be more and more present. So we already have the drones. Now we're going to have automated robots doing law enforcement and replacing soldiers in the battlefield. So we had a chance to make this movie and talk about this." Two main posters were released in late 2013, with one showing [CTBA](Cuatro Torres Business Area) complex in [Madrid](Madrid). TV spots were uploaded to Sony Pictures and StudioCanal UK's YouTube channels from January 2014. [video game](A)(List of RoboCop video games#RoboCop (2014)) for [Android](Android (operating system)) and [iOS](iOS) was released as a [tie-in](tie-in) to the film. [Toys](Jada)(Jada Toys) released a range of action figures, including a radio control RoboCop on his Police Cruiser and roleplay merchandise including the new RoboCop helmet and chestplate. Two detailed figures from the film were released in April 2014 from Play Arts Kai. The company threezero is also creating two RoboCop figures and a camo-coloured ED-209. [one-shot comic tie-ins](Four)(RoboCop (comics)#RoboCop: The Human Element) were published weekly starting from the week of theatrical release in the US. They were collected in a trade paperback edition under the title *RoboCop: The Human Element* to coincide with the home media releases.
### Home media
*RoboCop* was released on [DVD](DVD) and [Blu-ray](Blu-ray Disc) on June 3, 2014, in the United States by [Century Fox Home Entertainment](20th)(20th Century Fox Home Entertainment). [Buy](Best)(Best Buy) had an exclusive Metalpak edition, while the [Target](Target Corporation) edition came with an exclusive digital download of the previously unreleased comic "Gauntlet". In the UK, an exclusive [Amazon](Amazon.com) steelbook was made available on June 9.
### RoboCop Day
To coincide with the home media releases, Detroit celebrated with "RoboCop Day" on June 3, 2014, during which RoboCop was photographed with fans throughout the city, and threw the first pitch at the [Tigers](Detroit)(Detroit Tigers) game.
## Reception
### Box office
*Robocop* opened in 3,372 theaters in The United States and grossed $21,681,430, with an average of $6,430 per theater and ranking #3 at the box office. The film ultimately earned $58,607,007 domestically and $184,081,958 internationally for a total of $242,688,965, on a $100–130 million budget.
### Critical response
*RoboCop* received mixed reviews. On review aggregation website [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), the film has an approval rating of 49% based on reviews and an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads, "While it's far better than it could have been, José Padilha's *RoboCop* remake fails to offer a significant improvement over the original."|type=m|title=RoboCop (2014)|access-date=}} On [Metacritic](Metacritic), which assigns a weighted average based on selected critic reviews, the film has a score of 52 out of 100 based on 41 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by [CinemaScore](CinemaScore) gave the film a "B+" grade, on an A+ to F scale.
| width = 29%
| align = left
}}
*RoboCop* received several comparisons to the 1987 film; the consensus was that it fell short. Guy Lodge of *[Variety](Variety (magazine))* said that "It's a less playful enterprise than the original, but meets the era's darker demands for action reboots with machine-tooled efficiency and a hint of soul." Leslie Felperin from *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)* wrote that the remake "has a better cast, more meticulous script and, naturally, flashier effects, but it lacks the original's wit and subversive slipperiness." Andrew Osmond from *[SFX](SFX (magazine))* says, "It's not a classic like [Verhoeven](Paul)(Paul Verhoeven)'s 1987 original, but it is an excellent, intelligent SF drama," believing it is "one of the boldest Hollywood reboots we've seen yet".
Chris Hewitt from *[Empire](Empire (magazine))* wrote, "there's a sense that Padilha, or perhaps his corporate overlords, don't really get what made the original so special." [Andrews](Nigel)(Nigel Andrews) from *[Times](Financial)(Financial Times)* called it "a leaden, needless remake". [Bradshaw](Peter)(Peter Bradshaw) of *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)* wrote it was "a dumbed-down shoot-em-up frontloaded with elaborate but perfunctory new 'satirical' material in which the movie loses interest with breathtaking speed". His fellow *Guardian* film critic [Kermode](Mark)(Mark Kermode) rated it 3 out of 5 stars, writing that "against the odds, this emerges as far less depressing fare than one might have expected, retaining the key elements of political satire and philosophical musings that powered Verhoeven's original" and "at least it appears to have been made by someone who understands what made the original great."
[Allen](Nancy)(Nancy Allen (actress)), who played Anne Lewis in the original trilogy, did not like the remake, as she pointed to a lack of ideas from major movie studios as part of the reason for the seemingly endless glut of remakes, and stated that she did not think one should "remake iconic films". Allen went on to praise the original's script and crew.[EXCLUSIVE: ROBOCOP'S NANCY ALLEN ON THE ORIGINAL'S EPIC CAST CHEMISTRY, THE REMAKE, AND VERHOEVEN VS. KERSHNER](https://www.syfy.com/syfywire/exclusive-robocops-nancy-allen-originals-epic-cast-chemistry-new-reboot-and-verhoeven-vs) , Sci Fi Wire, February 14, 2014
## Future
### Cancelled sequel
On September 11, 2015, [of Geek](Den)(Den of Geek) reported that [Sony](Sony Pictures Entertainment) was working on a sequel, though plans subsequently changed.
### Reboot
In July 2018, it was announced the series would again be rebooted with a film directed by [Blomkamp](Neill)(Neill Blomkamp), titled *RoboCop Returns*, which will serve as a direct sequel to Verhoeven's [film](original)(RoboCop) and ignore the events of previous sequels and the 2014 reboot. In August 2019, Blomkamp announced that he was no longer directing the film as he is focusing on directing a horror movie instead. On November 20, 2019, [Forsythe](Abe)(Abe Forsythe) was set to direct.
In March 2023, after Amazon acquired MGM, they identified *RoboCop* as one of the company's priorities. In April of the same year, it was announced that [Studios](Amazon)(Amazon Studios) is developing a *RoboCop* television series and a new movie; the film is expected to be produced first.
## See also
* [of films featuring drones](List)(List of films featuring drones)
## References
## External links
*
* [OmniCorp viral site](https://web.archive.org/web/20130711013621/http://www.omnicorp.com/)
*
*
[films](Category:Cyberpunk)(Category:Cyberpunk films)
[(franchise)](Category:RoboCop)(Category:RoboCop (franchise))
[films](Category:2014)(Category:2014 films)
[action thriller films](Category:2014)(Category:2014 action thriller films)
[science fiction thriller films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s science fiction thriller films)
[superhero films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s superhero films)
[of American films](Category:Remakes)(Category:Remakes of American films)
[science fiction action films](Category:American)(Category:American science fiction action films)
[science fiction thriller films](Category:American)(Category:American science fiction thriller films)
[superhero films](Category:American)(Category:American superhero films)
[Pictures films](Category:Columbia)(Category:Columbia Pictures films)
[films](Category:Cyborg)(Category:Cyborg films)
[films](Category:Drone)(Category:Drone films)
[dystopian films](Category:American)(Category:American dystopian films)
[portrayals of the Detroit Police Department](Category:Fictional)(Category:Fictional portrayals of the Detroit Police Department)
[about amputees](Category:Films)(Category:Films about amputees)
[films about revenge](Category:American)(Category:American films about revenge)
[about terrorism](Category:Films)(Category:Films about terrorism)
[directed by José Padilha](Category:Films)(Category:Films directed by José Padilha)
[produced by Marc Abraham](Category:Films)(Category:Films produced by Marc Abraham)
[set in 2028](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in 2028)
[set in the future](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in the future)
[set in China](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in China)
[set in Detroit](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Detroit)
[set in Tehran](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Tehran)
[set in Washington, D.C.](Category:Films)(Category:Films set in Washington, D.C.)
[shot in Hamilton, Ontario](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Hamilton, Ontario)
[shot in Michigan](Category:Films)(Category:Films shot in Michigan)
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[films](Category:Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer)(Category:Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films)
[police detective films](Category:American)(Category:American police detective films)
[films](Category:Reboot)(Category:Reboot films)
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[films](Category:Techno-thriller)(Category:Techno-thriller films)
[English-language films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s English-language films)
[American films](Category:2010s)(Category:2010s American films)
|
Park Chan-wook
|
park_chan-wook
|
# Park Chan-wook
*Revision ID: 1160165564 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T19:54:57Z*
---
| image = 20130925—Park Chan-wook 박찬욱 Marie Claire Korea photo shoot screenshot (00m01s) (cropped).jpg
| caption = Park in 2013
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [Seoul](Seoul), [Korea](South)(South Korea)
| other_names = Bakridamae ()
| alma_mater = [University](Sogang)(Sogang University), Seoul, South Korea
| occupation = [director](Film)(Film director), [screenwriter](screenwriter), [producer](Film producer)
| spouse =
| children = 1
| years_active = 1992–present
| notable_works =
| awards = Best Director at the 2022 Cannes Film Festival
| honours = [[Order of Cultural Merit Eun-gwan (2nd Class) ribbon.PNG|border|23px](File:ROK)] [Order of Cultural Merit](Eun-gwan)(Order of Cultural Merit (South Korea)) (2022)
| module =
| hanja =
| rr = Bak Chan-uk
| mr = Pak Ch'an-uk
}}
}}
**Park Chan-wook** (; ; born 23 August 1963) is a [Korean](South)(Koreans) [director](film)(film director), [screenwriter](screenwriter), [producer](Film producer), and former [critic](film)(film critic). He is considered one of the most prominent filmmakers of [Korean cinema](South)(Cinema of South Korea) as well as [cinema](world)(world cinema) in 21st century. His films have gained notoriety for their cinematography and framing, [humor](black)(Black comedy) and often brutal subject matter.
Park's first major critical and commercial success came with *[Security Area](Joint)(Joint Security Area (film))* (2000), which was the most watched South Korean film at the time. This film helped him to secure more creative freedom in his next films, *[for Mr. Vengeance](Sympathy)(Sympathy for Mr. Vengeance)* (2002) and *[Oldboy](Oldboy (2003 film))* (2003), which received widespread critical acclaim worldwide, with the latter also winning the [Prix](Grand)(Grand Prix (Cannes Film Festival)) prize at [Film Festival](Cannes)(Cannes Film Festival). *[Vengeance](Lady)(Lady Vengeance)* (2005), another film in the unofficial *[Vengeance Trilogy](The)(The Vengeance Trilogy)*, also received critical acclaim.
His next psychological thriller *[Handmaiden](The)(The Handmaiden)* (2016) premiered in competition to rave reviews at the [Cannes Film Festival](2016)(2016 Cannes Film Festival), was nominated for the and Queer Palm and won the Vulcain Prize for the Technical Arts; the film saw critical and commercial success in several countries, including South Korea, the United States and the United Kingdom. It also won the category of [Film Not in the English Language](Best)(BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language). For *[to Leave](Decision)(Decision to Leave)* (2022), Park won [Director](Best)(Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director) at the [Cannes Film Festival](2022)(2022 Cannes Film Festival) and the film was selected to compete for the .
He is also known for *[Thirst](Thirst (2009 film))* (2009) and English-language works *[Stoker](Stoker (film))* (2013) and *[Little Drummer Girl](The)(The Little Drummer Girl (miniseries))* (2018), a television miniseries based on the [of the same name](novel)(The Little Drummer Girl) by [le Carré](John)(John le Carré).
## Early life
Park was born and raised in [Seoul](Seoul)Chan-wook, Park. (10 December 2005). ''Park's Montage'' (essay). 마음 산책. "Introduction about the author, and the prologue". . and studied philosophy at [University](Sogang)(Sogang University), where, in light of his disappointment with the [analytic](Analytic philosophy) orientation of the department and consequent scant offerings in aesthetics, he started a cinema club, the 'Sogang Film Community', and published a number of articles on contemporary cinema. Originally intending to be an [critic](art)(art critic), Park, upon seeing *[Vertigo](Vertigo (film))*, resolved to become a filmmaker. After graduation, he wrote articles on film for journals and soon became an assistant director of films like *Kkamdong*, directed by Yu Yeong-jin, and *[Painting in a Rainy Day](Watercolor)(Watercolor Painting in a Rainy Day)*, directed by [Jae-yong](Kwak)(Kwak Jae-yong) (*[Sassy Girl](My)(My Sassy Girl)*).
## Career
Park's debut feature film was ''[Moon Is... the Sun's Dream](The)(The Moon Is... the Sun's Dream)* (1992). After five years, he made his second film, *[Trio](Trio (1997 film))''. Park's early films were not successful at the box office, and he pursued a career as a film critic to make a living. In an interview in 2017, he said "Many people know my directorial debut film is JSA, but I want to keep it that way".
In 2000, Park directed *[Security Area](Joint)(Joint Security Area (film))*, which was a great success both commercially and critically, even surpassing [Je-gyu's](Kang)(Kang Je-gyu) *[Shiri](Shiri (film))* as the then most-watched film ever made in South Korea. This success made it possible for Park to make his next film more independently. *[for Mr. Vengeance](Sympathy)(Sympathy for Mr. Vengeance)* is the result of this creative freedom.
Park's unofficially-titled *[Trilogy](Vengeance)(The Vengeance Trilogy)* consists of *[for Mr. Vengeance](Sympathy)(Sympathy for Mr. Vengeance)* (2002), *[Oldboy](Oldboy (2003 film))* (2003) and *[Vengeance](Lady)(Lady Vengeance)* (2005). It was not originally intended to be a trilogy. Park won the [Prix](Grand)(Grand Prix (Cannes Film Festival)) at the [Cannes Film Festival](2004)(2004 Cannes Film Festival) for *[Oldboy](Oldboy (2003 film))*. The films concern the utter futility of vengeance and how it wreaks havoc on the lives of those involved. *[Vengeance](Lady)(Lady Vengeance)* was distributed by [Films](Tartan)(Tartan Films) for the United States theatrical release in April 2006. American director [Tarantino](Quentin)(Quentin Tarantino) is an avowed fan of Park. As the head judge at the [Cannes Film Festival](2004)(2004 Cannes Film Festival), he personally pushed for Park's *Oldboy* to be awarded the (the honour eventually went to [Moore](Michael)(Michael Moore)'s *[9/11](Fahrenheit)(Fahrenheit 9/11)*). *Oldboy* garnered the [Prix](Grand)(Grand Prix (Cannes Film Festival)), Cannes's second-highest honour. Tarantino also regards Park's *[Security Area](Joint)(Joint Security Area (film))* to be one of "the top twenty films made since 1992."
In a May 2004 interview with *[Hollywood Reporter](The)(The Hollywood Reporter)*, Park listed [Sophocles](Sophocles), [Shakespeare](Shakespeare), [Kafka](Kafka), [Dostoevsky](Dostoevsky), [Balzac](Balzac) and [Vonnegut](Kurt)(Kurt Vonnegut) as influences on his career.
Since 2004, Park has been an owner of the filmmaking company Moho Film, which participated in the production of *[Snowpiercer](Snowpiercer)* (2013) and *[Handmaiden](The)(The Handmaiden)* (2016).
In 2006, Park was the member of official section jury at the [Venice International Film Festival](63rd)(63rd Venice International Film Festival).
In February 2007, Park won the [Bauer Prize](Alfred)(Alfred Bauer Prize) at the 57th [International Film Festival](Berlin)(Berlin International Film Festival). The award, named after the festival's founder and in praise of works that introduce new perspectives, went to Park for his film, ''[a Cyborg, But That's OK](I'm)(I'm a Cyborg, But That's OK)''.
[[Park - Sitges.JPG|left|thumb|Park at the Festival Internacional de Cinema de Catalunya 2009](File:Chan-wook)]
In 2009, Park directed the vampire film *[Thirst](Thirst (2009 film))*, starring [Kang-ho](Song)(Song Kang-ho), which won the [du Jury](Prix)(Jury Prize (Cannes Festival)) (alongside *[Tank](Fish)(Fish Tank (film)),* directed by [Arnold](Andrea)(Andrea Arnold)) at the [Cannes Film Festival](2009)(2009 Cannes Film Festival). He considered directing *[Tailor Soldier Spy](Tinker)(Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (film))* but ultimately turned it down.
In 2011, Park said his new fantasy-horror film *Paranmanjang ([Fishing](Night)(Night Fishing (film)))* was shot entirely on the [iPhone](iPhone). The film was co-directed with Park's younger brother, Park Chan-kyong, who had no prior directing experience. It was nominated for Berlinale Shorts during the [Berlin Film Festival](2011)(2011 Berlin Film Festival) and won the Golden Bear for Best Short Film.
In 2013, Park directed his first English-language film, *[Stoker](Stoker (film))*. He said he learned to accelerate the production process and completed filming in 480 hours. Although Park does speak English, he used an interpreter on set. On why the script attracted his attention, Park said: "It wasn't a script that tried to explain everything and left many things as questions, so it leads the audience to find answers for themselves, and that's what I liked about the script... I like telling big stories through small, artificially created worlds". On 2 March 2013, Park appeared on a panel discussion about the film *Stoker* held at the Freer Gallery of Art in the Smithsonian's Museums of Asian Art.
In 2014, Park directed a short film commissioned by luxury brand [Zegna](Ermenegildo)(Ermenegildo Zegna), co-written by himself, [Fujitani](Ayako)(Ayako Fujitani), Chung Chung-hoon and Michael Werwie, scored by [Mansell](Clint)(Clint Mansell), and starring [Huston](Jack)(Jack Huston) and [Wu](Daniel)(Daniel Wu). It screened at the [International Film Festival](Rome)(Rome International Film Festival) and the [International Film Festival](Busan)(Busan International Film Festival).
[[File:Park Chan Wook.jpg|thumb|Park presenting *[Handmaiden](The)(The Handmaiden)* at the 2016 [Film Festival](Lumière)(Lumière Film Festival)]]
In September 2014, it was announced that Park would adapt *[Fingersmith](Fingersmith (novel))*, a historical crime novel by Sarah Waters. The film entered production in mid-2015 and ended on 31 October 2015. That film ended up becoming *[Handmaiden](The)(The Handmaiden)* and premiered in competition to rave reviews at the [Cannes Film Festival](2016)(2016 Cannes Film Festival), where Artistic Director Seong-hie Ryu won the Vulcain Prize for the Technical Arts, and the film was nominated for both the Palme d' Or and Queer Palm. At the 2016 [Film Awards](Buil)(Buil Film Awards), *The Handmaiden* won for Best New Actress (Tae-ri Kim), The Buil Readers' Jury Award and Best Art Direction (Seong-hie Ryu). The film holds a 95% rating on [Tomatoes](Rotten)(Rotten Tomatoes), and saw box office success in several countries, including South Korea, the United States and the United Kingdom.
In October 2014, it was announced that Park had signed on to direct the sci-fi body-swap film, *Second Born*.
In January 2018, it was stated that Park would direct a TV miniseries adaptation of *[Little Drummer Girl](The)(The Little Drummer Girl)*, a novel by [le Carré](John)(John le Carré). It aired on [One](BBC)(BBC One) in October of that year and stars [Shannon](Michael)(Michael Shannon), [Pugh](Florence)(Florence Pugh) and [Skarsgård](Alexander)(Alexander Skarsgård).
At the [Busan International Film Festival](24th)(24th Busan International Film Festival), Park said that he is writing scripts for feature films, for theater and for TV, including a new installment in the *Vengeance Trilogy*, and a [adaptation](second)(The Axe (film)) of [E. Westlake](Donald)(Donald E. Westlake)'s novel *The Axe*.
In May 2020, it was announced that he was working on his next film's screenplay, tentatively titled *Heeojil gyeolsim* (*The Decision to Break Up*). It is described as a [melodrama](melodrama) and will star [Wei](Tang)(Tang Wei) and [Hae-il](Park)(Park Hae-il). In October 2020, the title of the film was revealed as *[to Leave](Decision)(Decision to Leave)*, with the story described as a murder mystery romance. The film was set to begin shooting later that month. In April 2021, [A24](A24) optioned [Thanh Nguyen](Viet)(Viet Thanh Nguyen)'s 2015 novel *[Sympathizer](The)(The Sympathizer)* for a TV adaptation, with Park Chan-wook directing. He was awarded [Director](Best)(Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director) at the [Cannes Film Festival](2022)(2022 Cannes Film Festival) for his work on *Decision to Leave*.
## Filmmaking
His films have gained notoriety for their cinematography and framing, [humor](black)(Black comedy) and often brutal subject matter.
Park has a history of successful collaborations with various talented individuals in the film industry. For instance, he has frequently collaborated with screenwriter [Seo-kyung](Jeong)(:ko:정서경) on several projects, such as *[For Lady Vengeance](Sympathy)(Sympathy For Lady Vengeance)*, ''[a Cyborg, But That's OK](I'm)(I'm a Cyborg, But That's OK)*, [*Thirst*](Thirst (2009 film)), *[Handmaiden](The)(The Handmaiden)*, and *[to Leave](Decision)(Decision to Leave)*.
Park has also worked closely with music director [Yeong-wook](Jo)(Jo Yeong-wook) since their collaboration on [Security Area*](*Joint)(Joint Security Area (film)) (1998). The two have since worked on several other projects together, including [*Oldboy*](Oldboy (2003 film)), *[For Lady Vengeance](Sympathy)(Sympathy For Lady Vengeance)*, *[Handmaiden](The)(The Handmaiden)*, and *[to Leave](Decision)(Decision to Leave)''.
Another notable collaborator of Park's is cinematographer [Chung-hoon](Chung)(Chung Chung-hoon). The pair first met during the production of *[Boy](Old)(Oldboy (2003 film))*. The two have since worked on several other projects together, including *[For Lady Vengeance](Sympathy)(Sympathy For Lady Vengeance)*, ''[a Cyborg, But That's OK](I'm)(I'm a Cyborg, But That's OK)*, [*Thirst*](Thirst (2009 film)), and *[Handmaiden](The)(The Handmaiden)''. Chung is known for his exceptional use of lighting and camera work, and his visual style has been a strong match for Park's atmospheric and visually stunning films.
Park has a talent for attracting top-tier acting talents. Some of Korea's most well-known stars, such as [Min-sik](Choi)(Choi Min-sik) and [Kang-ho](Song)(Song Kang-ho), have been integral parts of his casting selection. [Kang-ho](Song)(Song Kang-ho), in particular, has appeared in six of Park's feature length films. [Hae-il](Park)(Park Hae-il) and [Ha-kyun](Shin)(Shin Ha-kyun) are another actors who has worked with Park on three occasions. Their collaborations have been highly regarded by audiences and critics alike.
## Personal life
Park was raised in a devout Catholic family in Korea, and describes himself as an atheist. He has collaborated with his younger brother, Park Chan-kyong, who is a media artist. He dedicated his career tribute to his wife Kim Eun-Hee at the 15th [International Film Festival](Marrakech)(Marrakech International Film Festival). He voiced support for the [Labor Party](Democratic)(Democratic Labor Party (South Korea)) and was also a member of its successor, the [Progressive Party](New)(New Progressive Party (South Korea)). He supported [Party](Justice)(Justice Party (South Korea)) candidate [Sang-jung](Sim)(Sim Sang-jung) in the [South Korean presidential election](2017)(2017 South Korean presidential election).
## Filmography
Source: [Movie Database](Korean)(Korean Movie Database)
### Feature films
### Short films
### Television
## Bibliography
* 2005. ''Park's Montage* (박찬욱의 몽타주). 마음 산책. 299 pages. .
* 2005. *Park's Hommage* (박찬욱의 오마주). 마음 산책. 528 pages. .
## Awards and nominations
### State honors
## See also
* [of Korean-language films](List)(List of Korean-language films)
* [of South Korea](Cinema)(Cinema of South Korea)
* [culture of South Korea](Contemporary)(Contemporary culture of South Korea)
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
*
*
*
* [Park Chan-Wook to make korean horror Movie using only iPhone](https://archive.today/20130127042933/http://koreanhorrormovies.com/new-korean-horror-movie-shot-entirely-iphone-paranmanjang-park-chan-wook) at Korean Horror Movies
* [Park Chan-wook: monographic website](https://web.archive.org/web/20070614233727/http://www.parkchanwook.org/) (Italian & English)
* [Cineseoul profile](https://web.archive.org/web/20021113040244/http://www.cineseoul.com/movies/people.html?peopleID=4278) (Korean)
* [HanCinema Director Page](http://www.hancinema.net/korean_Park_Chan-wook.php)
* [Park Chan-wook](http://www.fearnet.com/videos/b16118_sdcc_2009_park_chan_wookrsquos_thirst.html) at FEARnet
* [SuicideGirls interview with Park Chan-wook](http://suicidegirls.com/interviews/Park+Chan-Wook) by Daniel Robert Epstein
* [July 2009 Interview with Park Chan-wook](https://hwcdn.libsyn.com/p/1/1/c/11c8f37427f58fbd/2009-07-28-Park_Chan-wook.mp3?c_id=2708492&cs_id=2708492&expiration=1619099775&hwt=8fc6338a789e77b49f4a35f253becf7e) at the *Korea Society* (Audio)
* [Park Chan-wook](https://people.search.naver.com/search.naver?where=nexearch&query=%EB%B0%95%EC%B0%AC%EC%9A%B1&sm=tab_etc&ie=utf8&key=PeopleService&os=97586) on [Naver](Naver)
}}
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|
Ronnie James Dio
|
ronnie_james_dio
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# Ronnie James Dio
*Revision ID: 1159485335 | Timestamp: 2023-06-10T16:42:51Z*
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| death_date =
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| resting_place = [Lawn Memorial Park](Forest)(Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)), [Hills, California](Hollywood)(Hollywood Hills), U.S.
| years_active = 1957–2010
| occupation =
| spouse =
*
}}
| children = 1
| module =
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}}
| website =
}}
**Ronald James Padavona** (July 10, 1942 – May 16, 2010), known professionally as **Ronnie James Dio**, was an American [metal](heavy)(Heavy metal music) singer. He fronted and founded numerous bands throughout his career, including [Elf](Elf (band)), [Rainbow](Rainbow (rock band)), [Sabbath](Black)(Black Sabbath), [Dio](Dio (band)) and [& Hell](Heaven)(Heaven & Hell (band)).
Though his parents were from [New York](Cortland,)(Cortland, New York), Dio was born in [New Hampshire](Portsmouth,)(Portsmouth, New Hampshire), where his family resided for his father's service in the U.S. Army during World War II. The family returned to Cortland when Dio was very young, and he lived there until graduating from high school in 1960. Dio's music career began in 1957 as part of the Vegas Kings (later Ronnie and the Rumblers). In 1967, he formed the rock band [Elf](Elf (band)), which became a regular opening act for [Purple](Deep)(Deep Purple). In 1975, Deep Purple guitarist [Blackmore](Ritchie)(Ritchie Blackmore) founded the band [Rainbow](Rainbow (rock band)) and hired Dio to be the lead singer; during his tenure, the band released three studio albums. Dio quickly emerged as one of heavy rock's pre-eminent vocalists. In 1979, Dio replaced [Osbourne](Ozzy)(Ozzy Osbourne) as [Sabbath](Black)(Black Sabbath)'s lead singer and appeared on three studio albums with the band, all three of which were met with success: *[& Hell](Heaven)(Heaven and Hell (Black Sabbath album))* (1980), *[Rules](Mob)(Mob Rules (album))* (1981) and *[Dehumanizer](Dehumanizer)* (1992). In 1982, he left to form the band [Dio](Dio (band)), which itself had two albums [platinum](certified)(RIAA certification) by the [RIAA](RIAA). In 2006, he founded the band [& Hell](Heaven)(Heaven & Hell (band)) with ex-bandmate [Iommi](Tony)(Tony Iommi). In November 2009, Dio was diagnosed with [cancer](stomach)(stomach cancer) and died of the disease six months later.
Dio is regarded as one of the greatest and most influential heavy metal vocalists of all time. Heavy Metal News, Music Videos, Tours & Merch |language=en}} He is known for popularizing the "[horns](devil)(Sign of the horns#Heavy metal culture)" hand gesture in metal culture and his medieval-themed song lyrics. According to a version provided by the singer himself, the act derives directly from the classic Italian [apotropaic](apotropaic magic) gesture, which his grandmother often displayed. Dio had a powerful, versatile vocal range and was capable of singing both hard rock and lighter ballads. He was awarded the "Metal Guru Award" by *[Rock Magazine](Classic)(Classic Rock Magazine)* in 2006. He was also named the "Best Metal Singer" at the *[Revolver](Revolver (magazine))* Golden Gods Awards in 2010 and ranked as the genre's best vocalist in 2013 by music journalist [Jenkins](Sacha)(Sacha Jenkins).Erik Piepenburg (March 29, 2013) [Are the Best Voices in the History of Metal?](Who) New York Times Blog, accessed July 11, 2019
## Early life
Ronnie James "Dio" Padavona was born in [New Hampshire](Portsmouth,)(Portsmouth, New Hampshire), to Italian-American parents Patrick and Anna from [New York](Cortland,)(Cortland, New York). His family moved to Portsmouth from Cortland as part of his father's service in the U.S. Army during World War II, and they resided there for only a short time before returning to Cortland. Padavona listened to a great deal of opera while growing up and was influenced vocally by American [tenor](tenor) [Lanza](Mario)(Mario Lanza). His first formal musical training began at age 5, learning to play the trumpet. Padavona participated in his high school's band program and was one of the youngest members selected to play in the school's official dance band. It was also during high school that Padavona formed his first rock 'n' roll group, The Vegas Kings, which would later be named Ronnie and the Rumblers and then Ronnie and the Red Caps. Though Padavona began his rock 'n' roll career on trumpet, he added singing to his skill set and also assumed bass guitar duties for the groups.
Padavona graduated from Cortland High School in 1960. He was allegedly offered a scholarship to the prestigious [School](Juilliard)(Juilliard School) of Music but did not take up the offer due to his interest in rock music. He instead attended the [at Buffalo](University)(University at Buffalo, The State University of New York) to major in [pharmacology](pharmacology). There, he played trumpet in the university's concert band; however, he only attended the university from 1960 to 1961 and did not graduate. Then he enrolled at [State College](Cortland)(State University of New York College at Cortland) but dropped out as well. In a 2000 interview, he stated that he majored in history and minored in [English](English studies).
Despite being known for his powerful singing voice, Padavona claimed to have never received any vocal training. He instead attributed his singing ability to the use of breathing techniques he learned while playing trumpet.
## Career
### Early career
Dio's musical career began in 1957, when he and several Cortland, New York, musicians formed the band The Vegas Kings. The group's lineup consisted of Dio on bass guitar, Billy DeWolfe on lead vocals, Nick Pantas on guitar, Tom Rogers on drums and Jack Musci on saxophone. The band changed its name to Ronnie and the Rumblers. In 1958, the band again changed its name to Ronnie and the Redcaps. Musci left the band in 1960 and a new guitarist, Dick Botoff, joined the lineup. The band released two singles: The first single was "Conquest"/"Lover" with the A-side being an instrumental track reminiscent of [Ventures](the)(the Ventures) and the B-side featuring DeWolfe on lead vocals. The second was "An Angel Is Missing"/"What'd I Say" featuring Dio on lead vocals for both tracks.
Explanations vary for how Padavona adopted the stage name "Dio". One is that Padavona's grandmother said he had a gift from God and should be called "Dio" ("God" in Italian), although this was disputed by Padavona's widow, Wendy, in a February 2017 interview. Another is that Dio was a reference to [mafia](Sicilian Mafia) member [Dio](Johnny)(Johnny Dio); this explanation was confirmed in his autobiography.Wilson, Dave. *Rock Formations: Categorical Answers to How Band Names Were Formed.* San Jose, Calif.: Cidermill Books, 2004. Padavona first used the name on a recording in 1960, when he added it to the band's second release on Seneca. Soon after that, the band modified its name to Ronnie Dio and the Prophets. The Prophets lineup lasted for several years, touring throughout New York and playing college fraternity parties. They produced one single for [Records](Atlantic)(Atlantic Records) and one album. Some of the singles (such as "Mr. Misery," released on Swan) were labeled as being by Ronnie Dio as a solo artist, even if the rest of the Prophets contributed to the recording. The group released several singles during the following years until early 1967. Dio continued to use his birth name on any songwriting credits on those releases.
In late 1967, Ronnie Dio and the Prophets transformed into a new band called [Electric Elves](the)(Elf (band)) and added a keyboard player. In February 1968, the band was involved in a fatal car accident that killed guitarist Nick Pantas and briefly put Dio and the other band members in hospital. Following the accident, the group shortened its name to the Elves and used that name until mid-1972, when it released its first proper album under the name Elf. Over the next few years, the group went on to become a regular opening act for [Purple](Deep)(Deep Purple). Elf recorded three albums until the members' involvement in recording the first [Rainbow](Rainbow (rock band)) album in early 1975, resulting in Elf disbanding.
### Rainbow
[[File:Rainbow in performance (27 09 1977 02 500b).jpg|thumb|275px|Dio and [Blackmore](Ritchie)(Ritchie Blackmore) performing with [Rainbow](Rainbow (rock band))]]
In the mid-1970s, Dio's vocals caught the ear of Deep Purple guitarist [Blackmore](Ritchie)(Ritchie Blackmore), who was planning on leaving Deep Purple due to creative differences over the band's new direction. Blackmore invited Dio, along with [Driscoll](Gary)(Gary Driscoll), to record two songs in Tampa, Florida, on December 12, 1974. Blackmore stated in 1983, "I left Deep Purple because I'd met up with Ronnie Dio, and he was so easy to work with. He was originally just going to do one track of a solo LP, but we ended up doing the whole LP in three weeks, which I was very excited about." Being satisfied with the results, Blackmore decided to recruit more of Elf's musicians and form his own band, initially known as [Blackmore's Rainbow](Ritchie)(Rainbow (rock band)). They released the self-titled debut album ''[Blackmore's Rainbow](Ritchie)(Ritchie Blackmore's Rainbow)* in early 1975. After that, Dio recorded two more studio albums *[Rising](Rising (Rainbow album))* (1976) and *[Live Rock 'n' Roll](Long)(Long Live Rock 'n' Roll)* (1978), the live album *[Stage](On)(On Stage (Rainbow album))* and two archival live albums – (*[in Munich 1977](Live)(Live in Munich 1977)* and *[in Germany 1976](Live)(Live in Germany 1976)*) – with Blackmore. During his tenure with Rainbow, Dio and Blackmore were the only constant members. Dio is credited on those albums for all lyrical authorship as well as collaboration with Blackmore on musical arrangement. Dio and Blackmore split, with Blackmore taking the band in a more commercial direction, with [Bonnet](Graham)(Graham Bonnet) on vocals and the album *[to Earth](Down)(Down to Earth (Rainbow album))''.
### Black Sabbath
Following his departure from Rainbow in 1979, Dio joined Black Sabbath, replacing the fired [Osbourne](Ozzy)(Ozzy Osbourne). Dio met Sabbath guitarist [Iommi](Tony)(Tony Iommi) by chance at [Rainbow](the)(Rainbow Bar and Grill) on Sunset Strip in Los Angeles in 1979. The two musicians were in similar situations, as Dio was seeking a new project and Iommi needed a vocalist. Dio said of the encounter, "It must have been fate, because we connected so instantly." The pair kept in touch until Dio arrived at Iommi's Los Angeles house for a relaxed, getting-to-know-you jam session. On that first day, the duo wrote the song "Children of the Sea," which appeared on the *[and Hell](Heaven)(Heaven and Hell (Black Sabbath album))* album, the first the band recorded with Dio as its vocalist, released in 1980.
The follow-up album, *[Rules](Mob)(Mob Rules (album))* (1981), featured new drummer [Appice](Vinny)(Vinny Appice). Personality conflicts began emerging within the band. "Ronnie came into the band and he was doing whatever we told him, basically because he wanted the gig. The next album was a little different," Iommi recalled. In 1982, conflict arose over the mixing of the *[Evil](Live)(Live Evil (Black Sabbath album))* album. Iommi asserted that the album's engineer began complaining to him that he would work all day long on a mix, only to have Dio return to the studio at night to "do his own mix" in which his vocals were more prominent. This was denied by Dio. The conflict led to Dio and Appice ultimately quitting the band later that year.
In 1991, Dio returned to Black Sabbath to record the *[Dehumanizer](Dehumanizer)* album. The album was a minor hit, reaching the Top 40 in the United Kingdom and #44 on the US [200](*Billboard*)(Billboard 200). The single "Time Machine" was featured in the movie ''[World](Wayne's)(Wayne's World (film))*, the tenth highest-grossing film of 1992. Close to the end of 1992, Dio and Appice again left the band, citing an inability to work with Iommi and Butler.
### Dio
Wanting to continue together as a band, Dio and Appice formed the eponymous heavy metal band Dio in 1982. [Campbell](Vivian)(Vivian Campbell) played guitar and [Bain](Jimmy)(Jimmy Bain) played bass, the latter of whom Dio had known since his time with Rainbow. Their 1983 debut album, *[Diver](Holy)(Holy Diver)'', included the hit singles "[in the Dark](Rainbow)(Rainbow in the Dark)" and "[Diver](Holy)(Holy Diver (song))", which have remained the band's signature songs.
The band added keyboardist [Schnell](Claude)(Claude Schnell) and recorded two more full-length studio albums, *[Last in Line](The)(The Last in Line)* (1984) and *[Heart](Sacred)(Sacred Heart (Dio album))* (1985). A 1984 live recording, *[Special from the Spectrum](A)(A Special from the Spectrum)*, was filmed during the band's second world tour and released in [VHS](VHS) format only. The band changed members over the years, eventually leaving Dio as the only original member in 1990. Except for a few breaks, the band was constantly touring or recording. They released 10 albums, with *[of the Moon](Master)(Master of the Moon)* being the last one, recorded in 2004.
### Heaven & Hell
[[Image:Dio throwing Horns.jpg|thumb|Dio "[horns](throwing)(sign of the horns)", a gesture commonly used by both artists and fans of heavy metal music]]
In October 2006, Dio joined Black Sabbath members [Iommi](Tony)(Tony Iommi), [Butler](Geezer)(Geezer Butler) and former Black Sabbath drummer [Appice](Vinny)(Vinny Appice) to tour under the moniker Heaven & Hell, the title of the first Dio-era Black Sabbath album. They chose the name Heaven & Hell as Iommi and Butler were still in Black Sabbath with Osbourne and felt it was best to use a different moniker for the Dio version of the band. Original Black Sabbath drummer [Ward](Bill)(Bill Ward (musician)) was to be involved in this project, but later withdrew.
In 2007, the band recorded three new songs under the Black Sabbath name for the compilation album *[Sabbath: The Dio Years](Black)(Black Sabbath: The Dio Years)*.
In 2008, the band completed a 98-date world tour. The band released one album under the Heaven & Hell name, *[Devil You Know](The)(The Devil You Know (Heaven & Hell album))*, to critical and commercial acclaim. They also had planned to release a follow-up in 2010.
### Other projects
In 1974, Dio sang on the [Glover](Roger)(Roger Glover) conducted and produced concept album ''[Butterfly Ball and the Grasshopper's Feast](The)(The Butterfly Ball and the Grasshopper's Feast)*. Along with other guest-singers, the album featured [Purple](Deep)(Deep Purple) alumni [Hughes](Glenn)(Glenn Hughes (English singer)) and [Coverdale](David)(David Coverdale). Dio provided vocals for the songs "Homeward", "Sitting in a Dream" and the UK single *[Is All](Love)(Love Is All (Roger Glover song))''.
In 1980, Dio made vocal contributions to Kerry Livgren's Christian themed progressive rock album [of Change](Seeds)(Seeds of Change (album)), He sang on the tracks "Live For the King" and "The Mask of the Great Deceiver."
In 1985, Dio contributed to the metal world's answer to [Aid](Band)(Band Aid (band)) and [for Africa](USA)(USA for Africa) with the ['n Aid](Hear)(Hear 'n Aid) project. With a heavy metal all-star ensemble—the brainchild of his fellow Dio bandmates Campbell and Bain—he sang some of the vocals on the single "Stars" and an album full of songs from other artists given to charity. The project raised $1 million within a year.
In 1997, Dio made a cameo on [Boone](Pat)(Pat Boone)'s *[a Metal Mood: No More Mr. Nice Guy](In)(In a Metal Mood: No More Mr. Nice Guy)*, an album of famous heavy metal songs played in [band](big)(big band) style. Dio can be heard singing backup on Boone's take of "[Diver](Holy)(Holy Diver (song))".
In 1999, he was parodied in the TV show *[Park](South)(South Park)*, in the episode "[on Monkey Fonics](Hooked)(Hooked on Monkey Fonics)", which he later described as "wonderful."
[D](Tenacious)(Tenacious D) included a tribute song entitled "Dio" that appeared on their [album](self-titled)(Tenacious D (album)). The song explains how he has to "pass the torch" for a new generation. Reportedly, Dio approved of it and had Tenacious D appear in his video "Push" from *[the Dragon](Killing)(Killing the Dragon)* in 2002. He also appeared in the film *[D in The Pick of Destiny](Tenacious)(Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny)*, playing himself and providing guest vocals in the movie's opening musical number "Kickapoo."
In 2005, Dio was revealed to be the voice behind Dr. X in *[Mindcrime II](Operation:)(Operation: Mindcrime II)*, the sequel to [Queensrÿche](Queensrÿche)'s seminal concept album *[Mindcrime](Operation:)(Operation: Mindcrime)*. His part was shown in a prerecorded video on the subsequent tour and Dio appeared onstage to sing the part live on at least one occasion (both shown on the *Mindcrime at the Moore* DVD).
Though he was unable to finish writing it, Dio's autobiography, titled *Rainbow in the Dark: The Autobiography*, was completed by Wendy Dio and Mick Wall and published posthumously on July 27, 2021.
A documentary about Dio's life titled *DIO: Dreamers Never Die* premiered at [SXSW](SXSW) on March 21, 2022. The film received a limited theatrical release on September 28, and premiered on television on [Showtime](Showtime (TV network)) December 1, 2022.
## Personal life
[[File:Ronnie James Dio HAH Katowice.jpg|thumb|Dio and drummer [Appice](Vinny)(Vinny Appice) performing with [& Hell](Heaven)(Heaven & Hell (band)) in [Katowice](Katowice), Poland, in June 2007]]
Dio married his first wife Loretta Berardi (born 1941) in 1963. They adopted a son but divorced in 1972.
In 1978, Dio married Wendy Walters (born 1945), ex-wife of drummer [Dunbar](Aynsley)(Aynsley Dunbar) and guitarist Ricardo Gaxiola, and she also served as Dio's manager. In the 1980s, she managed the Los Angeles rock bands [Cutt](Rough)(Rough Cutt), NuHaven, Cold Sweat and [Hellion](Hellion (band)). The couple separated but did not divorce. (In 2012, after Dio's death, she married her longtime partner Omar Gimenez.)
In September 2003, Dio accidentally severed his thumb during a gardening accident when a heavy garden gnome fell onto it. Dio was concerned he would no longer be able to do his signature "devil's" horns hand gesture, but a doctor managed to re-attach it.
### Illness and death
On November 25, 2009, Dio announced that he was diagnosed with stomach cancer and underwent treatment at the [Anderson Cancer Center](MD)(University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center) in Houston, Texas.
On May 4, 2010, Heaven & Hell announced they were canceling all summer dates as a result of Dio's health condition. His last live performance was with Heaven & Hell on August 29, 2009, in [City, New Jersey](Atlantic)(Atlantic City, New Jersey). Dio died of the illness on May 16, 2010.
[[File:Ronnie James Dio Tomb.JPG|thumb|left|The tomb of Dio (note the "[horns](devil's)(Sign of the horns)" sign on the flanking urns)]]
Two weeks after his death, a public memorial service was held at The Hall of Liberty, [Lawn Hollywood Hills](Forest)(Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)), Los Angeles. The hall was filled to capacity, with many more fans sitting outside the hall watching the memorial on multiple giant screens on both the east and south sides of the hall. Friends, family and former and current bandmates of Dio gave speeches and performed including [Sarzo](Rudy)(Rudy Sarzo), [Tate](Geoff)(Geoff Tate), [Payne](John)(John Payne (singer)), [Hughes](Glenn)(Glenn Hughes (English singer)), [Belladonna](Joey)(Joey Belladonna) and Heaven & Hell keyboard player, [Warren](Scott)(Scott Warren). On the screen was an accompanying documentary covering Dio's career from his early days with Elf to his final project with Heaven & Hell.
## Legacy and popular culture
[[Image:Dio monument.jpeg|thumb|A tribute monument of Dio in [Kavarna](Kavarna), Bulgaria]]
Dio's career spanned more than 50 years. During this period and particularly in the 21st century, he received a number of distinctions and awards. He was inducted into the Cortland City Hall of Fame in 2004 and has a street named after him there called Dio Way. *[Rock Magazine](Classic)(Classic Rock (magazine))* awarded Dio the "Metal Guru Award" at their yearly "Roll of Honour" awards ceremony in 2006. On January 17, 2007, Dio was inducted into Guitar Center's Rock Walk of Fame in Hollywood. Dio was named "Best Metal Singer" at the *[Revolver](Revolver (magazine))* Golden Gods Awards in April 2010 for his work on *[Devil You Know](The)(The Devil You Know (Heaven & Hell album))*, making him the oldest recipient of this award at age 67. He accepted the award in person at what was to be his final public appearance, just one month before his death.
The main stage of [Open Air](Bloodstock)(Bloodstock Open Air) is also named after him in tribute after Heaven & Hell pulled out upon his death. Also, the main stage on [of Rock festival](Masters)(Masters of Rock (festival)) carries his name since summer 2010. A Dio monument has been unveiled in [Kavarna](Kavarna), Bulgaria. In Mexico the biggest metal fest was named "Hell and Heaven" in honor of Dio; the organization says that the festival was named that way since they had worked with Dio, referring to him as "the greatest singer and person we ever had worked with, a really humble person."
*[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* magazine eulogized Dio with these words: "It wasn't just his mighty pipes that made him Ronnie James Dio — it was his moral fervor...what always stood out was Dio's raging compassion for the lost rock & roll children in his audience. Dio never pretended to be one of the kids — he sang as an adult assuring us that we weren't alone in our suffering, and some day we might even be proud of conquering it." In 2023, *Rolling Stone* ranked Dio at number 165 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.
On July 10, 2011, in parallel to Dio's birthday, his hometown of Cortland, New York held a day-long event featuring many central New York local bands and talent for a benefit to the Stand Up and Shout Cancer foundation for cancer research and Dio Memorial concert. Part of the proceeds from the event went to fund a memorial music scholarship for the local city high-school in his name.
On March 31, 2014, the [album](tribute)(tribute album) *[James Dio This Is Your Life](Ronnie)(Ronnie James Dio This Is Your Life)* was released. It was organized and produced by Wendy Gaxiola, with album proceeds benefitting the [Ronnie James Dio Stand Up and Shout Cancer Fund](http://www.diocancerfund.org).
On August 6, 2016, a [hologram](hologram) of the singer, created by Eyellusion, made its live debut at the [Open Air](Wacken)(Wacken Open Air) Festival. A second hologram was created for a subsequent world tour, which began on December 6, 2017, in Bochum, Germany.
On January 18, 2017, Dio was inducted into the Hall of Heavy Metal History.
"I guess if I've left any kind of legacy", Dio remarked in 1987, "it's been *[and Hell](Heaven)(Heaven and Hell (Black Sabbath album))* and a lot of *[Rising](Rainbow)(Rising (Rainbow album))*."Ronnie James Dio interview with [Vance](Tommy)(Tommy Vance) for [Radio 1](BBC)(BBC Radio 1)'s *[Rock Show](Friday)(Friday Rock Show)*; broadcast August 21, 1987; transcribed by editor Peter Scott for Sabbath [fanzine](fanzine) *Southern Cross* #11, October 1996, p27-28
''[Bizarre Adventure](JoJo's)(JoJo's Bizarre Adventure)''s main villain, [Brando](Dio)(Dio Brando), gets his name from a combination of Dio and [Brando](Marlon)(Marlon Brando)'s surnames.
In the fourth season of television series *[Things](Stranger)(Stranger Things)*, character Eddie Munson wears a denim vest that includes a large back panel of the artwork on the cover of Dio's *[Last in Line](The)(The Last in Line)*.
## Discography
## Timeline
## References
}}
## Sources
* Pillsbury, Glenn (2013). "Dio's Lost Decade: Recovering the 1960s Career of Ronnie James Dio". Retrieved from [http://www.peteofthestreet.net/dioslostdecaden](http://www.peteofthestreet.net/dioslostdecade)
## External links
*
*[Ronnie James Dio](http://www.billboard.com/#/artist/ronnie-james-dio/56198) at [Billboard.com](Billboard (magazine))
*[Memorial benefit event](http://www.standupandshoutcortland.org)
*[MTV](http://www.mtv.com/artists/ronnie-james-dio/)
[births](Category:1942)(Category:1942 births)
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[American guitarists](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American guitarists)
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[which contain graphical timelines](Category:Articles)(Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines)
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[at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)](Category:Burials)(Category:Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills))
[of religions](Category:Critics)(Category:Critics of religions)
[from cancer in Texas](Category:Deaths)(Category:Deaths from cancer in Texas)
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[(band) members](Category:Elf)(Category:Elf (band) members)
[from New Hampshire](Category:Guitarists)(Category:Guitarists from New Hampshire)
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Levant
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levant
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# Levant
*Revision ID: 1151686271 | Timestamp: 2023-04-25T15:56:17Z*
---
Levantines (Latin Christians)|other uses|Levantine (disambiguation)Levantine|and|Levant (disambiguation)}}
Levante|Levent}}
; .}}}}
| label1 = Countries and regions
| data1 = Narrow definition:
([Kingdom](United)(The Crown))
*
* [Province](Hatay)(Hatay Province) ([Turkey](Turkey))
*
*
*
*
*
}}
Broad definition:
([Libya](Libya))
*
*
*
*
}}
| label2 = Population
| data2 = Narrow definition: 44,550,926
| label3 = Demonym
| data3 = Levantine
| label4 = Languages
| data4 = [Arabic](Arabic), ["Aramaic" covers all the dialects of Aramaic which are spoken in this region. -->](Aramaic The English [Company](Levant)(Levant Company) was founded in 1581 to trade with the [Empire](Ottoman)(Ottoman Empire), and in 1670 the French [du Levant](Compagnie)(:fr:Compagnie du Levant) was founded for the same purpose. At this time, the [East](Far)(Far East) was known as the "Upper Levant".
[[File:Constantinople c. 1909.jpg|thumb|left|1909 postcard depicting Ottoman [Constantinople](Constantinople) and bearing a French stamp inscribed "Levant"]]
In early 19th-century [writing](travel)(travel writing), the term sometimes incorporated certain Mediterranean provinces of the [empire](Ottoman)(Ottoman empire), as well as independent [Greece](Greece) (and especially the [islands](Greek)(Greek islands)). In 19th-century archaeology, it referred to overlapping cultures in this region during and after prehistoric times, intending to reference the place instead of any one culture. The [mandate of Syria and Lebanon](French)(French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon) (1920–1946) was called the Levant states.
## Geography and modern-day use of the term
[[File:Levant - Satellite.png|thumb|Satellite view of the Levant including [Cyprus](Cyprus), [Syria](Syria), [Lebanon](Lebanon), [Israel](Israel), [Palestine](State of Palestine), [Jordan](Jordan) and the Northern Sinai]]
Today, "Levant" is the term typically used by archaeologists and historians with reference to the history of the region. Scholars have adopted the term Levant to identify the region due to its being a "wider, yet relevant, cultural corpus" that does not have the "political overtones" of Syria-Palestine. }}}} The term is also used for modern events, peoples, states or parts of states in the same region,*e.g.*, "The Levant Crisis: Syria, Iraq, and the Region", Australian National University [http://www.anu.edu.au/events/the-levant-crisis-syria-iraq-and-the-region] ; [for Strategic and International Studies](Center)(Center for Strategic and International Studies), "Egypt and the Levant", 2017 [https://www.csis.org/programs/middle-east-program/regions/egypt-and-levant] ; Michael Kerr, Craig Larkin, eds., *The Alawis of Syria*, 2015 namely [Cyprus](Cyprus), [Egypt](Egypt), [Iraq](Iraq), [Israel](Israel), [Jordan](Jordan), [Lebanon](Lebanon), [Palestine](State of Palestine), [Syria](Syria), and [Turkey](Turkey) are sometimes considered Levant countries (compare with [East](Near)(Near East), [East](Middle)(Middle East), [Mediterranean](Eastern)(Eastern Mediterranean) and [Asia](Western)(Western Asia)). Several researchers include the island of [Cyprus](Cyprus) in Levantine studies, including the [for British Research in the Levant](Council)(Council for British Research in the Levant), the [UCLA](UCLA) Near Eastern Languages and Cultures department,[Biblical and Levantine studies](http://www.nelc.ucla.edu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=70&Itemid=98) , [UCLA](UCLA) *[of Levantine Studies](Journal)(Journal of Levantine Studies)* and the [UCL](University College London) Institute of Archaeology,[The Ancient Levant](https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20060514092649/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/), [UCL](University College London) Institute of Archaeology, May 2008 the last of which has dated the connection between Cyprus and mainland Levant to the early [Age](Iron)(Iron Age). Archaeologists seeking a neutral orientation that is neither biblical nor national have used terms such as [archaeology](Levantine)(Levantine archaeology) and archaeology of the [Levant](Southern)(Southern Levant).Dever, William G. "Syro-Palestinian and Biblical Archaeology", pp. 1244-1253.Sharon, Ilan "Biblical archaeology" in *Encyclopedia of Archaeology* Elsevier.
While the usage of the term "Levant" in academia has been restricted to the fields of archeology and literature, there is a recent attempt to reclaim the notion of the Levant as a category of analysis in political and social sciences. Two academic journals were launched in the early 2010s using the word: the *Journal of Levantine Studies*, published by the [Leer Jerusalem Institute](Van)(Van Leer Jerusalem Institute)Anat Lapidot-Firilla, "Editor's Note", *Journal of Levantine Studies* **1**:1:5-12 (Summer 2011) [full text](https://levantine-journal.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/jls-summer2011_Editor-1.pdf) and *The Levantine Review*, published by [College](Boston)(Boston College).Franck Salameh, "From the Editors", *The Levantine Review* **1**:1:1-6 (Spring 2012), , [full text](https://ejournals.bc.edu/index.php/levantine/article/view/2154/1796)
The word *Levant* has been used in some translations of the term *ash-Shām* as used by the organization known as [ISIS, and other names](ISIL,)(Names of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant), though there is disagreement as to whether this translation is accurate.
### In archaeology: a definition
In *The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000–332 BCE* (OHAL; 2013), the definition of the Levant for the specific purposes of the book is synonymous to that of the Arabic "*bilad al-sham*, 'the land of sham [Syria]'", translating in Western parlance to [Syria](greater)(greater Syria). OHAL defines the boundaries of the Levant as follows.
* To the north: the [Mountains](Taurus)(Taurus Mountains) or the [of 'Amuq](Plain)(Amik Valley)
* To the east: the eastern deserts, i.e. (from north to south) the Euphrates and the [el-Bishrī](Jebel)(Jebel Bishri) area for the northern Levant, followed by the [Desert](Syrian)(Syrian Desert) east of the eastern hinterland of the [Anti-Lebanon](Anti-Lebanon) range (whose southernmost part is [Hermon](Mount)(Mount Hermon)), and [Transjordan](Transjordan (region))'s highlands and eastern desert (also discussed at Syrian Desert, also known as the [region](Badia)(Badia (region))). In other words, Mesopotamia and the North [Desert](Arabian)(Arabian Desert).
* To the south: Wadi al-[Arish](Arish) in Sinai
* To the west: the Mediterranean Sea
;Subregions
A distinction is made between the main subregions of the Levant, the northern and the southern:
* The [River](Litani)(Litani River) marks the division between the [Levant](Northern)(Northern Levant) and the [Levant](Southern)(Southern Levant).
The island of Cyprus is also included as a third subregion in the archaeological region of the Levant:
* Cyprus, geographically distinct from the Levant, is included due to its proximity and natural resources (copper in particular), which induced close cultural ties.
## History
## Demographics and religion
[[Prince of Lebanon, Moslem of Damascus.jpg|thumb|Prince from Lebanon and Muslim from Damascus, late 19th century](File:A))]
The largest religious group in the Levant are [Muslim](Muslim)s and the largest ethnic group are [Arabs](Arabs). [Islam](Islam by country) became the majority in the region due to the [conquest of the Levant](Muslim)(Muslim conquest of the Levant) in the 7th century. The majority of Muslim Levantines are [Sunni](Sunni Islam) with [Alawi](Alawites) and [Shia](Shia Islam) minorities. Other large ethnic and religious groups in the Levant include [Jews](Jews), [Maronites](Maronites), [Turks](Turkic peoples), [Turkmens](Turkmens), [Greeks](Antiochian)(Antiochian Greek Christians), [Assyrians](Assyrian people), [Yazidi](Yazidi), [Kurds](Kurdish people), [Druze](Druze) and [Armenians](Armenians).
There are many Levantine Christian groups such as [Greek](Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch), [Oriental](Oriental Orthodoxy) Orthodox (mainly [Orthodox](Syriac)(Syriac Orthodox), [Coptic](Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria), [Georgian](Georgian Orthodox Church), and [Maronite](Maronite)), [Catholic](Roman)(Latin Church), [Nestorian](Church of the East), and [Protestant](Protestantism). [Armenians](Armenians) mostly belong to the [Apostolic Church](Armenian)(Armenian Apostolic Church). There are [or Franco-Levantines](Levantines)(Levantines (Latin Christians)) who are mostly [Catholic](Roman)(Roman Catholic). There are also [Circassians](Circassians), [Turks](Turkish people), [Samaritans](Samaritans), and [Nawars](Nawar people). There are [people](Assyrian)(Assyrian people)s belonging to the [Church of the East](Assyrian)(Assyrian Church of the East) (autonomous) and the [Catholic Church](Chaldean)(Chaldean Catholic Church) (Catholic).
In addition, this region has a number of sites that are of [significance](religious)(religious significance of the Syrian region), such as [Al-Aqsa](Masjid)(Temple Mount), [Antioch](Antioch) in [Hatay](Hatay Province), the [of the Holy Sepulchre](Church)(Church of the Holy Sepulchre), and the [Wall](Western)(Western Wall)Frishman, Avraham (2004). *Kum Hisalech Be’aretz*, Jerusalem. in [Jerusalem](Jerusalem).
## Language
[[Arabic in the Levant.jpg|alt=|thumb|Map representing the distribution of the Arabic dialects in the area of the Levant](File:Map)]
Most populations in the Levant speak [Arabic](Levantine)(Levantine Arabic) (, ), usually classified as the varieties [Levantine Arabic](North)(North Levantine Arabic) in Lebanon, Syria, and parts of Turkey, and [Levantine Arabic](South)(South Levantine Arabic) in Palestine and Jordan. Each of these encompasses a spectrum of regional or urban/rural variations. In addition to the varieties normally grouped together as "Levantine", a number of other varieties and dialects of Arabic are spoken in the Levant area, such as [Bedawi Arabic](Levantine)(Levantine Bedawi Arabic) and [Arabic](Mesopotamian)(Mesopotamian Arabic).
Among the [of Israel](languages)(languages of Israel), the official language is [Hebrew](Hebrew language); Arabic was until July 19, 2018, also an official language. The [minority](Arab)(Arab citizens of Israel), in 2018 about 21% of the population of Israel, speaks a dialect of Levantine Arabic essentially indistinguishable from the forms spoken in the Palestinian territories.
Of the [of Cyprus](languages)(languages of Cyprus), the two official languages are Turkish and Greek. The most used languages by population are Greek in the south followed by Turkish in the north. Two minority languages are recognized: Armenian, and [Maronite Arabic](Cypriot)(Cypriot Maronite Arabic), a hybrid of mostly medieval Arabic vernaculars with strong influence from contact with Turkish and Greek, spoken by approximately 1,000 people.
Some communities and populations speak [Aramaic](Western Neo-Aramaic), [Greek](Greek language), [Armenian](Armenian language), [Circassian](Circassian language), [French](French language), [Russian](Russian language), or [English](English language).
## See also
**Overlapping regional designations**
* [Crescent](Fertile)(Fertile Crescent)
* [Mashriq](Mashriq)
* [Mesopotamia](Mesopotamia)
* [East](Middle)(Middle East)
* [East](Near)(Near East)
* [Asia](Western)(Western Asia)
**Subregional designations**
* [Levant](Southern)(Southern Levant)
**Others**
* [post offices in the Ottoman Empire](French)(French post offices in the Ottoman Empire) ("Levant" stamps)
* [of the Levant](History)(History of the Levant)
* [State of Iraq and the Levant](Islamic)(Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant) (Referred to in current events as ISIL or ISIS)
* [Sea](Levantine)(Levantine Sea)
* [(Latin Christians)](Levantines)(Levantines (Latin Christians)), Catholic Europeans in the Levant
*Other places in the east of a larger region*
* [Spain](Levante,)(Levante, Spain)
* [di Levante](Riviera)(Riviera di Levante), Italy
## Explanatory notes
## Citations
## General and cited references
*
*
* |publisher=Microsoft |title=Encarta |date=2009 |chapter=Levant}}
*
*
*
* |title=Oxford Dictionaries Online |chapter=Levant |publisher=Oxford University Press }}
*
## Further reading
* Julia Chatzipanagioti: Griechenland, Zypern, Balkan und Levante. Eine kommentierte Bibliographie der Reiseliteratur des 18. Jahrhunderts. 2 Vol. Eutin 2006. .
* [Levantine Heritage](http://www.levantineheritage.com/) site. Includes many oral and scholarly histories, and genealogies for some Levantine Turkish families.
* Philip Mansel, *Levant: Splendour and Catastrophe on the Mediterranean*, London, John Murray, 11 November 2010, hardback, 480 pages, , New Haven, Yale University Press, 24 May 2011, hardback, 470 pages, .
## External links
* [*France and the Levant*](http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11769/)
[ ](Category:Levant)
[Mediterranean](Category:Eastern)(Category:Eastern Mediterranean)
[of Cyprus](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of Cyprus)
[of Hatay Province](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of Hatay Province)
[of Israel](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of Israel)
[of Jordan](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of Jordan)
[of Lebanon](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of Lebanon)
[of Syria](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of Syria)
[of the Middle East](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of the Middle East)
[of the State of Palestine](Category:Geography)(Category:Geography of the State of Palestine)
[regions](Category:Historical)(Category:Historical regions)
[of Western Asia](Category:History)(Category:History of Western Asia)
[East](Category:Near)(Category:Near East)
[of Asia](Category:Regions)(Category:Regions of Asia)
[of Europe](Category:Regions)(Category:Regions of Europe)
|
Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic
|
lithuanian_soviet_socialist_republic
|
# Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic
*Revision ID: 1159871081 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T02:02:47Z*
---
|common_name = Lithuanian SSR
|status = *[Unrecognized](Occupation of the Baltic States#State continuity of the Baltic states)* [Socialist Republic](Soviet)(Republics of the Soviet Union)(1940–1941, 1944–1990/1991)*[facto](De)(De facto)* [entity](sovereign)(sovereign entity) (1990–1991)
|image_flag = Flag of Lithuanian SSR.svg
|flag_type = [Flag](Flag of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic)(1953–1988)
|image_coat = Emblem of the Lithuanian SSR.svg
|symbol_type = [emblem](State)(Emblem of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic)(1940–1990)
|national_motto = [šalių proletarai, vienykitės!](Visų)(Workers of the world, unite!)
|image_map = Soviet Union - Lithuanian SSR.svg
|image_map_caption = Location of Lithuania (red) within the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union)
|national_anthem = [giesmė](Tautiška)(Tautiška giesmė)(1944–1950, 1988–1990/1991)[of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic](Anthem)(Anthem of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic)(1950–1988)
|demonym = [Lithuanian](Lithuanians)[Soviet](Soviet people)
| religion = [state](Secular)(Secular state) (*[jure](de)(de jure)*)[atheism](State)(State atheism) (*[facto](de)(de facto)*)
|government_type = [Unitary](Unitary state) [Marxist-Leninist](Marxism-Leninism) [one-party](one-party state) [soviet](Soviet republic (system of government)) [republic](socialist)(socialist state) (1940–1989)[Unitary](Unitary state) [parliamentary](Parliamentary republic) [republic](republic) (1989–1991)
|title_leader = [Secretary](First)(Communist Party of Lithuania)
|leader1 = [Sniečkus](Antanas)(Antanas Sniečkus)
|year_leader1 = 1940–1974
|leader2 = [Griškevičius](Petras)(Petras Griškevičius)
|year_leader2 = 1974–1987
|leader3 = [Songaila](Ringaudas)(Ringaudas Songaila)
|year_leader3 = 1987–1988
|leader4 = [Brazauskas](Algirdas)(Algirdas Brazauskas)
|year_leader4 = 1988–1990
|title_representative = [of state](Head)(Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic)
|representative1 = [Paleckis](Justas)(Justas Paleckis)
|year_representative1 = 1940–1967
|representative2 = [Landsbergis](Vytautas)(Vytautas Landsbergis)
|year_representative2 = 1990–1991
|title_deputy = [of government](Head)(Council of Ministers of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic)
|deputy1 = [Gedvilas](Mečislovas)(Mečislovas Gedvilas)
|year_deputy1 = 1940–1956
|deputy2 = [Šumauskas](Motiejus)(Motiejus Šumauskas)
|year_deputy2 = 1956–1967
|deputy3 = [Maniušis](Juozas)(Juozas Maniušis)
|year_deputy3 = 1967–1981
|deputy4 = [Songaila](Ringaudas)(Ringaudas Songaila)
|year_deputy4 = 1981–1985
|deputy5 = [Sakalauskas](Vytautas)(Vytautas Sakalauskas)
|year_deputy5 = 1985–1990
|legislature = [Soviet](Supreme)(Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR)
|capital = [Vilnius](Vilnius)
|common_languages = [Lithuanian](Lithuanian language)[Russian](Russian language)
|era = [War II](World)(World War II)[War](Cold)(Cold War)
|life_span = 1940–19411944–1990/1991
|event_pre = [occupation](Soviet)(Occupation of the Baltic states)
|date_pre = 16 June 1940
|event_start = [SSR](Soviet Socialist Republic) established
|year_start = 1940
|date_start = 21 July
|event1 = Illegally annexed by [USSR](Soviet Union), [Lithuania](Lithuania) continued *de jure*
|date_event1 = 3 August 1940
|event2 = [occupation](Nazi)(Reichskommissariat Ostland)
|date_event2 = June 1941
|event3 = [re-occupation](Soviet)(Baltic Offensive)SSR re-established
|date_event3 = September–November 1944
|event4 = [Revolution](Singing)(Singing Revolution)
|date_event4 = 1988
|event5 = Sovereignty declared
|date_event5 = 18 May 1989
|event_end = [of Independence declared](Restoration)(Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania)
|year_end = 1990
|date_end = 11 March
|event_post = Independence recognized by the [Council of the Soviet Union](State)(State Council of the Soviet Union)
|date_post = 6 September 1991
|currency = [rouble](Soviet)(Soviet rouble) (Rbl)
|currency_code = SUR
|stat_year1 = [1989](Soviet Census (1989))
|stat_area1 = 65200
|stat_pop1 = 3,689,779
|calling_code = 7 012
|today = [Lithuania](Lithuania)
|p1 = History of Lithuania#Independence (1918–1940)Lithuania
|flag_p1 = Flag of Lithuania (1918–1940).svg
|s1 = Lithuania
|flag_s1 = Flag of Lithuania (1988–2004).svg
}}
The **Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic** (**Lithuanian SSR**; ; ), also known as **Soviet Lithuania** or simply **Lithuania**, was *[facto](de)(de facto)* one of the [republics](constituent)(Republics of the Soviet Union) of the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) between 1940–1941 and 1944–1990. After 1946, its territory and borders mirrored those of today's [of Lithuania](Republic)(Republic of Lithuania), with the exception of minor adjustments of the border with [Belarus](Belarus).
During [War II](World)(World War II), the [independent](previously)(History of Lithuania#Independence (1918–1940)) Republic of Lithuania was [occupied](Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)) by the [Army](Red)(Red Army) on 16 June 1940, in conformity with the terms of the 23 August 1939 [Pact](Molotov–Ribbentrop)(Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact), and established as a [state](puppet)(puppet state) on 21 July. Between 1941 and 1944, the [invasion](German)(Operation Barbarossa) of the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) caused its *[facto](de)(de facto)* dissolution. However, with the retreat of the Germans in 1944–1945, Soviet [hegemony](hegemony) was re-established and continued for forty-five years. As a result, many Western countries [to recognize Lithuania](continued)(State continuity of the Baltic states) as an independent, sovereign *[jure](de)(de jure)* state subject to international law, represented by the legations appointed by the pre-1940 Baltic states, which functioned in various places through the [Diplomatic Service](Lithuanian)(Lithuanian Diplomatic Service).
On 18 May 1989, the Lithuanian SSR declared itself to be a [state](sovereign)(sovereign state), though still part of the USSR. On 11 March 1990, the Republic of Lithuania was [as an independent state](re-established)(Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania), the first Soviet Republic to leave Moscow and leading other states to do so. Considered illegal by the Soviet authorities, the country was recognized by the Western powers immediately prior to the [of the Soviet Union](breakup)(Dissolution of the Soviet Union). The Soviet Union itself recognized Lithuanian independence on 6 September 1991.
## History
### Background
On 23 August 1939, [Germany](Nazi)(Nazi Germany) and the [Union](Soviet)(Soviet Union) signed the [Pact](Molotov–Ribbentrop)(Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact),Šepetys N., Molotovo – Ribbentropo paktas ir Lietuva, Vilnius, 2006. which contained agreements to divide Europe into [of influence](spheres)(Sphere of influence), with Lithuania falling into Germany's sphere of influence. On 28 September 1939, the USSR and Germany signed the [Treaty](Frontier)(German–Soviet Frontier Treaty) and its secret protocol, by which Lithuania was placed in the USSR's sphere of influence in exchange for Germany gaining an increased share of Polish territory, which had already been occupied. The next day, the USSR offered Lithuania an agreement on the establishment of Soviet military bases in its territory. During the negotiations, the Lithuanian delegation was told of the division of the spheres of influence. The Soviets threatened that if Lithuania refused to host the bases, [Vilnius](Vilnius) could be annexed to [Belarus](Belarus) (at that time the majority of population in Vilnius and Vilnius region were [people](Polish)(Poles in Lithuania)). In these circumstances a [agreement on mutual assistance](Lithuania–USSR)(Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty) was signed in [Moscow](Moscow) on 10 October 1939, allowing a Soviet military presence in Lithuania. A total of 18,786 [Army](Red)(Red Army) troops were deployed at strategically important locations within the country: [Alytus](Alytus), [Prienai](Prienai), [Gaižiūnai](Gaižiūnai), and [Vilnia](Naujoji)(Naujoji Vilnia).Lithuania in 1940–1990. A History of Lithuania under Occupation, ed. Anušauskas A., Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of Lithuania, Vilnius, 2007. This move effectively ended Lithuanian neutrality and brought it directly under Soviet influence.
### Occupation and annexation
[[1940 MiNr449 LTSR 001.jpg|thumb|75px|left|Stamp with overprint, 1940](File:Lithuania)]
While Germany was conducting its [campaign](military)(Battle of France) in Western Europe in May and June 1940, the USSR invaded the Baltic states.Christie, Kenneth, *Historical Injustice and Democratic Transition in Eastern Asia and Northern Europe: Ghosts at the Table of Democracy*, RoutledgeCurzon, 2002, On 14 June 1940, an ultimatum was served to Lithuania on the alleged grounds of abduction of Red Army troops. The ultimatum said Lithuania should remove officials that the USSR found unsuitable (the Minister of the Interior and the Head of the Security Department in particular), replace the government, and allow an unlimited number of Red Army troops to enter the country. The acceptance of the ultimatum would have meant the loss of sovereignty, but Soviet foreign minister [Molotov](Vyacheslav)(Vyacheslav Molotov) declared to diplomat [Urbšys](Juozas)(Juozas Urbšys) that, whatever the reply may be, "troops will enter Lithuania tomorrow nonetheless".Urbšys J., Lietuva lemtingaisiais 1939–1940 metais, Tautos fondas, 1988. The ultimatum was a violation of every prior agreement between Lithuania and the USSR and of [law](international)(international law) governing the relations of [state](sovereign)(sovereign state)s.Audėnas J., Paskutinis posėdis, Vilnius, 1990.
[[SSR 1940.jpg|thumb|left|300px|1940 Soviet map of the Lithuanian SSR](File:Lithuanian)]
The last session of the government of the Republic of Lithuania was called to discuss the ultimatum, with most members in favour of accepting it. On 15 June, [Smetona](President)(Antanas Smetona) left for the West, expecting to return when the geopolitical situation changed,Eidintas, A. Antanas Smetona and His Lithuania, Brill/Rodopi, 2015. leaving Prime Minister [Merkys](Antanas)(Antanas Merkys) in Lithuania. Meanwhile, the 8th and 11th armies of the USSR, comprising a total of 15 divisions, crossed the border. Flying squads took over the airports of Kaunas, Radviliškis, and Šiauliai. Regiments of the Red Army disarmed the Lithuanian military, took over its assets, and supported local communists.
Under pressure from Moscow, on 17 June 1940, Merkys appointed [Paleckis](Justas)(Justas Paleckis) Prime Minister and resigned soon after. Paleckis then assumed presidential duties, and [Krėvė](Vincas)(Vincas Krėvė-Mickevičius) was appointed Prime Minister.Senn A. E., Lithuania 1940– Revolution from Above, Rodopi, 2007. The [Party](Communist)(Communist Party of Lithuania) was legalized again and began publication of its papers and staging meetings to support the new government. Opposition organizations and newspapers were outlawed, and ties abroad cut. On 14–15 July, elections to the People's Parliament took place. The only contender was the Union of Working People of Lithuania, which had been founded by far-left radicals and their supporters. Citizens were mandated to vote, and the results of the elections were likely falsified. At its first meeting on 21 July, the new Parliament declared that Lithuania had expressed its will to become part of the USSR. Resolutions to start the country's Sovietisation were passed the same day. On 3 August, a Lithuanian delegation of prominent public figures was dispatched to Moscow to sign the document by which Lithuania acceded to the USSR. After the signing, Lithuania was annexed to the USSR.Breslavskienė L, Lietuvos okupacija ir aneksija 1939-1940: dokumentų rinkinys, Vilnius: Mintis, 1993. On 25 August 1940, an extraordinary session of the People's Parliament ratified the Constitution of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (LSSR), which in form and substance was similar to the [Constitution of the Soviet Union](1936)(1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union).
### German invasion and the second Soviet occupation
On 22 June 1941, Nazi Germany [the USSR](invaded)(Operation Barbarossa) and occupied all of Lithuania within a month. The [Activist Front](Lithuanian)(Lithuanian Activist Front) (LAF), a resistance organisation founded in Berlin and led by [Škirpa](Kazys)(Kazys Škirpa) whose goal was to liberate Lithuania and re-establish its independence, cooperated with the Nazis. The LAF was responsible for killing many [Jews](Lithuanian)(Lithuanian Jews) (during the first days of [Holocaust in Lithuania](the)(the Holocaust in Lithuania)).Timothy Snyder - Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin, ch.6-Final Solution. 2012. Škirpa was named prime minister in the [Government of Lithuania](Provisional)(Provisional Government of Lithuania); however, the Germans placed him under [arrest](house)(house arrest) and dissolved the LAF on 5 August 1941. During the German occupation, Lithuania was made part of the [Ostland](Reichskommissariat)(Reichskommissariat Ostland). Between July and October 1944, the [Army](Red)(Red Army) entered Lithuania once again, and the second Soviet government began. The first post-war elections took place in the winter of 1946 to elect 35 representatives to the LSSR Supreme Council. The results were again likely falsified to show an attendance rate of at over 90% and to establish an absolute victory for Communist Party candidates. The LSSR Supreme Council under Paleckis was formally the supreme governmental authority; in reality, power was in the hands of the [secretary](first)(Secretary (title)) of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, a post held by [Sniečkus](Antanas)(Antanas Sniečkus) until 1974.
### Red Army crimes
Upon recapturing Lithuania from the retreating Germans in 1944, the Red Army immediately began committing [crime](war)(war crime)s. The situation was so extreme that even Sniečkus complained to [Beria](Lavrentiy)(Lavrentiy Beria) on 23 July that "If such robbery and violence continues in [Kaunas](Kaunas), this will burst our last sympathy for the Red Army". Beria passed this complaint on to [Stalin](Joseph)(Joseph Stalin).
In a special report on the situation in the [Region](Klaipėda)(Klaipėda Region), the head of the local [NKGB](NKGB) operational group wrote that }} In the same report, the mass rape of Lithuanian women in the Klaipėda and Šilutė regions was reported. In Klaipėda Lithuanian men aged 17 to 48 were arrested and deported. In December 1944, Chief of the Priekulė [KGB](KGB) Kazakov wrote to the LSSR Minister of the Interior Josifas Bertašiūnas that due to the soldiers' violence most of the houses in Priekulė were unsuitable for living in: windows were knocked out, fireplaces disassembled, furniture and agricultural inventory broken up and exported as scrap. Many Red Army soldiers engaged in robbery, rape, and murder, and Lithuanians who saw soldiers at night would often run from their homes and hide.
}}
Other regions of the LSSR also suffered heavily. For example, on 26 December 1944, Kaunas' [NKGB](People's Commissariat for State Security) representative Rodionov wrote to the USSR and LSSR Ministers of the Interior that due to the violence and mass arrests by the [counterintelligence](counterintelligence) units of [SMERSH](SMERSH), many Kaunas inhabitants were forced into crime. Eleven SMERSH subdivisions did not obey any orders, not even those from the NKGB. Chief of the Vilnius Garrison, P. Vetrov, in his order described discipline violations: on 18 August a soldier went fishing with explosives in the [river](Neris)(Neris river); on 19 August a fifteen-minute firefight took place between the garrison soldiers and prison guards; on 22 August drunk officers shot at each other. On 1 October 1944, Chief of the Kaunas [NKVD](NKVD) G. Svečnikov reported that on the night of 19 October two aviation unit soldiers killed the Mavraušaitis family during a burglary. On 17 January 1945, Chairman of the [Alytus](Alytus) Executive Committee requested the LSSR People's Commissars Council to withdraw the border guards unit, which was sent to fight the [partisans](Lithuanian)(Lithuanian partisans), because it was burning not only the enemy's homes and farms, but also those of innocent people. They were also robbing local inhabitants cattle and other property.
### Sovietisation
The Sovietisation of Lithuania began with the strengthening of the supervision of the Communist Party. Officials were sent from Moscow to set up bodies of local governance. They were exclusively Lithuanian, with trustworthy Russian specialists for assistants – it was these who were in effective control. By the spring of 1945, 6,100 Russian-speaking workers had been sent to Lithuania. When the Soviets reoccupied the territory, Lithuanians were deprived of all property except personal belongings. This was followed by [collectivisation](Collectivization in the Soviet Union), which started in 1947, with people being forced to join [kolkhoz](kolkhoz)es.The History of the SSR of Lithuania, vol. 4, Vilnius, 1947. Well-off farmers would be exiled, and the livestock of the peasants from the surrounding areas would be herded to their properties. Since kolkhozes had to donate a large portion of their produce to the state, the people working there lived in poorer conditions than the rest of the nation. Their pay would often be delayed and made in kind and their movement to cities was restricted. This collectivisation ended in 1953.
Lithuania became home to factories and power plants, in a bid to integrate the country into the economic system of the USSR. The output of major factories would be exported from the republic as there was a lack of local demand. This process of industrialisation was followed by urbanisation, as villages for the workers had to be established or expanded in the vicinity of the new factories,Grybkauskas S., Sovietinė nomenklatūra ir pramonė Lietuvoje 1965-1985 metais / Lietuvos istorijos institutas. – Vilnius: LII leidykla, 2011. resulting in new towns such as [Vokė](Baltoji)(Baltoji Vokė), [Akmenė](Naujoji)(Naujoji Akmenė), [Elektrėnai](Elektrėnai) and [Sniečkus](Visaginas) or expansion of old ones such as [Jonava](Jonava). Residents would be relocated from elsewhere in the LSSR, and from other USSR republics.Epochas jungiantis nacionalizmas: tautos (de)konstravimas tarpukario, sovietmečio ir posovietmečio Lietuvoje / Lietuvos istorijos institutas. – Vilnius: Lietuvos istorijos instituto leidykla, 2013 By 1979, more than half of population lived in urban areas.
All symbols of the former Republic of Lithuania were removed from public view by 1950, and the country had its history rewritten and its achievements belittled. The veneration of Stalin was spread and the role of Russia and the USSR in the history of Lithuania was highlighted. People were encouraged to join the Communist Party and communist organisations. Science and art based on communist ideology and their expression controlled by censorship mechanisms. People were encouraged into atheism in an attempt to secularise Lithuania, with monasteries closed, religion classes prohibited and church-goers persecuted.
### Armed resistance
[[Kazys su nezinomu.JPG|thumb|Lithuanian anti-Soviet resistance fighters](File:Kontrimas)]
[[File:Šukioniai, Jono Noreikos paminklas.JPG|thumb|Memorial stone in Šukioniai, where anti-Soviet partisan and Lithuanian national hero [Noreika](Jonas)(Jonas Noreika) was born]]
The second Soviet occupation was followed by armed resistance in 1944–1953, aiming to restore an independent Lithuania, re-establish capitalism and eradicate communism, and bring back national identity and freedom of faith. Partisans were labelled bandits by the Soviets. They were forced into the woods and into armed resistance by the Soviet rule. Armed skirmishes with the Red Army were common between 1944 and 1946. From the summer of 1946 a partisan organisational structure was established, with units of 5–15 partisans living in bunkers. Guerrilla warfare with surprise attacks was the preferred tactic. In 1949 the [of Lithuanian Freedom Fighters](Union)(Union of Lithuanian Freedom Fighters) under [Žemaitis–Vytautas](Jonas)(Jonas Žemaitis) was founded. Partisan units became smaller still, consisting of 3 to 5 partisans. Open fighting was a rarity, with sabotage and terrorism preferred. Despite guerrilla warfare failing to achieve its objectives and claiming the lives of more than 20,000 fighters, it demonstrated to the world that Lithuania's joining the USSR had not been a voluntary act and highlighted the desire of many Lithuanians to be independent.Gailius B., Partizanai tada ir šiandien, Vilnius, 2006.
### Deportations
[[File:Lithuanian deportee by the grave of her daughter in Ust-Omchug.jpg|thumb|Lithuanian political prisoner Onutė Milušauskaitė (arrested in 1945 as a messenger of the [partisans](Lithuanian)(Lithuanian partisans)) by the grave of her daughter in [Ust-Omchug](Ust-Omchug)]]
In the fall of 1944, lists of 'bandits' and 'bandit family' members to be deported appeared. Deportees were marshaled and put on a USSR-bound trains in Kaunas in early May 1945, reaching their destination in Tajikistan in summer. Once there, they employed as forced labour at cotton plantations.Lithuania in 1940–1990, ed. A. Anušauskas, Vilnius: GRRCL, 2005, p. 293. In May 1945, a new wave of deportations from every county took place, enforced by battlegroups made of NKVD and [NKGB](NKGB) staff and NKVD troops – the destruction battalions, or *istrebitels*. On 18–21 February 1946, deportations began in four counties: Alytus, Marijampolė, Lazdijai, and Tauragė.
On 12 December 1947 the Central Committee of the Lithuanian Communist Party resolved that actions against supporters of resistance were too weak and that additional measures were in order.Lietuvos sovietizacija 1944–1947 m.: VKP(b) CK dokumentai, sud. M. Pocius, Vilnius: Lietuvos istorijos institutas, 2015, p. 126. A new series of deportations began and 2,782 people were deported in December. In January–February 1948, another 1,134 personsTremtis prie Mano upės, sud. V. G. Navickaitė, Vilnius: Lietuvos nacionalinis muziejus, 2008, p. 7. were exiled from every county in Lithuania. By May 1948, the total number of deportees had risen to 13,304. In May 1948, preparations for very large-scale deportations were being made, with 30,118 staff members from Soviet organisations involved.Lietuvos gyventojų trėmimai 1941, 1945–1952 m., Vilnius, 1994, p. 210. On 22–23 May 1948, a large-scale deportation operation called *Vesna* began, leading to 36,932 arrests, a figure that later increased to 40,002.
The second major mass deportation, known as [Priboi](Operation)(Operation Priboi), took place on 25–28 March 1949, during which the authorities put 28,981 persons into livestock cars and dispatched them deep into the USSR. Some people went into hiding and managed to escape the deportations, but then a manhunt began in April. As a result, another two echelons left for the remote regions of the USSR. During March–April 1949, a total of some 32,000 people were deported from Lithuania. By 1952, 10 more operations had been staged, but of a smaller scale. The last deportations took place in 1953, when people were deported to the district of Tomsk and the regions of Altai and Krasnoyarsk.Lietuvos kovų ir kančių istorija. Lietuvos gyventojų trėmimai 1940–1941; 1944–1953 m. Sovietinės okupacija valdžios dokumentuose, red. A. Tyla, Vilnius: Lietuvos istorijos institutas, 1995, p. 101
### Dissident movement
[[File:Museum of genocide victims - execution room.jpg|thumb|left|[KGB](KGB)'s execution room where prisoners were killed and later buried in mass graves outside Vilnius, now the [of Occupations and Freedom Fights](Museum)(Museum of Occupations and Freedom Fights)]]
Even after the guerrilla resistance had been quelled, Soviet authorities failed to suppress the movement for Lithuania's independence. Underground dissident groups had been active from the 1950s, publishing periodicals and Catholic literature.V. Vasiliauskaitė, [Lietuvos Ir Vidurio Rytų Europos šalių periodinė savivalda](null), 1972–1989, 2006. They fostered national culture, celebrated historical events, instigated patriotism and encouraged hopes for independence. In the 1970s, dissidents established the [Liberty League](Lithuanian)(Lithuanian Liberty League) under Antanas Terleckas. Founded in Vilnius in the wake of an [conference in Helsinki](international)(Helsinki Accords), Finland, which recognised the borders established after the Second World War, the [Helsinki Group](Lithuanian)(Lithuanian Helsinki Group) demanded that Lithuania's occupation be recognised as illegal and the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact be condemned.*Lietuvos Helsinkio grupė* (dokumentai, atsiminimai, laiškai), sudarė V. Petkus, Ž. Račkauskaitė, . Uoka, 1999. The dissidents ensured that the world would receive information about the situation in the LSSR and human rights violations, which caused Moscow to soften the regime.Tininis V., Sovietinė Lietuva ir jos veikėjai, Vilnius, 1994. In 1972, young [Kalanta](Romas)(Romas Kalanta) [himself](immolated)(Self-immolation) in Kaunas in a public display of protest against the regime. This was followed by [unrest](public)(1972 unrest in Lithuania), demonstrating that a large portion of the population were against the regime.Bagušauskas J. R., [*Lietuvos jaunimo pasipriešinimas sovietiniam režimui ir jo slopinimas*](null), 1999.
The [Church](Catholic)(Catholic Church) took an active part in opposing the Soviets. The clergy published chronicles of the Catholic Church of Lithuania that were secretly distributed in Lithuania and abroad. The faithful would gather in small groups to teach children religion, celebrate religious holidays, and use national and religious symbols. The most active repressed figures of the movement were [Sladkevičius](Vincentas)(Vincentas Sladkevičius), [Tamkevičius](Sigitas)(Sigitas Tamkevičius), and [Sadūnaitė](Nijolė)(Nijolė Sadūnaitė).
### Collapse of Soviet rule
[[File:Mitingas Vingio parke Vilniuje 1988 m. (2).jpg|thumb|300x300px|Massive meeting at [Park](Vingis)(Vingis Park) on 23 August 1988]]
In the 1980s, the USSR sank into a deep economic crisis. In 1985, [Gorbachev](Mikhail)(Mikhail Gorbachev) was elected head of the USSR's Communist party and undertook internal reforms which had the effect of liberalising society (whilst actually increasing the economic chaos) and a new approach to foreign policy that effectively ended the Cold War. This encouraged the activity of anti-communist movements within the USSR, the LSSR included.Ivanauskas V., Lietuviškoji nomenklatūra biurokratinėje sistemoje. Tarp stagnacijos ir dinamikos (1968-1988 m.), Vilnius, 2011. On 23 August 1987, the [Liberty League](Lithuanian)(Lithuanian Liberty League) initiated an unsanctioned meeting in front of the monument to [Mickevičius](Adomas)(Adomas Mickevičius) in Vilnius. At the meeting, the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact was condemned for the first time in public. The meeting and the speeches made at it were widely reported by western radio stations. Also meeting was reported by Central Television and even [Vilnius](TV)(LRT televizija).
In May 1987, the Lithuanian Cultural Fund was established to engage in environmental activity and the protection of Lithuanian cultural assets. On 3 June 1988, the Lithuanian Reformation Movement (LRM) was founded; its mission was to restore the statehood of Lithuania; LRM supporters formed groups across Lithuania. On 23 August 1988, a meeting took place at [Park](Vingis)(Vingis Park) in Vilnius, with a turnout of about 250,000 people. On 23 August 1989, marking 50 years of the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact and aiming to draw the world's attention to the occupation of the Baltic states, the [Way](Baltic)(Baltic Way) event was staged.Anušauskas A., Kelias į nepriklausomybę – Lietuvos sąjūdis, Kaunas, 2010. Organised by the Lithuanian Reformation Movement, the Baltic Way was a chain of people holding hands that stretched for nearly to connect the three Baltic capitals of Vilnius, Riga, and Tallinn. It was a display of the aspiration of the Lithuanian, Latvian, and Estonian people to part ways with the USSR. The LSSR *de facto* ceased to exist on 11 March 1990, with the Reconstituent Seimas declaring Lithuania's independence restored. Since Lithuania's membership in the USSR was considered a violation of the international law and void, there was no formal procedure of secession from the USSR.
### Independence
[[of Lithuania (1989–2004).svg|thumb|left|200px|Flag of the Lithuanian SSR/Republic of Lithuania (1988–1991)](File:Flag)]
[[Lietuva Ne USSR Poster 1990.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Referendum poster from 1990: *Taip* (Yes) stands for an independent and democratic Lithuania, while *Ne* (No) stands for an enslaved Lithuania.](File:Taip)]
Lithuania declared the sovereignty of its territory on 18 May 1989 and [independence](declared)(Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania) from the Soviet Union on 11 March 1990 as the **[of Lithuania](Republic)(Lithuania)**. Lithuania was the first Baltic state to [state continuity](assert)(State continuity of the Baltic states#Baltic states assert state continuity) and the first Soviet Republic to declare full independence from the Union (though [Estonia](Estonian Sovereignty Declaration) was the first Soviet Republic to assert its national sovereignty and the supremacy of its national laws over the laws of the Soviet Union). All of the Soviet Union's claims on Lithuania were repudiated as Lithuania declared the [of its independence](restitution)(Act of March 11). The Soviet Union claimed that this declaration was illegal, as Lithuania had to follow the process of secession mandated in the Soviet Constitution if it wanted to leave.
Lithuania contended that the entire process by which Lithuania joined the Soviet Union violated both Lithuanian and international law so it was merely reasserting an independence that previously existed. The Soviet Union threatened to invade, but the [SFSR](Russian)(Russian SFSR)'s [of sovereignty](declaration)(Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) on 12 June meant that the Soviet Union could not enforce Lithuania's retention. While other republics held the [referendum](union-wide)(1991 Soviet Union referendum) in March to restructure the Soviet Union in a [form](loose)(Union of Sovereign States), Lithuania, along with [Estonia](Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic), [Latvia](Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic), [Armenia](Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic), [Georgia](Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic), and [Moldova](Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic) did not take part. Lithuania held an [referendum](independence)(1991 Lithuanian independence referendum) earlier that month, with 93.2% voting for it.
[Iceland](Iceland) immediately recognised Lithuania's independence. Other countries followed suit after the [coup in August](failed)(1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt), with the [Council of the Soviet Union](State)(State Council of the Soviet Union) recognising Lithuania's independence on 6 September 1991. The Soviet Union officially ceased to exist on 26 December 1991.
It was agreed that the [Army](Soviet)(Soviet Army) (later the Russian Army) must leave Lithuania because it was stationed without any legal reason. Its troops withdrew in 1993.
## Politics
### First secretaries of the Communist Party of Lithuania
The first secretaries of the Communist Party of Lithuania were:
*[Sniečkus](Antanas)(Antanas Sniečkus), 1940–1941; 1944–1974
*[Griškevičius](Petras)(Petras Griškevičius), 1974–1987
*[Songaila](Ringaudas)(Ringaudas Songaila), 1987–1988
*[Brazauskas](Algirdas)(Algirdas Brazauskas), 1988–1989
## Economy
[[File:Stamp of USSR 2084.jpg|thumb|left|Lithuanian SSR postage stamp, showing workers of a [kolkhoz](kolkhoz)]]
[Collectivization](Collectivization) in the Lithuanian SSR took place between 1947 and 1952.
The 1990 [capita](per)(per capita) [GDP](GDP) of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic was $8,591, which was above the average for the rest of the Soviet Union of $6,871. This was half or less of the per capita GDPs of adjacent countries [Norway](Norway) ($18,470), [Sweden](Sweden) ($17,680) and [Finland](Finland) ($16,868). Overall, in the [Bloc](Eastern)(Eastern Bloc), systems without competition or market-clearing prices became costly and unsustainable, especially with the increasing complexity of world economics. Such systems, which required party-state planning at all levels, collapsed under the weight of accumulated economic inefficiencies, with various attempts at reform merely contributing to the acceleration of crisis-generating tendencies.
Lithuania accounted for 0.3 percent of the Soviet Union's territory and 1.3 percent of its population, but it generated a significant amount of the Soviet Union's industrial and agricultural output: 22 percent of its electric welding apparatus, 11.1 percent of its metal-cutting lathes, 2.3 percent of its mineral fertilizers, 4.8 percent of its alternating current electric motors, 2.0 percent of its paper, 2.4 percent of its furniture, 5.2 percent of its socks, 3.5 percent of underwear and knitwear, 1.4 percent of leather footwear, 5.3 percent of household refrigerators, 6.5 percent of television sets, 3.7 percent of meat, 4.7 percent of butter, 1.8 percent of canned products, and 1.9 percent of sugar.
Lithuania was also a net donor to the USSR budget. It was calculated in 1995 that the occupation resulted in 80 billion [LTL](Lithuanian litas) (more than 23 billion [euro](euro)s) worth of losses, including population, military, and church property losses and economic destruction among other things. Lithuania mostly suffered until 1958 when more than a half of the annual national budgets was sent to the USSR budgets, later this number decreased but still remained high at around 25% of the annual national budgets until 1973 (totally, Lithuania sent about one third of all its annual national budgets money to the USSR budgets during the whole occupation period).
## In astronomy
A [planet](minor)(minor planet), [Litva](2577)(2577 Litva), discovered in 1975 by a Soviet astronomer [Stepanovich Chernykh](Nikolai)(Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh) is named after the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic.
## See also
*[of Lithuania](History)(History of Lithuania)
*[Seimas](People's)(People's Seimas)
*[Government of Lithuania](People's)(People's Government of Lithuania)
*[People's Army](Lithuanian)(Lithuanian People's Army)
## Notes
### References
*
*
*
## External links
* [1978 Constitution of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic](http://rulzeng.50megs.com/)
* *[Lithuania: An Encyclopedic Survey](https://archive.org/details/lithuaniaencyclopedicsurvey)* - a 1986 English-language Soviet work.
[ ](Category:Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic)
[of the Soviet Union](Category:Republics)(Category:Republics of the Soviet Union)
[in Lithuania](Category:Communism)(Category:Communism in Lithuania)
[*](Category:Eastern Bloc)
[client states](Category:Former)(Category:Former client states)
[socialist republics](Category:Former)(Category:Former socialist republics)
[unrecognized countries](Category:Former)(Category:Former unrecognized countries)
[history of Lithuania](Category:Political)(Category:Political history of Lithuania)
[of the Baltic states](Category:Occupation)(Category:Occupation of the Baltic states)
[military occupations](Category:Soviet)(Category:Soviet military occupations)
[establishments in Lithuania](Category:1945)(Category:1945 establishments in Lithuania)
[disestablishments in Lithuania](Category:1990)(Category:1990 disestablishments in Lithuania)
[and territories established in 1940](Category:States)(Category:States and territories established in 1940)
[and territories disestablished in 1990](Category:States)(Category:States and territories disestablished in 1990)
[establishments in the Soviet Union](Category:1940)(Category:1940 establishments in the Soviet Union)
[disestablishments in the Soviet Union](Category:1991)(Category:1991 disestablishments in the Soviet Union)
[century in Lithuania](Category:20th)(Category:20th century in Lithuania)
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Chelsea Manning
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chelsea_manning
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# Chelsea Manning
*Revision ID: 1159882882 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T04:08:10Z*
---
| birth_place = [City, Oklahoma](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma City, Oklahoma), U.S.
| party = [Democratic](Democratic Party (United States))
| module =
| unit = [BCT](2nd)(2nd Brigade Combat Team, 10th Mountain Division (United States)), [Mountain Division](10th)(10th Mountain Division) (former)
| awards =
|laterwork=}}
| known_for = Classified document disclosure to [WikiLeaks](WikiLeaks)
| criminal_charge = Violating the [Act](Espionage)(Espionage Act of 1917), stealing government property, violation of the [Fraud and Abuse Act](Computer)(Computer Fraud and Abuse Act), multiple counts of disobeying orders
| criminal_penalty = 35 years [imprisonment](Military prison#United States) (commuted to 7 years total confinement), reduction in rank to [private](Private (rank)#United States Army) [or PVT)]((E-1)(United States Army enlisted rank insignia), forfeiture of all [and allowances](pay)(United States military pay), [discharge](dishonorable)(Military discharge#Dishonorable discharge (DD))
| signature = Chelsea Manning signature.svg
| signature_alt = Chelsea Manning
| signature_size = 135
}}
**Chelsea Elizabeth Manning** (born **Bradley Edward Manning**, December 17, 1987) is an American activist and [whistleblower](whistleblower). She is a former [States Army](United)(United States Army) soldier who was convicted by [court-martial](court-martial) in July 2013 of violations of the [Act](Espionage)(Espionage Act of 1917) and other offenses, after disclosing to [WikiLeaks](WikiLeaks) nearly 750,000 classified, or unclassified but sensitive, military and diplomatic documents. She was imprisoned from 2010 until 2017 when her sentence was [commuted](commutation (law)) by [Barack Obama](President)(Barack Obama). A [woman](trans)(trans woman), Manning stated in 2013 that she had a female [identity](gender)(gender identity) since childhood and wanted to be known as Chelsea Manning.
Assigned in 2009 to an Army unit in Iraq as an [analyst](intelligence)(Intelligence analysis), Manning had access to classified databases. In early 2010, she leaked [information](classified)(Classified information in the United States) to WikiLeaks and confided this to [Lamo](Adrian)(Adrian Lamo), an online acquaintance. Lamo indirectly informed the Army's [Investigation Command](Criminal)(United States Army Criminal Investigation Command), and Manning was arrested in May that same year. The material included videos of the [12, 2007, Baghdad airstrike](July)(July 12, 2007, Baghdad airstrike) and the 2009 [airstrike](Granai)(Granai airstrike) in Afghanistan; 251,287 [diplomatic cables](U.S.)(United States diplomatic cables leak); and 482,832 Army reports that came to be known as the "[War Logs](Iraq)(Iraq War documents leak)" and "[War Diary](Afghan)(Afghan War documents leak)". The material was published by WikiLeaks and its media partners [April 2010 and April 2011](between)(List of material published by WikiLeaks#2010).
Manning was charged with 22 offenses, including [the enemy](aiding)(Uniform Code of Military Justice#Punitive articles), which was the most serious charge and could have resulted in a [sentence](death)(Capital punishment). She was held at the [Corps Brig, Quantico](Marine)(Marine Corps Brig, Quantico) in Virginia, from July 2010 to April 2011, under Prevention of Injury status—which entailed *[facto](de)(de facto)* solitary confinement and other restrictions that caused domestic and international concernNicks 2012, pp. 237, 246—before being transferred to the [Regional Correctional Facility](Joint)(Midwest Joint Regional Correctional Facility) at [Leavenworth](Fort)(Fort Leavenworth), Kansas, where she could interact with other detainees. She pleaded guilty in February 2013 to 10 of the charges. The [on the remaining charges](trial)(United States v. Manning) began on June 3, 2013, and on July 30, she was convicted of 17 of the original charges and amended versions of four others, but was acquitted of aiding the enemy. She was sentenced to 35 years at the maximum-security [Disciplinary Barracks](U.S.)(United States Disciplinary Barracks) at Fort Leavenworth. On January 17, 2017, [commuted](Obama)(List of people granted executive clemency by Barack Obama) Manning's sentence to nearly seven years of confinement dating from her arrest in May 2010. After release, Manning earned a living through speaking engagements.
In 2018, Manning challenged incumbent Senator [Cardin](Ben)(Ben Cardin) for the [Democratic](Democratic Party (United States)) nomination for the [States Senate election](United)(United States Senate election in Maryland, 2018) in her home state of [Maryland](Maryland). Manning received 6.1% of the votes; Cardin won renomination with 79.2% of the votes cast. From March 8, 2019, to March 12, 2020 (except for a week from May 9 to 16), Manning was jailed for contempt and fined $256,000 for refusing to testify before a [jury](grand)(Grand juries in the United States) investigating WikiLeaks founder [Assange](Julian)(Julian Assange).
## Background
### Early life
Born in 1987 in [City](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma City), Oklahoma, Manning is the second child of Susan Fox, who is [Welsh](Welsh people), and Brian Manning, an American. Brian had joined the [States Navy](United)(United States Navy) in 1974, at the age of 19, and served for five years as an [analyst](intelligence)(Intelligence analysis). Brian met Susan while stationed in Wales at [Brawdy](RAF)(RAF Brawdy). Manning's older sister, Casey Manning, was born in 1976. The couple returned to the United States in 1979, settling first in California. After their move near [Oklahoma](Crescent,)(Crescent, Oklahoma), they bought a house with of land, where they kept pigs and chickens.
Manning's sister Casey told the court-martial that both their parents were [alcoholic](alcoholic)s, and that their mother drank continually while pregnant with Chelsea. [Captain](Captain (United States O-6)#U.S. Navy) David Moulton, a Navy psychiatrist, told the court that Manning's [features](facial)(Fetal alcohol syndrome#Facial features) showed signs of [alcohol syndrome](fetal)(fetal alcohol syndrome). Casey became Manning's principal caregiver, waking at night to prepare the baby's bottle. The court heard that Manning was fed only milk and baby food until the age of two. As an adult she reached and weighed around .
Manning's father took a job as an [technology](information)(information technology) (IT) manager for a rental car agency, [Hertz Corporation](The)(The Hertz Corporation), which required travel. The family lived several miles out of town, and Manning's mother was unable to drive. She spent her days drinking, while Manning was left largely to herself playing with [Lego](Lego) toys or on the computer. Brian would stock up on food before his trips, and leave pre-signed checks that Casey mailed to pay the bills. A neighbor said that whenever Manning's elementary school went on field trips, she would give her own son extra food or money so he could make sure Manning had something to eat. Friends and neighbors considered the Mannings a troubled family.
### Parents' divorce, move to Wales
As a child, Manning was opinionated about the intersection of religion and politics. For example, she invariably remained silent during the part of the [of Allegiance](Pledge)(Pledge of Allegiance (United States)) that makes reference to God.Nicks 2012, p. 90
In a 2011 interview, Manning's father said, "People need to understand that he's a young man that had a happy life growing up." He also said that Manning excelled at the saxophone, science, and computers, and created a website at the age of 10. Manning learned how to use [PowerPoint](Microsoft PowerPoint), won the grand prize three years in a row at the local science fair, and in sixth grade, took top prize at a statewide [bowl](quiz)(quiz bowl).
[[File:Haverfordwest Main Street South Wales.jpg|thumb|alt=photograph|[Haverfordwest](Haverfordwest), Wales, where Manning went to secondary school]]
A childhood friend of Manning's, speaking about a conversation they had when Manning was 13, said: "he told me he was gay". The friend also said that Manning's home life was not good and that her father was very controlling. Around this time, Manning's parents divorced. She and her mother Susan moved out of the house to a rented apartment in Crescent, Oklahoma.Nicks 2012, pp. 19–20["Interview Brian Manning"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/wikileaks/bradley-manning/interviews/brian-manning.html) (transcript)["Interview Jordan Davis"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/wikileaks/bradley-manning/interviews/jordan-davis.html) (transcript), PBS *Frontline*, March 7, 2011Also see [Hansen, July 13, 2011](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/07/manning-lamo-logs/), at "(11:36:34 AM) bradass87". Susan's instability continued, and in 1998 she attempted suicide; Manning's sister drove their mother to the hospital, with the 11-year-old Manning sitting in the back of the car trying to make sure their mother was still breathing.
Manning's father remarried in 2000, the same year as his divorce. His new wife, also named Susan, had a son from a previous relationship. When the son changed his surname to Manning too, Chelsea felt rejected, telling her mother, "I'm nobody now, Mom."
In November 2001, aged 14, Manning and her mother left the United States and moved to [Haverfordwest](Haverfordwest), Wales, where her mother had family. Manning attended the town's [Milward](Tasker)(Tasker-Milward V.C. School) secondary school. A school friend there told Ed Caesar for *[Sunday Times](The)(The Sunday Times)* that Manning's personality was "unique, extremely unique. Very quirky, very opinionated, very political, very clever, very articulate." Manning's interest in computers continued, and in 2003, she and a friend, James Kirkpatrick, set up an online [board](message)(message board), angeldyne.com, that offered games and music downloads.
The only American, and viewed as [effeminate](Effeminacy), Manning became the target of bullying at school. Manning had come out to a few friends as gay back in Oklahoma, but was not open about it at school in Wales.Leigh and Harding 2011, p. 24 The students frequently mocked her accent. One time, they abandoned her during a camping trip—of which incident, her aunt told *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)* that Manning had awoken to an empty campsite after the other campers had left without her.
### Return to the United States
After graduating from high school in 2005 at age 17 and fearing her mother was becoming too ill to cope, she returned to the United States.Nicks 2012, pp. 23–24. She moved in with her father, then living in [City](Oklahoma)(Oklahoma City) with his second wife and her child. Manning landed employment as a [developer](Software developer) for the software company Zoto. While there, she was apparently happy; however, she was let go after four months. Her boss told *The Washington Post* that on a few occasions Manning had "just locked up" and would simply sit and stare, and in the end, communication became too difficult. The boss told the newspaper that "nobody's been taking care of this kid for a really long time".[Fishman, July 3, 2011](http://nymag.com/news/features/bradley-manning-2011-7/index2.html), p. 3For Zoto and Campbell, see [Nakashima, May 4, 2011](https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/magazine/who-is-wikileaks-suspect-bradley-manning/2011/04/16/AFMwBmrF_print.html).
By then, Manning was living as an openly gay man. Her relationship with her father was apparently good, but there were problems between Manning and her stepmother. In March 2006, Manning reportedly threatened her stepmother with a knife during an argument about Manning's failure to get another job; the stepmother called the police, and Manning was asked to leave the house. Manning drove to Tulsa in a pickup truck her father had given her, at first slept in it, then moved in with a friend from school. The two gained jobs at [Pizza](Incredible)(America's Incredible Pizza Company) in April. Manning moved on to Chicago before running out of money and again having nowhere to stay. Her mother arranged for Brian's sister, Debra, a lawyer in [Maryland](Potomac,)(Potomac, Maryland), to take Manning in. American journalist and Manning biographer [Nicks](Denver)(Denver Nicks) wrote that the 15 months Manning spent with her aunt were among the most stable of her life. Manning had a boyfriend, took several low-paid jobs, and spent a semester studying history and English at [College](Montgomery)(Montgomery College) but left after failing an exam.Nicks 2012, pp. 24–25, 51–56.[Fishman, July 3, 2011](http://nymag.com/news/features/bradley-manning-2011-7/index2.html), p. 3.For the jobs, see ["Bradley Manning's Facebook Page"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/wikileaks/manning-facebook-page/), PBS *Frontline*, March 2011.
## Military service
### Enlisting
[[Manning US Army.jpg|thumb|upright|Manning in 2012](File:Bradley)]
Manning's father spent weeks in late 2007 asking her to consider joining the Army. Hoping to gain a college education through the [Bill](G.I.)(G.I. Bill), and perhaps to study for a PhD in physics, she enlisted in September that year.Nicks 2012, p. 57For the PhD in physics, see [Nakashima, May 4, 2011](https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/magazine/who-is-wikileaks-suspect-bradley-manning/2011/04/16/AFMwBmrF_print.html).Also see [Fishman, July 3, 2011](http://nymag.com/news/features/bradley-manning-2011-7/index3.html), p. 4. She told her Army supervisor later that she had also hoped joining such a masculine environment would resolve her [dysphoria](gender)(gender dysphoria).
Manning began [training](basic)(United States Army Basic Training) at [Leonard Wood](Fort)(Fort Leonard Wood), Missouri, on October 2, 2007. She wrote that she soon realized she was neither physically nor mentally prepared for it.[Manning, January 29, 2013](https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_zC44SBaZPoQmJUYURBUnBycUk), p. 2. Six weeks after enlisting, she was sent to the discharge unit. She was allegedly being bullied, and in the opinion of another soldier, was having a breakdown. The soldier told *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*: "The kid was barely five foot ... He was a runt, so pick on him. He's crazy, pick on him. He's a faggot, pick on him. The guy took it from every side. He couldn't please anyone." Nicks writes that Manning, who was used to being bullied, fought back—if the [sergeants](drill)(Drill instructor#United States Army) screamed at her, she would scream at them—to the point where they started calling her "General Manning".For concerns about her stability, see [Nakashima, May 4, 2011](https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/magazine/who-is-wikileaks-suspect-bradley-manning/2011/04/16/AFMwBmrF_print.html).For basic training and the video interview with the soldier, see Smith, Teresa et al. ["The madness of Bradley Manning?"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/video/2011/may/27/bradley-manning-wikileaks-iraq-video), *The Guardian*, May 27, 2011; soldier's interview begins 07:10 mins.For a transcript of the interview, see ["Bradley Manning: fellow soldier recalls 'scared, bullied kid'"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/may/28/bradley-manning-video-transcript-wikileaks), *The Guardian*, May 28, 2011.For the drill sergeants and "General Manning", see Nicks 2012, p. 62.
The decision to discharge her was revoked, and she started basic training again in January 2008. After graduating in April, she moved to [Huachuca](Fort)(Fort Huachuca), Arizona, in order to attend [Individual Training](Advanced)(United States Army Basic Training#Advanced Individual Training 2) (AIT) for [Occupational Specialty](Military)(United States military occupation code#Army enlisted personnel) (MOS) 35F, intelligence analyst, receiving a TS/SCI security clearance ([Secret](Top)(Security clearance#Top Secret)/[Compartmented Information](Sensitive)(Sensitive Compartmented Information)). According to Nicks, this security clearance, combined with the digitization of classified information and the government's policy of sharing it widely, gave Manning access to an unprecedented amount of material. Nicks writes that Manning was reprimanded while at Fort Huachuca for posting three video messages to friends on [YouTube](YouTube), in which she described the inside of the [Compartmented Information Facility](Sensitive)(Sensitive Compartmented Information Facility) (SCIF) where she worked.For restarting basic training in January 2008, see Nicks 2012, p. 73.For the top-security clearance, see [Nakashima, May 4, 2011](https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/magazine/who-is-wikileaks-suspect-bradley-manning/2011/04/16/AFMwBmrF_print.html)For the "TS/SCI security clearance", see Nicks 2012, p. 116.For "unprecedented access to state secrets", see Nicks 2012, p. 117; also see [Fishman, July 3, 2011](http://nymag.com/news/features/bradley-manning-2011-7/index1.html), p. 2.For the reprimand regarding YouTube, see [Nicks, September 23, 2010](https://web.archive.org/web/20110429142813/http://thislandpress.com/09/23/2010/private-manning-and-the-making-of-wikileaks-2/); also see Nicks 2012, p. 75. Upon completion of her initial MOS course, Manning received the [Service Ribbon](Army)(Army Service Ribbon) and the [Defense Service Medal](National)(National Defense Service Medal).["Bradley Manning"](http://topics.wsj.com/person/M/bradley-manning/6200), *The Wall Street Journal*. Retrieved August 31, 2014.
### Move to Fort Drum, deployment to Iraq
[[Manning 2 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=photograph|Manning in September 2009](File:Bradley)]
In August 2008, Manning was sent to [Drum](Fort)(Fort Drum) in [County, New York](Jefferson)(Jefferson County, New York), where she joined the [Brigade Combat Team, 10th Mountain Division](2nd)(2nd Brigade Combat Team, 10th Mountain Division (United States)), and trained for deployment to Iraq.Nicks 2012, p. 82. In late 2008 while stationed there, she met Tyler Watkins, who was studying neuroscience and psychology at [University](Brandeis)(Brandeis University), near Boston. Watkins was her first serious relationship, and she posted happily on [Facebook](Facebook) about it, regularly traveling to Boston on visits.Leigh and Harding 2011, pp. 27–28; Nicks 2012, p. 83.
Watkins introduced her to a network of friends and the university's [community](hacker)(Hacker (programmer subculture)). She also visited [University](Boston)(Boston University)'s "[hackerspace](hackerspace)" workshop, known as "Builds", and met its founder, David House, the [MIT](Massachusetts Institute of Technology) researcher who was later allowed to visit her in jail. In November 2008, she gave an anonymous interview to a high-school reporter during a rally in Syracuse in support of gay marriage:
I was kicked out of my home and I once lost my job. The world is not moving fast enough for us at home, work, or the battlefield. I've been living a double life. ... I can't make a statement. I can't be caught in an act. I hope the public support changes. I do hope to do that before [ETS](Military discharge#United States) [of Term of Service](Expiration).For her introduction to the hacker community, see Leigh and Harding 2011, pp. 27–28.For the anonymous interview, see Her, Phim. ["Teen hears peoples' stories at LGBTQ rally"](http://blog.syracuse.com/voices/2008/11/teen_hears_stories_at_lgbtq_ra.html), syracuse.com, November 17, 2008.That the interviewee was Manning, see [Nicks, September 23, 2010](https://web.archive.org/web/20110429142813/http://thislandpress.com/09/23/2010/private-manning-and-the-making-of-wikileaks-2/), and Nick 2012, p. 82.For Manning's reference to the interview on Facebook, see ["Bradley Manning's Facebook Page"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/wikileaks/manning-facebook-page/), PBS *Frontline*, March 2011.
Nicks writes that Manning would travel back to Washington, D.C., for visits. An ex-boyfriend helped her find her way around the city's gay community, introducing her to lobbyists, activists, and White House aides. Back at Fort Drum, she continued to display emotional problems and, by August 2009, had been referred to an Army mental-health counselor.For the introduction to lobbyists and others, see Nicks 2012, p. 85.For the emotional problems and referral to a counselor, see [Fishman, July 3, 2011](http://nymag.com/news/features/bradley-manning-2011-7/), p. 1, and Nicks 2012, p. 114. A friend told Nicks that Manning could be emotionally fraught, describing an evening they had watched two movies together—*[Last King of Scotland](The)(The Last King of Scotland (film))* and *[in the Dark](Dancer)(Dancer in the Dark)*—after which Manning cried for hours. By September 2009, her relationship with Watkins was in trouble; they reconciled for a short time, but it was effectively over.For the films, see Nicks 2012, p. 88.For the relationship with Watkins, see [Nicks, September 23, 2010](https://web.archive.org/web/20110429142813/http://thislandpress.com/09/23/2010/private-manning-and-the-making-of-wikileaks-2/), and Nicks 2012, p. 122.
After four weeks at the [Readiness Training Center](Joint)(Fort Polk#JRTC moves to Polk) (JRTC) in [Polk](Fort)(Fort Polk), Louisiana, Manning was deployed to [Operating Base](Forward)(Forward Operating Base) Hammer, near Baghdad, arriving in October 2009. From her workstation there, she had access to [SIPRNet](SIPRNet) (the Secret Internet Protocol Router Network) and [JWICS](Joint Worldwide Intelligence Communications System) (the Joint Worldwide Intelligence Communications System). Two of her superiors had discussed not taking her to Iraq; it was felt she was a risk to herself and possibly others, according to a statement later issued by the Army—but the shortage of intelligence analysts dictated their decision to take her.For her time in Fort Polk, and for "risk to himself and possibly others", see Nicks 2012, pp. 114–115; for Forward Operating Base Hammer, see pp. 123–124.For "risk to himself", also see [Nakashima, May 4, 2011](https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/magazine/who-is-wikileaks-suspect-bradley-manning/2011/04/16/AFMwBmrF_print.html), and ["Accused WikiLeaker Bradley Manning's Dream of Becoming President"](http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2012/04/29/accused-wikileaker-bradley-manning-s-dream-of-becoming-president.html), *Newsweek*, April 12, 2012 (excerpt from Nicks 2012). In November 2009, she was promoted from [First Class](Private)(Private first class#United States Army) to [Specialist](Specialist (rank)).["Bradley Manning's Facebook Page"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/wikileaks/manning-facebook-page/), PBS *Frontline*, March 2011.
### Contact with gender counselor
In November 2009, Manning wrote to a gender counselor in the United States, said she felt female and discussed having surgery. The counselor told Steve Fishman of *[York](New)(New York (magazine))* magazine in 2011 that it was clear Manning was in crisis, partly because of her gender concerns, but also because she was opposed to the kind of war in which she found herself involved.[Fishman, July 3, 2011](http://nymag.com/news/features/bradley-manning-2011-7/index4.html), p. 5.
She was by all accounts unhappy and isolated. Because of the military's "[ask, don't tell](Don't)(Don't ask, don't tell)" (DADT) policy (in effect until September 20, 2011), Manning was unable to live as an openly gay man without risk of being discharged. But she apparently made no secret of her orientation: her friends said she kept a fairy wand on her desk. When she told her roommate she was attracted to men, he responded by suggesting they not speak to each other.For the fairy wand, see [Thompson, August 8, 2010](https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/09/us/09manning.html), p. 2.For the roommate, see Rushe, Dominic and Williams, Matt. ["Bradley Manning pre-trial hearing – Monday 19 December"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/blog/2011/dec/19/bradley-manning-pre-trial-hearing-live-updates), *The Guardian*, December 19, 2011. Manning's working conditions included 14- to 15-hour night shifts in a tightly packed, dimly lit room.[Fishman, July 3, 2011](http://nymag.com/news/features/bradley-manning-2011-7/index3.html), p. 4.
On December 20, 2009, during a counseling session with two colleagues to discuss her poor time-keeping, Manning was told she would lose her one day off a week for persistent lateness. She responded by overturning a table, damaging a computer that was sitting on it. A sergeant moved Manning away from the weapons rack, and other soldiers pinned her arms behind her back and dragged her out of the room. Several witnesses to the incident believed her access to sensitive material ought to have been withdrawn at that point.Nicks 2012, pp. 133–134.Radia, Kirit and Martinez, Luis. ["Bradley Manning Defense Reveals Alter Ego Named 'Breanna Manning'"](https://abcnews.go.com/blogs/politics/2011/12/bradley-manning-defense-reveals-alter-ego-named-brianna-manning/), ABC News, December 17, 2011. The following month, January 2010, she began posting on Facebook that she felt hopeless and alone.["Bradley Manning's Facebook Page"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/wikileaks/manning-facebook-page/), PBS *Frontline*, March 2011, and Blake, Heidi; Bingham, John; and Rayner, Gordon. ["Bradley Manning, suspected source of WikiLeaks documents, raged on his Facebook page"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/7918632/Bradley-Manning-suspected-source-of-Wikileaks-documents-raged-on-his-Facebook-page.html), *The Daily Telegraph*, July 30, 2010.
### Release of material to WikiLeaks
Manning said her first contact with WikiLeaks took place in January 2010, when she began to interact with them on [IRC](IRC) and [Jabber](Jabber.org). She had first noticed them toward the end of November 2009, when they posted [pager messages](570,000)(9/11 pager messages) from the [11 attacks](September)(September 11 attacks).[Manning, January 29, 2013](https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_zC44SBaZPoQmJUYURBUnBycUk), p. 11.
On January 5, 2010, Manning downloaded the 400,000 documents that became known as the Iraq War logs. On January 8, she downloaded 91,000 documents from the Afghanistan database, known later as part of the Afghan War logs. She saved the material on CD-RW and smuggled it through security by labeling the CD-RW media "[Gaga](Lady)(Lady Gaga)" and storing it in a Gaga CD case. She was lipsyncing to Lady Gaga music, to make it appear that she was using the classified computer's [player](CD)(CD player) to listen to music. She then copied it onto her personal computer.[Manning, January 29, 2013](https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_zC44SBaZPoQmJUYURBUnBycUk), p. 13. The next day, she wrote a message in a [readme.txt](README) file, which she told the court was initially intended for *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)*.[Manning, January 29, 2013](https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_zC44SBaZPoQmJUYURBUnBycUk), p. 16.
Manning copied the files from her laptop to an [card](SD)(Secure Digital) for her camera so that she could take it with her to the United States while on [R&R](R&R (military)) leave. Army investigators later found the SD card in Manning's basement room in her aunt's home, in [Maryland](Potomac,)(Potomac, Maryland). On January 23, Manning flew to the United States via Germany, for two weeks of leave. It was during this visit that she first went out [as a woman](dressed)(Gender expression), wearing a wig and makeup.Nicks 2012, pp. 131–135, 137–138.For her living as a woman, see Nicks 2012, p. 146.For the details of her leave, see ["Bradley Manning's Facebook Page"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/wikileaks/manning-facebook-page/), PBS *Frontline*, March 2011. After her arrest, Manning's friend Tyler Watkins told *[Wired](Wired (magazine))* that Manning had said during the visit that she had found some sensitive information and was considering leaking it.[Poulsen and Zetter, June 6, 2010](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/06/leak/). In 2021, Manning said that while home on leave in 2010, she had reached out to her then-Congressman, [Van Hollen](Chris)(Chris Van Hollen), but got no response.
Manning contacted *The Washington Post* and *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)* to ask whether they were interested in the material; the *Post* reporter did not sound interested, and the *Times* did not return the call. Manning decided instead to pass it to WikiLeaks, and on February 3 sent them the Iraq and Afghan War logs via [Tor](Tor (anonymity network)). She returned to Iraq on February 11, with no acknowledgment from WikiLeaks that they had received the files.[Manning, January 29, 2013](https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_zC44SBaZPoQmJUYURBUnBycUk), pp. 15–16.
On or around February 18, she passed WikiLeaks a diplomatic cable, dated January 13, 2010, from the U.S. Embassy in [Reykjavík](Reykjavík), Iceland. They published it within hours, which suggested to Manning that they had received the other material, too.[Manning, January 29, 2013](https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_zC44SBaZPoQmJUYURBUnBycUk), p. 18. She found the [helicopter attack](Baghdad)(July 12, 2007, Baghdad airstrike) ("Collateral murder") video in a [Advocate](Judge)(Judge Advocate General's Corps)'s directory and passed it to WikiLeaks on or around February 21.[Hansen, July 13, 2011](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/07/manning-lamo-logs/).[Manning, January 29, 2013](https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_zC44SBaZPoQmJUYURBUnBycUk), pp. 18–22. In late March, she sent them a video of the May 2009 [airstrike](Granai)(Granai airstrike) in Afghanistan; this was the video later removed and apparently destroyed by [Domscheit-Berg](Daniel)(Daniel Domscheit-Berg) when he left the organization.[Manning, January 29, 2013](https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_zC44SBaZPoQmJUYURBUnBycUk), p. 33.For Domscheit-Berg's destroying the video, see Dorling, Philip. "[WikiLeaks has more US secrets, Assange says](http://www.theage.com.au/national/wikileaks-has-more-us-secrets-assange-says-20130305-2fihd.html)". *[Age](The)(The Age)*. March 5, 2013. Between March 28 and April 9, she downloaded the 250,000 [cables](diplomatic)(United States diplomatic cables leak) and on April 10, uploaded them to a WikiLeaks dropbox.[Manning, January 29, 2013](https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_zC44SBaZPoQmJUYURBUnBycUk), p. 31.
Manning told the court that, during her interaction with WikiLeaks on IRC and Jabber, she developed a friendship with someone there, believed to be [Assange](Julian)(Julian Assange) (although neither knew the other's name), which she said made her feel she could be herself. Army investigators found 14 to 15 pages of encrypted chats, in unallocated space on her MacBook's [drive](hard)(Hard disk drive), between Manning and someone believed to be Assange. She wrote in a statement that the more she had tried to fit in at work, the more alienated she became from everyone around her. The relationship with WikiLeaks had given her a brief respite from the isolation and anxiety.[Manning, January 29, 2013](https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_zC44SBaZPoQmJUYURBUnBycUk), p. 23.
### Email to supervisor, recommended discharge
On April 24, 2010, Manning sent an email to her supervisor, [Sergeant](Master)(Master sergeant#United States) Paul Adkins—with the subject line "My Problem"—saying she was suffering from [identity disorder](gender)(Gender dysphoria). She attached a photograph of herself dressed as a woman and with the filename *breanna.jpg*.Nicks 2012, pp. 162–163.
* [Email from Manning to Lim](https://www.rmda.army.mil/foia/FOIA_ReadingRoom/%28a%29%282%29%28D%29%20-%20Records%20released%20to%20the%20public%20under%20t/PFC%20Bradley%20E.%20Manning%20Court-Martial%20Trial%20Documents/DE%20QQQ-From%20Lim%20to%20Kerns.pdf) , U.S. Army Records Management and Declassification Agency, April 24, 2010. She wrote:
This is my problem. I've had signs of it for a very long time. It's caused problems within my family. I thought a career in the military would get rid of it. It's not something I seek out for attention, and I've been trying very, very hard to get rid of it by placing myself in situations where it would be impossible. But, it's not going away; it's haunting me more and more as I get older. Now, the consequences of it are dire, at a time when it's causing me great pain in itself ...Reeve, Elspeth. ["A Portrait of the Mind of Bradley Manning"](http://www.theatlanticwire.com/national/2013/08/portrait-mind-bradley-manning/68341) , *The Atlantic Wire*, August 14, 2013.
Adkins discussed the situation with Manning's therapists, but did not pass the email to anybody above him in his [of command](chain)(chain of command); he told Manning's court-martial that he was concerned the photograph would be disseminated among other staff.Lewis, Paul. ["Bradley Manning supervisor 'ignored photo of soldier dressed as woman ](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/13/bradley-manning-email-drag-photo-sentencing), *The Guardian*, August 13, 2013. [Captain](Captain (United States O-3)) Steven Lim, Manning's [company](Company (military unit)) commander, said he first saw the email after Manning's arrest, when information about [replacement therapy](hormone)(Hormone replacement therapy (male-to-female)) was found in Manning's room on base; at that point Lim learned that Manning had been calling herself Breanna.
Manning told former "[hat](grey)(grey hat)" hacker [Lamo](Adrian)(Adrian Lamo) that she had set up [Twitter](Twitter) and [YouTube](YouTube) accounts as Breanna to give her female identity a digital presence, writing to Lamo: "I wouldn't mind going to prison for the rest of my life [leaking information](for), or being executed so much, if it wasn't for the possibility of having pictures of me ... plastered all over the world press ... as [a] boy ... the [CPU](Central processing unit) is not [for](made)(CPU socket) this [motherboard](motherboard)". On April 30 she posted on Facebook that she was utterly lost, and over the next few days wrote that she was "not a piece of equipment", and was "beyond frustrated" and "livid" after being "lectured by ex-boyfriend despite months of relationship ambiguity".Nicks 2012, p. 164, and ["Bradley Manning's Facebook Page"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/wikileaks/manning-facebook-page/), PBS *Frontline*, March 2011.
On May 7, according to Army witnesses, Manning was found curled in a fetal position in a storage cupboard; she had a knife at her feet and had cut the words "I want" into a vinyl chair. A few hours later she had an altercation with a female intelligence analyst, Specialist Jihrleah Showman, during which she punched Showman in the face. The brigade psychiatrist recommended a discharge, referring to an "occupational problem and adjustment disorder". Manning's supervisor removed the [bolt](Bolt (firearms)) from her weapon, making it unable to fire, and she was sent to work in the supply office, although at this point her security clearance remained in place. As [punishment](Non-judicial punishment) for the altercation with Showman, she was [demoted](Reduction in rank#United States) from Specialist (E-4) to Private First Class (E-3) three days before her arrest on May 27.For the storage cupboard, the psychiatrist, and the recommended discharge, see [Nakashima, May 4, 2011](https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/magazine/who-is-wikileaks-suspect-bradley-manning/2011/04/16/AFMwBmrF_print.html).For the same incident, see Nicks 2012, pp. 161–163.For the altercation with the intelligence analyst, see Sanchez, Raf. ["Bradley Manning 'attacked female soldier and sent picture of himself as a woman'"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/wikileaks/8964543/Bradley-Manning-attacked-female-soldier-and-sent-picture-of-himself-as-a-woman.html), *The Daily Telegraph*, December 18, 2011.O'Kane, Maggie et al. ["Bradley Manning: the bullied outsider who knew US military's inner secrets"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/may/27/bradley-manning-us-military-outsider)["WikiLeaks accused Bradley Manning 'should never have been sent to Iraq](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/may/27/bradley-manning-wikileaks-mentally-fragile), *The Guardian*, May 27, 2011.
Ellen Nakashima writes that, on May 9, Manning contacted Jonathan Odell, a gay American novelist in Minneapolis, via Facebook, leaving a message that she wanted to speak to him in confidence; she said she had been involved in some "very high-profile events, albeit as a nameless individual thus far".[Nakashima, May 4, 2011](https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/magazine/who-is-wikileaks-suspect-bradley-manning/2011/04/16/AFMwBmrF_print.html). On May 19, according to Army investigators, she emailed Eric Schmiedl, a mathematician she had met in Boston, and told him she had been the [source](Source (journalism)) of the Baghdad airstrike video. Two days later, she began the series of chats with Adrian Lamo that led to her arrest.Dishneau, David and Jelinek, Pauline. ["Witness: Manning said leak would lift 'fog of war](http://www.boston.com/news/nation/washington/articles/2011/12/19/letter_suggests_manning_wanted_to_make_history/), Associated Press, December 19, 2011.
* Also see Nicks 2012, p. 164.
## Publication of leaked material
[[File:26C3 Assange DomscheitBerg.jpg|thumb|alt=photograph|[Assange](Julian)(Julian Assange) and [Domscheit-Berg](Daniel)(Daniel Domscheit-Berg) at the [Communication Congress](Chaos)(Chaos Communication Congress), Berlin, December 2009]]
[WikiLeaks](WikiLeaks) was set up in late 2006 as a disclosure portal, initially using the Wikipedia model, where volunteers would write up restricted or legally threatened material submitted by whistleblowers. It was Julian Assange—an Australian Internet activist and journalist, and the *de facto* editor-in-chief of WikiLeaks—who had the idea of creating what [Laurie](Ben)(Ben Laurie) called an "open-source, democratic intelligence agency". The open-editing aspect was soon abandoned, but the site remained open for anonymous submissions.Leigh and Harding 2011, pp. 52–56.
According to [Domscheit-Berg](Daniel)(Daniel Domscheit-Berg), a former WikiLeaks spokesperson, part of the WikiLeaks security concept was that they did not know who their sources were. *The New York Times* wrote in December 2010 that the U.S. government was trying to discover whether Assange had been a passive recipient of material from Manning, or had encouraged or helped her to extract the files; if the latter, Assange could be charged with conspiracy. Manning told Lamo in May 2010 that she had developed a working relationship with Assange, communicating directly with him using an encrypted Internet conferencing service, but knew little about him. WikiLeaks did not identify Manning as their source.For WikiLeaks security, see Domscheit-Berg 2011, p. 165.For the U.S. government trying to determine whether Assange encouraged Manning, see Savage, Charlie. ["U.S. Tries to Build Case for Conspiracy by WikiLeaks"](https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/16/world/16wiki.html), *The New York Times*, December 15, 2010.For Manning's chats with Lamo, see [Hansen, July 13, 2011](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/07/manning-lamo-logs/). Army investigators found pages of chats on Manning's computer between Manning and someone believed to be Julian Assange. Nicks writes that, despite this, no decisive evidence was found of Assange's offering Manning any direction.Nicks 2012, p. 155.
On February 18, 2010, WikiLeaks posted the first of the material from Manning, the diplomatic cable from the U.S. Embassy in [Reykjavík](Reykjavík), a document now known as "Reykjavik13".For Manning calling Reykjavik13 a "test document", see [Hansen, July 13, 2011](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/07/manning-lamo-logs/)[Nicks, September 23, 2010](https://web.archive.org/web/20110429142813/http://thislandpress.com/09/23/2010/private-manning-and-the-making-of-wikileaks-2/). On March 15, WikiLeaks posted a 32-page report written in 2008 by the U.S. [of Defense](Department)(United States Department of Defense) about WikiLeaks itself, and on March 29 it posted U.S. State Department profiles of politicians in Iceland.For the publishing sequence, see Leigh and Harding 2011, p. 70.For the leak of the Defense Dept report on WikiLeaks, see Kravets, David. ["Secret Document Calls Wikileaks 'Threat' to U.S. Army"](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/03/wikileaks-army/), *[Wired](Wired (magazine))*, March 15, 2010.For the Defense Dept report itself, see Assange, Julian. ["U.S. intelligence planned to destroy WikiLeaks"](https://www.wired.com/images_blogs/threatlevel/2010/03/wikithreat.pdf), WikiLeaks release on March 15, 2010, of Horvath, Michael D. "Wikileaks.org – An Online Reference to Foreign Intelligence Services, Insurgents, or Terrorist Groups?", United States Army Counterintelligence Center, Department of Defense Counterintelligence Analysis Program, March 18, 2008.
### Baghdad airstrike
[[File:CollateralMurder.ogv | thumb | alt=video | Manning said she gave WikiLeaks the [12, 2007, Baghdad airstrike](July)(July 12, 2007, Baghdad airstrike) video in early 2010.]]
WikiLeaks named the Baghdad airstrike video "Collateral Murder", and Assange released it on April 5, 2010, during a press conference at the [Press Club](National)(National Press Club (United States)) in Washington, D.C. The video showed two US helicopters firing on a group of 10 men in the Amin District of [Baghdad](Baghdad). Among the people killed in the attack were two [Reuters](Reuters) employees, who were there to photograph an American Humvee under attack by the Mahdi Army. The US pilots mistook their cameras for weapons. The helicopters also fired on a van, targeted earlier by one helicopter, that had stopped to help wounded members of the first group. Two children in the van were wounded, and their father was killed. The pilots also attacked a building where retreating insurgents were holed up. *[Washington Post](The)(The Washington Post)* wrote that the video, viewed by millions, put WikiLeaks on the map. According to Nicks, Manning emailed a superior officer after the video aired and tried to persuade her that it was the same version as the one stored on [SIPRNet](SIPRNet). Nicks writes that it seemed as though Manning wanted to be caught.Nicks 2012, pp. 157–161.
### Afghan War logs, Iraq War logs
On July 25, 2010, WikiLeaks and three media partners—*[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*, *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*, and *[Spiegel](Der)(Der Spiegel)*—began publishing the 91,731 documents that, in their entirety, became known as the Afghan War Logs. (Around 77,000 of these had been published as of May 2012.) This was followed on October 22, 2010, by 391,832 classified military reports covering the period January 2004 to December 2009, which became known as the Iraq War Logs. Nicks writes that the publication of the former was a watershed moment, the "beginning of the information age exploding upon itself".For Nicks's analysis, see Nicks 2012, pp. 191–193For the number of documents in the Afghan and Iraq War logs and Cablegate, and for the publication dates, see Nicks 2012, pp. 204, 206.
### Other leaks
Manning was also responsible for the "[Cablegate](United States diplomatic cables leak)" leak of 251,287 State Department cables, written by 271 American embassies and consulates in 180 countries, dated December 1966 to February 2010. The cables were passed by Assange to his three media partners, plus *[País](El)(El País)* and others, and published in stages from November 28, 2010, with the names of sources removed. WikiLeaks said it was the largest set of confidential documents ever to be released into the public domain.Leigh and Harding, 2011, p. 70 for the publishing sequence; pp. 194ff for the material WikiLeaks published.For Manning's chat with [Lamo](Adrian)(Adrian Lamo), see [Hansen, July 13, 2011](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/07/manning-lamo-logs/). WikiLeaks published the remaining cables, unredacted, on September 1, 2011, after [Leigh](David)(David Leigh (journalist)) and [Harding](Luke)(Luke Harding) of *The Guardian* inadvertently published the [passphrase](passphrase) for a file that was still online;Stöcker, Christian. ["A Dispatch Disaster in Six Acts"](http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,783778,00.html), *Der Spiegel*, September 1, 2011; [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110903181457/http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,783778,00.html) from the original on March 7, 2012.Mackey, Robert et al. ["All Leaked U.S. Cables Were Made Available Online as WikiLeaks Splintered"](http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/09/01/all-leaked-u-s-cables-were-made-available-online-as-wikileaks-splintered/?scp=9&sq=Julian+Assange&st=nyt), *The New York Times*, September 1, 2011; [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20121011002500/http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/09/01/all-leaked-u-s-cables-were-made-available-online-as-wikileaks-splintered/?scp=9&sq=Julian+Assange&st=nyt) from the original on March 7, 2012. Nicks writes that, consequently, one [Ethiopian](Ethiopian) journalist had to leave his country, and the U.S. government said it had to relocate several sources.For the Ethiopian journalist and the relocation of sources, see Nicks 2012, p. 208.
Manning was accused of being the [source](Source (journalism)) of the [Bay files leak](Guantanamo)(Guantanamo Bay files leak), obtained by WikiLeaks in 2010 and published by *The New York Times* and *The Guardian* in April 2011.Nicks 2012, p. 153. Manning said she gave WikiLeaks a video, in late March 2010, of the [airstrike](Granai)(Granai airstrike) in Afghanistan. The airstrike occurred on May 4, 2009, in the village of Granai, Afghanistan, killing 86 to 147 Afghan civilians. The video was never published; Julian Assange said in March 2013 that [Domscheit-Berg](Daniel)(Daniel Domscheit-Berg) had taken it with him when he left WikiLeaks and had apparently destroyed it.
## Manning and Adrian Lamo
### First contact
[[File:Lamo-Mitnick-Poulsen.png|thumb|alt=photograph|[Lamo](Adrian)(Adrian Lamo) (left) and *Wired* [Poulsen](Kevin)(Kevin Poulsen) (right) in 2001. The person in the middle, [Mitnick](Kevin)(Kevin Mitnick), had no involvement in the Manning case.]]
On May 20, 2010, Manning contacted [Lamo](Adrian)(Adrian Lamo), a former "[hat](grey)(grey hat)" hacker convicted in 2004 of having accessed *The New York Times* computer network two years earlier without permission. Lamo had been profiled that day by [Poulsen](Kevin)(Kevin Poulsen) in *Wired* magazine; the story said Lamo had been involuntarily hospitalized and diagnosed with [syndrome](Asperger)(Asperger syndrome).For Poulsen's article about Lamo, see [Poulsen, May 20, 2010](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/05/lamo/).
* For Lamo's conviction, see Shachtman, Noah, ["Adrian Lamo Cuts Deal With Feds"](https://www.wired.com/techbiz/it/news/2004/01/61831), *Wired*, January 9, 2004. [Archived link](https://web.archive.org/web/20080509014147/https://www.wired.com/techbiz/it/news/2004/01/61831) Poulsen, by then a reporter, was himself a former hacker who had used Lamo as a source several times since 2000.For Poulsen's relationship with Lamo, see [Last, January 11, 2011](http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/01/11/opinion/main7233405.shtml) .
* For more on the relationship, see [Greenwald, June 18, 2010](https://archive.today/20130202183045/http://www.salon.com/2010/06/18/wikileaks_3/singleton/).
* For Wired.com's response to Greenwald, see [Hansen, Poulsen, December 28, 2010](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/12/greenwald/#update123110). Indeed it was Poulsen who, in 2002, had told *The New York Times* that Lamo had gained unauthorized access to its network; Poulsen then wrote the story up for *[SecurityFocus](SecurityFocus)*. Lamo would hack into a system, tell the organization, then offer to fix their security, often using Poulsen as a go-between.Hulme, George V. ["With Friends Like This"](http://www.informationweek.com/news/6502813) , *InformationWeek*, July 8, 2002.
Lamo said Manning sent him several encrypted emails on May 20. He said he was unable to decrypt them but replied anyway and invited the emailer to chat on AOL IM. Lamo said he later turned the emails over to the FBI without having read them.[Greenwald, June 18, 2010](https://www.salon.com/2010/06/18/wikileaks_3/)
* Greenwald, Glenn. [Email exchange between Glenn Greenwald and Kevin Poulsen](http://utdocuments.blogspot.ca/2010/06/email-exchange-with-wireds-kevin.html), June 14–17, 2010.
* Greenwald wrote: "Lamo told me that Manning first emailed him on May 20 and, according to highly edited chat logs released by Wired, had his first online chat with Manning on May 21; in other words, Manning first contacted Lamo the very day that Poulsen's Wired article on Lamo's involuntary commitment appeared (the Wired article is time-stamped 5:46 p.m. on May 20)."Lamo, however, told me that Manning found him not from the Wired article—which Manning never mentioned reading—but from searching the word 'WikiLeaks' on Twitter, which led her to a tweet Lamo had written that included the word 'WikiLeaks.' Even if Manning had really found Lamo through a Twitter search for 'WikiLeaks,' Lamo could not explain why Manning focused on him, rather than the thousands of other people who have also mentioned the word 'WikiLeaks' on Twitter, including countless people who have done so by expressing support for WikiLeaks."
### Chats
In a series of chats between May 21 and 25, Manning—using the handle "bradass87"—told Lamo that she had leaked classified material. She introduced herself as an Army intelligence analyst, and within 17 minutes, without waiting for a reply, alluded to the leaks.[Hansen, July 13, 2011](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/07/manning-lamo-logs/); also see Nicks 2012, pp. 171–184.
Lamo replied several hours later. He said: "I'm a journalist and a minister. You can pick either, and treat this as a confession or an interview (never to be published) & enjoy a modicum of legal protection." They talked about restricted material in general, then Manning made her first explicit reference to the leaks: "This is what I do for friends." She linked to a section of the May 21, 2010, version of Wikipedia's article on WikiLeaks, which described the WikiLeaks release in March that year of a Department of Defense report on WikiLeaks itself. She added "the one below that is mine too"; the section below in the same article referred to the leak of the Baghdad airstrike ("Collateral Murder") video.For the section and revision of the Wikipedia article Manning linked to, see ["U.S. Intelligence report on Wikileaks"](http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WikiLeaks&oldid=363360017#U.S._Intelligence_report_on_Wikileaks), Wikipedia, May 21, 2010. Manning said she felt isolated and fragile, and was reaching out to someone she hoped might understand.
Manning said she had started to help WikiLeaks around [Thanksgiving](Thanksgiving (United States)) in November 2009—which fell on November 26 that year—after WikiLeaks had released the 9/11 pager messages; the messages were released on November 25. She told Lamo she had recognized that the messages came from an NSA database and that seeing them had made her feel comfortable about stepping forward. Lamo asked what kind of material Manning was dealing with; Manning replied: "uhm ... crazy, almost criminal political backdealings ... the non-PR-versions of world events and crises ..." Although she said she dealt with Assange directly, Manning also said Assange had adopted a deliberate policy of knowing very little about her, telling Manning: "lie to me."
Lamo again assured her that she was speaking in confidence. Manning wrote: "but im not a source for you ... im talking to you as someone who needs moral and emotional fucking support," and Lamo replied: "i told you, none of this is for print."
Manning said the incident that had affected her the most was when 15 detainees had been arrested by the [Federal Police](Iraqi)(Iraqi Police#The Federal Police (FP)) for printing anti-Iraqi literature. She was asked by the Army to find out who the "bad guys" were, and discovered that the detainees had followed what Manning said was a corruption trail within the Iraqi cabinet. She reported this to her commanding officer, but said "he didn't want to hear any of it"; she said the officer told her to help the Iraqi police find more detainees. Manning said it made her realize, "i was actively involved in something that i was completely against ..."
She explained that "I cant separate myself from others ... I feel connected to everybody ... like they were distant family," and cited [Sagan](Carl)(Carl Sagan), [Feynman](Richard)(Richard Feynman) and [Wiesel](Elie)(Elie Wiesel). She said she hoped the material would lead to "hopefully worldwide discussion, debates, and reforms. if not ... than [sic] we're doomed as a species." She said she had downloaded the material onto [Gaga](Lady)(Lady Gaga) music CD-RWs, erased the music and replaced it with a compressed split file. Part of the reason no one noticed, she said, was that staff were working 14 hours a day, seven days a week, and "people stopped caring after 3 weeks."
### Lamo approaches authorities, chat logs published
Shortly after the first chat with Manning, Lamo discussed the information with Chet Uber of the volunteer group Project Vigilant, which researches [cybercrime](Computer crime), and with Timothy Webster, a friend who had worked in Army counterintelligence.Nicks 2012, p. 179. Both advised Lamo to go to the authorities. His friend informed the Army's [Investigation Command](Criminal)(United States Army Criminal Investigation Command) (CID), and Lamo was contacted by CID agents shortly thereafter. He told them he believed Manning was endangering lives.[Caesar, December 19, 2010](http://www.edcaesar.co.uk/article.php?article_id=53) .
* For more on Lamo approaching the authorities, see Zetter, Kim. ["In WikiLeaks Case, Bradley Manning Faces the Hacker Who Turned Him In"](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/12/adrian-lamo-bradley-manning/), *Wired*, December 2011. He was largely ostracized by the hacker community afterwards. Nicks argues, on the other hand, that it was thanks to Lamo that the government had months to ameliorate any harm caused by the release of the diplomatic cables.Nicks 2012, p. 232.
Lamo met with FBI and Army investigators on May 25 in California, and showed them the chat logs. On or around that date he also passed the story to Kevin Poulsen of *Wired*, and on May 27 gave him the chat logs and Manning's name under [embargo](News embargo). He met with the FBI again that day, at which point they told him Manning had been arrested in Iraq the day before. Poulsen and Kim Zetter broke the news of the arrest in *Wired* on June 6.For the first *Wired* story, see [Poulsen and Zetter, June 6, 2010](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/06/leak/).
* For the sequence of events, see [Greenwald, June 18, 2010](https://archive.today/20130202183045/http://www.salon.com/2010/06/18/wikileaks_3/singleton/). *Wired* published around 25 percent of the chat logs on June 6 and 10, and the full logs in July 2011.[Hansen and Poulsen, December 28, 2010](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/12/greenwald/).
* For the full chat log, see [Hansen, July 13, 2011](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/07/manning-lamo-logs/).
## Legal proceedings
### Arrest and charges
List of charges in *United States v. Manning*}}
Manning was arrested by the Army's Criminal Investigation Command,[Poulsen and Zetter, June 6, 2010](https://www.wired.com/2010/06/leak/). on May 27, 2010, and transferred four days later to [Arifjan](Camp)(Camp Arifjan) in Kuwait.[Poulsen and Zetter, June 16, 2010](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/06/manning-detainment/). She was charged with several offenses in July, replaced by 22 charges in March 2011, including violations of Articles 92 and [134](General article (military law)#United States) of the [Code of Military Justice](Uniform)(Uniform Code of Military Justice) (UCMJ), and of the [Act](Espionage)(Espionage Act of 1917). The most serious charge was "aiding the enemy", a [capital](Capital punishment in the United States) offense, although prosecutors said they would not seek the death penalty.Nicks 2012, p. 247.
* ["Charge sheet"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/lifestyle/magazine/2011/manning/manning_charges.pdf) Retrieved December 26, 2010.
* For the number of documents involved, and the penalty if convicted, see ["WikiLeaks: Bradley Manning faces 22 new charges"](http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/03/02/national/main20038464.shtml?tag=breakingnews), CBS News, March 2, 2011.
* For date of arrest and transfer to Kuwait, see ["AE 494 Ruling Speedy_Trial.pdf"](https://www.rmda.army.mil/foia/FOIA_ReadingRoom/Detail.aspx?id=84) , U.S. Army Records Management and Declassification Agency, [of Information](Freedom)(Freedom of Information) Act Electronic Reading Room. Retrieved June 8, 2013. Another charge, which Manning's defense called a "made up offense" but of which she was found guilty, read that Manning "wantonly [caused] to be published on the internet intelligence belonging to the US government, having knowledge that intelligence published on the internet is accessible to the enemy". Criminal Elements and Definitions for Wanton Publication and State Dept, CIA, FBI, and Classified Witnesses |last = O'Brien |first = Alexa |website= alexaobrien.com |date = June 30, 2013 |access-date = September 30, 2013 |url = http://www.alexaobrien.com/secondsight/us_v_pfc_manning_criminal_elements_and_definitions_wanton_publication_state_department_and_fbi_witnesses.html |archive-url = https://archive.today/20130910121131/http://www.alexaobrien.com/secondsight/us_v_pfc_manning_criminal_elements_and_definitions_wanton_publication_state_department_and_fbi_witnesses.html |url-status = dead |archive-date = September 10, 2013 }}
### Detention
* **Jun 6**: *Wired* publishes partial Manning- Lamo chat logs.
* **Jul 5**: Manning charged.
* **Jul 25**: WL releases [War logs](Afghan)(Afghan War documents leak), purportedly from Manning.
* **Jul 29**: Manning transferred to the U.S.
* **Oct 22**: WL releases [War logs](Iraq)(Iraq War documents leak), purportedly from Manning.
* **Nov 28**: Newspapers publish U.S. [cables](diplomatic)(Cablegate) from WL, purportedly from Manning.
| list3title = 2011
| list3 =
* **Jan**: UN Special Rapporteur submits inquiry to U.S. about Manning.
* **Mar 1**: Manning charged with more offenses.
* **Dec 16**: [32 hearing](Article)(Article 32 hearing) begins.
| list4title = 2012
| list4 =
* **Feb**: Manning ordered to stand trial.
| list5title = 2013
| list5 =
* **Feb 28**: Manning pleads guilty to 10 of 22 charges.
* **Jun 3**: [begins](Trial)(United States v. Manning).
* **Jul 30**: Manning convicted on most charges; acquitted of aiding the enemy.
* **Aug 21**: Manning sentenced to 35 years.
* **Sep 4**: Manning and her lawyers started seeking a [pardon](presidential)(presidential pardon).
}}
While in Kuwait, Manning was placed on [watch](suicide)(suicide watch) after her behavior caused concern.Pilkington, Ed. ["Bradley Manning: how keeping himself sane was taken as proof of madness"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/30/bradley-manning-keeping-sane-madness), *The Guardian*, November 30, 2012. She was moved from Kuwait to the [Corps Base Quantico](Marine)(Marine Corps Base Quantico), Virginia, on July 29, 2010, and classified as a maximum custody detainee with Prevention of Injury (POI) status. POI status is a less extreme form of suicide watch, entailing checks by guards every five minutes. Her lawyer, [Coombs](David)(David Edward Coombs), a former military attorney, said Manning was not allowed to sleep between 5 am (7 am on weekends) and 8 pm, and was made to stand or sit up if she tried to. She was required to remain visible at all times, including at night, which entailed no access to sheets, no pillow except one built into her mattress, and a blanket designed not to be shredded. Manning complained that she regarded it as pretrial punishment.[Manning, March 10, 2011](https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0B_zC44SBaZPoMzMyNWExZmUtZjEzMS00ZjM2LWE3OWMtM2I4NzY5NDNkMmFh&hl=en&authkey=CMKgiogG), p. 7.
Her cell was 6 × 12 ft (1.8 x 3.6 m) with no window, containing a bed, toilet, and sink. The jail had 30 cells built in a U shape, and although detainees could talk to one another, they were unable to see each other. Her lawyer said the guards behaved professionally and had not tried to harass or embarrass Manning. She was allowed to walk for up to one hour a day, meals were taken in the cell, and she was shackled during visits. There was access to television when it was placed in the corridor, and she was allowed to keep one magazine and one book.For a description of the jail, see Nakashima, Ellen. ["In brig, WikiLeaks suspect Bradley Manning ordered to sleep without clothing"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/03/05/AR2011030503624.html), *The Washington Post*, March 5, 2011.
* For Manning's lawyer's description, see ["A Typical Day for PFC Bradley Manning"](http://www.armycourtmartialdefense.info/2010/12/typical-day-for-pfc-bradley-manning.html), The Law Offices of David E. Coombs, December 18, 2010; [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20101219080314/http://www.armycourtmartialdefense.info/2010/12/typical-day-for-pfc-bradley-manning.html) from the original on April 6, 2012.
* For Manning's description, see [Manning, March 10, 2011](https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0B_zC44SBaZPoMzMyNWExZmUtZjEzMS00ZjM2LWE3OWMtM2I4NzY5NDNkMmFh&hl=en&authkey=CMKgiogG), particularly pp. 10–11.
* For the books she requested, see Nicks, Denver. ["Bradley Manning's Life Behind Bars"](http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2010/12/17/bradley-manning-wikileaks-alleged-sources-life-in-prison.html), *The Daily Beast*, December 17, 2010. The list was: *[Points](Decision)(Decision Points)* by George W. Bush; *[of Practical Reason](Critique)(Critique of Practical Reason)* and *[of Pure Reason](Critique)(Critique of Pure Reason)* by Immanuel Kant; *[Propaganda](Propaganda (book))* by Edward Bernays; *[Selfish Gene](The)(The Selfish Gene)* by Richard Dawkins; ''[People's History of the United States](A)(A People's History of the United States)* by Howard Zinn; *[Art of War](The)(The Art of War)* by Sun Tzu; *[Good Soldiers](The)(The Good Soldiers)* by David Finkel; and *[War](On)(On War)'' by Gen. Carl von Clausewitz. Because she was in pretrial detention, she received full pay.Marshall, Serena. ["Court-Martial for Bradley Manning in Wikileaks Case?"](https://abcnews.go.com/US/final-arguments-pfc-mannings-wikileaks-case/story?id=15215559#.T4EUD9XNjZw), ABC News, December 22, 2011, p. 2.
On January 18, 2011, after Manning had an altercation with the guards, the commander of Quantico classified her as a suicide risk. Manning said the guards had begun issuing conflicting commands, such as "turn left, don't turn left," and upbraiding her for responding to commands with "yes" instead of "[aye](Aye aye, sir)". Shortly afterward, she was placed on suicide watch, had her clothing and eyeglasses removed, and was required to remain in her cell 24 hours a day. The suicide watch was lifted on January 21 after a complaint from her lawyer, and the brig commander who ordered it was replaced.Nicks 2012, pp. 240–242.
* For Manning's letter, see [Manning, March 10, 2011](https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0B_zC44SBaZPoMzMyNWExZmUtZjEzMS00ZjM2LWE3OWMtM2I4NzY5NDNkMmFh&hl=en), pp. 7–8.
On March 2, she was told that her request for removal of POI status—which entailed among other things sleeping wearing only boxer shorts—had been denied. Her lawyer said Manning joked to the guards that, if she wanted to harm herself, she could do so with her underwear or her flip-flops. The comment resulted in Manning's being ordered to strip naked in her cell that night and sleep without clothing. On the following morning only, Manning stood naked for inspection. Following her lawyer's protest and media attention, Manning was issued a sleeping garment on or before March 11.[Manning, March 10, 2011](https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0B_zC44SBaZPoMzMyNWExZmUtZjEzMS00ZjM2LWE3OWMtM2I4NzY5NDNkMmFh&hl=en), p. 9ff.
* Nakashima, Ellen. ["In brig, WikiLeaks suspect Bradley Manning ordered to sleep without clothing"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/03/05/AR2011030503624.html), *The Washington Post*, March 5, 2011.
* For a sleep garment having been supplied, see Nakashima, Ellen. ["WikiLeaks suspect's treatment 'stupid,' U.S. official says"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/03/11/AR2011031106542.html), *The Washington Post*, March 12, 2011.
* Also see ["Editorial; The Abuse of Private Manning"](https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/15/opinion/15tue3.html?sq=%22Bradley+Manning%22&scp=2&st=nyt), *The New York Times*, March 15, 2011.
The detention conditions prompted national and international concern. [E. Méndez](Juan)(Juan E. Méndez), [Nations Special Rapporteur](United)(United Nations Special Rapporteur) on torture, told *The Guardian* that the U.S. government's treatment of Manning was "cruel, inhuman and degrading".Pilkington, Ed. ["Bradley Manning's treatment was cruel and inhuman, UN torture chief rules"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/12/bradley-manning-cruel-inhuman-treatment-un), *The Guardian*, March 12, 2012. In January 2011, [International](Amnesty)(Amnesty International) asked the British government to intervene because of Manning's status as a British citizen by descent, although Manning's lawyer said Manning did not regard herself as a British citizen.Pilkington, Ed; Chris McGreal & Steven Morris. ["Bradley Manning is UK citizen and needs protection, government told"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/feb/01/bradley-manning-uk-citizen), *The Guardian*, February 1, 2011.
* For Manning's view of her nationality, see Coombs, David E. ["Clarification Regarding PFC Manning's Citizenship"](http://www.armycourtmartialdefense.info/2011/02/clarification-regarding-pfc-mannings.html) , Law Offices of David E. Coombs, February 2, 2011: "There has been some discussion regarding PFC Bradley Manning's citizenship. PFC Manning does not hold a British passport, nor does he consider himself a British citizen. He is an American and is proud to be serving in the United States Army. His current confinement conditions are troubling to many both here in the United States and abroad. This concern, however, is not a citizenship issue." On March 10, State Department spokesman [J. Crowley](Philip)(Philip J. Crowley) criticized Manning's treatment as "ridiculous, counterproductive and stupid".Nakashima, Ellen. ["WikiLeaks suspect's treatment 'stupid,' U.S. official says"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/03/11/AR2011031106542.html), *The Washington Post*, March 12, 2011. The following day, President Obama responded to Crowley's comments, saying the Pentagon had assured him that Manning's treatment was "appropriate and meet[s] our basic standards". Under political pressure, Crowley resigned three days after his comments.Tapper, Jake and Radia, Kirit. ["Comments on Prisoner Treatment Cause State Department Spokesman to Lose His Job"](http://blogs.abcnews.com/politicalpunch/2011/03/state-department-spokesman-pj-crowley-resigned-bradley-manning.html) , ABC News, March 13, 2011. On March 15, 295 members of the academic legal community signed a statement arguing that Manning was being subjected to "degrading and inhumane pretrial punishment" and criticizing Obama's comments. On April 20, the Pentagon transferred Manning to the medium-custody [Joint Regional Correctional Facility](Midwest)(Midwest Joint Regional Correctional Facility), at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, where she was placed in an 80-square-foot cell with a window and a normal mattress, able to mix with other pretrial detainees and keep personal objects in her cell.Pilkington, Ed. ["Bradley Manning's jail conditions improve dramatically after protest campaign"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/may/04/bradley-manning-jail-conditions-improve), *The Guardian*, May 4, 2011.
### Evidence presented at Article 32 hearing
In April 2011, a panel of experts, having completed a medical and mental evaluation of Manning, ruled that she was fit to stand trial.["Panel Says WikiLeaks Suspect Is Competent to Stand Trial"](https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/30/us/30brfs-PANELSAYSWIK_BRF.html?ref=bradleyemanning), Associated Press, April 29, 2011. An [32 hearing](Article)(Article 32 hearing), presided over by [Colonel](Lieutenant)(Lieutenant colonel (United States)) Paul Almanza, was convened on December 16, 2011, at [Meade](Fort)(Fort George G. Meade), Maryland; the hearing resulted in Almanza's recommending that Manning be referred to a general court-martial. She was [arraigned](Arraignment) on February 23, 2012, and declined to enter a plea.Rizzo, Jennifer ["Bradley Manning charged"](http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2012/02/23/bradley-manning-charged/?hpt=hp_t3), CNN, February 23, 2012.
During the Article 32 hearing, the prosecution, led by Captain Ashden Fein, presented 300,000 pages of documents in evidence, including chat logs and classified material.Rath, Arun. ["What Happened At Bradley Manning's Hearing This Week?"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/foreign-affairs-defense/wikisecrets/what-happened-at-bradley-mannings-hearing-this-week/), PBS *Frontline*, December 22, 2011. The court heard from two Army investigators, Special Agent David Shaver, head of the digital forensics and research branch of the Army's Computer Crime Investigative Unit (CCIU); and Mark Johnson, a digital forensics contractor from [International](ManTech)(ManTech International), who works for the CCIU. They testified that they had found 100,000 State Department cables on a workplace computer Manning had used between November 2009 and May 2010; 400,000 military reports from Iraq and 91,000 from Afghanistan on an [card](SD)(Secure Digital) found in her basement room in her aunt's home in Potomac, Maryland; and 10,000 cables on her personal MacBook Pro and storage devices that they said had not been passed to WikiLeaks because a file was corrupted. They also recovered 14 to 15 pages of encrypted chats, in unallocated space on Manning's MacBook hard drive, between Manning and someone believed to be Julian Assange. Two of the chat handles, which used the Berlin [Computer Club](Chaos)(Chaos Computer Club)'s domain (ccc.de), were associated with the names Julian Assange and Nathaniel Frank.
Johnson said he found [logs](SSH)(Secure Shell) on the MacBook that showed an [connection](SFTP)(SSH File Transfer Protocol), from an IP address that resolved to Manning's aunt's home, to a Swedish IP address with links to WikiLeaks. Also found was a text file named "Readme", attached to the logs and apparently written by Manning to Assange, which called the Iraq and Afghan War logs "possibly one of the most significant documents of our time, removing the fog of war and revealing the true nature of 21st century asymmetric warfare".Nicks 2012, pp. 137–138; also see [Zetter, December 19, 2011](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/12/manning-assange-laptop/). The investigators testified they had also recovered an exchange from May 2010 between Manning and Eric Schmiedl, a Boston mathematician, in which Manning said she was the source of the Baghdad helicopter attack ("Collateral Murder") video. Johnson said there had been two attempts to delete the material from the MacBook. The operating system had been re-installed in January 2010, and on or around January 31, 2010, an attempt had been made to erase the hard drive by doing a "[zero-fill](Data erasure)", which involves overwriting material with zeroes. The material was recovered after the overwrite attempts from unallocated space.For the army investigators' testimony, see [Zetter, December 19, 2011](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/12/manning-assange-laptop/).
* For more from the army investigators, including the reference to Eric Schmiedl, see Dishneau, David and Jelinek, Pauline. ["Witness: Manning said leak would lift 'fog of war'"](http://www.boston.com/news/nation/washington/articles/2011/12/19/letter_suggests_manning_wanted_to_make_history/), Associated Press, December 19, 2011.
* Also see ["Investigators link WikiLeaks suspect to Assange"](http://technology.inquirer.net/6977/investigators-link-wikileaks-suspect-to-assange), Agence France-Presse, December 20, 2011.
Manning's lawyers argued that the government had overstated the harm the release of the documents had caused and had overcharged Manning to force her to give evidence against Assange. The defense also raised questions about whether Manning's confusion over her gender identity affected her behavior and decision making.For the government overcharging Manning, see Zetter, Kim. ["Army Piles on Evidence in Final Arguments in WikiLeaks Hearing"](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/12/army-manning-hearing/), *Wired*, December 22, 2011.
* For the gender issues, see Radia, Kirit, and Martinez, Luis. ["Bradley Manning Defense Reveals Alter Ego Named 'Breanna Manning'"](https://abcnews.go.com/blogs/politics/2011/12/bradley-manning-defense-reveals-alter-ego-named-brianna-manning/), ABC News, December 17, 2011.
### Guilty plea, trial, sentence
*United States v. Manning*}}
The judge, Army [Colonel](Colonel (United States)) Denise Lind, ruled in January 2013 that any sentence would be reduced by 112 days because of the treatment Manning received at Quantico.Tate, Julie and Nakashima, Ellen. ["Judge refuses to dismiss charges against WikiLeaks suspect Bradley Manning"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/judge-refuses-to-dismiss-charges-against-wikileaks-suspect-bradley-manning/2013/01/08/2eab1f62-59cb-11e2-beee-6e38f5215402_story.html), *The Washington Post*, January 8, 2013. On February 28, Manning pleaded guilty to 10 of the 22 charges. Reading for over an hour from a 35-page statement, she said she had leaked the cables "to show the true cost of war". Prosecutors pursued a court-martial on the remaining charges.O'Brien, Alexa. ["Bradley Manning's full statement"](http://www.salon.com/2013/03/01/bradley_mannings_full_statement/), *Salon*, March 1, 2013.
The trial began on June 3, 2013. Manning was convicted on July 30, on 17 of the 22 charges in their entirety, including five counts of espionage and theft, and an amended version of four other charges; she was acquitted of aiding the enemy. The sentencing phase began the next day.
Captain Michael Worsley, a military psychologist who had treated Manning before her arrest, testified that Manning had been left isolated in the Army, trying to deal with gender identity issues in a "hyper-masculine environment". David Moulton, a Navy forensic psychiatrist who saw Manning after the arrest, said Manning had narcissistic traits, and showed signs of both [alcohol syndrome](fetal)(fetal alcohol syndrome) and [syndrome](Asperger)(Asperger syndrome). He said that, in leaking the material, Manning had been "acting out [a] grandiose ideation".Hartmann, Margaret. ["Ahead of His Sentencing, Bradley Manning Says, 'I'm Sorry I Hurt the United States'"](http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2013/08/bradley-manning-im-sorry-i-hurt-the-us.html), *The New York Times* magazine, August 15, 2013.
A defense psychiatrist, testifying to Manning's motives, suggested a different agenda:Well, Pfc Manning was under the impression that his leaked information was going to really change how the world views the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, and future wars, actually. This was an attempt to crowdsource analysis of the war, and it was his opinion that if ... through crowdsourcing, enough analysis was done on these documents, which he felt to be very important, that it would lead to a greater good ... that society as a whole would come to the conclusion that the war wasn't worth it ... that really no wars are worth it.
On August 14, Manning apologized to the court: "I am sorry that my actions hurt people. I'm sorry that they hurt the United States. I am sorry for the unintended consequences of my actions. When I made these decisions I believed I was going to help people, not hurt people. ... At the time of my decisions, I was dealing with a lot of issues."Kube, Courtney; DeLuca, Matthew; McClam, Erin. ["I'm sorry that I hurt the United States': Bradley Manning apologizes in court"](http://usnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/08/14/20020933-im-sorry-that-i-hurt-the-united-states-bradley-manning-apologizes-in-court), NBC News, August 14, 2013.
Courson, Paul. ["Bradley Manning apologizes, tells court he must pay price"](https://www.cnn.com/2013/08/14/us/manning-sentencing/index.html), CNN, August 14, 2013.
Manning's offenses carried a maximum sentence of 90 years.Sledge, Matt. ["Bradley Manning Sentenced To 35 Years In Prison For WikiLeaks Disclosures"](http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/08/21/bradley-manning-sentenced_n_3787492.html), *The Huffington Post*, August 21, 2013. The government asked for 60 years as a deterrent to others, while Manning's lawyer asked for no more than 25 years. She was sentenced on August 21 to 35 years in prison, reduction in rank to [private](Private (rank)) [E-1 or PVT)]((private)(United States Army enlisted rank insignia), forfeiture of all pay and allowances, and a [discharge](dishonorable)(dishonorable discharge). She was given credit for 1,293 days of pretrial confinement, including 112 days for her treatment at Quantico, and would have been eligible for parole after serving one-third of the sentence. She was confined at the [States Disciplinary Barracks](United)(United States Disciplinary Barracks) (USDB) at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas.
The sentence was criticized as "unjust and unfair"[Bradley Manning: a sentence both unjust and unfair](https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/aug/21/bradley-manning-sentence-unjust), *The Guardian*, August 21, 2013. by *[Guardian](The)(The Guardian)*, and as "excessive"[Bradley Manning's Excessive Sentence](https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/22/opinion/bradley-mannings-sentence-is-excessive.html) *The New York Times*, August 21, 2013. by *[New York Times](The)(The New York Times)*.
On April 14, 2014, Manning's request for clemency was denied; the case went to the [States Army Court of Criminal Appeals](United)(United States Army Court of Criminal Appeals) for further review.Cavaliere, Victoria ["Army General upholds Manning's prison sentence in WikiLeaks case"](https://news.yahoo.com/army-general-upholds-mannings-prison-sentence-wikileaks-case-194630292--sector.html?bcmt=comments-postbox), yahoo.com, April 18, 2014.
### Requests for release
On September 3, 2013, Manning's lawyer filed a Petition for Commutation of Sentence to [Obama](President)(Barack Obama) through the [attorney](pardon)(Office of the Pardon Attorney) at the Department of Justice and [of the Army](Secretary)(Secretary of the Army) [M. McHugh](John)(John M. McHugh).Coombs, David. ["Re: Pardon/Commutation Request For Private Bradley E. Manning"](https://www.scribd.com/document/165450681/Private-Manning-Pardon-Request-Cover-Letter#), September 3, 2013.Manning, Bradley. ["Petition for Commutation of Sentence"](https://www.scribd.com/doc/165451136/Private-Manning-Pardon-Request), September 3, 2013. The petition contended that Manning's disclosures did not cause any "real damage", and that the documents in question did not merit protection as they were not sensitive. The request included a supporting letter from Amnesty International which said that Manning's leaks had exposed violations of human rights. David Coombs's cover letter touched on Manning's role as a [whistleblower](whistleblower), asking that Manning be granted a [pardon](full)(presidential pardon) or that her sentence be reduced to time served.["Bradley Manning seeks presidential pardon"](http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-500144_162-57601315/bradley-manning-seeks-presidential-pardon/), CBS News, September 4, 2013.
* ["Manning seeks presidential pardon for leaking classified information"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/manning-seeks-presidential-pardon-for-leaking-classified-information/2013/09/04/a9128442-15a6-11e3-be6e-dc6ae8a5b3a8_story.html), Associated Press, September 4, 2013.["Manning seeks presidential pardon in WikiLeaks case"](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-wikileaks-manning/manning-seeks-presidential-pardon-in-wikileaks-case-idUSBRE9830XS20130904), Reuters, September 4, 2013.
In April 2015, Amnesty International posted online a letter from Manning in which she wrote: "I am now preparing for my court-martial appeal before the first appeals court. The appeal team, with my attorneys [Hollander](Nancy)(Nancy Hollander) and Vince Ward, are hoping to file our brief before the court in the next six months. We have already had success in getting the court to respect my gender identity by using feminine pronouns in the court filings (she, her, etc.)."Sunde, Kristin Hulaas. ["Whistleblower Chelsea Manning thanks Amnesty activists for their support"](https://www.amnesty.org/articles/blogs/2015/04/whistleblower-chelsea-manning-thanks-amnesty-activists-for-their-support/) , Amnesty International, April 8, 2015.
In November 2016, Manning made a formal petition to President Obama to reduce her 35-year sentence to the six years of time she had already served. On December 10, 2016, a [House petition](White)(White House petition) to commute her sentence reached the minimum 100,000 signatures required for an official response. Lawyers familiar with clemency applications stated in December 2016 that the pardon was unlikely to happen; the request did not fit into the usual criteria.
### Commutation, release, and appeal
In January 2017, a Justice Department source said that Manning was on President Obama's short list for a possible commutation. On January 17, 2017, President Obama commuted all but four months of Manning's remaining sentence. In a press conference held on January 18, Obama stated that Manning's original 35-year prison sentence was "very disproportionate relative to what other leakers have received" and that "it makes sense to commute—and not pardon—her sentence." In 2021, *[Forbes](Forbes)* reported that Obama's commutation of Manning's sentence was "unconditional". Notwithstanding her commutation, Manning's military appeal would continue, with her attorney saying, "We fight in her appeal to clear her name."
On January 26, 2017, in her first column for *The Guardian* since the commutation, Manning lamented that President Obama's political opponents consistently refused to compromise, resulting in "very few permanent accomplishments" during his time in office. As *The Guardian* summarized it, she saw Obama's legacy as "a warning against not being bold enough". In response, President [Trump](Donald)(Donald Trump) tweeted that Manning was an "ungrateful traitor" and should "never have been released".
[[Manning on 18 May 2017.jpg|thumb|upright|Manning in a photo published a day after her release](File:Chelsea)]
Manning was released from Fort Leavenworth's detention center at approximately 2 a.m. Central Time on May 17, 2017. Although sentenced during her court-martial to be dishonorably discharged, Manning was reportedly returned to active unpaid "[leave](excess)(Leave (U.S. military))" status while her appeal was pending.
On May 31, 2018, the [Army Court of Criminal Appeals](U.S.)(United States Army Court of Criminal Appeals) upheld Manning's 2013 court-martial conviction of violating the [Act](Espionage)(Espionage Act of 1917). The court rejected Manning's contention that the statute was too vague to provide fair notice of the criminal nature of disclosing classified documents. "The facts of this case," the three-judge panel ruled, "leave no question as to what constituted national defense information. Appellant's training and experience indicate, without any doubt, she was on notice and understood the nature of the information she was disclosing and how its disclosure could negatively affect national defense." The court also rejected Manning's assertion that her actions in disclosing classified information related to national security are protected by the First Amendment. Manning, the court found, "had no First Amendment right to make the disclosures—doing so not only violated the nondisclosure agreements she signed but also jeopardized national security."
On May 30, 2019, the [Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces](U.S.)(United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces) denied Manning's petition for grant of review of the decision of the U.S. Army Court of Criminal Appeals.
### 2019 jailing for contempt
[[File:Chelsea Manning on 21 April 2020.jpg|thumb|Manning (left) in [Brooklyn](Brooklyn) during the [pandemic](coronavirus)(COVID-19 pandemic) in April 2020, forty days after her release from jailhttps://twitter.com/xychelsea/status/1252707736585998336]]In February 2019, Manning received a subpoena to testify in a U.S. government case against WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange, the existence of which had been accidentally revealed in November 2018, which was proceeding under prosecutors in Virginia. Manning objected to the secrecy of the grand jury proceedings and announced she would refuse to testify, saying "we've seen this power abused countless times to target political speech. I have nothing to contribute to this case and I resent being forced to endanger myself by participating in this predatory practice." Manning also said she had provided all the information she had in 2013 during her court martial and that she stood by her previous answers.
On March 8, 2019, Manning was found in [of court](contempt)(contempt of court) and jailed in the women's wing of a detention center in Alexandria, Virginia, with the judge conditioning her release on her testifying or the [jury](grand)(Grand juries in the United States) concluding its work. Manning was initially held in administrative segregation for 28 days until she was placed in the general population on April 5, 2019. Her supporters described her period in administrative segregation as "effective [confinement](solitary)(solitary confinement)" as it involved "up to 22 hours each day spent in isolation". Officials at the facility said that administrative segregation was used for safety reasons and that prisoners still had access to recreation and social visits during that time. On April 22, 2019, a federal appeals court upheld the trial court's decision holding Manning in contempt and denied a request by Manning that she be released on bail.
After the grand jury's term expired, Manning was released on May 9, 2019, and served with another subpoena to appear before a new grand jury on May 16. Manning again refused to testify, stating that she "believe[d] this grand jury seeks to undermine the integrity of public discourse with the aim of punishing those who expose any serious, ongoing, and systemic abuses of power by this government". The court ordered her returned to jail and fined $500 for each day over 30 days and $1,000 for each day over 60 days. In June 2019, she challenged the fines because of inability to pay. On December 30, 2019, [Nations special rapporteur](United)(United Nations special rapporteur) [Melzer](Nils)(Nils Melzer) released a letter dated November 1, 2019 in which he accused the U.S. government of torturing Manning, called for her immediate release, and called for her court fines to be canceled or reimbursed.
On March 11, 2020, Manning attempted suicide two days before she was scheduled to appear before a judge on a motion to terminate sanctions. Alexandria Sheriff Dana Lawhorne reported that Manning was safe and her lawyers said she was recovering in a hospital.
On March 12, 2020, [District Judge](U.S.)(United States federal judge) [Trenga](Anthony)(Anthony Trenga) of the [District of Virginia](Eastern)(United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia) found that the business of the grand jury had concluded. Since Manning's testimony was no longer needed, the judge found that detention no longer served any coercive purpose, and ordered her released. He denied a request by Manning's lawyers to vacate her accrued fines of $256,000, which he ordered due and payable immediately. That same day, a supporter launched an online [crowdfunding](crowdfunding) campaign to defray Manning's fines. Within 48 hours, nearly 7,000 donations ranging from $5 to $10,000 were received, totaling $267,000. A separate crowdfund by the same supporter raised an additional $50,000 to help pay Manning's post-incarceration living expenses.
In January 2021, in refusing to extradite WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange to the U.S. for trial on federal charges, [District Judge](UK)(Judiciary of England and Wales#District judges) Vanessa Baraitser cited Manning's March 2020 suicide attempt to support finding that, if exposed to the "harsh conditions" of incarceration in America, "Assange's mental health would deteriorate causing him to commit suicide."
## Reaction to disclosures
[[File:Bradley-manning-pride002 (5877396909).jpg|thumb|alt=photograph|Demonstration in support of Manning, [Francisco](San)(San Francisco), June 2011]]
The publication of the leaked material, particularly the diplomatic cables, attracted in-depth coverage worldwide, with several governments blocking websites that contained embarrassing details. [Rusbridger](Alan)(Alan Rusbridger), editor of *The Guardian*, said: "I can't think of a time when there was ever a story generated by a news organization where the White House, the Kremlin, Chávez, India, China, everyone in the world was talking about these things. ... I've never known a story that created such mayhem that wasn't an event like a war or a terrorist attack."Brooke 2011, p. 223.
United States Navy [Admiral](Admiral (United States)) [Mullen](Michael)(Michael Mullen), then [of the Joint Chiefs of Staff](Chairman)(Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff), said the leaks had placed the lives of American soldiers and Afghan informants in danger. Journalist [Greenwald](Glenn)(Glenn Greenwald) argued that Manning was the most important whistleblower since [Ellsberg](Daniel)(Daniel Ellsberg) leaked the *[Papers](Pentagon)(Pentagon Papers)* in 1971. In an impromptu questioning session after a fundraiser, captured on a cell phone video, President [Obama](Barack)(Barack Obama) said that Manning "broke the law", which was later criticized as "[command influence](unlawful)(unlawful command influence)" on Manning's upcoming trial.
In 2011, Manning and WikiLeaks were credited in part, along with news reporters and political analysts,Walker, Peter. "[Amnesty International hails WikiLeaks and Guardian as Arab spring 'catalysts'](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/may/13/amnesty-international-wikileaks-arab-spring?)", *The Guardian*, May 13, 2011. as catalysts for the [Spring](Arab)(Arab Spring) that began in December 2010, when waves of protesters rose up against rulers across the Middle East and North Africa, after the leaked cables exposed government corruption. In 2012, however, [L. Gelvin](James)(James L. Gelvin), an American scholar of Middle Eastern history, wrote: "After the outbreak [2011](January) of the [uprising](Egyptian)(Egyptian revolution of 2011) ... journalists decided to abandon another term they had applied to the Tunisian uprising: the first 'WikiLeaks Revolution,' a title they had adopted that overemphasized the role played by the leaked American cables about corruption in provoking the protests."
A *Washington Post* editorial asked why an apparently unstable Army private had been able to access and transfer sensitive material in the first place. According to her biographer, the American far right saw Manning's sexuality as evidence that gay people were unfit for military service, while the American mainstream thought of Manning as a gay soldier driven mad by bullying.Nicks 2012, p. 196: "To the far right he [Manning] was clear evidence that gays were unfit for military service. And in the American mainstream, the leaks were explained away as the actions of a disaffected homosexual who had come to hate the army after being bullied into madness."
A report written by the Department of Defense a year after the breach found that Manning's document leaks had no significant strategic impact on U.S. war efforts. The heavily redacted final report was not published until June 2017, after a [of Information](Freedom)(Freedom of Information Act (United States)) request by investigative reporter [Leopold](Jason)(Jason Leopold).
## Awards and tributes
In 2011, Manning was awarded a "Whistleblowerpreis" by the German Section of the International Association of Lawyers against Nuclear Arms and the [of German Scientists](Federation)(Federation of German Scientists). While still in detention in 2011, Graham Nash of [Stills and Nash](Crosby,)(Crosby, Stills and Nash) released a song, "Almost Gone (The Ballad of Bradley Manning)", in reference to her deteriorated mental state. In 2012, she was awarded "People's Choice Award" awarded by [Exchange](Global)(Global Exchange). In 2013, she was awarded the US Peace Prize by the US Peace Memorial Foundation "for conspicuous bravery, at the risk of his own freedom, above and beyond the call of duty." In the same year, she was awarded the Sean MacBride Peace Prize by the [Peace Bureau](International)(International Peace Bureau). In 2014, she was awarded the [Adams Award](Sam)(Sam Adams Award) by Sam Adams Associates for Integrity in Intelligence.
Icelandic and Swedish [Party](Pirate)(Pirate Party) MPs nominated Manning and fellow whistleblower [Snowden](Edward)(Edward Snowden) for the 2014 [Peace Prize](Nobel)(Nobel Peace Prize). In 2013, Roots Action launched a petition nominating Manning for the prize that received more than 100,000 supporting signatures.
In May 2015, *[to Say?](Anything)(Anything to Say?)*, an art installation made of mobile bronze statues of Manning, Edward Snowden, and Julian Assange, was placed at Berlin's [Alexanderplatz](Alexanderplatz) for a weekend, as a "monument for courage". Germany's [Party](Green)(Alliance 90/The Greens) sponsored the sculpture created by Italian sculptor Davide Dormino. Afterwards, the installation was moved and exhibited in different European cities.
In 2015, [*Paper*](Paper (magazine)) magazine commissioned artist [Dewey-Hagborg](Heather)(Heather Dewey-Hagborg) to create 2D [phenotype](DNA)(DNA phenotyping) portraits of Manning using [DNA](DNA) collected from cheek swabs and hair clippings sent to the artist from the incarcerated soldier. [printed](3D)(3D printing) versions of the portraits premiered at the [Economic Forum](World)(World Economic Forum) in 2016. In the summer of 2017, Manning (by then released from prison) and Dewey-Hagborg presented their collaboration as part of an exhibition at the Fridman Gallery in New York City.
In September 2017, Manning accepted the [Pioneer Award](EFF)(EFF Pioneer Award) in recognition of her actions as a whistleblower and for her work as an advocate for government transparency and transgender rights. In November, she was named 2017 Newsmaker of the Year by [*Out*](Out (magazine)), which noted her "whistle-in-the-wind tenacity that belies the trauma she's had to contend with". Later that month, [*Bitch*](Bitch (magazine)) listed her among the first-ever "Bitch 50" impactful creators, artists, and activists in pop culture, recognizing her as "a leading voice for transgender and healthcare rights". In December, *[Policy](Foreign)(Foreign Policy)* honored Manning as one of its forty-eight 2017 Global Thinkers "for forcing the United States to question who is a traitor and who is a hero".
In October 2020, Manning shared with the German nonprofit [journalism](investigative)(investigative journalism) organization [CORRECT!V](Correctiv) and Greece's anonymous [whistleblowers](Novartis)(Novartis#Bribery of Greek officials) the third annual [United Left–Nordic Green Left](European)(European United Left–Nordic Green Left) (GUE/NGL) prize for Journalists, Whistleblowers and Defenders of the Right to Information. The GUE/NGL posted a video of her acceptance from her home in [Brooklyn](Brooklyn), New York.
## Gender transition
### 2010–2013
In an article written by Manning, she says her first public appearance as female was in February 2010 while on leave from her military duties; Manning was exhilarated to blend in as a woman.Manning, Chelsea (August 19, 2016) [Facing my fear: being in public as a woman for the very first time](https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/aug/19/chelsea-manning-dont-ask-dont-tell-facing-my-fear-column) The Guardian, Retrieved August 19, 2016.
On August 22, 2013, the day after sentencing, Manning's attorney issued a press release to the *[Today](Today (U.S. TV program))* show announcing that his client was a female, and asked that she be referred to by her new name of Chelsea and feminine pronouns. Manning's statement included the following:
}}
The news media split in its reaction to Manning's request; some organizations used the new name and pronouns, and others continued to use the former ones. Advocacy groups such as [GLAAD](GLAAD), the [Lesbian and Gay Journalists Association](National)(National Lesbian and Gay Journalists Association), and the [Rights Campaign](Human)(Human Rights Campaign) (HRC) encouraged media outlets to refer to Manning by her self-identified name and pronoun.
### 2014
In April 2014, the [District Court](Kansas)(Kansas District Courts) granted a petition from Manning for a legal name change. An Army spokesman stated that while the Army would update personnel records to acknowledge the name change, the military would continue to regard Manning as a male. Manning sought [therapy](hormone)(Hormone replacement therapy (male-to-female)) and the right to live as a woman while confined, consistent with her [dysphoria](gender)(gender dysphoria), which had been confirmed by two Army medical specialists. Such treatment is provided in civilian federal prisons when it is found to be medically necessary, but it is not available in military prisons. The Pentagon policy at the time considered transgender individuals ineligible to serve.
In July, the [Bureau of Prisons](Federal)(Federal Bureau of Prisons) rejected a request by the Army to transfer Manning from the USDB to a civilian facility for treatment of her gender dysphoria. Instead, the Army kept Manning in military custody and said it would begin rudimentary gender treatment, which could include allowing her to wear female undergarments and possibly receive hormone treatments.Baldor, Lolita C. ["APNewsBreak: Manning to begin Gender Treatment"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140724055858/http://www.bigstory.ap.org/article/apnewsbreak-manning-begin-gender-treatment/), Associated Press, July 17, 2014.
On August 12, 2014, the [Civil Liberties Union](American)(American Civil Liberties Union) (ACLU) and Manning's civilian attorney David Coombs said Manning was not receiving treatment for her gender identity condition as previously approved by [of Defense](Secretary)(United States Secretary of Defense) [Hagel](Chuck)(Chuck Hagel). They notified the USDB, Hagel and other [Department](Defense)(United States Department of Defense) officials that a lawsuit would be filed if they did not confirm by September 4 that treatment would be provided. On August 22, Army spokeswoman Lt. Col. Alayne Conway told NBC News, "The Department of Defense has approved a request by Army leadership to provide required medical treatment for an inmate diagnosed with gender dysphoria." Although Conway would not discuss "the medical needs of an individual", she did say, "In general terms, the initial stages of treatment for individuals with gender dysphoria include psychotherapy and elements of the 'real life experience' therapy. Treatment for the condition is highly individualized and generally is sequential and graduated." The Army declined to say when treatment might begin.
In September, Manning filed a lawsuit in federal district court in Washington, D.C., against Secretary of Defense Hagel, claiming she had "been denied access to medically necessary treatment" for gender dysphoria. She sued to be allowed to grow her hair longer and use cosmetics, and to receive hormone treatments "to express her female gender".
### 2015
On February 12, 2015, *[Today](USA)(USA Today)* reported that the commandant of the USDB wrote in a February 5 memo, "After carefully considering the recommendation that (hormone treatment) is medically appropriate and necessary, and weighing all associated safety and security risks presented, I approve adding (hormone treatment) to Inmate Manning's treatment plan." According to *USA Today*, Manning remained a soldier, and the decision to administer hormone therapy was a first for the Army. Manning was not allowed to grow her hair longer. Her ACLU attorney, [Strangio](Chase)(Chase Strangio), said that the delay in approving her hormone treatment "came with a significant cost to Chelsea and her mental health".
On March 5, in response to Manning's request for an order compelling the military to use pronouns that conform to her chosen gender identity, the [Army Court of Criminal Appeals](U.S.)(United States Army Court of Criminal Appeals) ruled, "Reference to appellant in all future formal papers filed before this court and all future orders and decisions issued by this court shall either be neutral, e.g., Private First Class Manning or appellant, or employ a feminine pronoun."
On March 14, the digital library host [Cryptome](Cryptome) posted an unsigned public copy of a court document, filed March 10, wherein the parties to Manning's September 2014 lawsuit against Secretary of Defense Hagel agreed to stay proceedings for seven months, after which time they would address how the litigation should proceed in light of Manning's status at that time. The document revealed that the Army was then providing Manning with weekly psychotherapy, including psychotherapy specific to gender dysphoria; cross-sex hormone therapy; female undergarments; the ability to wear prescribed cosmetics in her daily life at the USDB; and speech therapy.
In April 2015, [International](Amnesty)(Amnesty International) posted online a letter from Manning in which she said:
I finally began my prescribed regime of hormones to continue my overdue gender transition in February. It's been such an amazing relief for my body and brain to finally come into alignment with each other. My stress and anxiety levels have tapered off quite considerably. Overall, things are beginning to move along nicely.
### 2016–2018
On September 13, 2016, the ACLU announced that the army would be granting Manning's request for [transition surgery](gender)(sex reassignment surgery (male-to-female)), a first for a transgender inmate. In December, Manning's attorneys reported that her military doctor refused Manning's request to change the gender on her military records to female.
In January 2017, Manning wrote to *The New York Times* that although months had passed, she had still not seen a surgeon. At the time of Manning's release from prison in May 2017, her attorney stressed that she would be pursuing her own medical care and "building her life on her own terms, separate from the military". Manning subsequently stated via her verified Twitter account that her healthcare from the military had stopped on May 16, 2017, and that she had secured a private health plan. She said her gender transition while in prison had cost "only $600 over 2 years", explaining that the Department of Defense "got meds at a markdown". Although the Army had agreed in September 2016 to allow her to have gender transition surgery, the operation was not performed before her release.
On May 22, 2017, Manning's 2014 lawsuit seeking a federal court to order the Defense Department to provide hormone therapy and other treatment for her gender identity condition was dismissed because, her ACLU attorney explained, "she is free".
On October 20, 2018, Manning tweeted a photograph of herself in a hospital bed reportedly recovering from [reassignment surgery](gender)(Sex reassignment surgery). "After almost a decade of fighting," she wrote, "thru prison, the courts, a hunger strike, and thru the insurance company—I finally got surgery this week." In March 2019, in the context of medical care provided during her re-incarceration, the news media continued to report that she had undergone gender reassignment surgery. In a declaration to the [States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia](United)(United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia) filed on May 6, 2019, Manning formally attested that she underwent gender confirmation surgery in October 2018.
## Prison life
In March 2015, [News](Bloomberg)(Bloomberg News) reported that Manning could be visited by only those she had named before her imprisonment, and not by journalists. She could not be photographed or give interviews on camera. Manning was not allowed to browse the web, but could consult print news and have access to new gender theory texts.
In April 2015, [International](Amnesty)(Amnesty International) posted online a letter from Manning in which she described her daily life. "My days here are busy and very routine," she wrote. "I am taking college correspondence courses for a bachelor's degree. I also work out a lot to stay fit, and read newspapers, magazines and books to keep up-to-date on current events around the world and learn new things."
Also that month, *[Cosmopolitan](Cosmopolitan (magazine))* published the first interview with Manning in prison, conducted by mail. *Cosmo* reported that Manning was optimistic about recent progress but said that not being allowed to grow her hair long was "painful and awkward ... I am torn up. I get through each day okay, but at night, when I'm alone in my room, I finally burn out and crash." Manning said it was "very much a relief" to announce that she is a woman and did not fear the public response. "Honestly, I'm not terribly worried about what people out there might think of me. I just try to be myself." According to *Cosmo*, Manning had her own cell with "two tall vertical windows that face the sun", and could see "trees and hills and blue sky and all the things beyond the buildings and razor wire". Manning denied being harassed by other inmates and claimed some had become confidantes.
### Writing
In February 2015, [Viner](Katharine)(Katharine Viner), editor-in-chief of *[US](Guardian)(Guardian US)*, announced that Manning had joined *The Guardian* as a contributing opinion writer on war, gender, and freedom of information. In 2014, *The Guardian* had published two [op-ed](op-ed)s by Manning: "How to make [Isis](Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant) fall on its own sword" (September 16) and, "I am a transgender woman and the government is denying my civil rights" (December 8). Manning's debut under the new arrangement, "The CIA's torturers and the leaders who approved their actions must face the law," appeared on March 9, 2015.
In April 2015, Manning began communicating via [Twitter](Twitter), under the handle @xychelsea, by using a voice phone to dictate to intermediaries, who tweeted on her behalf.
### Suicide attempts
On July 5, 2016, Manning was taken to a hospital after a [attempt](suicide)(suicide attempt). On July 28, 2016, the ACLU announced that Manning was under investigation and facing several possible charges related to her suicide attempt. She was not allowed to have legal representation at the disciplinary hearing for these charges. At the hearing, held on September 22, she was sentenced to 14 days in solitary confinement, with seven of those days suspended indefinitely. Manning emerged from solitary confinement on October 12, after serving seven days; she said that she was not given the opportunity to appeal the ruling before being placed in solitary.
In an article following her recovery, entitled "Moving On", Manning reflected on her change in identity, wishing people to see her no longer as "Chelsea Manning, formerly Bradley Manning, a US Army Soldier... convicted...", but as a person. She used a selfie from 2008 to accompany the article.
In November 2016, Manning disclosed that she made a second suicide attempt on October 4, 2016, on the first night of her solitary confinement.
### Hunger strike
On September 9, 2016, Manning began a [strike](hunger)(hunger strike) to protest what she described as her being bullied by prison authorities and the U.S. government. On September 13, the ACLU announced that Manning had ended the five-day hunger strike after the Army agreed to provide gender transition surgery. The operation, however, was not performed before her release from prison in May 2017.
## 2017–present
[[File:Chelsea Manning.jpg|thumb|Chelsea Manning interviewed at [Wired](Wired (magazine)) Next Festival 2018 in [Milan](Milan)]]
In a June 9, 2017, appearance on *[Morning America](Good)(Good Morning America)*, her first interview following her release, Manning said she "accepted responsibility" for her actions, and thanked former President Obama for giving her "another chance". She now earns a living through speaking engagements.
### Harvard visiting fellowship and rescindment
On September 13, 2017, Manning was named a [fellow](visiting)(Visiting scholar) at [University](Harvard)(Harvard University). [Delahunt](Bill)(Bill Delahunt), acting director of the [Institute of Politics](Harvard)(Harvard Institute of Politics), said: "Broadening the range and depth of opportunity for students to hear from and engage with experts, leaders and policy-shapers is a cornerstone of the Institute of Politics. We welcome the breadth of thought-provoking viewpoints on race, gender, politics and the media." Harvard said Manning would visit for a limited number of events meant to spark campus discussion, and in particular would engage students in discourse on "issues of LGBTQ identity in the military". According to [newspaper](online)(online newspaper) *[PinkNews](PinkNews)*, this marked "the only LGBT-related fellowship in Harvard history".
The next day [Morell](Michael)(Michael Morell), former deputy director and twice acting director of the [Intelligence Agency](Central)(Central Intelligence Agency) (CIA), resigned as a nonresident [fellow](senior)(Fellow) at Harvard's [Center for Science and International Affairs](Belfer)(Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs). "Unfortunately," Morell wrote, "I cannot be part of an organization—[Kennedy School](The)(John F. Kennedy School of Government)—that honors a convicted felon and leaker of classified information ... the Kennedy School's decision will assist Ms. Manning in her long-standing effort to legitimize the criminal path that she took to prominence, an attempt that may encourage others to leak classified information as well." Later that day, [director](CIA)(Director of the Central Intelligence Agency) [Pompeo](Mike)(Mike Pompeo) advised the university that he supported Morell's decision, and withdrew from his scheduled public appearance that evening at Harvard's [F. Kennedy School of Government](John)(John F. Kennedy School of Government). Calling Manning an "American traitor", Pompeo wrote: "While I have served my country as a soldier in the United States Army and will continue to defend Ms. Manning's right to offer a defense of why she chose this path, I believe it is shameful for Harvard to place its stamp of approval upon her treasonous actions."
On September 15, 2017, [Elmendorf](Douglas)(Douglas Elmendorf), dean of the Kennedy School, announced that Manning had been invited to spend only a single day at the school and that her title of visiting fellow did not convey a special honor. "We did not intend to honor her in any way," Elmendorf wrote, "or to endorse any of her words or deeds ... However, I now think that designating Chelsea Manning as a Visiting Fellow was a mistake, for which I accept responsibility. ... Therefore, we are withdrawing the invitation to her to serve as a Visiting Fellow—and the perceived honor that it implies to some people—while maintaining the invitation for her to spend a day at the Kennedy School and speak in the Forum. I apologize to her and to the many concerned people from whom I have heard today for not recognizing upfront the full implications of our original invitation." When Elmendorf phoned Manning, a member of her support team challenged him to explain why Harvard was so concerned about the title "visiting fellow". The team was alienated by his response, which they inferred suggested she had nothing to contribute. Manning then hung up on the dean.
On September 17, 2017, during a public appearance at [Nantucket Project](The)(The Nantucket Project) in Massachusetts, Manning said: "I'm not ashamed of being disinvited. I view that just as much of an honored distinction as the fellowship itself." She added, "This is a military intelligence and it is a police state in which we can no longer engage in actual political discourse in our institutions."
### Denied entry to Canada
On September 22, 2017, Manning was denied [to Canada](entry)(American entry into Canada by land) from the United States because of her criminal record. According to a letter from Canadian immigration officials, posted online by Manning, she is inadmissible due to being convicted of offenses equivalent to [in Canada](treason)(Treason#Canada). Manning told [Reuters](Reuters) that she had planned to vacation in Montreal and Vancouver, but was stopped at a [border crossing](Quebec)(Champlain–St. Bernard de Lacolle Border Crossing) by the [Border Services Agency](Canada)(Canada Border Services Agency) on the evening of September 21 and detained overnight. She said she would retain a Canadian lawyer to challenge the inadmissibility finding before a Canadian tribunal. In October 2021, appearing [virtually](Web conferencing) at an [and Refugee Board](Immigration)(Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada) hearing to determine her admissibility, Manning called the four-year process to visit Canada "exhausting". When questioned by the adjudicator, Manning did not go into detail about what she leaked because she is bound by a [agreement](non-disclosure)(non-disclosure agreement) with the U.S. government. confirming a July 2017 post from her verified Twitter account saying "technically, read, comment on, discuss, or even look at any leaked material, even if it was after 2010".}} The two-day hearing concluded with the adjudicator indicating a final written decision could be expected in 2022.
On April 8, 2022, Canada's Immigration and Refugee Board upheld the government's decision to bar Manning's entry.
### U.S. Senate candidacy
On January 11, 2018, Manning filed with the [Election Commission](Federal)(Federal Election Commission) to run for the [Senate](U.S.)(United States Senate) in [Maryland](Maryland). On January 18, Manning filed with the [State Board of Elections](Maryland)(Government of Maryland) to challenge the state's [senior](Seniority in the United States Senate) senator, two-term incumbent [Cardin](Ben)(Ben Cardin), as a [Democrat](Democratic Party (United States)) in the [26, 2018, primary election](June)(United States Senate election in Maryland, 2018).
On February 1, *The Washington Post* raised questions about Manning's eligibility to run. "While her case is on appeal," reported *The Post*, "she is on a technical form of unpaid active duty, putting her political campaign at odds with Department of Defense regulations that prohibit military personnel from seeking public office." Military law expert [R. Fidell](Eugene)(Eugene R. Fidell) of [Law School](Yale)(Yale Law School) considered it unlikely the Army would take action against her, saying, "Services don't like to create martyrs." On February 2, Manning commented: "This is an issue that's cropped up mostly from the conservative blogosphere, and the campaign and we don't believe this is an issue at all. ... I've been issued a dishonorable discharge, and I'm not sure where the issue lies in this case." She also confirmed that she was still appealing her court-martial sentence.
In mid-February, she said she had no plans to run television ads, explaining, "I can't stand watching campaign ads. We don't need to go to these old-media methods." Commenting on her opponent, 74-year-old incumbent Ben Cardin, she stated, "He's old hat. He's kept this establishment going."
In May, Manning told the [Press](Associated)(Associated Press) that she did not, in fact, consider herself a Democrat, but wanted to shake up establishment Democrats who were "caving in" to President Trump. The AP noted that, despite having raised $72,000 during the first quarter (compared to the incumbent's $336,000), "The candidate has barely made an effort at tapping sources of grassroots enthusiasm outside of activism circles. And it's easy to find progressive Democrats who feel her candidacy is just a vehicle to boost her profile." Manning said she would not run as an independent should her primary bid fail.
On June 26, 2018, Manning finished second among eight Democrats vying for their party's U.S. Senate nomination in Maryland's primary election. Manning received 5.8% of the votes. Incumbent Ben Cardin won renomination with 80.4% of the votes cast.
Shortly after the polls closed, Manning posted a statement on her campaign website. "Over the past several months," she wrote, "it has become clear that my experiences have taken an enormous toll on my physical and emotional health. I stepped back from campaigning to prioritize my own well-being." She thanked "the more than one thousand individual donors who generously contributed to our campaign," and "our team of hundreds of volunteers." But, she added, "after spending hours and hours knocking on doors and making phone calls, I'm convinced that the change people truly need goes beyond what our corrupt two-party system is willing to offer."
### Interactions with far-right social media figures
[[Manning, 20 January 2018.jpg|thumb|upright|Manning outside "A Night for Freedom" January 20, 2018](File:Chelsea)]
On January 20, 2018, Manning attended "A Night for Freedom" hosted by far-right [media](social)(social media) personality [Cernovich](Mike)(Mike Cernovich) at the nightclub FREQ in [Kitchen, Manhattan](Hell's)(Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan). The party was billed, in Cernovich's words, as a "gathering of patriots and political dissidents who are bored with mainstream political events", and included right-wing figures such as [McInnes](Gavin)(Gavin McInnes), [O'Keefe](James)(James O'Keefe), [Wintrich](Lucian)(Lucian Wintrich), and [Posobiec](Jack)(Jack Posobiec). According to *The Washington Post*, Manning's attendance infuriated the [far-left](Far-left politics). "What followed," *The Post* reported, "was an overheated Internet tug-of-war between opposite sides of the political spectrum, each accusing the other of co-opting Manning, while her intentions were relentlessly picked apart." Manning afterward stated that she was acting as a [agent](double)(double agent), infiltrating the [alt-right](alt-right) to gather information and insight about alt-right rally plans. It later emerged that Manning participated with [Fairbanks](Cassandra)(Cassandra Fairbanks) (an admirer and writer for the right-wing website *[Gateway Pundit](The)(The Gateway Pundit))*, Posobiec, Wintrich, and others in [the Room DC](Escape)(Escape room), and spent an evening drinking and playing *[Against Humanity](Cards)(Cards Against Humanity)* at Wintrich's apartment with him, Fairbanks, and others. Manning repeated her intentions to gain information about the alt-right, but apologised to her supporters who felt betrayed.
### Tour of Australia and New Zealand
In August 2018, the [of Australia](Government)(Government of Australia) refused to issue Manning a [visa](Travel visa) to enter the country, where she was scheduled to make a series of public appearances. The company arranging Manning's speaking tour said it would appeal the decision, taken under s501(1) of the *[Act](Migration)(Migration Act 1958)*, which authorizes a minister to refuse a visa on character grounds. The [of Home Affairs](Department)(Department of Home Affairs (Australia)) specified that Manning did not pass the character test because of her "substantial criminal record". On September 2, Manning spoke as scheduled at the [Opera House](Sydney)(Sydney Opera House) except that she appeared onscreen live via [satellite](Communications satellite) from Los Angeles.
On August 31, 2018, [New Zealand](Immigration)(Immigration New Zealand) granted Manning special direction to apply for a work visa to enter New Zealand, stating there was "no reason to believe Ms Manning would not comply with the terms and conditions of any visa issued". Due to her previous convictions for espionage and other offenses, Manning is subject to character provisions of the [Act](Immigration)(Immigration to New Zealand#Immigration Act 2009). Manning had plans to tour [Auckland](Auckland) and [Wellington](Wellington) on September 8 and 9. [Minister](Prime)(Prime Minister of New Zealand) [Ardern](Jacinda)(Jacinda Ardern) defended the New Zealand Government's decision to allow Manning entry, stating that "we are a nation that allows free speech". By contrast, the center-right [Party](National)(New Zealand National Party) had called for Manning to be banned from entering New Zealand on national security grounds due to her espionage and computer fraud convictions.
In August 2021, *Forbes* reported that Manning had been contracted to conduct an [security audit](information)(information security audit) with [Technologies SA](NYM)(NYM Technologies SA), a Switzerland-based for-profit [cryptocurrency](cryptocurrency) startup "to send data anonymously around the Internet using the same [blockchain](blockchain) technology underlying [Bitcoin](Bitcoin)." Prior to her arrest in 2010, Manning was known to [DJ](DJ) on occasion.
### *README.txt* Book
In May 2019, Manning announced that [Straus & Giroux](Farrar,)(Farrar, Straus & Giroux) would publish her memoir. She said it would be primarily a personal narrative that would not relitigate the facts of her case. The book, titled *[README.txt](README.txt)*, was published in 2022.Reviews:|||||}} Writer [Moskowitz](P.E.)(P.E. Moskowitz) interviewed Manning about the book in which Manning says, "I wanted to put down in writing the context of who I am, my whole life, my life story — from my perspective as much as possible. Obviously, it's in the context of people's interest in certain events. But I am an all-encompassing human being, and I didn't come from a vacuum. I was shaped into the person I've become. And I wanted to sketch that out, give people an idea of my own background, my own story. It's been called a memoir but I think of it more as a coming-of-age story."
### DJ'ing
Manning has returned to DJing as of August 2022.
## See also
* [security](Information)(Information security)
* [sensitivity](Information)(Information sensitivity)
* [people in prison](LGBT)(LGBT people in prison)
* [of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States](List)(List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States)
* [Internal Security Act](McCarran)(McCarran Internal Security Act) of 1950
* [of WikiLeaks](Reception)(Reception of WikiLeaks)
* [Source* (oratorio)](*The)(The Source (oratorio))
* [Truly* (2019 film)](*Yours)(Yours Truly (2019 film))
## Notes
## Citations
## Bibliography
### Books
*
*
*
*
*
### Key articles
* Caesar, Ed. ["Bradley Manning: Wikileaker"](http://www.edcaesar.co.uk/article.php?article_id=53) , *The Sunday Times*, December 19, 2010; from the original on April 7, 2012.
* Fishman, Steve. ["Bradley Manning's Army of One"](http://nymag.com/news/features/bradley-manning-2011-7/), *New York Magazine*, July 3, 2011.
* Greenwald, Glenn. ["The strange and consequential case of Bradley Manning, Adrian Lamo and WikiLeaks"](https://archive.today/20130202183045/http://www.salon.com/2010/06/18/wikileaks_3/singleton/), *Salon*, June 18, 2010.
* Last, Jonathan V. ["The Left's Canonization of St. Bradley Manning"](http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/01/11/opinion/main7233405.shtml) , CBS News, January 11, 2011.
* Manning, Bradley. ["Memorandum"](https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0B_zC44SBaZPoMzMyNWExZmUtZjEzMS00ZjM2LWE3OWMtM2I4NzY5NDNkMmFh&hl=en&authkey=CMKgiogG), released by David Coombs, March 10, 2011; [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190703012636/https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_zC44SBaZPoMzMyNWExZmUtZjEzMS00ZjM2LWE3OWMtM2I4NzY5NDNkMmFh/edit?hl=en&authkey=CMKgiogG&pli=1&pli=1) from the original on April 6, 2012.
* Manning, Bradley. ["PFC Manning's statement redacted"](https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B_zC44SBaZPoQmJUYURBUnBycUk), January 29, 2013.
* Nakashima, Ellen. ["Bradley Manning is at the center of the WikiLeaks controversy. But who is he?"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/magazine/who-is-wikileaks-suspect-bradley-manning/2011/04/16/AFMwBmrF_print.html), *The Washington Post*, May 4, 2011; from the original on April 7, 2012.
* Nicks, Denver. ["Private Manning and the Making of Wikileaks"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110429142813/http://thislandpress.com/09/23/2010/private-manning-and-the-making-of-wikileaks-2/), *This Land*, September 23, 2010.
* PBS *Frontline*. ["Bradley Manning's Facebook Page"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/wikileaks/manning-facebook-page/), March 2011; [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110525231659/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/wikileaks/manning-facebook-page/) from the original on April 7, 2011.
* Smith, Martin. ["The Private Life of Bradley Manning"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/wikileaks/bradley-manning/), PBS *Frontline*, March 7, 2011 (interview transcripts: ["Brian Manning"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/wikileaks/bradley-manning/interviews/brian-manning.html) and ["Jordan Davis"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/wikileaks/bradley-manning/interviews/jordan-davis.html)).
* Thompson, Ginger. ["Early Struggles of Soldier Charged in Leak Case"](https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/09/us/09manning.html), *The New York Times*, August 8, 2010.
* Zetter, Kim. ["Jolt in WikiLeaks Case: Feds Found Manning-Assange Chat Logs on Laptop"](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/12/manning-assange-laptop/), *Wired*, December 19, 2011.
### Key articles on the Lamo–Manning chat log, in order of publication
* Poulsen, Kevin. ["Ex-Hacker Adrian Lamo Institutionalized for Asperger's"](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/05/lamo/), *Wired* magazine, May 20, 2010.
* Poulsen, Kevin and Zetter, Kim. ["U.S. Intelligence Analyst Arrested in WikiLeaks Video Probe"](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/06/leak/), *Wired* magazine, June 6, 2010.
* Poulsen, Kevin and Zetter, Kim. ['I Can't Believe What I'm Confessing to You': The WikiLeaks Chats"](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/06/wikileaks-chat/), *Wired* magazine, June 10, 2010.
* Nakashima, Ellen. ["Messages from alleged leaker Bradley Manning portray him as despondent soldier"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/06/09/AR2010060906170.html), *The Washington Post*, June 10, 2010.
* Greenwald, Glenn. [Email exchange between Glenn Greenwald and Kevin Poulsen](http://utdocuments.blogspot.ca/2010/06/email-exchange-with-wireds-kevin.html), June 14–17, 2010.
* Poulsen, Kevin and Zetter, Kim. ["Three Weeks After Arrest, Still No Charges in WikiLeaks Probe"](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/06/manning-detainment/), *Wired* magazine, June 16, 2010.
* [Xeni](Jardin,)(Xeni Jardin). ["WikiLeaks: a somewhat less redacted version of the Lamo/Manning logs"](http://www.boingboing.net/2010/06/19/wikileaks-a-somewhat.html), *Boing Boing*, June 19, 2010.
* Greenwald, Glenn. ["The worsening journalistic disgrace at Wired"](http://www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2010/12/27/wired) , *Salon*, December 27, 2010.
* Hansen, Evan and Poulsen, Kevin. ["Putting the Record Straight on the Lamo-Manning Chat Logs"](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2010/12/greenwald/), *Wired* magazine, December 28, 2010.
* Greenwald, Glenn. ["Wired's refusal to release or comment on the Manning chat logs"](http://www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2010/12/29/wired_1) , *Salon*, December 29, 2010.
* *Firedoglake*. ["Manning/WikiLeaks timeline"](http://firedoglake.com/merged-manning-lamo-chat-logs/), published as a complete version of the released excerpts. Retrieved March 14, 2011; from the original on March 28, 2012.
* Hansen, Evan. ["Manning-Lamo Chat Logs Revealed"](https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/07/manning-lamo-logs/), *Wired* magazine, July 13, 2011; from the original on March 28, 2012.
## Further reading
### Articles
* Khatchadourian, Raffi. ["No Secrets"](http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2010/06/07/100607fa_fact_khatchadourian?currentPage=all), *The New Yorker*, June 7, 2010.
* *The Guardian*. ["Afghanistan: The War Logs"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/the-war-logs). Retrieved May 9, 2012.
* *The Guardian*. ["Iraq: The War Logs"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/iraq-war-logs). Retrieved May 9, 2012.
* *The New York Times*. ["The War Logs" – WikiLeaks Documents](https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/world/war-logs.html). Retrieved May 9, 2012.
* *Wired*. ["Bradley Manning"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100623102155/https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/category/bradley-manning/). Retrieved August 26, 2017.
*
*
### Books
* [Julian](Assange,)(Julian Assange). *Julian Assange: The Unauthorised Autobiography*. Canongate, 2011. .
* Madar, Chase. *The Passion of Bradley Manning*. OR Books, 2012. .
* [Greg](Mitchell,)(Greg Mitchell) and [Kevin](Gosztola,)(Kevin Gosztola). *Truth and Consequences: The U.S. vs. Bradley Manning*. Sinclair Books, 2012. .
* Maxwell, Lida. *Insurgent Truth: Chelsea Manning and the Politics of Outsider Truth-Telling*. Oxford University Press, 2019. .
* Fischer, Mia. *Terrorizing Gender: Transgender Visibility and the Surveillance Practices of the U.S. Security State*. University of Nebraska Press, 2019. .
* Lombardi, Chris. ''I Ain't Marching Anymore: Dissenters, Deserters, and Objectors to America's Wars*. The New Press, 2020. .
## External links
*
*
*
* [Federal Election Commission (FEC) Form 2 Statement of Candidacy filed January 11, 2018 by Chelsea Elizabeth Manning](http://docquery.fec.gov/pdf/276/201801110200001276/201801110200001276.pdf)
* [Federal Election Commission (FEC) Maryland – Senate Candidate Financial Totals including Chelsea Elizabeth Manning](https://www.fec.gov/data/elections/senate/MD/2018/)
* [Chelsea Manning for U.S. Senate campaign website](https://web.archive.org/web/20180426162947/https://xychelsea.is/)
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Punk rock
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punk_rock
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# Punk rock
*Revision ID: 1159893642 | Timestamp: 2023-06-13T06:00:44Z*
---
*Punk Rock* (play)}}
* [punk](Gypsy)(Gypsy punk)
* [pop-punk](pop-punk)
* [psychobilly](psychobilly)
* [blues](punk)(punk blues)
* [jazz](punk)(punk jazz)
* [punk](ska)(ska punk)
* [rap](punk)(punk rap)
| regional_scenes = * [Australia](Punk rock in Australia)
* [Country](Basque)(Basque Radical Rock)
* [Brazil](Punk in Brazil)
* [California](Punk rock in California)
* [Cuba](Los Frikis)
* [Canada](Canadian punk rock)
* [France](French punk)
* [Germany](German punk)
* [Netherlands](Dutch_Punk)
* [Peru](Peru punk)
* [Philadelphia](Philadelphia punk scene)
* [Scotland](Scottish Gaelic punk)
* [Spain](Punk rock in Spain)
* [Yugoslavia](Punk rock in Yugoslavia)
* [Greece](Greek punk)
| local_scenes = * [Birmingham](Popular music of Birmingham#Punk rock)
* [Leeds](Music in Leeds#Punk rock)
* [York City](New)(Music of New York City#Proto punk, new wave and no wave)
| other_topics = * [ethic](DIY)(DIY ethic)
* [of bands, 0–K](list)(list of punk rock bands, 0–K)
* [of bands, L–Z](list)(list of punk rock bands, L–Z)
* [of festivals](list)(list of punk rock festivals)
* [fashion](punk)(punk fashion)
* [of the punk subculture](History)(History of the punk subculture)
* [subculture](punk)(punk subculture)
* [zine](punk)(punk zine)
* [timeline](timeline of punk rock)
}}
**Punk rock** (also known as simply **punk**) is a [genre](music)(music genre) that emerged in the mid-1970s. Rooted in 1960s [rock](garage)(garage rock), punk bands rejected the perceived excesses of mainstream 1970s rock music. They typically produced short, fast-paced songs with hard-edged melodies and singing styles, stripped-down instrumentation, and often shouted political, [anti-establishment](anti-establishment) lyrics. Punk embraces a [ethic](DIY)(DIY ethic); many bands self-produce recordings and distribute them through [record label](independent)(independent record label)s.
The term "punk rock" was previously used by American [critics](rock)(Music criticism) in the early 1970s to describe the mid-1960s garage bands. Certain late 1960s and early 1970s Detroit acts, such as [MC5](MC5) and [and the Stooges](Iggy)(Iggy and the Stooges), and other bands from elsewhere created out-of-the-mainstream music that became highly influential on what was to come. [rock](Glam)(Glam rock) in the UK and [New York Dolls](the)(the New York Dolls) from New York have also been cited as key influences. Between 1974 and 1976, when the genre that became known as punk was developing, prominent acts included [Television](Television (band)), [Smith](Patti)(Patti Smith), and the [Ramones](Ramones) in New York City; [Saints](the)(The Saints (Australian band)) in [Brisbane](Brisbane punk rock); and the [Pistols](Sex)(Sex Pistols), [Clash](the)(the Clash), and [Damned](the)(The Damned (band)) in London, and the [Buzzcocks](Buzzcocks) in Manchester. By late 1976, punk had become a major cultural phenomenon in the UK. It gave rise to a [subculture](punk)(punk subculture) that expressed youthful rebellion through distinctive [of clothing](styles)(Punk fashion), such as T-shirts with deliberately offensive graphics, leather jackets, studded or spiked bands and jewellery, safety pins, and bondage and S&M clothes.
In 1977, the influence of the music and subculture spread worldwide. It took root in a wide range of local scenes that often rejected affiliation with the mainstream. In the late 1970s, punk experienced a second wave, when new acts that had not been active during its formative years adopted the style. By the early 1980s, faster and more aggressive subgenres, such as [punk](hardcore)(hardcore punk) (e.g. [Threat](Minor)(Minor Threat)), [Oi!](Oi!) (e.g. [Exploited](the)(the Exploited)) and [anarcho-punk](anarcho-punk) (e.g. [Crass](Crass)), became the predominant modes of punk rock. Many musicians who identified with punk or were inspired by it went on to pursue other musical directions, giving rise to movements such as [post-punk](post-punk), [wave](new)(new wave music), and [rock](alternative)(alternative rock). Following alternative rock's mainstream breakthrough in the 1990s with [Nirvana](Nirvana (band)), punk rock saw renewed major-label interest and mainstream appeal exemplified by the rise of the California bands [Day](Green)(Green Day), [Distortion](Social)(Social Distortion), [Rancid](Rancid (band)), [Offspring](the)(the Offspring), [Religion](Bad)(Bad Religion), and [NOFX](NOFX).
## Characteristics
### Outlook
The first wave of punk rock was "aggressively modern" and differed from what came before.Robb (2006), p. xi. According to [Ramones](Ramones) drummer [Ramone](Tommy)(Tommy Ramone), "In its initial form, a lot of [1960s](1960s) stuff was innovative and exciting. Unfortunately, what happens is that people who could not hold a candle to the likes of [Hendrix](Jimi Hendrix) started noodling away. Soon you had endless [solos](Guitar solo) that went nowhere. By 1973, I knew that what was needed was some pure, stripped down, no bullshit rock 'n' roll." [Holmstrom](John)(John Holmstrom), founding editor of *[Punk](Punk (magazine))* magazine, recalls feeling "punk rock had to come along because the rock scene had become so tame that [acts] like [Joel](Billy)(Billy Joel) and [and Garfunkel](Simon)(Simon and Garfunkel) were being called rock and roll, when to me and other fans, rock and roll meant this wild and rebellious music." According to [Christgau](Robert)(Robert Christgau), punk "scornfully rejected the political idealism and Californian flower-power silliness of [hippie](hippie) myth."
|width=20%|align=right|style=padding:8px;}}
Technical accessibility and a [it yourself](do)(do it yourself) (DIY) spirit are prized in punk rock. [pub rock](UK)(UK pub rock) from 1972 to 1975 contributed to the emergence of punk rock by developing a network of small venues, such as pubs, where non-mainstream bands could play. Pub rock also introduced the idea of [record label](independent)(independent record label)s, such as [Records](Stiff)(Stiff Records), which put out basic, low-cost records. Pub rock bands organized their own small venue tours and put out small pressings of their records. In the early days of punk rock, this DIY ethic stood in marked contrast to what those in the scene regarded as the ostentatious musical effects and technological demands of many mainstream rock bands.Rodel (2004), p. 237; Bennett (2001), pp. 49–50. Musical virtuosity was often looked on with suspicion. According to Holmstrom, punk rock was "rock and roll by people who didn't have very many skills as musicians but still felt the need to express themselves through music". In December 1976, the English [fanzine](fanzine) *Sideburns* published a now-famous illustration of three chords, captioned "This is a chord, this is another, this is a third. Now form a band".Savage (1992), pp. 280–281, including reproduction of the original image. Several sources incorrectly ascribe the illustration to the leading fanzine of the London punk scene, ''[Glue](Sniffin')(Sniffin' Glue)'' (e.g., Wells [2004], p. 5; Sabin [1999], p. 111). Robb (2006) ascribes it to [Stranglers](the)(the Stranglers)' in-house fanzine, *Strangled* (p. 311).
British punk rejected contemporary mainstream rock, the broader culture it represented, and their musical predecessors: "No [Elvis](Elvis Presley), [Beatles](The Beatles) or [Rolling Stones](the)(the Rolling Stones) in 1977", declared [Clash](the)(the Clash) song "1977".Harris (2004), p. 202. 1976, when the punk revolution began in Britain, became a musical and a cultural "Year Zero".Reynolds (2005), p. 4. As nostalgia was discarded, many in the scene adopted a [nihilistic](nihilism) attitude summed up by the [Pistols](Sex)(Sex Pistols)' slogan "No Future"; in the later words of one observer, amid the unemployment and social unrest in 1977, "punk's nihilistic swagger was the most thrilling thing in England."Jeffries, Stuart. "A Right Royal Knees-Up". *The Guardian*. July 20, 2007. While "self-imposed [alienation](social alienation)" was common among "drunk punks" and "gutter punks", there was always a tension between their nihilistic outlook and the "radical leftist utopianism"Washburne, Christopher, and Maiken Derno. *Bad Music*. Routledge, 2004. Page 247. of bands such as [Crass](Crass), who found positive, liberating meaning in the movement. As a Clash associate describes singer [Strummer](Joe)(Joe Strummer)'s outlook, "Punk rock is meant to be our freedom. We're meant to be able to do what we want to do."
[Authenticity](Authenticity (philosophy)) has always been important in the punk subculture—the pejorative term "[poseur](poseur)" is applied to those who adopt its stylistic attributes but do not actually share or understand its underlying values and philosophy. Scholar Daniel S. Traber argues that "attaining authenticity in the punk identity can be difficult"; as the punk scene matured, he observes, eventually "everyone got called a poseur".
### Musical and lyrical elements
[[File:Sex Pistols in Paradiso.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Members of rock band the Sex Pistols onstage in a concert.|Vocalist [Rotten](Johnny)(Johnny Rotten) of the [Pistols](Sex)(Sex Pistols) flanked by guitarists [Matlock](Glen)(Glen Matlock) and [Jones](Steve)(Steve Jones (musician)), in front of drummer [Cook](Paul)(Paul Cook)]]
The early punk bands emulated the minimal musical arrangements of 1960s [rock](garage)(garage rock).Murphy, Peter, "Shine On, The Lights Of The Bowery: The Blank Generation Revisited," *Hot Press*, July 12, 2002; [Barney](Hoskyns,)(Barney Hoskyns), "Richard Hell: King Punk Remembers the [ ] Generation," ''[Backpages](Rock's)(Rock's Backpages)*, March 2002. Typical punk rock instrumentation is stripped down to one or two guitars, bass, drums and vocals. Songs tend to be shorter than those of other rock genres and played at fast tempos.Laing, Dave. *One Chord Wonders: Power and Meaning in Punk Rock''. PM Press, 2015. p. 80 Most early punk rock songs retained a traditional rock 'n' roll [form](verse-chorus)(verse-chorus form) and 4/4 [signature](time)(time signature). However, later bands often broke from this format.[Steven](Blush,)(Steven Blush), "Move Over My Chemical Romance: The Dynamic Beginnings of US Punk," *[Uncut](UNCUT (magazine))*, January 2007.
The vocals are sometimes nasal,Wells (2004), p. 41; Reed (2005), p. 47. and the lyrics often shouted in an "arrogant snarl", rather than conventionally sung.Shuker (2002), p. 159.Laing, Dave. *One Chord Wonders: Power and Meaning in Punk Rock*. PM Press, 2015. p. 21 Complicated [solo](guitar)(guitar solo)s were considered self-indulgent, although basic guitar breaks were common.Chong, Kevin, ["The Thrill Is Gone"](http://www.cbc.ca/arts/music/guitarsolos.html) , Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, August 2006. Retrieved on December 17, 2006. Guitar parts tend to include highly [distorted](distortion pedal) [chord](power)(power chord)s or [chord](barre)(barre chord)s, creating a characteristic sound described by Christgau as a "buzzsaw drone".Quoted in Some punk rock bands take a [rock](surf)(surf music) approach with a lighter, twangier guitar tone. Others, such as [Quine](Robert)(Robert Quine), lead guitarist of [Voidoids](the)(the Voidoids), have employed a wild, "[gonzo](Gonzo journalism)" attack, a style that stretches back through [Velvet Underground](the)(the Velvet Underground) to the 1950s recordings of [Turner](Ike)(Ike Turner).Palmer (1992), p. 37. Bass guitar lines are often uncomplicated; the quintessential approach is a relentless, repetitive "forced rhythm", although some punk rock bass players—such as [Watt](Mike)(Mike Watt) of [Minutemen](the)(Minutemen (band)) and [Firehose](Firehose (band))—emphasize more technical bass lines. Bassists often use a [pick](Plectrum) due to the rapid succession of notes, making [fingerpicking](fingerpicking) impractical. Drums typically sound heavy and dry, and often have a minimal set-up. Compared to other forms of rock, [syncopation](syncopation) is much less the rule. Hardcore drumming tends to be especially fast. Production tends to be minimalistic, with tracks sometimes laid down on home tape recorders or four-track portastudios.
Punk rock lyrics are typically blunt and confrontational; compared to the lyrics of other popular music genres, they often focus on social and political issues.Sabin (1999), pp. 4, 226; Dalton, Stephen, "Revolution Rock", *Vox*, June 1993. See also Laing (1985), pp. 27–32, for a statistical comparison of lyrical themes. Trend-setting songs such as the Clash's "[Opportunities](Career)(Career Opportunities (song))" and [Chelsea](Chelsea (band))'s "Right to Work" deal with unemployment and the grim realities of urban life.Laing (1985), p. 31. Especially in early British punk, a central goal was to outrage and shock the mainstream.Laing (1985), pp. 81, 125. The Sex Pistols' "[in the U.K.](Anarchy)(Anarchy in the U.K.)" and "[Save the Queen](God)(God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song))" openly disparaged the British political system and social mores. Anti-sentimental depictions of relationships and sex are common, as in "Love Comes in Spurts", recorded by the [Voidoids](Voidoids). [Anomie](Anomie), variously expressed in the poetic terms of Richard Hell's "[Generation](Blank)(Blank Generation (song))" and the bluntness of the Ramones' "[I Wanna Sniff Some Glue](Now)(Now I Wanna Sniff Some Glue)", is a common theme.Savage (1991), p. 440. See also Laing (1985), pp. 27–32. The controversial content of punk lyrics has frequently led to certain punk records being banned by radio stations and refused shelf space in major chain stores.Laing, Dave. *One Chord Wonders: Power and Meaning in Punk Rock*. PM Press, 2015. p. 7 Christgau said that "Punk is so tied up with the disillusions of growing up that punks do often age poorly."
### Visual and other elements
[[punks with leather jackets and dyed mohawk hairstyles](File:Punk-27947.jpg|thumb|1980s)]
The classic punk rock look among male American musicians harkens back to the T-shirt, motorcycle jacket, and jeans ensemble favored by American [greasers](Greaser (subculture)) of the 1950s associated with the [rockabilly](rockabilly) scene and by British [rockers](Rocker (subculture)) of the 1960s. In addition to the T-shirt, and leather jackets they wore ripped jeans and boots, typically [Martens](Doc)(Doc Martens). The punk look was inspired to shock people. [Hell](Richard)(Richard Hell)'s more androgynous, ragamuffin look—and reputed invention of the [aesthetic](safety-pin)(safety pin#Culture)—was a major influence on Sex Pistols impresario [McLaren](Malcolm)(Malcolm McLaren) and, in turn, British punk style.Strongman (2008), pp. 58, 63, 64; Colegrave and Sullivan (2005), p. 78. ([D Morton](John)(John D Morton) of Cleveland's [Eels](Electric)(Electric Eels (band)) may have been the first rock musician to wear a safety-pin-covered jacket.)See McLaren's partner, fashion designer [Westwood](Vivienne)(Vivienne Westwood), credits [Rotten](Johnny)(Johnny Rotten) as the first British punk musician to rip his shirt, and Sex Pistols bassist [Vicious](Sid)(Sid Vicious) as the first to use safety pins, although few of those following punk could afford to buy McLaren and Westwood's designs so famously worn by the Pistols, so they made their own, diversifying the 'look' with various different styles based on these designs.
Young women in punk demolished the typical female types in rock of either "coy sex kittens or wronged blues belters" in their fashion.Habell-Pallan, Michelle (2012). "Death to Racism and Punk Rock Revisionism", *Pop: When the World Falls Apart: Music in the Shadow of Doubt*. p. 247-270. Durham : Duke University Press. . Early female punk musicians displayed styles ranging from [Sioux](Siouxsie)(Siouxsie Sioux)'s bondage gear to [Smith](Patti)(Patti Smith)'s "straight-from-the-gutter androgyny".Strohm (2004), p. 188. The former proved much more influential on female fan styles.See, e.g., Laing (1985), "Picture Section," p. 18. Over time, tattoos, [piercings](Body piercing), and metal-studded and -spiked accessories became increasingly common elements of [fashion](punk)(punk fashion) among both musicians and fans, a "style of adornment calculated to disturb and outrage".Wojcik (1997), p. 122. Among the other facets of the punk rock scene, a punk's hair is an important way of showing their freedom of expression. The typical male punk haircut was originally short and choppy; the [mohawk](Mohawk hairstyle) later emerged as a characteristic style.Wojcik (1995), pp. 16–19; Laing (1985), p. 109. Along with the mohawk, long spikes have been associated with the punk rock genre.
==1960s-1973: Precursors==
### Garage rock and beat
The early to mid-1960s garage rock bands in the United States and elsewhere are often recognized as punk rock's progenitors. [Kingsmen](The)(The Kingsmen)'s "[Louie](Louie,)(Louie, Louie)" is often cited as punk rock's defining "[ur-text](Urtext edition)".}} After the success of the [Invasion](British)(British Invasion), the garage phenomenon gathered momentum around the US. By 1965, the harder-edged sound of British acts, such as [Rolling Stones](the)(the Rolling Stones), [Kinks](the)(the Kinks), and [Who](the)(the Who), became increasingly influential with American garage bands. The raw sound of U.S. groups such as [Sonics](the)(the Sonics) and [Seeds](the)(the Seeds) predicted the style of later acts. In the early 1970s some rock critics used the term "punk rock" to refer to the mid-1960s garage genre, as well as for subsequent acts perceived to be in that stylistic tradition, such as the Stooges and others.
In Britain, largely under the influence of the [mod](Mod subculture) movement and beat groups, the Kinks' 1964 hit singles "[Really Got Me](You)(You Really Got Me)" and "[Day and All of the Night](All)(All Day and All of the Night)", were both influenced by "Louie, Louie". In 1965, [Who](the)(the Who) released the mod anthem "[Generation](My)(My Generation)", which according to John Reed, anticipated the kind of "cerebral mix of musical ferocity and rebellious posture" that would characterize much of the later British punk rock of the 1970s. The Who and [Small Faces](the)(the Small Faces) were among the few rock elders acknowledged by the Sex Pistols.Fletcher (2000), p. 497.}} The garage/beat phenomenon extended beyond North America and Britain.In America, the [rock](psychedelic)(psychedelic rock) movement birthed an array of garage bands that would later become influences on punk, [Austin Chronicle](the)(the Austin Chronicle) described the [Floor Elevators](13th)(13th Floor Elevators) as a band who can lay claim to influencing the movement, "the seeds of punk remain blatant in the howling ultimatum [Erickson](Roky Erickson) transferred from his previous teen combo to the Elevators" as well as describing other bands in the [Texas](Houston,)(Houston, Texas) [rock](psychedelic)(psychedelic rock) scene as "a prime example of the opaque [proto-punk](proto-punk) undertow at the heart of the best [psychedelia](psychedelia)". Hippie [proto-punk](proto-punk) [Peel](David)(David Peel (musician)) of [York City's](New)(New York City) [East Side](Lower)(Lower East Side) was the first person to use the word "[motherfucker](motherfucker)" in a song title and also directly influenced [Clash](the)(the Clash).
### Proto-punk
In August 1969, [Stooges](the)(the Stooges), from [Arbor](Ann)(Ann Arbor, Michigan), premiered with a [album](self-titled)(The Stooges (album)). According to critic [Marcus](Greil)(Greil Marcus), the band, led by singer [Pop](Iggy)(Iggy Pop), created "the sound of [Berry](Chuck)(Chuck Berry)'s [Airmobile](You Can't Catch Me)—after thieves stripped it for parts".Marcus (1979), p. 294. The album was produced by [Cale](John)(John Cale), a former member of New York's experimental rock group [Velvet Underground](the)(the Velvet Underground), who inspired many of those involved in the creation of punk rock.Taylor (2003), p. 49. The [York Dolls](New)(New York Dolls) updated 1950s' rock 'n' roll in a fashion that later became known as [punk](glam)(glam punk).Harrington (2002), p. 538. The New York duo [Suicide](Suicide (band)) played spare, experimental music with a confrontational stage act inspired by that of the Stooges.Bessman (1993), pp. 9–10. In Boston, [Modern Lovers](the)(the Modern Lovers), led by [Richman](Jonathan)(Jonathan Richman), minimalistic style gained attention. In 1974, as well, the Detroit band [Death](Death (protopunk band))—made up of three African-American brothers—recorded "scorching blasts of feral ur-punk", but could not arrange a release deal. In Ohio, a small but influential underground rock scene emerged, led by [Devo](Devo) in [Akron](Akron, Ohio) and [Kent](Kent, Ohio) and by Cleveland's [Eels](Electric)(Electric Eels (band)), [Mirrors](Mirrors (Ohio band)) and [from the Tombs](Rocket)(Rocket from the Tombs).
Bands anticipating the forthcoming movement were appearing as far afield as [Düsseldorf](Düsseldorf), West Germany, where "punk before punk" band [Neu!](Neu!) formed in 1971, building on the [Krautrock](Krautrock) tradition of groups such as [Can](Can (band)). In Japan, the anti-establishment (Brain Police) mixed [garage-psych](garage-psych) and [folk](folk music). The combo regularly faced censorship challenges, their live act at least once including onstage masturbation.Anderson (2002), p. 588. A new generation of Australian garage rock bands, inspired mainly by the Stooges and [MC5](MC5), was coming closer to the sound that would soon be called "punk": In [Brisbane](Brisbane), [Saints](the)(The Saints (Australian band)) evoked the live sound of the British [Things](Pretty)(Pretty Things), who had toured Australia and New Zealand in 1975.Unterberger (2000), p. 18.
## Etymology
Between the late 16th and the 18th centuries, punk was a common, coarse synonym for [prostitute](prostitute); [Shakespeare](William)(William Shakespeare) used it with that meaning in *[Merry Wives of Windsor](The)(The Merry Wives of Windsor)* (1602) and *[for Measure](Measure)(Measure for Measure)* (1603-4).Dickson (1982), p. 230. The term eventually came to describe "a young male hustler, a gangster, a hoodlum, or a ruffian".Leblanc (1999), p. 35.
The first known use of the phrase "punk rock" appeared in the *[Tribune](Chicago)(Chicago Tribune)* on March 22, 1970, when [Sanders](Ed)(Ed Sanders), co-founder of New York's anarcho-prankster band [Fugs](the)(the Fugs) described his first solo album as "punk rock – redneck sentimentality".Shapiro (2006), p. 492. In 1969 Sanders recorded a song for an album called "Street Punk" but it was only released in 2008. In the December 1970 issue of [Creem](Creem), [Bangs](Lester)(Lester Bangs), mocking more mainstream rock musicians, ironically referred to Iggy Pop as "that Stooge punk".Bangs, Lester, "Of Pop and Pies and Fun" Archived December 17, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, Creem, December 1970. Retrieved on November 29, 2007. [Suicide](Suicide (band))'s [Vega](Alan)(Alan Vega) credits this usage with inspiring his duo to bill its gigs as "punk music" or a "punk mass" for the next couple of years.Nobahkt (2004), p. 38.
In the March 1971 issue of Creem, critic [Shaw](Greg)(Greg Shaw) wrote about the [of Knight](Shadows)(Shadows of Knight)'s "hard-edge punk sound". In an April 1971 issue of *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)*, he referred to a track by [Guess Who](the)(the Guess Who) as "good, not too imaginative, punk rock and roll". The same month [Medelsohn](John)(John Medelsohn) described [Cooper](Alice)(Alice Cooper)'s album [It to Death](Love)(Love It to Death) as "nicely wrought mainstream punk raunch". [Marsh](Dave)(Dave Marsh) used the term in the May 1971 issue of *[Creem](Creem)*, where he described [and the Mysterians](?)(Question Mark & the Mysterians) as giving a "landmark exposition of punk rock".Shapiro (2006), p. 492. Note that Taylor (2003) misidentifies the year of publication as 1970 (p. 16). Later in 1971, in his fanzine *[Put the Bomp](Who)(Bomp!)*, [Shaw](Greg)(Greg Shaw) wrote about "what I have chosen to call "punkrock" bands—white teenage hard rock of '64–66 ([Standells](Standells), Kingsmen, [of Knight](Shadows)(Shadows of Knight), etc.)".Gendron (2002), p. 348 n. 13.}} [Bangs](Lester)(Lester Bangs) used the term "punk rock" in several articles written in the early 1970s to refer to mid-1960s garage acts.
In the liner notes of the 1972 anthology LP, *[Nuggets](Nuggets: Original Artyfacts from the First Psychedelic Era, 1965–1968)*, musician and rock journalist [Kaye](Lenny)(Lenny Kaye), later a member of the Patti Smith Group, used the term "punk rock" to describe the genre of 1960s garage bands and "garage-punk", to describe a song recorded in 1966 by the Shadows of Knight.Houghton, Mick, "White Punks on Coke," *Let It Rock*. December 1975. [Kent](Nick)(Nick Kent) referred to [Pop](Iggy)(Iggy Pop) as the "Punk Messiah of the Teenage Wasteland" in his review of [Stooges](the)(the Stooges) July, 1972 performance at [Cross Cinema](King's)(King's Cross Cinema) in London for a British magazine called Cream (no relation to the more famous US publication). In the January 1973 *Rolling Stone* review of *Nuggets*, Greg Shaw commented "Punk rock is a fascinating genre... Punk rock at its best is the closest we came in the '60s to the original rockabilly spirit of Rock 'n Roll." In February 1973, Terry Atkinson of the *[Angeles Times](Los)(Los Angeles Times)*, reviewing the debut album by a hard rock band, [Aerosmith](Aerosmith), declared that it "achieves all that punk-rock bands strive for but most miss."Atkinson, Terry, "Hits and Misses", *Los Angeles Times*, February 17, 1973, p. B6. A March 1973 review of an Iggy and the Stooges show in the *[Free Press](Detroit)(Detroit Free Press)* dismissively referred to Pop as "the apotheosis of [Detroit](Detroit) punk music". In May 1973, Billy Altman launched the short-lived *punk magazine* in [NY](Buffalo,)(Buffalo, NY) which was largely devoted to discussion of 1960s garage and psychedelic acts.
– Laing mentions original "punk" magazine. He indicates that much "punk" fanfare in the early 70s was in relation to mid-60s garage rock and artists perceived as following in that tradition.Sauders, "Metal" Mike. "Blue Cheer More Pumice than Lava." *punk magazine*. Fall 1973. In this *punk magazine* article Saunders discusses Randy Holden, former member of garage rock acts [Other Half](the)(The Other Half (band)) and [Sons of Adam](the)(the Sons of Adam), then later protopunk/heavy rock band, Blue Cheer. He refers to an album by the Other Half as "acid punk."
[[File:Iggy-Pop 1977.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A rock band is onstage. A drumkit is on the left. A singer, Iggy Pop, sings into a microphone. He is wearing jeans and has no shirt on.|[Pop](Iggy)(Iggy Pop), the "godfather of punk"]]
In May 1974, *Los Angeles Times* critic [Hilburn](Robert)(Robert Hilburn) reviewed the second New York Dolls album, *[Much Too Soon](Too)(Too Much Too Soon (album))*. "I told ya the New York Dolls were the real thing," he wrote, describing the album as "perhaps the best example of raw, thumb-your-nose-at-the-world, punk rock since [Rolling Stones](the)(the Rolling Stones)' *[on Main Street](Exile)(Exile on Main Street)*."Hilburn, Robert, "Touch of Stones in Dolls' Album," *Los Angeles Times*, May 7, 1974, p. C12. In a 1974 interview for his fanzine *Heavy Metal Digest*, [Sugerman](Danny)(Danny Sugerman) told [Pop](Iggy)(Iggy Pop) "You went on record as saying you never were a punk" and Iggy replied "...well I ain't. I never was a punk."
By 1975, *punk* was being used to describe acts as diverse as the [Smith Group](Patti)(Patti Smith Group), the [City Rollers](Bay)(Bay City Rollers), and [Springsteen](Bruce)(Bruce Springsteen).Savage (1991), p. 131. As the scene at New York's [CBGB](CBGB) club attracted notice, a name was sought for the developing sound. Club owner [Kristal](Hilly)(Hilly Kristal) called the movement *"Street rock"*; [Holmstrom](John)(John Holmstrom) credits *[Aquarian](The Aquarian Weekly)* magazine with using *punk* "to describe what was going on at CBGBs".Savage (1991), pp. 130–131. Holmstrom, [McNeil](Legs)(Legs McNeil), and Ged Dunn's magazine *[Punk](Punk (magazine))*, which debuted at the end of 1975, was crucial in codifying the term.Taylor (2003), pp. 16–17. "It was pretty obvious that the word was getting very popular", Holmstrom later remarked. "We figured we'd take the name before anyone else claimed it. We wanted to get rid of the bullshit, strip it down to rock 'n' roll. We wanted the fun and liveliness back."
## 1974–1976: Early history
### North America
#### New York City
The origins of New York's punk rock scene can be traced back to such sources as the late 1960s [culture](trash)(trash culture) and an early 1970s [rock](underground)(underground rock) movement centered on the [Arts Center](Mercer)(Mercer Arts Center) in [Village](Greenwich)(Greenwich Village), where the [York Dolls](New)(New York Dolls) performed. In early 1974, a new scene began to develop around the [CBGB](CBGB) club, also in [Manhattan](Lower)(Lower Manhattan). At its core was [Television](Television (band)), described by critic John Walker as "the ultimate garage band with pretensions".Walker (1991), p. 662. Their influences ranged from the Velvet Underground to the staccato guitar work of [Feelgood](Dr.)(Dr. Feelgood (band))'s [Johnson](Wilko)(Wilko Johnson).Strongman (2008), pp. 53, 54, 56. The band's bassist/singer, [Hell](Richard)(Richard Hell), created a look with cropped, ragged hair, ripped T-shirts, and black leather jackets credited as the basis for punk rock visual style.Savage (1992), p. 89. In April 1974, [Smith](Patti)(Patti Smith) came to CBGB for the first time to see the band perform.Bockris and Bayley (1999), p. 102. A veteran of independent theater and performance poetry, Smith was developing an intellectual, feminist take on rock 'n' roll. On June 5, she recorded the single "[Joe](Hey)(Hey Joe)"/"[Factory](Piss)(Piss Factory)", featuring Television guitarist [Verlaine](Tom)(Tom Verlaine); released on her own Mer Records label, it heralded the scene's DIY ethic and has often been cited as the first punk rock record. Strongman (2008), p. 57; Savage (1991), p. 91; Pareles and Romanowski (1983), p. 511; Bockris and Bayley (1999), p. 106. By August, Smith and Television were gigging together at [Kansas City](Max's)(Max's Kansas City).
[[File:CBGB club facade.jpg|thumb|left|alt=The front of the music club CBGB is shown. An awning has the letters CBGB painted on it. Below the name are the letters "OMFUG".|Facade of legendary music club [CBGB](CBGB), New York]]
In [Hills, Queens](Forest)(Forest Hills, Queens), the [Ramones](Ramones) drew on sources ranging from the Stooges to [Beatles](the)(the Beatles) and [Beach Boys](the)(the Beach Boys) to [Hermits](Herman's)(Herman's Hermits) and 1960s [group](girl)(girl group)s, and condensed rock 'n' roll to its primal level: 1-2-3-4!' bass-player [Dee Ramone](Dee)(Dee Dee Ramone) shouted at the start of every song as if the group could barely master the rudiments of rhythm." The band played its first show at CBGB in August 1974.Gimarc (2005), p. 14 By the end of the year, the Ramones had performed seventy-four shows, each about seventeen minutes long.Bessman (1993), p. 27. "When I first saw the Ramones", critic [Harron](Mary)(Mary Harron) later remembered, "I couldn't believe people were doing this. The dumb brattiness."
That spring, Smith and Television shared a two-month-long weekend residency at CBGB that significantly raised the club's profile.Bockris and Bayley (1999), p. 119. The Television sets included Richard Hell's "Blank Generation", which became the scene's emblematic anthem.Savage (1992) claims that "Blank Generation" was written around this time (p. 90). However, the Richard Hell anthology album *Spurts* includes a live Television recording of the song that he dates "spring 1974." Soon after, Hell left Television and founded a band featuring a more stripped-down sound, [Heartbreakers](the)(the Heartbreakers), with former New York Dolls [Thunders](Johnny)(Johnny Thunders) and [Nolan](Jerry)(Jerry Nolan). In August, Television recorded a single, "Little Johnny Jewel". In the words of John Walker, the record was "a turning point for the whole New York scene" if not quite for the punk rock sound itself — Hell's departure had left the band "significantly reduced in fringe aggression".
Early in 1976, Hell left the Heartbreakers to form [Voidoids](the)(the Voidoids), described as "one of the most harshly uncompromising [punk] bands".Pareles and Romanowski (1983), p. 249. That April, the Ramones' debut album was released by [Records](Sire)(Sire Records); the first single was "[Bop](Blitzkrieg)(Blitzkrieg Bop)", opening with the rallying cry "Hey! Ho! Let's go!" According to a later description, "Like all cultural watersheds, *[Ramones](Ramones (album))* was embraced by a discerning few and slagged off as a bad joke by the uncomprehending majority." [Cramps](The)(The Cramps), whose core members were from [California](Sacramento,)(Sacramento, California) and [Ohio](Akron,)(Akron, Ohio), had debuted at CBGB in November 1976, opening for the Dead Boys. They were soon playing regularly at Max's Kansas City and CBGB.Porter (2007), pp. 48–49; Nobahkt (2004), pp. 77–78.
At this early stage, the term *punk* applied to the scene in general, not necessarily a particular stylistic approach as it would later—the early New York punk bands represented a broad variety of influences. Among them, the Ramones, the Heartbreakers, Richard Hell and the Voidoids, and the Dead Boys were establishing a distinct musical style. Even where they diverged most clearly, in lyrical approach — the Ramones' apparent guilelessness at one extreme, Hell's conscious craft at the other — there was an abrasive attitude in common. Their shared attributes of minimalism and speed, however, had not yet come to define punk rock.Walsh (2006), p. 8.
### United Kingdom
After a brief period unofficially managing the New York Dolls, Briton [McLaren](Malcolm)(Malcolm McLaren) returned to London in May 1975, inspired by the new scene he had witnessed at CBGB. The [Road](King's)(King's Road) clothing store he co-owned, recently renamed [Sex](Sex (boutique)), was building a reputation with its outrageous "anti-fashion".["The Sex Pistols"](https://www.rollingstone.com/music/artists/the-sex-pistols/biography) , ''Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock 'n' Roll'' (2001). Retrieved on September 11, 2006; Robb (2006), pp. 83–87; Savage (1992), pp. 99–103. Among those who frequented the shop were members of a band called the Strand, which McLaren had also been managing. In August, the group was seeking a new lead singer. Another Sex habitué, [Rotten](Johnny)(John Lydon), auditioned for and won the job. Adopting a new name, the group played its first gig as the [Pistols](Sex)(Sex Pistols) on 6 November 1975, at [Martin's School of Art](Saint)(Saint Martin's School of Art), and soon attracted a small but dedicated following.Gimarc (2005), p. 22; Robb (2006), p. 114; Savage (1992), p. 129. In February 1976, the band received its first significant press coverage; guitarist [Jones](Steve)(Steve Jones (musician)) declared that the Sex Pistols were not so much into music as they were "chaos".Savage (1992), pp. 151–152. The quote has been incorrectly ascribed to McLaren (e.g., Laing [1985], pp. 97, 127) and Rotten (e.g., ["Punk Music in Britain"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A791336) , BBC, October 7, 2002), but Savage directly cites the *[Musical Express](New)(NME)* issue in which the quote originally appeared. Robb (2006), p. 148, also describes the *NME* article in some detail and ascribes the quote to Jones. The band often provoked its crowds into near-riots. Rotten announced to one audience, "Bet you don't hate us as much as we hate you!"Quoted in Friedlander and Miller (2006), p. 252. McLaren envisioned the Sex Pistols as central players in a new youth movement, "hard and tough".Quoted in Savage (1992), p. 163. As described by critic [Savage](Jon)(Jon Savage), the band members "embodied an attitude into which McLaren fed a new set of references: late-sixties radical politics, sexual fetish material, pop history, [...] youth sociology".Savage (1992), p. 163.
[[File:Clash 21051980 12 800.jpg|right|thumb|alt=The rock band the Clash performing onstage. Three members are shown. All three have short hair. Two of the members are playing electric guitars.|[Clash](The)(The Clash) performing in 1980]]
[Rhodes](Bernard)(Bernard Rhodes), an associate of McLaren, similarly aimed to make stars of the band [SS](London)(London SS), who became [Clash](the)(the Clash), which was joined by [Strummer](Joe)(Joe Strummer).Savage (1992), pp. 124, 171, 172. On 4 June 1976, the Sex Pistols played Manchester's [Free Trade Hall](Lesser)(Free Trade Hall) in what became one of the most influential rock shows ever. Among the approximately forty audience members were the two locals who organised the gig—they had formed [Buzzcocks](Buzzcocks) after seeing the Sex Pistols in February. Others in the small crowd went on to form [Division](Joy)(Joy Division), [Fall](the)(The Fall (band)), and — in the 1980s — [Smiths](the)(the Smiths). In July, the Ramones played two London shows that helped spark the nascent UK punk scene.Taylor (2003), p. 56; McNeil and McCain (2006), pp. 230–233; Robb (2006), pp. 198, 201. Quote: Robb (2006), p. 198. Over the next several months, many new punk rock bands formed, often directly inspired by the Sex Pistols.See, e.g., Marcus (1989), pp. 37, 67. In London, women were near the center of the scene—among the initial wave of bands were the female-fronted [and the Banshees](Siouxsie)(Siouxsie and the Banshees), [Spex](X-Ray)(X-Ray Spex), and the all-female [Slits](the)(the Slits). There were female bassists [Advert](Gaye)(Gaye Advert) in [Adverts](the)(the Adverts) and [Bradley](Shanne)(Shanne Bradley) in [Nipple Erectors](the)(the Nipple Erectors), while Sex store frontwoman [Jordan](Pamela Rooke) not only managed [and the Ants](Adam)(Adam and the Ants) but also performed screaming vocals on their song "Lou". Other groups included [Sect](Subway)(Subway Sect), [TV](Alternative)(Alternative TV), [Wire](Wire (band)), [Stranglers](the)(the Stranglers), [Eater](Eater (band)) and [X](Generation)(Generation X (band)). Farther afield, [69](Sham)(Sham 69) began practicing in the southeastern town of [Hersham](Hersham). In [Durham](Durham, England), there was [Penetration](Penetration (band)), with lead singer [Murray](Pauline)(Pauline Murray). On September 20–21, the [Club Punk Festival](100)(100 Club Punk Festival) in London featured the Sex Pistols, Clash, Damned, and Buzzcocks, as well as Paris's female-lead [Toys](Stinky)(Stinky Toys). Siouxsie and the Banshees and Subway Sect debuted on the festival's first night. On the festival's second night, audience member [Vicious](Sid)(Sid Vicious) was arrested for having thrown a glass at the Damned that shattered and destroyed a girl's eye. Press coverage of the incident reinforced punk's reputation as a social menace.Colegrave and Sullivan (2005), p. 111; Gimarc (2005), p. 39; Robb (2006), pp. 217, 224–225.
Some new bands, such as London's [Ultravox!](Ultravox), Edinburgh's [Rezillos](Rezillos), Manchester's the Fall, and [Leamington](Royal Leamington Spa)'s [Shapes](the)(The Shapes (British band)), identified with the scene even as they pursued more experimental music. Others of a comparatively traditional rock 'n' roll bent were also swept up by the movement: [Vibrators](the)(the Vibrators), formed as a pub rock–style act in February 1976, soon adopted a punk look and sound.Savage (1992), pp. 221, 247. A few even longer-active bands including [Surrey](Surrey) neo-mods [Jam](the)(the Jam) and pub rockers [and the Hot Rods](Eddie)(Eddie and the Hot Rods), [Stranglers](the)(the Stranglers), and [Sparrer](Cock)(Cock Sparrer) also became associated with the punk rock scene. Alongside the musical roots shared with their American counterparts and the calculated confrontationalism of the early [Who](The Who), the British punks also reflected the influence of [rock](glam)(glam rock) and related artists and bands such as [Bowie](David)(David Bowie), [Slade](Slade), [T.Rex](T. Rex (band)), and [Music](Roxy)(Roxy Music).Heylin (1993), p. xii.
In October 1976, the Damned released the first UK punk rock band single, "[Rose](New)(New Rose)".Griffin, Jeff, "[The Damned](https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio1/johnpeel/artists/t/thedamned/) ", BBC.co.uk. Retrieved on November 19, 2006. The Vibrators followed the next month with "We Vibrate". On 26 November 1976, the Sex Pistols' released their debut single "[in the U.K.](Anarchy)(Anarchy in the U.K.)", which succeeded in its goal of becoming a "national scandal". [Reid](Jamie)(Jamie Reid)'s "anarchy flag" poster and his other design work for the Sex Pistols helped establish a distinctive [visual aesthetic](punk)(Punk visual art).Pardo (2004), p. 245. On 1 December 1976, an incident took place that sealed punk rock's notorious reputation, when the Sex Pistols and several members of the [Contingent](Bromley)(Bromley Contingent), including [Sioux](Siouxsie)(Siouxsie Sioux) and [Severin](Steve)(Steve Severin), filled a vacancy for [Queen](Queen (band)) on the early evening [Television](Thames)(Thames Television) London television show *[Today](Today (Thames Television series))* to be interviewed by host [Grundy](Bill)(Bill Grundy). When Sex Pistols guitarist Steve Jones was goaded by Grundy to "say something outrageous", Jones proceeded to call Grundy a "dirty bastard", a "dirty fucker", and a "fucking rotter" on live television, triggering a media controversy.Lydon (1995), p. 127; Savage (1992), pp. 257–260; Barkham, Patrick, ["Ex-Sex Pistol Wants No Future for Swearing"](https://www.theguardian.com/uk_news/story/0,3604,1427563,00.html), *The Guardian* (UK), March 1, 2005. Retrieved on December 17, 2006. Two days later, the Sex Pistols, the Clash, the Damned, and the Heartbreakers set out on the Anarchy Tour, a series of gigs throughout the UK. Many of the shows were cancelled by venue owners in response to the media outrage following the Grundy interview.Savage (1992), pp. 267–275; Lydon (1995), pp. 139–140.
### Australia
A punk subculture began in Australia around the same time, centered around [Birdman](Radio)(Radio Birdman) and the Oxford Tavern in Sydney's [Darlinghurst](Darlinghurst) suburb. By 1976, [Saints](the)(The Saints (Australian band)) were hiring Brisbane [halls](local)(Hall (concept)#Public halls) to use as venues, or playing in "Club 76", their shared house in the inner suburb of [Terrace](Petrie)(Brisbane central business district). The band soon discovered that musicians were exploring similar paths in other parts of the world. [Kuepper](Ed)(Ed Kuepper), co-founder of the Saints, later recalled:
One thing I remember having had a really depressing effect on me was the first Ramones album. When I heard it [1976](in), I mean it was a great record [...] but I hated it because I knew we'd been doing this sort of stuff for years. There was even a [progression](chord)(chord progression) on that album that we used [...] and I thought, "Fuck. We're going to be labeled as influenced by the Ramones", when nothing could have been further from the truth.[Clinton](Walker,)(Clinton Walker) (1996), p. 20.
In [Perth](Perth), the [Nasties](Cheap)(The Manikins) formed in August.McFarlane (1999), p. 548. In September 1976, the Saints became the first punk rock band outside the U.S. to release a recording, the single "[Stranded]((I'm))((I'm) Stranded (song))". The band self-financed, packaged, and distributed the single. "(I'm) Stranded" had limited impact at home, but the British music press recognized it as groundbreaking.Stafford (2006), pp. 57–76.
## 1977–1978: Second wave
A second wave of punk rock emerged in 1977. These bands often sounded very different from each other.Reynolds (2005), p. 211. While punk remained largely an underground phenomenon in the US, in the UK it had become a major sensation.["Punk Rock"](), [AllMusic](AllMusic). Retrieved on January 7, 2007. During this period punk music also spread beyond the English speaking world, inspiring local scenes in other countries.
### North America
The [punk scene](California)(Punk rock in California) was fully developed by early 1977. In Los Angeles, there were: [Weirdos](the)(the Weirdos), [Zeros](the)(The Zeros (American band)), [Bags](the)(Bags (Los Angeles band)), [Randy and the Metrosquad](Black)(Black Randy and the Metrosquad), [Germs](the)(Germs (band)), [Fear](Fear (band)), [Go-Go's](The)(The Go-Go's), [X](X (American band)), [Dickies](the)(the Dickies), and the relocated Tupperwares, now dubbed [Screamers](the)(the Screamers).Spitz and Mullen (2001) [Flag](Black)(Black Flag (band)) formed in [Beach](Hermosa)(Hermosa Beach) in 1976 under the name Panic. They developed a [punk](hardcore)(hardcore punk) sound and played their debut public performance in a garage in [Beach](Redondo)(Redondo Beach, California) in December 1977.Chick (2009), passim. San Francisco's second wave included [Avengers](the)(Avengers (band)), [Nuns](The)(The Nuns), [Trend](Negative)(Negative Trend), [Mutants](the)(The Mutants (band)), and the Sleepers.Stark (2006), passim. By mid-1977 in downtown New York, bands such as [Jesus and the Jerks](Teenage)(Teenage Jesus and the Jerks) led what became known as [wave](no)(no wave).Heylin (2007), pp. 491-494. The [Misfits](Misfits (band)) formed in nearby New Jersey. Still developing what would become their signature [movie](B)(B movie)–inspired style, later dubbed [punk](horror)(horror punk), they made their first appearance at CBGB in April 1977.Smith (2008), pp. 120, 238–239.
[[File:Misfits 2012-11-08 01.JPG|thumb|alt=The rock band The Misfits performing onstage. The band's name in large lettering is printed on a fabric panel behind the performers along with a skull image. From left to right are the electric bassist, drummer, and electric guitarist.|The Misfits developed a "[punk](horror)(horror punk)" style in New Jersey.]]
The Dead Boys' debut LP, *[Loud and Snotty](Young,)(Young, Loud and Snotty)*, was released at the end of August.Gimarc (2005), p. 86 October saw two more debut albums from the scene: Richard Hell and the Voidoids' first full-length, *[Generation](Blank)(Blank Generation (album))*, and the Heartbreakers' *[L.A.M.F.](L.A.M.F.)*Gimarc (2005), p. 92 One track on the latter exemplified both the scene's close-knit character and the popularity of heroin within it: "[Rocks](Chinese)(Chinese Rocks)" — the title refers to a strong form of the drug — was written by Dee Dee Ramone and Hell, both users, as were the Heartbreakers' Thunders and Nolan. Retrieved May 12, 2020 (During the Heartbreakers' 1976 and 1977 tours of Britain, Thunders played a central role in popularizing heroin among the punk crowd there, as well.)Boot and Salewicz (1997), p. 99. The Ramones' third album, *[to Russia](Rocket)(Rocket to Russia)*, appeared in November 1977.Gimarc (2005), p. 102
### United Kingdom
The [Pistols](Sex)(Sex Pistols)' live TV skirmish with [Grundy](Bill)(Bill Grundy) on December 1, 1976, was the signal moment in [punk](British)(British punk)'s transformation into a major media phenomenon, even as some stores refused to stock the records and radio airplay was hard to come by.Savage (1992), pp. 260, 263–67, 277–79; Laing (1985), pp. 35, 37, 38. Press coverage of punk misbehavior grew intense: On January 4, 1977, *[Evening News](The)(The Evening News (London newspaper))* of London ran a front-page story on how the Sex Pistols "vomited and spat their way to an Amsterdam flight".Savage (1992), p. 286. In February 1977, the first album by a British punk band appeared: *[Damned Damned](Damned)(Damned Damned Damned)* (by the Damned) reached number thirty-six on the UK chart. The EP *[Scratch](Spiral)(Spiral Scratch (EP))*, self-released by Manchester's [Buzzcocks](Buzzcocks), was a benchmark for both the DIY ethic and regionalism in the country's punk movement.Savage (1992), pp. 296–98; Reynolds (2005), pp. 26–27. [Clash](The)(The Clash)'s [debut album](self-titled)(The Clash (album)) came out two months later and rose to number twelve; the single "[Riot](White)(White Riot)" entered the top forty. In May, the Sex Pistols achieved new heights of controversy (and number two on the singles chart) with "[Save the Queen](God)(God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song))". The band had recently acquired a new bassist, [Vicious](Sid)(Sid Vicious), who was seen as exemplifying the punk persona.Colegrave and Sullivan (2005), p. 225. The swearing during the Grundy interview and the controversy over "God Save the Queen" led to a [panic](moral)(moral panic).Laing, Dave. *One Chord Wonders: Power and Meaning in Punk Rock*. PM Press, 2015. p. 48-49
Scores of new punk groups formed around the United Kingdom, as far from London as [Belfast](Belfast)'s [Little Fingers](Stiff)(Stiff Little Fingers) and [Dunfermline](Dunfermline), Scotland's [Skids](the)(the Skids). Though most survived only briefly, perhaps recording a small-label single or two, others set off new trends. [Crass](Crass), from [Essex](Essex), merged a vehement, straight-ahead punk rock style with a committed anarchist mission, and played a major role in the emerging [anarcho-punk](anarcho-punk) movement. Sham 69, London's Menace, and the [Upstarts](Angelic)(Angelic Upstarts) from [Shields](South)(South Shields) in the Northeast combined a similarly stripped-down sound with populist lyrics, a style that became known as [punk](street)(street punk). These expressly working-class bands contrasted with others in the second wave that presaged the [post-punk](post-punk) phenomenon. Liverpool's first punk group, [in Japan](Big)(Big in Japan (band)), moved in a glam, theatrical direction.Reynolds (2005), pp. 365, 378. The band did not survive long, but it spun off several well-known post-punk acts.Savage (1991), p. 298. The songs of London's [Wire](Wire (band)) were characterized by sophisticated lyrics, minimalist arrangements, and extreme brevity.Reynolds (2005), pp. 170–72.
Alongside thirteen original songs that would define classic punk rock, the Clash's debut had included a cover of the recent Jamaican [reggae](reggae) hit "[and Thieves](Police)(Police and Thieves)".Shuker (2002), p. 228; Wells (2004), p. 113; Myers (2006), p. 205; Other first wave bands such as [Slits](the)(the Slits) and new entrants to the scene like [Ruts](the)(the Ruts) and [Police](the)(the Police) interacted with the reggae and [ska](ska) subcultures, incorporating their rhythms and production styles. The punk rock phenomenon helped spark a full-fledged ska revival movement known as [Tone](2)(2 Tone (music genre)), centered on bands such as [Specials](the)(the Specials), [Beat](the)(The Beat (British band)), [Madness](Madness (band)), and [Selecter](the)(the Selecter).Hebdige (1987), p. 107. In July, the Sex Pistols' third single, "[Vacant](Pretty)(Pretty Vacant)", reached number six and Australia's the Saints had a top-forty hit with "[Perfect Day](This)(This Perfect Day (song))".Wells (2004), p. 114.
In September, Generation X and the Clash reached the top forty with, respectively, "Your Generation" and "[Control](Complete)(Complete Control)". X-Ray Spex's "[Bondage Up Yours!](Oh)(Oh Bondage Up Yours!)" did not chart, but it became a requisite item for punk fans.Gaar (2002), p. 200. The BBC banned "Oh Bondage Up Yours!" due to its controversial lyrics.Laing, Dave. *One Chord Wonders: Power and Meaning in Punk Rock*. PM Press, 2015. p. 86 In October, the Sex Pistols hit number eight with "[in the Sun](Holidays)(Holidays in the Sun (song))", followed by the release of their first and only "official" album, ''[Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols](Never)(Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols)*. Inspiring yet another round of controversy, it topped the British charts. In December, one of the first books about punk rock was published: *The Boy Looked at Johnny'', by [Burchill](Julie)(Julie Burchill) and [Parsons](Tony)(Tony Parsons (British journalist)).
### Australia
In February 1977, EMI released [Saints](the)(The Saints (Australian band))' debut album, ''[Stranded]((I'm))((I'm) Stranded)*, which the band recorded in two days.McFaarlane, p. 547. The Saints had relocated to Sydney; in April, they and [Birdman](Radio)(Radio Birdman) united for a major gig at [Town Hall](Paddington)(Paddington Town Hall).Cameron, Keith. ["Come the Revolution"](http://arts.guardian.co.uk/filmandmusic/story/0,,2129910,00.html) . *Guardian*, July 20, 2007. Retrieved on November 25, 2007. [Words](Last)(Last Words (band)) had also formed in the city. The following month, the Saints relocated again, to Great Britain. In June, Radio Birdman released the album *[Appear](Radios)(Radios Appear)'' on its own Trafalgar label.McFarlane (1999), p. 507.
## 1979–1984: Schism and diversification
[[File:Flipper 930club.jpg|thumb|right|alt=The band Flipper is performing at a club. From left to right are the singer, drummer, and electric guitarist. The singer is seated on a stool, and he is holding a pair of crutches.|[Flipper](Flipper (band)), performing in 1984]]
By 1979, the [punk](hardcore)(hardcore punk) movement was emerging in [California](Southern)(Southern California). A rivalry developed between adherents of the new sound and the older punk rock crowd. Hardcore, appealing to a younger, more suburban audience, was perceived by some as anti-intellectual, overly violent, and musically limited. In Los Angeles, the opposing factions were often described as "Hollywood punks" and "beach punks", referring to Hollywood's central position in the original L.A. punk rock scene and to hardcore's popularity in the shoreline communities of [Bay](South)(South Bay, Los Angeles) and [County](Orange)(Orange County, California).Blush (2001), p. 18; Reynolds (2006), p. 211; Spitz and Mullen (2001), pp. 217–32; Stark (2006), "Dissolution" (pp. 91–93); see also, ["Round-Table Discussion: Hollywood Vanguard vs. Beach Punks!"](http://flipsidefanzine.com/PortalHome.html) (Flipsidezine.com article archive).
In contrast to North America, more of the bands from the original British punk movement remained active, sustaining extended careers even as their styles evolved and diverged. Meanwhile, the [Oi!](Oi!) and [anarcho-punk](anarcho-punk) movements were emerging. Musically in the same aggressive vein as American hardcore, they addressed different constituencies with overlapping but distinct anti-establishment messages. As described by Dave Laing, "The model for self-proclaimed punk after 1978 derived from the Ramones via the eight-to-the-bar rhythms most characteristic of the Vibrators and Clash [...] It became essential to sound one particular way to be recognized as a 'punk band' now."Laing (1985), p. 108. In February 1979, former Sex Pistols bassist Sid Vicious died of a heroin overdose in New York. If the Sex Pistols' breakup the previous year had marked the end of the original UK punk scene and its promise of cultural transformation, for many the death of Vicious signified that it had been doomed from the start.Savage (1992), p. 530.
By the turn of the decade, the punk rock movement had split deeply along cultural and musical lines, leaving a variety of derivative scenes and forms. On one side were [wave](new)(New wave music) and post-punk artists; some adopted more accessible musical styles and gained broad popularity, while some turned in more experimental, less commercial directions. On the other side, hardcore punk, Oi!, and anarcho-punk bands became closely linked with underground cultures and spun off an array of [subgenres](cross-genre).Reynolds (2005), p. xvii. Somewhere in between, [pop-punk](pop-punk) groups created blends like that of the ideal record, as defined by [Mekons](Mekons) cofounder Kevin Lycett: "a cross between [Abba](ABBA) and the Sex Pistols".Quoted in Wells (2004), p. 21. A range of other styles emerged, many of them [fusions](Fusion (music)) with long-established genres. The Clash album *[Calling](London)(London Calling)*, released in December 1979, exemplified the breadth of classic punk's legacy. Combining punk rock with reggae, ska, R&B, and rockabilly, it went on to be acclaimed as one of the best rock records ever.See, e.g., Spencer, Neil, and James Brown, ["Why the Clash Are Still Rock Titans"](http://music.guardian.co.uk/rock/story/0,,1934098,00.html) , *The Observer* (UK), October 29, 2006. Retrieved February 28, 2006. At the same time, as observed by Flipper singer Bruce Loose, the relatively restrictive hardcore scenes diminished the variety of music that could once be heard at many punk gigs. If early punk, like most rock scenes, was ultimately male-oriented, the hardcore and Oi! scenes were significantly more so, marked in part by the slam dancing and [moshing](moshing) with which they became identified.Namaste (2000), p. 87; Laing (1985), pp. 90–91.
### New wave
[[File:Blondie (Debbie Harry) One.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Singer Debbie Harry is shown onstage at a concert. She is wearing jeans and a T-shirt.|[Harry](Debbie)(Debbie Harry) performing in Toronto in 1977]]
In 1976—first in London, then in the United States—"New Wave" was introduced as a complementary label for the formative scenes and groups also known as "punk"; the two terms were essentially interchangeable.Gendron (2002), pp. 269–74. *[NME](NME)* journalist [Carr](Roy)(Roy Carr) is credited with proposing the term's use (adopted from the cinematic [New Wave](French)(French New Wave) of the 1960s) in this context.Strongman (2008), p. 134. Over time, "new wave" acquired a distinct meaning: bands such as [Blondie](Blondie (band)) and [Heads](Talking)(Talking Heads) from the CBGB scene; [Cars](the)(the Cars), who emerged from the Rat in Boston; [Go-Go's](the)(the Go-Go's) in Los Angeles; and [Police](the)(the Police) in London that were broadening their instrumental palette, incorporating dance-oriented rhythms, and working with more polished production were specifically designated "new wave" and no longer called "punk". Dave Laing suggests that some punk-identified British acts pursued the new wave label in order to avoid radio censorship and make themselves more palatable to concert bookers.Laing (1985), pp. 37.
Bringing elements of punk rock music and fashion into more pop-oriented, less "dangerous" styles, new wave artists became very popular on both sides of the Atlantic.Wojcik (1995), p. 22. New wave became a catch-all term,Schild, Matt, ["Stuck in the Future"](http://www.aversion.com/bands/interviews.cfm?f_id=292), Aversion.com, July 11, 2005. Retrieved on January 21, 2007. encompassing disparate styles such as [Tone](2)(2 Tone (music genre)) ska, the [revival](mod)(mod revival) inspired by [Jam](the)(the Jam), the sophisticated pop-rock of [Costello](Elvis)(Elvis Costello) and [XTC](XTC), the [Romantic](New)(New Romantic) phenomenon typified by [Ultravox](Ultravox), [synthpop](synthpop) groups like [Army](Tubeway)(Tubeway Army) (which had started out as a straight-ahead punk band) and [League](Human)(Human League), and the sui generis subversions of [Devo](Devo), who had gone "beyond punk before punk even properly existed".Reynolds (2005), p. 79. New wave crossed into the mainstream with the debut of the cable television network [MTV](MTV) in 1981, which put many new wave videos into regular rotation.["New Wave"](), Allmusic. Retrieved on January 17, 2007.
### Post-punk
During 1976–77, in the midst of the original UK punk movement, bands emerged such as Manchester's [Division](Joy)(Joy Division), [Fall](the)(The Fall (band)), and [Magazine](Magazine (band)), Leeds' [of Four](Gang)(Gang of Four (band)), and London's [Raincoats](the)(the Raincoats) that became central post-punk figures. Some bands classified as post-punk, such as [Gristle](Throbbing)(Throbbing Gristle) and [Voltaire](Cabaret)(Cabaret Voltaire (band)), had been active well before the punk scene coalesced;Reynolds (2005), p. xxi. others, such as [and the Banshees](Siouxsie)(Siouxsie and the Banshees) and [Slits](the)(the Slits), transitioned from punk rock into post-punk. A few months after the Sex Pistols' breakup, [Lydon](John)(John Lydon) (no longer "Rotten") cofounded [Image Ltd](Public)(Public Image Ltd). [Logic](Lora)(Lora Logic), formerly of X-Ray Spex, founded [Logic](Essential)(Essential Logic). [Joke](Killing)(Killing Joke) formed in 1979. These bands were often musically experimental; the term "post-punk" is used to describe sounds that were more dark and abrasive—sometimes verging on the [atonal](atonality), as with Subway Sect and Wire. The bands incorporated a range of influences ranging from [Barrett](Syd)(Syd Barrett), [Beefheart](Captain)(Captain Beefheart), [Bowie](David)(David Bowie) to [Music](Roxy)(Roxy Music) to [Krautrock](Krautrock).
Post-punk brought together a new fraternity of musicians, journalists, managers, and entrepreneurs; the latter, notably [Travis](Geoff)(Geoff Travis) of [Trade](Rough)(Rough Trade Records) and [Wilson](Tony)(Tony Wilson) of [Factory](Factory Records), helped to develop the production and distribution infrastructure of the [music](indie)(independent music) scene that blossomed in the mid-1980s.Reynolds (2005), pp. xxvii, xxix. Smoothing the edges of their style in the direction of new wave, several post-punk bands such as [Order](New)(New Order (band)) and [Cure](The)(The Cure) crossed over to a mainstream U.S. audience. Others, like Gang of Four, the Raincoats, and Throbbing Gristle, who had little more than cult followings at the time, are seen in retrospect as significant influences on modern popular culture.Reynolds (2005), p. xxix.
Television's debut album *[Moon](Marquee)(Marquee Moon)*, released in 1977, is frequently cited as a seminal album in the field.See, e.g., [Television](http://www.rhapsody.com/television/more.html) overview by Mike McGuirk, [Rhapsody](Rhapsody (online music service)); [*Marquee Moon*]() review by Stephen Thomas Erlewine, Allmusic; [Television: *Marquee Moon* (remastered edition)](http://www.popmatters.com/music/reviews/t/television-marquee2003.shtml) review by Hunter Felt, [PopMatters](PopMatters). All retrieved January 15, 2007. The [wave](no)(no wave) movement that developed in New York in the late 1970s, with artists such as [Lunch](Lydia)(Lydia Lunch) and [Chance](James)(James Chance), is often treated as the phenomenon's U.S. parallel.Buckley (2003), p. 13; Reynolds (2005), pp. 1–2. The later work of Ohio protopunk pioneers [Ubu](Pere)(Pere Ubu) is also commonly described as post-punk.See. e.g., Reynolds (1999), p. 336; Savage (2002), p. 487. One of the most influential American post-punk bands was Boston's [of Burma](Mission)(Mission of Burma), who brought abrupt rhythmic shifts derived from hardcore into a highly experimental musical context.Harrington (2002), p. 388. In 1980, Australia's Boys Next Door moved to London and changed their name to [Birthday Party](the)(The Birthday Party (band)), which evolved into [Cave and the Bad Seeds](Nick)(Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds). Led by the [Calculators](Primitive)(Primitive Calculators), Melbourne's [Band scene](Little)(Little band scene) further explored the possibilities of post-punk.Potts, Adrian (May 2008), ["Big and Ugly"](https://archive.today/20120919123354/http://www.viceland.com/int/v15n5/htdocs/big-and-ugly-109.php), *Vice*. Retrieved on December 11, 2010. The original post-punk bands were highly influential on 1990s and 2000s [rock](alternative)(alternative rock) musicians.See Thompson (2000), p. viii.
### Hardcore
[[brains 1983.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|left|Bad Brains at 9:30 Club, Washington, D.C., 1983](File:Bad)]
A distinctive style of punk, characterized by superfast, aggressive beats, [vocals](screaming)(screaming (music)), and often politically aware lyrics, began to emerge in 1978 among bands scattered around the United States and Canada. The first major scene of what came to be known as hardcore punk developed in Southern California in 1978–79, initially around such punk bands as [Germs](the)(Germs (band)) and [Fear](Fear (band)).Blush (2001), pp. 16–17; Sabin (1999) p. 4 The movement soon spread around North America and internationally. According to author [Blush](Steven)(Steven Blush), "Hardcore comes from the bleak suburbs of America. Parents moved their kids out of the cities to these horrible suburbs to save them from the 'reality' of the cities and what they ended up with was this new breed of monster". In 1981, hardcore punk was exposed to mainstream television audiences following a live performance from Fear on *[Night Live](Saturday)(Saturday Night Live)*, which prompted a live-broadcast riot and [pit](mosh)(Moshing), which included members of the emerging hardcore scene such as [MacKaye](Ian)(Ian MacKaye), [Flanagan](Harley)(Harley Flanagan), [Vee](Tesco)(Tesco Vee), and [Brannon](John)(John Brannon (musician)).
Among the earliest hardcore bands, regarded as having made the first recordings in the style, were Southern California's [Class](Middle)(Middle Class (band)) and [Flag](Black)(Black Flag (band)).Blush (2001), p. 17 [Brains](Bad)(Bad Brains) — all of whom were black, a rarity in punk of any era — launched the [scene](D.C.)(Washington, D.C. hardcore) with their rapid-paced single "[to Cum](Pay)(Pay to Cum)" in 1980.Andersen and Jenkins (2001). [Texas](Austin,)(Austin, Texas)'s [Boys](Big)(Big Boys), San Francisco's [Kennedys](Dead)(Dead Kennedys), and [Vancouver](Vancouver)'s [D.O.A.](D.O.A. (band)) were among the other initial hardcore groups. They were soon joined by bands such as the [Minutemen](Minutemen (band)), [Descendents](Descendents (band)), and [Jerks](Circle)(Circle Jerks) in Southern California; D.C.'s [Threat](Minor)(Minor Threat) and [of Alert](State)(State of Alert); and Austin's [MDC](MDC (band)). By 1981, hardcore was the dominant punk rock style not only in California but much of the rest of North America as well.Blush (2001), pp. 12–21. A [York hardcore](New)(New York hardcore) scene grew, including the relocated Bad Brains, New Jersey's [Misfits](Misfits (band)) and [O.D.](Adrenalin)(Adrenalin O.D.), and local acts such as [Mob](the)(The Mob (American hardcore band)), [Youth](Reagan)(Reagan Youth), and [Front](Agnostic)(Agnostic Front). [Boys](Beastie)(Beastie Boys), who would become famous as a hip-hop group, debuted that year as a hardcore band. They were followed by [Cro-Mags](the)(the Cro-Mags), [Law](Murphy's)(Murphy's Law (band)), and [Leeway](Leeway (band)).Andersen and Jenkins (2001), p. 89; Blush (2001), p. 173; By 1983, [Paul](St.)(Minneapolis hardcore)'s [Dü](Hüsker)(Hüsker Dü), Willful Neglect, Chicago's [Raygun](Naked)(Naked Raygun), [Indianapolis](Indianapolis)'s [Boys](Zero)(Zero Boys), and D.C.'s [Faith](the)(The Faith (American band)) were taking the hardcore sound in experimental and ultimately more melodic directions. Hardcore would constitute the American punk rock standard throughout the decade.Leblanc (1999), p. 59. The lyrical content of hardcore songs is often critical of commercial culture and middle-class values, as in Dead Kennedys' celebrated "[in Cambodia](Holiday)(Holiday in Cambodia)" (1980).Van Dorston, A.S., ["A History of Punk"](https://web.archive.org/web/20000510062822/http://www.fastnbulbous.com/punk.htm), fastnbulbous.com, January 1990. Retrieved on December 30, 2006.
[edge](Straight)(Straight edge) bands like Minor Threat, [Boston](Boston hardcore)'s [Decontrol](SS)(SS Decontrol), and [Nevada](Reno,)(Reno, Nevada)'s [Seconds](7)(7 Seconds (band)) rejected the self-destructive lifestyles of their peers, and built a movement based on positivity and abstinence from cigarettes, alcohol, drugs, and casual sex.Haenfler (2006)
Skate punk innovators pointed in other directions: including [California](Venice,)(Venice, California)'s [Tendencies](Suicidal)(Suicidal Tendencies) who had a formative effect on the [metal](heavy)(heavy metal music)–influenced [thrash](crossover)(crossover thrash) style. Toward the middle of the decade, [D.R.I](Dirty Rotten Imbeciles) spawned the superfast [thrashcore](thrashcore) genre.Weinstein (2000), p. 49.
### Oi!
Following the lead of first-wave British punk bands [Sparrer](Cock)(Cock Sparrer) and [69](Sham)(Sham 69), in the late 1970s second-wave groups like [Rejects](Cockney)(Cockney Rejects), [Upstarts](Angelic)(Angelic Upstarts), [Exploited](the)(the Exploited), and [4-Skins](the)(the 4-Skins) sought to realign punk rock with a working class, street-level following.Dalton, Stephen, "Revolution Rock", Vox, June 1993. They believed the music needed to stay "accessible and unpretentious", in the words of music historian [Reynolds](Simon)(Simon Reynolds).Reynolds (2005), p. 1. Their style was originally called "real punk" or [punk](street)(street punk); *[Sounds](Sounds (magazine))* journalist [Bushell](Garry)(Garry Bushell) is credited with labelling the genre *Oi!* in 1980. The name is partly derived from the Cockney Rejects' habit of shouting "Oi! Oi! Oi!" before each song, instead of the time-honored "1,2,3,4!"Robb (2006), p. 469.
The Oi! movement was fueled by a sense that many participants in the early punk rock scene were, in the words of [Business](the)(The Business (band)) guitarist Steve Kent, "trendy university people using long words, trying to be artistic ... and losing touch".Quoted in Robb (2006), pp. 469–70. According to Bushell, "Punk was meant to be of the voice of [dole](the)(the dole) queue, and in reality, most of them were not. But Oi was the reality of the punk mythology. In the places where [bands](these) came from, it was harder and more aggressive and it produced just as much quality music."Robb (2006), p. 470. Lester Bangs described Oi! as "politicized football chants for unemployed louts".Bangs, Lester. "If Oi Were a Carpenter". *Village Voice*. April 27, 1982. One song in particular, the Exploited's "Punks Not Dead", spoke to an international constituency. It was adopted as an anthem by the groups of disaffected Mexican urban youth known in the 1980s as *bandas*; one *banda* named itself PND, after the song's initials.Berthier (2004), p. 246.
Although most Oi! bands in the initial wave were apolitical or [wing](left)(left wing), many of them began to attract a [power skinhead](white)(white power skinhead) following. Racist skinheads sometimes disrupted Oi! concerts by shouting fascist slogans and starting fights, but some Oi! bands were reluctant to endorse criticism of their fans from what they perceived as the "middle-class establishment".Fleischer, Tzvi. ["Sounds of Hate"](http://www.aijac.org.au/review/2000/258/sounds.html) . Australia/Israel & Jewish Affairs Council (AIJAC), August 2000. Retrieved on January 14, 2007. In the popular imagination, the movement thus became linked to the [right](far)(far right).Robb (2006), pp. 469, 512. *[Thru Oi!](Strength)(Strength Thru Oi!)*, an album compiled by Bushell and released in May 1981, stirred controversy, especially when it was revealed that the belligerent figure on the cover was a [neo-Nazi](Neo-Nazism) jailed for racist violence (Bushell claimed ignorance). On July 3, a concert at Hamborough Tavern in [Southall](Southall) featuring the Business, the 4-Skins, and the Last Resort was firebombed by local Asian youths who believed that the event was a neo-Nazi gathering.Gimarc (1997), p. 175; Laing (1985), p. 112. Following the Southall riot, press coverage increasingly associated Oi! with the extreme right, and the movement soon began to lose momentum.Robb (2006), p. 511.
### Anarcho-punk
[[File:Crass3.jpg|thumb|alt=Two members of the rock band Crass are shown at a performance. From left to right are an electric guitarist and a singer. Both are dressed in all-black clothing. The singer is making a hand gesture.|[Crass](Crass) were the originators of anarcho-punk.Wells (2004), p. 35. Spurning the "cult of rock star personality", their plain, all-black dress became a staple of the genre.Hardman (2007), p. 5.]]
Anarcho-punk developed alongside the Oi! and American hardcore movements. Inspired by [Crass](Crass), its [House](Dial)(Dial House, Essex) commune, and its independent [Records](Crass)(Crass Records) label, a scene developed around British bands such as [Subhumans](Subhumans (British band)), [of Pink Indians](Flux)(Flux of Pink Indians), [Conflict](Conflict (band)), [Girls](Poison)(Poison Girls), and [Apostles](the)(The Apostles (band)) that was as concerned with anarchist and DIY principles as it was with music. The acts featured ranting vocals, discordant instrumental sounds, primitive production values, and lyrics filled with political and social content, often addressing issues such as class inequalities and military violence.Gosling (2004), p. 170. Anarcho-punk disdained the older punk scene from which theirs had evolved. In historian Tim Gosling's description, they saw "safety pins and Mohicans as little more than ineffectual fashion posturing stimulated by the mainstream media and industry. [...] Whereas the Sex Pistols would proudly display bad manners and opportunism in their dealings with 'the establishment,' the anarcho-punks kept clear of 'the establishment' altogether".Gosling (2004), pp. 169–70.
The movement spun off several subgenres of a similar political bent. [Discharge](Discharge (band)), founded back in 1977, established [D-beat](D-beat) in the early 1980s. Other groups in the movement, led by [Amebix](Amebix) and [Antisect](Antisect), developed the extreme style known as [punk](crust)(crust punk). Several of these bands rooted in anarcho-punk such as [Varukers](the)(the Varukers), Discharge, and Amebix, along with former Oi! groups such as [Exploited](the)(the Exploited) and bands from farther afield like Birmingham's [GBH](Charged)(Charged GBH), became the leading figures in the [82](UK)(UK 82) hardcore movement. The anarcho-punk scene also spawned bands such as [Death](Napalm)(Napalm Death), [Carcass](Carcass (band)), and [Noise Terror](Extreme)(Extreme Noise Terror) that in the mid-1980s defined [grindcore](grindcore), incorporating extremely fast tempos and [metal](death)(death metal)–style guitarwork.Purcell (2003), pp. 56–57. Led by Dead Kennedys, a U.S. anarcho-punk scene developed around such bands as Austin's [MDC](MDC (band)) and Southern California's Another Destructive System. [Links](http://www.animamundi.org/links.html) Anima Mundi. Both retrieved on November 25, 2007.
### Pop-punk
[[File:Ben-weasel2.jpg|thumb|upright|[Weasel](Ben)(Ben Weasel) of pop-punk band Screeching Weasel]]
With their love of [Beach Boys](the)(the Beach Boys) and late 1960s [pop](bubblegum)(bubblegum pop), the Ramones paved the way to what became known as pop-punk.Besssman (1993), p. 16; Carson (1979), p. 114; Simpson (2003), p. 72; McNeil (1997), p. 206. In the late 1970s, UK bands such as [Buzzcocks](Buzzcocks) and [Undertones](the)(the Undertones) combined [pop](Pop music)-style tunes and lyrical themes with punk's speed and chaotic edge.Cooper, Ryan. ["The Buzzcocks, Founders of Pop Punk"](http://punkmusic.about.com/od/artistprofiles/p/buzzcocksfinal.htm) . About.com. Retrieved on December 16, 2006. In the early 1980s, some of the leading bands in Southern California's hardcore punk rock scene emphasized a more melodic approach than was typical of their peers. According to music journalist [Myers](Ben)(Ben Myers), [Religion](Bad)(Bad Religion) "layered their pissed off, politicized sound with the smoothest of harmonies"; [Descendents](Descendents (band)) "wrote almost surfy, Beach Boys-inspired songs about girls and food and being young(ish)".Myers (2006), p. 52. [Records](Epitaph)(Epitaph Records), founded by [Gurewitz](Brett)(Brett Gurewitz) of Bad Religion, was the base for many future pop-punk bands. The mainstream pop-punk of latter-day bands such as [Blink-182](Blink-182) is criticized by many punk rock fans; in critic Christine Di Bella's words, "It's punk taken to its most accessible point, a point where it barely reflects its lineage at all, except in the three-chord song structures."Di Bella, Christine. ["Blink 182 + Green Day"](http://www.popmatters.com/music/concerts/b/blink-182-020611.shtml). PopMatters.com. June 11, 2002. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20070323083826/http://www.popmatters.com/music/concerts/b/blink-182-020611.shtml) on March 23, 2007. Retrieved on February 4, 2007.
### Other fusions and directions
From 1977 on, punk rock crossed lines with many other [music](popular)(popular music) genres. Los Angeles punk rock bands laid the groundwork for a wide variety of styles: [Flesh Eaters](the)(the Flesh Eaters) with [deathrock](deathrock); [Plugz](the)(the Plugz) with [punk](Chicano)(Chicano punk); and [Club](Gun)(Gun Club) with [blues](punk)(punk blues). [Meteors](The)(The Meteors), from [London](South)(South London), and [Cramps](the)(the Cramps) were innovators in the [psychobilly](psychobilly) fusion style.Porter (2007), p. 86. [Milwaukee](Milwaukee)'s [Femmes](Violent)(Violent Femmes) jumpstarted the American [punk](folk)(folk punk) scene, while [Pogues](the)(the Pogues) did the same on the other side of the [Atlantic](Atlantic Ocean).Hendrickson, Tad. ["Irish Pub-Rock: Boozy Punk Energy, Celtic Style"](https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=101915358) . NPR Music, March 16, 2009. Retrieved on November 12, 2010. Other artists to fuse elements of [music](folk)(folk music) into punk included [R.E.M.](R.E.M.) and [Proclaimers](the)(the Proclaimers).
## Legacy and later developments
### Alternative rock
[[File:Dave Grohl 1989.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A drummer, Dave Grohl, is playing drumkit. He is not wearing a shirt and his long hair is wet.|[Grohl](Dave)(Dave Grohl), later of [Nirvana](Nirvana (band)), in 1989]]
The underground punk rock movement inspired countless bands that either evolved from a punk rock sound or brought its outsider spirit to very different kinds of music. The original punk explosion also had a long-term effect on the music industry, spurring the growth of the independent sector.Laing (1985), pp. 118, 128. During the early 1980s, British bands like [Order](New)(New Order (band)) and the Cure that straddled the lines of post-punk and new wave developed both new musical styles and a distinctive industrial niche. Though commercially successful over an extended period, they maintained an underground-style, [subcultural](subculture) identity.Goodlad and Bibby (2007), p. 16. In the United States, bands such as Hüsker Dü and their Minneapolis protégés [Replacements](the)(The Replacements (band)) bridged the gap between punk rock genres like hardcore and the more melodic, explorative realm of what was then called "[rock](college)(college rock)".Azerrad (2001), passim; for relationship of Hüsker Dü and the Replacements, see pp. 205–6.
In 1985, *[Stone](Rolling)(Rolling Stone)* declared that "Primal punk is passé. The best of the American punk rockers have moved on. They have learned how to play their instruments. They have discovered melody, guitar solos and lyrics that are more than shouted political slogans. Some of them have even discovered the [Dead](Grateful)(Grateful Dead)."[Goldberg, Michael, "Punk Lives"](http://www.thirdav.com/zinestuff/rs452.html) , *Rolling Stone*, July 18 – August 1, 1985. By the mid-to-late 1980s, these bands, who had largely eclipsed their punk rock and post-punk forebears in popularity, were classified broadly as [rock](alternative)(alternative rock). Alternative rock encompasses a diverse set of styles—including [rock](indie)(indie rock), [rock](gothic)(gothic rock), [pop](dream)(dream pop), [shoegaze](shoegazing), and [grunge](grunge), among others—unified by their debt to punk rock and their origins outside of the musical mainstream.
As American alternative bands like [Youth](Sonic)(Sonic Youth), which had grown out of the "no-wave" scene, and Boston's [Pixies](Pixies (band)) started to gain larger audiences, major labels sought to capitalize on the underground market.Friedlander and Miller (2006), pp. 256, 278. In 1991, [Nirvana](Nirvana (band)) emerged from Washington State's underground, DIY grunge scene; after recording their first album, *[Bleach](Bleach (Nirvana album))* in 1989 for about $600, the band achieved huge (and unexpected) commercial success with its second album, *[Nevermind](Nevermind)*. The band's members cited punk rock as a key influence on their style.["Kurt Donald Cobain"](http://www.thebiographychannel.co.uk/biography_story/691:1872/1/Kurt_Donald_Cobain.htm) , Biography Channel. Retrieved on November 19, 2006. "Punk is musical freedom", wrote frontman [Cobain](Kurt)(Kurt Cobain). "It's saying, doing, and playing what you want."Quoted in St. Thomas (2004), p. 94. Nirvana's success opened the door to mainstream popularity for a wide range of other "left-of-the-dial" acts, such as [Jam](Pearl)(Pearl Jam) and [Hot Chili Peppers](Red)(Red Hot Chili Peppers), and fueled the alternative rock boom of the early and mid-1990s.
During the early 1990s, new alternative forms of punk rock began to fuse with [metal](heavy)(Heavy metal music) and [hop music](hip)(hip hop music). [Against the Machine](Rage)(Rage Against the Machine) released their eponymous debut studio album *[Against the Machine](Rage)(Rage Against the Machine (album))* in November 1992, to commercial and critical acclaim. The band presented itself with politically-themed, [revolutionary](revolutionary) lyrical content, accompanied by the aggressive vocal delivery of lead singer [de la Rocha](Zack)(Zack de la Rocha). Rage Against the Machine would go on to achieve back-to-back number 1 debuts on the [200](Billboard)(Billboard 200), with their second studio album, *[Empire](Evil)(Evil Empire (album))* (1996), and their third studio album, [Battle of Los Angeles*](*The)(The Battle of Los Angeles (album)) (1999).
In a 2016 interview with Audio Ink Radio, Rage Against the Machine bassist [Commerford](Tim)(Tim Commerford) was asked about the band's status as a punk band:
### Queercore
[[band Pansy Division performing in 2016](File:PansyDivision2016.jpg|thumb|right|Queercore)]
In the 1990s, the queercore movement developed around a number of punk bands with gay, lesbian, bisexual, or genderqueer members such as [Is My Co-Pilot](God)(God Is My Co-Pilot (band)), [Division](Pansy)(Pansy Division), [Dresch](Team)(Team Dresch), and [George](Sister)(Sister George). Inspired by openly gay punk musicians of an earlier generation such as [County](Jayne)(Jayne County), [Phranc](Phranc), and [Turner](Randy)(Randy Turner), and bands like [Gender](Nervous)(Nervous Gender), [Screamers](the)(the Screamers), and [Coil](Coil (band)), queercore embraces a variety of punk and other alternative music styles. Queercore lyrics often treat the themes of prejudice, [identity](sexual)(sexual identity), [identity](gender)(gender identity), and individual rights. The movement has continued into the 21st century, supported by festivals such as [Queeruption](Queeruption).Spencer (2005), pp. 279–89.
### Riot grrrl
[[grrrl band Bratmobile in 1994](File:Bratmobile.jpg|thumb|left|Riot)]
The riot grrrl movement, a significant aspect in the formation of the Third Wave feminist movement, was organized by taking the values and rhetoric of punk and using it to convey feminist messages.
In 1991, a concert of female-led bands at the [Pop Underground Convention](International)(International Pop Underground Convention) in [Washington](Olympia,)(Olympia, Washington), heralded the emerging riot grrrl phenomenon. Billed as "Love Rock Revolution Girl Style Now", the concert's lineup included [Kill](Bikini)(Bikini Kill), [Bratmobile](Bratmobile), [to Betsy](Heavens)(Heavens to Betsy), [L7](L7 (band)), and [Normal](Mecca)(Mecca Normal).Raha (2005), p. 154. The riot grrrl movement foregrounded feminist concerns and progressive politics in general; the DIY ethic and fanzines were also central elements of the scene.Jackson (2005), pp. 261–62. This movement relied on media and technology to spread their ideas and messages, creating a cultural-technological space for feminism to voice their concerns. They embodied the punk perspective, taking the anger and emotions and creating a separate culture from it. With riot grrrl, they were grounded in girl punk past but also rooted in modern feminism. Tammy Rae Carbund, from [Lady Records](Mr.)(Mr. Lady Records), explains that without riot grrrl bands, "[women] would have all starved to death culturally."
Singer-guitarists [Tucker](Corin)(Corin Tucker) of Heavens to Betsy and [Brownstein](Carrie)(Carrie Brownstein) of [17](Excuse)(Excuse 17), bands active in both the queercore and riot grrrl scenes, cofounded the indie/punk band [Sleater-Kinney](Sleater-Kinney) in 1994. Bikini Kill's lead singer, [Hanna](Kathleen)(Kathleen Hanna), the iconic figure of riot grrrl, moved on to form the [punk](art)(art punk) group [Tigre](Le)(Le Tigre) in 1998.McGowen, Brice. ["Eye of the Tiger"](http://www.unc.edu/glbtsa/lambda/articles/28/3/letigre.htm) . *Lamda*, February/March 2005. Retrieved on November 26, 2007.
### Punk revival and mainstream success
[[File:RiP2013 GreenDay Billie Joe Armstrong 0017.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Two members of rock band Green Day shown onstage at a concert. From left to right, singer/guitarist Billie Joe Armstrong and bass guitarist Mike Dirnt. Behind them are a row of large guitar speaker cabinets. Billie Joe gestures with both hands to the audience.|[Day](Green)(Green Day) frontman [Joe Armstrong](Billie)(Billie Joe Armstrong), with bassist [Dirnt](Mike)(Mike Dirnt) to the right. Green Day is credited with reviving mainstream interest in punk rock in the [States](United)(United States).|upright]]
[[File:NoFx.jpg|thumb|Fat Mike of [NOFX](NOFX) at Bizarre Festival in Cologne, Germany, in 1995]]
Late 1970s punk music was anti-conformity and anti-mainstream and achieved limited commercial success. By the 1990s, punk rock was sufficiently ingrained in Western culture that punk trappings were often used to market highly commercial bands as "rebels". Marketers capitalized on the style and hipness of punk rock to such an extent that a 1993 ad campaign for an automobile, the [Impreza](Subaru)(Subaru Impreza), claimed that the car was "like punk rock".Klein (2000), p. 300.
In 1993, California's [Day](Green)(Green Day) and [Religion](Bad)(Bad Religion) were both signed to major labels. The next year, Green Day put out *[Dookie](Dookie),* which sold nine million albums in the United States in just over two years.See, e.g., [Searchable Database—Gold and Platinum](https://www.riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?table=SEARCH) , RIAA. Retrieved on December 2, 2007. Bad Religion's *[Than Fiction](Stranger)(Stranger than Fiction (Bad Religion album))* was certified [gold](RIAA certification).Fucoco, Christina (November 1, 2000), ["Punk Rock Politics Keep Trailing Bad Religion"](http://www.livedaily.com/news/2098.html) , liveDaily. Retrieved on September 1, 2008. Other California punk bands on the independent label [Epitaph](Epitaph Records), run by Bad Religion guitarist [Gurewitz](Brett)(Brett Gurewitz), also began achieving mainstream popularity. In 1994, Epitaph released ''[Go](Let's)(Let's Go (Rancid album))* by [Rancid](Rancid (band)), *[in Drublic](Punk)(Punk in Drublic)* by [NOFX](NOFX), and *[Smash](Smash (The Offspring album))'' by [Offspring](the)(the Offspring), each eventually certified gold or better. That June, Green Day's "[Longview](Longview (song))" reached number one on *Billboard*s [Rock Tracks](Modern)(Alternative Songs) chart and became a top forty airplay hit, arguably the first ever American punk song to do so; just one month later, the Offspring's "[Out and Play](Come)(Come Out and Play (The Offspring song))" followed suit. [MTV](MTV) and radio stations such as Los Angeles' [KROQ-FM](KROQ-FM) played a major role in these bands' crossover success, though NOFX refused to let MTV air its videos.Gold, Jonathan. "The Year Punk Broke." *SPIN*. November 1994.
Following the lead [Boston](Boston)'s [Mighty Bosstones](Mighty)(The Mighty Mighty Bosstones) and [Anaheim](Anaheim, California)'s [Doubt](No)(No Doubt), [punk](ska)(ska punk) and ska-core became widely popular in the mid-1990s.Hebdige (1987), p. 111. *[Out Come the Wolves](...And)(...And Out Come the Wolves)*, the 1995 album by Rancid became the first record in the ska revival to be certified gold; Sublime's [1996 album](self-titled)(Sublime (album)) was certified platinum early in 1997. In Australia, two popular groups, skatecore band [Rhomb](Frenzal)(Frenzal Rhomb) and pop-punk act [Bodyjar](Bodyjar), also established followings in Japan.Eliezer, Christie. "Trying to Take Over the World". *Billboard*. September 28, 1996, p. 58; Eliezer, Christie. "The Year in Australia: Parallel Worlds and Artistic Angles". *Billboard*. December 27, 1997 – January 3, 1998, p. YE-16.
Green Day and *Dookie*s enormous sales paved the way for a host of bankable North American pop-punk bands in the following decade.D'Angelo, Joe, ["How Green Day's *Dookie* Fertilized A Punk-Rock Revival"](http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1491001/20040915/green_day.jhtml) , MTV.com, September 15, 2004. Retrieved on December 3, 2007. With punk rock's renewed visibility came concerns among some in the punk community that the music was being co-opted by the mainstream. They argued that by signing to major labels and appearing on MTV, punk bands like Green Day were buying into a system that punk was created to challenge.Myers (2006), p. 120. Such controversies have been part of the punk culture since 1977 when the Clash were widely accused of "selling out" for signing with [Records](CBS)(Columbia Records).Knowles (2003), p. 44. The Vans [Tour](Warped)(Warped Tour) and the mall chain store [Topic](Hot)(Hot Topic) brought punk even further into the U.S. mainstream.Diehl (2007), pp. 2, 145, 227.
The Offspring's 1998 album *[Americana](Americana (The Offspring album))*, released by the major [Columbia](Columbia Records) label, debuted at number two on the album chart. A bootleg MP3 of *Americana* first single, "[Fly (for a White Guy)](Pretty)(Pretty Fly (for a White Guy))", made it onto the Internet and was downloaded a record 22 million times—illegally.Diehl (2003), p. 72. The following year, *[of the State](Enema)(Enema of the State)*, the first major-label release by pop-punk band [Blink-182](Blink-182), reached the top ten and sold four million copies in under twelve months. On February 19, 2000, the album's second single, "[the Small Things](All)(All the Small Things)", peaked at number 6 on the [Hot 100](*Billboard*)(Billboard Hot 100). While they were viewed as Green Day "acolytes",Spitz (2006), p. 144. critics also found [pop](teen)(teen pop) acts such as [Spears](Britney)(Britney Spears), the [Boys](Backstreet)(Backstreet Boys), and [Sync]('N)('N Sync) suitable points of comparison for Blink-182's sound and market niche.Blasengame, Bart. "Live: Blink-182". *Spin*. September 2000, p. 80; Pappademas, Alex. "Blink-182: *The Mark, Tom and Travis Show: The Enema Strikes Back*". *Spin*. December 2000, p. 222. The band's *[Off Your Pants and Jacket](Take)(Take Off Your Pants and Jacket)* (2001) and *[Untitled](Blink-182 (album))* (2003) respectively rose to numbers one and three on the album chart. In November 2003, *[New Yorker](The)(The New Yorker)* described how the "giddily puerile" act had "become massively popular with the mainstream audience, a demographic formerly considered untouchable by punk-rock purists.""Goings On About Town: Nightlife". *The New Yorker*. November 10, 2003, p. 24.
Other new North American pop-punk bands, though often critically dismissed, also achieved major sales in the first decade of the 2000s. Ontario's [41](Sum)(Sum 41) reached the Canadian top ten with its 2001 debut album, *[Killer No Filler](All)(All Killer No Filler)*, which eventually went platinum in the United States. The record included the number one U.S. Alternative hit "[Lip](Fat)(Fat Lip)", which incorporated verses of what one critic called "brat rap".Sinagra (2004), p. 791. Elsewhere around the world, "[punkabilly](psychobilly)" band [Living End](the)(the Living End) became major stars in Australia with their [1998 debut](self-titled)(The Living End (The Living End album)).
The effect of commercialization on the music became an increasingly contentious issue. As observed by scholar Ross Haenfler, many punk fans "despise corporate punk rock", typified by bands Sum 41 and Blink 182.Haenfler (2006), p. 12.
## See also
*[in punk rock](Women)(Women in punk rock)
## Suggested viewing
* *[Hardcore](American)(American Hardcore (film))* (2006, dir. [Rachman](Paul)(Paul Rachman)) - American hardcore punk scene
* *[State of Mind](Another)(Another State of Mind (film))* (1984, dir. Adam Small, Peter Stuart) - [Distortion](Social)(Social Distortion) and [Brigade](Youth)(Youth Brigade (band)) on tour, also [Threat](Minor)(Minor Threat)
* *[Clash: Westway to the World](The)(The Clash: Westway to the World)* (2000, dir. [Letts](Don)(Don Letts)) - Story of the [Clash](The Clash)
* ''[Damned: Don't You Wish That We Were Dead](The)(The Damned: Don't You Wish That We Were Dead)* (2015, dir. Wes Orshoski) - Story of [Damned](The)(The Damned (band))
* *[Decline of Western Civilization](The)(The Decline of Western Civilization)* (1981, dir. [Spheeris](Penelope)(Penelope Spheeris)) - Early Los Angeles punk scene
* *[A Rite of Passage](D.O.A.:)(D.O.A.: A Rite of Passage)* (2014, dir. Craig DeLuz, Michael Allen) - Origins of punk rock
* *[Filth and the Fury](The)(The Filth and the Fury)'' (2000, dir. Julien Temple) - Story of the [Pistols](Sex)(Sex Pistols) from the band's perspective
* *Punk Rock Britannia Part 1 Pre-Punk: 1972-1976* (2012, dir. Andy Dunn) -Documentary from a three-part TV series produced by the BBC
* *Punk Rock Britannia Part 2 Punk: 1976-1978* (2012, dir. Sam Bridger) - Documentary from a three-part TV series produced by the BBC
* *Punk Rock Britannia Part 3 Post-Punk: 1978-1981* (2012, dir. Benjamin Whalley} - Documentary from a three-part TV series produced by the BBC
* *[Punk Rock Movie](The)(The Punk Rock Movie)* (1978, dir. Don Letts) - The early punk scene in London
* *The Punk Rock Singer* (2013, dir. [Anderson](Sini)(Sini Anderson)) - [Hanna](Kathleen)(Kathleen Hanna) of [Kill](Bikini)(Bikini Kill) and [grrrl](riot)(riot grrrl)
* *Salad Days: A Decade of Punk in Washington, DC* (2014, dir. Scott Crawford) - DC punk bands and [Records](Dischord)(Dischord Records)
**[The Unheard Music](X:)(X: The Unheard Music)* (1986, dir. W. T. Morgan) - Los Angeles band [X](X (American band))
## Notes
## References
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* Porter, Dick (2007). ''The Cramps: A Short History of Rock 'n' Roll Psychosis* (London: Plexus).
* Purcell, Natalie J. (2003). *Death Metal Music: The Passion and Politics of a Subculture* (Jefferson, N.C., and London: McFarland).
* Raha, Maria (2005). *Cinderella's Big Score: Women of the Punk and Indie Underground* (Emeryville, Calif.: Seal).
*
*
* [John](Robb,)(John Robb (musician)) (2006). *Punk Rock: An Oral History* (London: Elbury Press).
* Rodel, Angela (2004). "Extreme Noise Terror: Punk Rock and the Aesthetics of Badness", in *Bad Music: The Music We Love to Hate*, eds. Christopher Washburne and Maiken Derno (New York: Routledge), pp. 235–56.
* Rooksby, Rikky (2001). *Inside Classic Rock Tracks'' (San Francisco: Backbeat).
*
*
*
* Shapiro, Fred R. (2006). *Yale Book of Quotations* (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press).
* Schmidt, Axel, and Klaus Neumann-Braun (2004). *Die Welt der Gothics: Spielräume düster konnotierter Tranzendenz* (Wiesbaden: VS Verlag).
* Shuker, Roy (2002). *Popular Music: The Key Concepts*. London: Routledge.
* Simpson, Paul (2003). *The Rough Guide to Cult Pop: The Songs, the Artists, the Genres, the Dubious Fashions*. London: Rough Guides.
* Sinagra, Laura (2004). "Sum 41", in *The New Rolling Stone Album Guide*, 4th ed., ed. Nathan Brackett (New York: [Books](Fireside)(Fireside Books)), pp. 791–92.
* Smith, Kerry L. (2008). *Encyclopedia of Indie Rock* (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood).
* Spencer, Amy (2005). *DIY: The Rise of Lo-Fi Culture* (London: Marion Boyars).
* Spitz, Marc (2006). *Nobody Likes You: Inside the Turbulent Life, Times, and Music of Green Day* (New York: Hyperion).
* Spitz, Marc, and Brendan Mullen (2001). *We Got the Neutron Bomb: The Untold Story of L.A. Punk* (New York: Three Rivers Press).
* Stafford, Andrew (2006). *Pig City: From the Saints to Savage Garden*, 2nd rev. ed. (Brisbane: University of Queensland Press).
* Stark, James (2006). ''Punk '77: An Inside Look at the San Francisco Rock N' Roll Scene*, 3rd ed. (San Francisco: RE/Search Publications).
* Strohm, John (2004). "Women Guitarists: Gender Issues in Alternative Rock", in *The Electric Guitar: A History of an American Icon*, ed. A. J. Millard (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press), pp. 181–200.
* Strongman, Phil (2008). *Pretty Vacant: A History of UK Punk* (Chicago: Chicago Review Press).
* St. Thomas, Kurt, with Troy Smith (2002). *Nirvana: The Chosen Rejects'' (New York: [Martin's Press](St.)(St. Martin's Press)).
*
*
*
* Unterberger, Richie (2002). "British Punk", in *All Music Guide to Rock: The Definitive Guide to Rock, Pop, and Soul*, 3rd ed., eds. Vladimir Bogdanov, Chris Woodstra, and Stephen Thomas Erlewine (San Francisco: Backbeat).
* [Clinton](Walker,)(Clinton Walker) (1982/2004) *Inner City Sound* (Portland, Oregon: Verse Chorus Press)
* Walker, Clinton (1996) *Stranded* (Sydney: Macmillan)
* Walker, John (1991). "Television", in *The Trouser Press Record Guide*, 4th ed., ed. Ira Robbins (New York: Collier), p. 662.
* Walsh, Gavin (2006). *Punk on 45; Revolutions on Vinyl, 1976–79* (London: Plexus).
* Weinstein, Deena (2000). *Heavy Metal: The Music and Its Culture* (New York: Da Capo).
* [Steven](Wells,)(Steven Wells) (2004). *Punk: Loud, Young & Snotty: The Story Behind the Songs* (New York and London: Thunder's Mouth).
* Wilkerson, Mark Ian (2006). *Amazing Journey: The Life of Pete Townshend* (Louisville: Bad News Press).
* Wojcik, Daniel (1995). *Punk and Neo-Tribal Body Art* (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi).
* Wojcik, Daniel (1997). *The End of the World as We Know It: Faith, Fatalism, and Apocalypse in America* (New York: [York University Press](New)(New York University Press)).
*
## External links
* [Fales Library of NYU Downtown Collection](http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/fales/downtown.html) archival collection with the personal papers of NYC punk figures.
* [A History of Punk](https://web.archive.org/web/20000510062822/http://www.fastnbulbous.com/punk.htm) 1990 essay by rock critic A.S. Van Dorston
* ["We Have to Deal With It: Punk England Report"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100420025514/http://www.villagevoice.com/2005-10-18/specials/we-have-to-deal-with-it-punk-england-report/), by [Christgau](Robert)(Robert Christgau), *[Village Voice](The)(The Village Voice)*, January 9, 1978
* [Black Punk Time: Blacks in Punk, New Wave and Hardcore 1976-1984 by James Porter and Jake Austen and many other contributors Roctober Magazine 2002](https://web.archive.org/web/20020613141145/http://www.roctober.com/roctober/blackpunk1.html)
* [Southend Punk Rock History 1976 - 1986, a detailed site containing information on the Punk Rock explosion as experienced by Southend-on-Sea, Essex, UK](http://www.southendpunk.com)
* [*Schmock* Fanzine, 1984](https://archive.org/details/SchmockNumber2WildbergGermany/mode/2up/) Germany's first english-language punk rock fanzine from Wildberg, West Germany
[ ](Category:Punk rock)
[of New York City](Category:Culture)(Category:Culture of New York City)
[subcultures](Category:Musical)(Category:Musical subcultures)
[culture](Category:Anarchist)(Category:Anarchist culture)
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[culture in the United States](Category:Youth)(Category:Youth culture in the United States)
[neologisms](Category:1960s)(Category:1960s neologisms)
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[Category:Punk](Category:Punk)
[rock music genres](Category:American)(Category:American rock music genres)
[rock music genres](Category:British)(Category:British rock music genres)
|
Piper Perabo
|
piper_perabo
|
# Piper Perabo
*Revision ID: 1154580251 | Timestamp: 2023-05-13T11:35:10Z*
---
| birth_place = [Dallas](Dallas, Texas), [Texas](Texas), U.S.
| occupation = Actress
| yearsactive = 1997–present
| spouse =
| children = 1
| alma_mater = [University](Ohio)(Ohio University)
| website =
}}
**Piper Lisa Perabo** (; born October 31, 1976) is an American actress. Following her [breakthrough](breakthrough role) in the comedy-drama film *[Ugly](Coyote)(Coyote Ugly (film))* (2000), she starred in *[Prestige](The)(The Prestige (film))* (2006), *[Has Fallen](Angel)(Angel Has Fallen)* (2019), and as [CIA](Central Intelligence Agency) agent Annie Walker in the [Network](USA)(USA Network) spy drama series *[Affairs](Covert)(Covert Affairs)* (2010–2014), for which she was nominated for a [Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama).
## Early life
Perabo is the daughter of Mary Charlotte (née Ulland), a [therapist](physical)(physical therapist), and George William Perabo, a lecturer in poetry at [County College](Ocean)(Ocean County College). She is of English, German, and Irish (father) and Norwegian (mother) descent; her surname is sometimes mistakenly described as Portuguese. She grew up in [River, New Jersey](Toms)(Toms River, New Jersey).
Perabo's parents named her after actress [Laurie](Piper)(Piper Laurie). She is the eldest of three children with two brothers, Noah and Adam. She graduated from [River High School North](Toms)(Toms River High School North) in 1994,O'Sullivan, Eleanor. ["COYOTE BEAUTIFUL Toms River's Piper Perabo finds herself in `Lost and Delirous'"](https://archive.today/20130131171136/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/app/access/1841189961.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Jul+08,+2001&author=ELEANOR+O'SULLIVAN&pub=Asbury+Park+Press&desc=COYOTE+BEAUTIFUL+Toms+River's+Piper+Perabo+finds+herself+in+%60Lost+and+Delirous'&pqatl=google), *[Park Press](Asbury)(Asbury Park Press)*, July 8, 2001. Accessed February 3, 2011. "Perabo, who grew up in Toms River and graduated in 1994 from Toms River High School North, stars in *Lost and Delirious,* a gritty drama about the love affair between two adolescent schoolmates at a posh Canadian boarding school." and earned a [degree](bachelor's)(bachelor's degree) in theater from [Tutorial College](Honors)(Honors Tutorial College) at [University](Ohio)(Ohio University) in 1998. In 1996, she attended the [MaMa Performing Arts Program](Trinity/La)(Trinity/La MaMa Performing Arts Program).Andersson, Chris. Trinity/La MaMa Archives: 1994 - 2004. 47 Great Jones St, 4th Fl, New York, NY 10012: Trinity College. She also studied Latin, physics, and poetry in her final year.
Perabo was first noticed a year before she graduated from college. She was in New York City, visiting her then-boyfriend, and accompanied him to an audition. Casting director Denise Fitzgerald spotted her and asked her to read for a part. She was not cast, but when Fitzgerald found out that she did not have any representation, she made phone calls on Perabo's behalf and found her an agent.
## Career
### 1997–2007: Beginning and breakthrough
After graduating, Perabo moved to New York, where she worked as a waitress. She also studied acting at the [MaMa Experimental Theatre Club](La)(La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club) and had roles in various plays. She was cast in her first feature film just a month after moving to the city, [Levin](Marc)(Marc Levin)'s comedy *[Whiteboyz](Whiteboyz)*. In 2000, she was cast in the [romantic](Romance film) [musical](Musical film) [comedy-drama](comedy-drama) film *[Ugly](Coyote)(Coyote Ugly (film))* as Violet "Jersey" Sanford, for which she won an [Movie Award](MTV)(MTV Movie Award) for Best Music Moment for "[Way or Another](One)(One Way or Another)". Despite the film's mixed response from critics, it was a box office success, grossing over $113 million worldwide. She also appeared in *[Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle](The)(The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle (film))* as [agent](FBI)(Federal Bureau of Investigation) Karen Sympathy.
After the success of *Coyote Ugly*, Perabo decided to focus on [film](independent)(independent film)s. In 2001, she starred in an independent Canadian drama called *[and Delirious](Lost)(Lost and Delirious)*, playing a [school](boarding)(boarding school) student who falls in love with a female classmate (played by [Paré](Jessica)(Jessica Paré)). The film was met with mixed reviews, but the performances of Perabo, Paré and co-star [Barton](Mischa)(Mischa Barton) were, however, widely praised. Perabo's performance in particular received critical acclaim, which Loren King of the *[Tribune](Chicago)(Chicago Tribune)* remarked was her "breakout performance". *[Weekly](Entertainment)(Entertainment Weekly)*'s [Gleiberman](Owen)(Owen Gleiberman) called her "an actress of glittering ferocity" and her performance "a geyser of emotion". Jim Lane of the *[News & Review](Sacramento)(Sacramento News & Review)* said that "Perabo is a revelation, wild and fiery — it's a breakthrough performance, astonishing in its fervency" and [Ebert](Roger)(Roger Ebert) praised her performance for its sincerity and "wonderful abandon and conviction".
The next year she starred as a French exchange student in the independent comedy ''[Her... She's French](Slap)(Slap Her... She's French)*, which was shelved in North America for two years, then released under the new title *She Gets What She Wants*. The film was released under its original title in Europe. She had a role as the eldest Baker child, Nora, in *[by the Dozen](Cheaper)(Cheaper by the Dozen (2003 film))'' (2003), a role she reprised in the film's [sequel](2005)(Cheaper by the Dozen 2). Her other films include *[I Inside](The)(The I Inside)* (2003), *Perfect Opposites* (2004), *George and the Dragon* (2004), *[Cave](The)(The Cave (2005 film))* (2005), *[Me & You](Imagine)(Imagine Me & You)* (2005), *[Edison](Edison (film))* (2005), and *[Prestige](The)(The Prestige (film))* (2006).
[[File:Piper Perabo at the premiere of Looper, Toronto Film Festival 2012 (8001819275).jpg|thumb|Perabo at the premiere of *[Looper](Looper (film))* at the [International Film Festival](Toronto)(Toronto International Film Festival) in 2012]]
### 2008–present: *Covert Affairs* and other work
In 2008, Perabo co-starred with [Lee Curtis](Jamie)(Jamie Lee Curtis) in the family comedy film *[Hills Chihuahua](Beverly)(Beverly Hills Chihuahua)*. Also that year, she made her [off-Broadway](off-Broadway) debut in the [LaBute](Neil)(Neil LaBute) play *[to Be Pretty](Reasons)(Reasons to Be Pretty)*. As the play's run was coming to an end, she read the script for the [Network](USA)(USA Network) television spy drama series *[Affairs](Covert)(Covert Affairs)*: "I was reading movie scripts and I wasn't finding anything that was really speaking to me and my agent suggested that I read [*Covert Affairs* script](the). And I hadn't thought about doing television, but when I read it, it kind of changed everything for me. She's such a powerful character, she's so smart, the action is so intense, and I really thought it would be fun to do."
The following year, Perabo was cast as [CIA](Central Intelligence Agency) [agent](field)(field agent) Annie Walker, the lead character in *Covert Affairs*. For her work in the series, she received a nomination for the 2010 [Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama](Golden)(Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama#2000s). The series ran for five seasons, from 2010 to 2014.
In September 2012, Perabo had a supporting role, alongside [Willis](Bruce)(Bruce Willis), [Gordon-Levitt](Joseph)(Joseph Gordon-Levitt), and [Blunt](Emily)(Emily Blunt), in the [travel](time)(time travel) thriller film *[Looper](Looper (film))*. In December 2012, she was cast in a recurring role on the sitcom *[On](Go)(Go On (TV series))*. Her character, Simone, was a former member of [Perry](Matthew)(Matthew Perry)'s character's support group, who returned and became his love interest. She was originally scheduled to appear in three episodes, but this was increased to four.
Perabo had a starring role in the thriller *[the Grizzly Maze](Into)(Into the Grizzly Maze)*, which was released in 2015. She starred as Julia George in the [ABC](American Broadcasting Company) drama series *[Notorious](Notorious (2016 TV series))* (2016). Season 1 Order Cut at ABC|last=Ausiello|first=Michael|publisher=TVLine|date=October 25, 2016|access-date=December 13, 2016}} She co-starred with [Banderas](Antonio)(Antonio Banderas) in the thriller film *[Butterfly](Black)(Black Butterfly (2017 film))*, which was released in May 2017. In June 2018, it was announced that Perabo was cast as Sara in the [Netflix](Netflix) comedy series *[Up Charlie](Turn)(Turn Up Charlie)*. Also in 2019, she starred as Leah Banning in the action film *[Has Fallen](Angel)(Angel Has Fallen)*. In 2020, she had a recurring role as Linda Craft in the [Showtime](Showtime (TV network)) supernatural horror series *[Dreadful: City of Angels](Penny)(Penny Dreadful: City of Angels)*.
Perabo co-starred as Angela in the 2020 dark comedy film, *[Spontaneous](Spontaneous (film))*.
In 2021, Perabo joined the cast of *[Yellowstone](Yellowstone (American TV series))* as Summer Higgins, an [rights](animal)(animal rights) activist and ally of John (season 4).
## Personal life
In 2013, Perabo became engaged to director and writer [Kay](Stephen)(Stephen Kay); they married on July 26, 2014, in New York City. Perabo is step-mother to Kay's daughter.
Perabo has been close friends with actress [Headey](Lena)(Lena Headey) since they starred together in the 2005 films *[Cave](The)(The Cave (2005 film))* and *[Me & You](Imagine)(Imagine Me & You)*. She speaks fluent [French](French language), advocates for [rights](LGBT)(LGBT rights) and women's political leadership, and serves on the advisory board of VoteRunLead. She is part owner of *Employees Only*, a [Prohibition](Prohibition)-themed bar in the [Village](West)(West Village), that opened in 2005, and ''Jack's Wife Freda'', a [SoHo](SoHo) restaurant that opened in 2012.
## Political activism
Perabo was arrested for protesting [Kavanaugh](Brett)(Brett Kavanaugh)'s Supreme Court confirmation hearing.
She was also arrested in November 2019 while attending one of [Fonda](Jane)(Jane Fonda)'s weekly climate change protests.
Perabo endorsed [Warren](Elizabeth)(Elizabeth Warren) in the [Democratic Party presidential primaries](2020)(2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries) and regularly uses her Twitter and Instagram accounts to advocate for voter registration and voter education. She has encouraged followers to seek out [VoteRiders](VoteRiders) to learn more about Voter ID requirements.
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
## Stage
## Awards and nominations
## References
## External links
*
*
*
[from New Jersey](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from New Jersey)
[from Dallas](Category:Actresses)(Category:Actresses from Dallas)
[film actresses](Category:American)(Category:American film actresses)
[people of English descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of English descent)
[people of German descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of German descent)
[people of Irish descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Irish descent)
[people of Norwegian descent](Category:American)(Category:American people of Norwegian descent)
[stage actresses](Category:American)(Category:American stage actresses)
[television actresses](Category:American)(Category:American television actresses)
[LGBT rights activists](Category:American)(Category:American LGBT rights activists)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[University alumni](Category:Ohio)(Category:Ohio University alumni)
[from Toms River, New Jersey](Category:People)(Category:People from Toms River, New Jersey)
[River High School North alumni](Category:Toms)(Category:Toms River High School North alumni)
[American actresses](Category:20th-century)(Category:20th-century American actresses)
[American actresses](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century American actresses)
[Jersey Democrats](Category:New)(Category:New Jersey Democrats)
[births](Category:1976)(Category:1976 births)
|
Sam Claflin
|
sam_claflin
|
# Sam Claflin
*Revision ID: 1159092089 | Timestamp: 2023-06-08T05:36:31Z*
---
| birth_place = [Ipswich](Ipswich), Suffolk, England
| alma_mater = [Academy of Music and Dramatic Art](London)(London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art)
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 2010–present
| spouse = }}
| children = 2
}}
**Samuel George Claflin** (; born 27 June 1986) is a British actor. After graduating from the [Academy of Music and Dramatic Art](London)(London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art) in 2009, he began his acting career on television and had his first film role as [Swift](Philip)(Philip Swift) in *[of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides](Pirates)(Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides)* (2011).
Claflin gained wider recognition for playing [Odair](Finnick)(Finnick Odair) in [Hunger Games* film series](*The)(The Hunger Games (film series)) (2013–2015) and for his starring role in the romantic film *[Before You](Me)(Me Before You (film))* (2016). He has since starred in the films *[Adrift](Adrift (2018 film))* (2018) and *[Nightingale](The)(The Nightingale (2018 film))* (2018), and portrayed [Mosley](Oswald)(Oswald Mosley) in the television series *[Blinders](Peaky)(Peaky Blinders (TV series))* (2019–2022), [Holmes](Mycroft)(Mycroft Holmes) in the mystery film *[Holmes](Enola)(Enola Holmes (film))* (2020), Billy Dunne in the musical drama series *[Jones & the Six](Daisy)(Daisy Jones & the Six)* (2023).
## Early life
Claflin was born in [Ipswich](Ipswich), Suffolk, to Mark, a finance officer, and Sue Claflin (née Clarke), a teaching assistant. He has two older brothers, Benjamin and Daniel, and a younger brother, Joseph (born 1989), who is also an actor. He grew up in [Norwich](Norwich), Norfolk.
As a child, he had an interest in [football](Association football). He played throughout his childhood until he broke his ankle, an injury that he felt would prevent him from playing professionally. After some persuasion from his parents and a teacher upon whom he had made an impression during his high school play at [High School](Costessey)(Ormiston Victory Academy), he pursued acting.
A member of the [City](Norwich)(Norwich City F.C.) School of Excellence, in 2003, he took up Performing Arts at [City College](Norwich)(Norwich City College). Claflin subsequently graduated from the [Academy of Music and Dramatic Art](London)(London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art) in 2009.
## Career
Claflin made his acting debut in 2010, when he appeared in two television miniseries—in *[Pillars of the Earth](The)(The Pillars of the Earth (miniseries))* as Richard and in *[Human Heart](Any)(Any Human Heart (TV series))* as young Logan Mountstuart. In March 2011, he was cast as Thomas in *[Son](Seventh)(Seventh Son (film))*, a film adaptation of ''[Spook's Apprentice](The)(The Spook's Apprentice)'', but was dropped for unknown reasons and was replaced by [Barnes](Ben)(Ben Barnes (actor)). His next appearance came in April 2011, when he portrayed footballer [Edwards](Duncan)(Duncan Edwards) in the [BBC](BBC) TV drama *[United](United (2011 film))*, which was centred on the events of the 1958 [air disaster](Munich)(Munich air disaster), in which Edwards died as a result of his injuries.
In April 2010, he was cast as [Swift](Philip)(Philip Swift), a missionary who falls in love with the mermaid Syrena (portrayed by [Bergès-Frisbey](Àstrid)(Àstrid Bergès-Frisbey)), in 2011's *[of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides](Pirates)(Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides)*, the fourth installment of the [of the Caribbean* film series](*Pirates)(Pirates of the Caribbean (film series)). For the film, he received a nomination in the [Empire Awards](17th)(17th Empire Awards) for "Best Male Newcomer." In 2012, he appeared as Jack in the six-episode miniseries *[Heat](White)(White Heat (miniseries))*. Later that year, he played a supporting role in the 2012 film *[White and the Huntsman](Snow)(Snow White and the Huntsman)*, as William, Snow White's childhood friend. He received a nomination in the [Teen Choice Awards](2012)(2012 Teen Choice Awards) for the category "Best Movie Breakout". Also in 2012, he was cast in the lead role in [Films](Hammer)(Hammer Films)' *[Quiet Ones](The)(The Quiet Ones (2014 film))*, which was filmed in mid-2013 and was released in April 2014.
On 22 August 2012, [Lionsgate](Lionsgate) announced that Claflin had been cast as [Odair](Finnick)(Finnick Odair) in [Hunger Games* film series](*The)(The Hunger Games (film series)), starting with *[Hunger Games: Catching Fire](The)(The Hunger Games: Catching Fire)*. The director of *Catching Fire*, [Lawrence](Francis)(Francis Lawrence), stated of Claflin's performance during filming: "Finnick's an interesting character. At first he feels like a bit of a flirt and there's a little bit of sexual tension, but really you kind of fall in love with the guy and you see that there's a real deep emotional side to him. It's one of the reasons I really hired him in the first place was that it's where his character goes in the next couple of stories and I just think he did a fantastic job." The film was released in November 2013 to general acclaim and Claflin's portrayal of Finnick received positive reviews. Claflin reprised the role in *[Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1](The)(The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1)*, released in November 2014, and *[2](Part)(The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 2)*, released in November 2015.
In February 2013, it was announced that Claflin was cast as Alex in the film adaptation of [Ahern](Cecelia)(Cecelia Ahern)'s novel *[Rainbows End](Where)(Where Rainbows End)*, distributed as [Rosie](Love,)(Love, Rosie (film)) in some territories. The following month, he starred in the TV film *[and Martha](Mary)(Mary and Martha (film))* as Ben, which was broadcast by [One](BBC)(BBC One). He received critical acclaim for his role as [University](Oxford)(Oxford University) student Alistair Ryle in the British dramatic thriller *[Riot Club](The)(The Riot Club)* with Charlotte O'Sullivan of the *[Evening Standard](London)(London Evening Standard)* saying "Claflin captures his character's vitriol very well" and Laura Dibdin of *[Spy](Digital)(Digital Spy)* saying "Claflin brings intrigue and vulnerability to offset the sense of entitlement thus making Alistair the film's most fascinating character".
In 2016, Claflin reprised his role as William, Snow White's childhood friend, in several scenes of the sequel ''[Huntsman: Winter's War](The)(The Huntsman: Winter's War)*. The same year, he starred in *[Before You](Me)(Me Before You (film))'', the film adaptation of the [of the same name](novel)(Me Before You), in which he played William Traynor. Claflin gained further critical acclaim for his role of Captain Stanhope in the war drama ''[End](Journey's)(Journey's End (2017 film))* (2017) and *[Adrift](Adrift (2018 film))* (2018).
In 2018, Claflin joined the fifth season of the BBC television drama *[Blinders](Peaky)(Peaky Blinders (TV series))*, as the British fascist politician [Mosley](Oswald)(Oswald Mosley). He starred in *[Corrupted](The)(The Corrupted)'' in 2019. In September 2020, he co-starred in the [Netflix](Netflix) original film *[Holmes](Enola)(Enola Holmes (film))* as Mycroft Holmes, elder brother of the title character.
In 2023, Claflin played Billy Dunne in [Jones & the Six](Daisy)(Daisy Jones & the Six). Based on the book of the same name, it follows the story of a rock band in the 1970s, and premiered on [Prime Video](Amazon)(Amazon Prime Video) on March 3, 2023. Claflin performed vocals on *[Aurora](Aurora (Daisy Jones & The Six album))*, the fictional album recorded by the band, which was released on March 1, 2023.
## Personal life
In 2011, Claflin started dating actress [Haddock](Laura)(Laura Haddock), whom he had met in an audition for *[Week with Marilyn](My)(My Week with Marilyn)*. The two married in July 2013 in a private ceremony. They have a son, born in December 2015, and a daughter, born in February 2018. On 20 August 2019, Claflin and Haddock announced their legal separation.
## Filmography
### Film
### Television
## Awards and nominations
## References
## External links
*
* [Sam Claflin](http://www.biography.com/people/sam-claflin-21044787) at [Biography.com](The Biography Channel)
[births](Category:1986)(Category:1986 births)
[English male actors](Category:21st-century)(Category:21st-century English male actors)
[from Norfolk](Category:Actors)(Category:Actors from Norfolk)
[actors from Suffolk](Category:Male)(Category:Male actors from Suffolk)
[of the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art](Category:Alumni)(Category:Alumni of the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art)
[male film actors](Category:English)(Category:English male film actors)
[male television actors](Category:English)(Category:English male television actors)
[people](Category:Living)(Category:Living people)
[from Ipswich](Category:Actors)(Category:Actors from Ipswich)
[from Norwich](Category:Actors)(Category:Actors from Norwich)
[educated at City College Norwich](Category:People)(Category:People educated at City College Norwich)
|
Final Fantasy _video game
|
final_fantasy__video_game
|
# Final Fantasy (video game)
*Revision ID: 1160123189 | Timestamp: 2023-06-14T15:03:56Z*
---
| programmer = [Gebelli](Nasir)(Nasir Gebelli)
| artist = [Amano](Yoshitaka)(Yoshitaka Amano)
| writer =
| composer = [Uematsu](Nobuo)(Nobuo Uematsu)
| series = *[Fantasy](Final)(Final Fantasy)*
| platforms = }}
| released = |NA|May 1990}}
* **MSX2**
*
* **WonderSwan Color**
*
* **PlayStation**
* |NA|April 8, 2003}}
* **i-mode**
*
* **Game Boy Advance**
* |EU|December 3, 2004}}
* **EZweb**
*
* **Yahoo!**
*
* **PlayStation Portable**
* |EU|February 8, 2008|AUS|February 28, 2008}}
* **iOS**
* }}
***J2ME**
|UK|July 19, 2010}}
* **Windows Phone**
* }}
* **Android**
*
* **Nintendo 3DS**
* }}
* ***Pixel Remaster***
* **Android, iOS, Windows**
* }}
* **Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4**
*
}}}}
| genre = [Role-playing](Role-playing video game)
| modes = [Single-player](Single-player video game)
}}
is a fantasy [video game](role-playing)(role-playing video game) developed and published by [Square](Square (video game company)) in 1987. It is the first game in Square's *[Fantasy](Final)(Final Fantasy)* series, created by [Sakaguchi](Hironobu)(Hironobu Sakaguchi). Originally released for the [NES](Nintendo Entertainment System), *Final Fantasy* was [remade](video game remake) for several [game console](video)(video game console)s and is frequently packaged with *[Fantasy II](Final)(Final Fantasy II)* in video game collections. The first *Final Fantasy* story follows four youths called the Warriors of Light, who each carry one of their world's four [elemental](classical element) crystals which have been darkened by [four Elemental Fiends](the)(Chaos (Final Fantasy character)). Together, they quest to defeat these evil forces, restore light to the crystals, and save their world.
*Final Fantasy* was originally conceived under the working title *Fighting Fantasy*, but trademark issues and dire circumstances surrounding Square as well as Sakaguchi himself prompted the name to be changed. The game was a great commercial success, received generally positive reviews, and spawned many successful sequels and supplementary titles in the form of the *[Fantasy](Final)(Final Fantasy)* series. The original is now regarded as one of the most influential and successful role-playing games on the Nintendo Entertainment System, playing a major role in popularizing the genre. Critical praise focused on the game's graphics, while criticism targeted the time spent wandering in search of [battle encounters](random)(random encounter) to raise the player's experience level. By March 2003, all versions of *Final Fantasy* had sold a combined two million copies worldwide.
## Gameplay
*Final Fantasy* has four basic game modes: an [overworld](overworld) map, town and dungeon maps, a battle screen, and a menu screen. The overworld map is a scaled-down version of the game's fictional world, which the player uses to direct characters to various locations. The primary means of travel across the overworld is by foot; a ship, a canoe, and an airship become available as the player progresses. With the exception of some battles in preset locations or with [bosses](boss (video gaming)), enemies are [encountered](randomly)(random encounter) on field maps and on the overworld map when traveling by foot, canoe, or ship, and must either be fought or fled from.
[[File:Final Fantasy I Lich Battle.png|thumb|left|The Light Warriors battle [Lich](Lich), Fiend of Earth|alt=Commands to give the character are shown.]]
The game's plot develops as the player progresses through towns and dungeons. Some town citizens offer helpful information, while others own shops that sell items or equipment. Dungeons appear in areas that include forests, caves, mountains, swamps, underwater caverns, and buildings. Dungeons often have treasure chests containing rare items that are not available in most stores. The game's menu screen allows the player to keep track of their [point](experience)(experience point)s and levels, to choose which equipment their characters wield, and to use items and magic. A character's most basic attribute is their level, which can range from one to fifty, and is determined by the character's amount of experience. Gaining a level increases the character's attributes, such as their maximum [points](hit)(health (gaming)) (HP), which represents a character's remaining health; a character dies when they reach zero HP. Characters gain experience points by winning battles.
Combat in *Final Fantasy* is menu-based: the player selects an action from a list of options such as Attack, Magic, and Item. Battles are turn-based and continue until either side flees or is defeated. If the player's party wins, each character will gain not only experience but also money, which is known as Gil in the *Final Fantasy* universe; if it flees, it will be returned to the map screen; and if every character in the party dies, the game will be over and all unsaved progress will be lost. *Final Fantasy* was the first game to show the player's characters on the right side of the screen and the enemies on the left side of the screen, as opposed to a [view](first-person)(First-person (video games)).
The player begins the game by choosing four characters to form a party and is locked into that choice for the duration of the game. Each character has an "occupation", or [class](character)(character class), with different attributes and abilities that are either innate or can be acquired. There are six classes: Fighter, Thief, Black Belt, Red Mage, White Mage, and Black Mage. Later in the game, the player has the option to have each character undergo a "class upgrade"; whereby their [sprite](Sprite (computer graphics)) portraits mature, and some classes gain the ability to use weapons and magic that they previously could not use. The game contains a variety of weapons, armor, and items that can be bought or found to make the characters more powerful in combat. Each character has eight inventory slots, with four to hold weapons and four to hold armor. Each character class has restrictions on what weapons and armor it may use. Some weapons and armor are magical; if used during combat, they will cast spells. Other magical artifacts provide protection, such as from certain spells. At shops, the characters can buy items to help themselves recover while they are traveling. Items available include potions, which heal the characters or remove ailments like poison or petrification; Tents and Cabins, which can be used on the world map to heal the player and optionally save the game; and Houses, which also recover the party's magic after saving. Special items may be gained by doing [quests](Quest (video gaming)).
Magic is a common ability in the game, and several character classes use it. Spells are divided into two groups: White, which is defensive and healing, and Black, which is debilitating and destructive. Magic can be bought from White and Black magic shops and assigned to characters whose occupation allows them to use it. Spells are classified by a level between one and eight, with four White and four Black spells per level. Each character may learn only three spells per level. White and Black Mages can potentially learn any of their respective spells, while Red Mages, the Ninja, and the Knight cannot use most high-level magic.
## Plot
### Setting
*Final Fantasy* takes place in a fantasy world with three large continents. The elemental powers of this world are determined by the state of four crystals, each governing one of the four [element](classical)(classical element)s: earth, fire, water, and wind. The world of *Final Fantasy* is inhabited by numerous races, including humans, elves, dwarves, mermaids, dragons, and robots. Most non-human races have only one "town" in the game, although individuals are sometimes found in human towns or other areas as well. Four hundred years prior to the start of the game, the Lefeinish people, who used the Power of Wind to craft airships and a giant [station](space)(space station) (called the Floating Castle in the game), watched their country decline as the Wind crystal went dark. Two hundred years later, violent storms sank a massive shrine that served as the center of an ocean-based civilization, and the Water crystal went dark. The Earth crystal and the Fire crystal followed, plaguing the earth with raging wildfires, and devastating the agricultural town of Melmond as the plains and vegetation decayed. Some time later, the sage Lukahn tells of a prophecy that four Light Warriors will come to save the world in a time of darkness.
### Story
The game begins with the appearance of the four youthful Warriors of Light, the heroes of the story, who each carry one of the darkened Orbs. Initially, the Warriors of Light have access to the Kingdom of Coneria and the ruined Temple of Fiends. After the Warriors rescue Princess Sarah from the evil knight [Garland](Chaos (Final Fantasy character)), the King of Coneria builds a bridge that enables the Warriors of Light passage east to the town of Pravoka. There the Warriors of Light liberate the town from Bikke and his band of pirates and acquire the pirates' ship for their own use. The Warriors now embark on a chain of delivery quests on the shores of the Aldi Sea. First, they retrieve a stolen crown from the Marsh Cave for a king in a ruined castle, who turns out to be the dark elf Astos. Defeating him gains them the Crystal Eye, which they return to the blind witch Matoya in exchange for a herb needed to awaken the elf prince cursed by Astos. The elf prince gives the Warriors of Light the Mystic Key, which is capable of unlocking any door. The key unlocks a storage room in Coneria Castle which holds [TNT](trinitrotoluene). Nerrick, one of the dwarves of the Cave of Dwarf/Dwarf Village, destroys a small [isthmus](isthmus) using the TNT, connecting the Aldi Sea to the outside world.
After visiting the near-ruined town of Melmond, the Warriors of Light go to the Earth Cave to defeat a vampire and retrieve the Star Ruby, which gains passage to Sage Sarda's cave. With Sarda's Rod, the Warriors venture deeper into the Earth Cave and destroy the Earth Fiend, [Lich](Lich). The Warriors of Light then obtain a canoe and enter Gurgu Volcano and defeat the Fire Fiend, [Kary](Marilith). The Levistone from the nearby Ice Cave allows them to raise an airship to reach the northern continents. After they prove their courage by retrieving the Rat's Tail from the Castle of Ordeal, the King of the Dragons, [Bahamut](Bahamut (Dungeons & Dragons)), promotes each Warrior of Light. A kind gesture is repaid by a fairy, receiving special liquid that produces oxygen, and the Warriors use it to help defeat the Water Fiend, [Kraken](Kraken), in the Sunken Shrine. They also recover a Slab, which allows a linguist named Dr. Unne to teach them the Lefeinish language. The Lefeinish give the Warriors of Light access to the Floating Castle that [Tiamat](Tiamat), the Wind Fiend, has taken over. With the [Fiends](Four)(Four Fiends) defeated and the Orbs restored, a portal opens in the Temple of Fiends which takes them 2000 years into the past. There the Warriors discover that the Four Fiends sent Garland (now the archdemon Chaos) back in time and he sent the Fiends to the future to do so, creating a [loop](time)(Predestination paradox) by which he could live forever. The Warriors of Light defeat Chaos, thus ending the paradox, and return home. By ending the paradox, however, the Warriors of Light have changed the future to one where their heroic deeds remain unknown outside of legend.
## Development
[[Sakaguchi 20070706 Japan Expo 1.jpg|thumb|left|Hironobu Sakaguchi at Japan Expo Paris in 2007|alt=A man sitting in a chair and speaking into a microphone.](File:Hironobu)]
### Creation
[Sakaguchi](Hironobu)(Hironobu Sakaguchi) had intended to make a role-playing game (RPG) for a long time, but his employer [Square](Square (video game company)) refused to give him permission as it expected low sales of such a product. However, when the RPG *[Quest](Dragon)(Dragon Quest (video game))* was released and proved to be a hit in Japan, the company reconsidered its stance on the genre and approved Sakaguchi's vision of an RPG inspired by *[Ultima](Ultima I: The First Age of Darkness)* and *[Wizardry](Wizardry: Proving Grounds of the Mad Overlord)*. Only three of his colleagues volunteered to join this project headed by him because he was thought of as a "rough boss" in spite of his unsuccessful creations. Eventually, *Final Fantasy* was developed by a team of seven core staff members within [Square](Square (video game company)) referred to as the "A-Team". Sakaguchi convinced fellow game designers [Ishii](Koichi)(Koichi Ishii) and [Kawazu](Akitoshi)(Akitoshi Kawazu) to join the project. Kawazu was mainly responsible for the battle system and sequences, which he based heavily on the tabletop game *[& Dragons](Dungeons)(Dungeons & Dragons)* and the RPG *Wizardry*. For example, enemies' weaknesses to elements such as fire and ice had not been included in Japanese RPGs up until that point. Kawazu had grown fond of such aspects of Western RPGs and decided to incorporate them into *Final Fantasy*. He also advocated the player's option to freely choose their own party member classes at the beginning of the game as he feels that the fun in an RPG begins when the players create a character.
The scenario was written by freelance writer [Terada](Kenji)(Kenji Terada), based on a story by Sakaguchi. Ishii heavily influenced the game's setting with his idea of the crystals. He also suggested illustrator [Amano](Yoshitaka)(Yoshitaka Amano) as character designer, but Sakaguchi declined at first as he had never heard the artist's name before. When Sakaguchi showed Ishii some drawings on magazine clippings and told him that this was the art style he was looking for, Ishii revealed to him that these were actually created by Amano, hence leading to his involvement in the game. The [for *Final Fantasy*](music)(Music of Final Fantasy I and II) was composed by [Uematsu](Nobuo)(Nobuo Uematsu) and marked his 16th video game music composition. Iranian-American programmer [Gebelli](Nasir)(Nasir Gebelli) was hired to code the game. He initially tried to understand all aspects of the gameplay but was soon advised by Sakaguchi to just program the design concepts so he did not have to explain everything to Gebelli in detail. Gebelli was also responsible for creating what is considered to be the first RPG [minigame](minigame), a [puzzle](sliding)(sliding puzzle), which he added into the game despite it not being part of the original game design. Among the other developers were [graphic](Pixel art) designer [Shibuya](Kazuko)(Kazuko Shibuya), programmers Kiyoshi Yoshii and Ken Narita, as well as debugger [Ito](Hiroyuki)(Hiroyuki Ito). When the project started to show promise, designer [Tanaka](Hiromichi)(Hiromichi Tanaka) and his "B-Team" joined to aid development. The lack of faith in Sakaguchi's team, as well as its unpopularity within the company, motivated the staff members to give their best.
### Release
Sakaguchi took an in-development ROM of the game to Japanese magazine *[Tsushin](Famicom)(Famitsu)*, but it would not review it. However, *Famitsu* gave the game extensive coverage. Initially, only 200,000 copies were to be shipped, but Sakaguchi pleaded with the company to make 400,000 to help spawn a sequel, and the management agreed, then the original Famicom (NES) version successfully shipped 520,000 copies in Japan. Following the successful North American [localization](Internationalization and localization) of *[Quest](Dragon)(Dragon Warrior)*, [Nintendo](Nintendo) of America translated *Final Fantasy* into English and published it in North America in 1990. No version of the game was marketed in the [region](PAL)(PAL region) until *Final Fantasy Origins* in 2003.
### Title
Over the years, several theories emerged as to why the game was called *Final Fantasy*. In 2015, Sakaguchi revealed that, from the beginning, the team had wished for a name that could be shortened to ; that way, the game's title could be abbreviated in the [script](Latin)(Latin script) and pronounced in four syllables in the Japanese language. The original working title for Sakaguchi's RPG concept was *Fighting Fantasy*, but was changed to avoid issues with a [series of the same name](gamebook)(Fighting Fantasy) that had already been released. The reason for choosing the word "final" to form the eventual title of *Final Fantasy* was explained as twofold by Uematsu: for one thing, it stemmed from Sakaguchi's personal situation, as he would have quit the game industry and gone back to university had the game not sold well, and for another, Square was under the threat of bankruptcy at the time, which meant the game could have been the company's last. Although Sakaguchi confirmed some of the theories, he later downplayed the rationale for choosing the word "final", saying that "it was definitely a back-to-the-wall type situation back then, but any word that starts with an 'F' would have been fine".
## Versions and re-releases
*Final Fantasy* has been remade several times for different platforms and has frequently been packaged with *Final Fantasy II* in various collections. While all of these remakes retain the same basic story and battle mechanics, various changes have been made in different areas, including graphics, sound, and specific game elements.
*Final Fantasy* was first re-released for the [MSX2](MSX2) system and was published by [Microcabin](Microcabin) in Japan in June 1989. It had access to almost three times as much storage space as the Famicom version but suffered from problems not present in Nintendo's cartridge media, including noticeable loading times. There were also minor graphical upgrades, improved music tracks, and sound effects.
In 1994, *Final Fantasy I・II*, a compilation of *Final Fantasy* and *Final Fantasy II*, was launched for the Famicom. This version was only released in Japan and had very few graphical updates.
The [WonderSwan](WonderSwan) Color remake was released in Japan on December 9, 2000, and featured many new graphical changes. The 8-bit graphics of the original Famicom game were updated, battle scenes incorporated full background images, and character and enemy [sprites](sprite (computer graphics)) were redrawn to look more like the ones from the [Famicom](Super)(Super Nintendo Entertainment System) *Final Fantasy* games.
In Japan, *Final Fantasy* and *Final Fantasy II* were re-released both separately and as a combined game for the [PlayStation](PlayStation (console)). The collection was released in Japan in 2002 as *[Fantasy I & II Premium Package](Final)(Final Fantasy I & II Premium Package)* and in Europe and North America in 2003 as *[Fantasy Origins](Final)(Final Fantasy Origins)*. This version was similar to the WonderSwan Color remake and featured several changes such as more detailed graphics, a remixed soundtrack, added [motion video](full)(full motion video) sequences, art galleries of [Amano](Yoshitaka)(Yoshitaka Amano)'s illustrations, and a memo save function. The port was re-released as part of the *Final Fantasy 25th Anniversary Ultimate Box* package in December 2012.
*Final Fantasy I & II: Dawn of Souls* is, like *Final Fantasy Origins*, a remake of the first two games in the series and was released for the [Boy Advance](Game)(Game Boy Advance) in 2004. The *Dawn of Souls* version incorporates various new elements, including four additional dungeons, an updated bestiary, and a few minor changes.
Square Enix released a version of *Final Fantasy* for two Japanese mobile phone networks in 2004; a version for [DoCoMo](NTT)(NTT DoCoMo) [FOMA](Freedom of Mobile Multimedia Access) 900i series was launched in March under the title *Final Fantasy i* and a subsequent release for [1X WIN](CDMA)(CDMA2000)-compatible phones was launched in August. Another version was released for [SoftBank](SoftBank) [Yahoo!](Yahoo!) Keitai phones on July 3, 2006. The games have more refined graphics compared to the original 8-bit game, but not as advanced as many of the later console and handheld ports.
Square Enix planned to release this version for North American mobile phones in 2006, but was delayed to 2010 and released in collaboration with [Namco](Namco). It retains the game difficulty and "spell level"-based magic system from the original Famicom version. Other elements such as updated graphics, spell names, and monster names are borrowed from the [Boy Advance](Game)(Game Boy Advance) / [WonderSwan](WonderSwan) Color versions, not including the additional dungeons, monsters and items present in the GBA version. Game data is saved as in the original Famicom version (by using Tent, Sleeping Bag, and Cottage or by going into an inn), but there are now three save game slots and a "Temporary Save" option available in the game.
For the 20th anniversary of *Final Fantasy*, Square Enix remade *Final Fantasy* and *Final Fantasy II* for the [Portable](PlayStation)(PlayStation Portable). The games were released in Japan and North America in 2007, and in European territories in 2008. The PSP version features higher-resolution 2D graphics, full motion video sequences, a remixed soundtrack, and a new dungeon as well as the bonus dungeons from *Dawn of Souls*. The script is the same as in the *Dawn of Souls* version, aside from the new dungeon. This version was later released for the Nintendo 3DS (on the Japanese eShop only) with the addition of Stereoscopic 3D.
Square Enix released the original NES version of the game on the [Wii](Wii)'s [Console](Virtual)(Virtual Console) service in Japan on May 26, 2009, in North America on October 5 and in the PAL region as an import on May 7, 2010.
Square Enix released the [iOS](iOS) version of *Final Fantasy* on February 25, 2010, based on the PSP port with touch controls, worldwide. A [Phone](Windows)(Windows Phone) version was released on June 13, 2012, which is based on the iOS version. Square Enix released [Android](Android (operating system)) port on July 27, 2012, largely based on the iOS version though lacking the new dungeons of the 20th-anniversary edition.
The game (alongside 29 other games) was included in the NES Classic Edition / Nintendo Classic Mini: Nintendo Entertainment System released by Nintendo in November 2016.
The first in the *Pixel Remaster* series*, Final Fantasy,* alongside *Final Fantasy II* and *Final Fantasy III,* released on iOS, Android, and Windows PC through Steam on July 28, 2021.
## Reception
PSP: 68%
| MC = PSP: 67/100iOS: 74/100PC: 80/100
| Fam = NES: 34/40WonderSwan: 30/40
| GSpot = PSP: 6.5/10
| IGN = WonderSwan: 8.6/10PSP: 6.9/10iOS: 7 / 10
| TA = iOS: iOS (*Pixel Remaster*):
| rev1 = *[RPG](GamePlay)(:fr:GamePlay RPG)*
| rev1Score = WonderSwan: 96%*GamePlay RPG*, issue 6 (February 2001), [pages 38-39](http://www.abandonware-magazines.org/affiche_mag.php?mag=235&num=5098&album=oui)
}}
*Final Fantasy* has been well received by critics and commercially successful; the original Famicom (NES) version shipped 520,000 copies in Japan, grossing more than or ,000,000|long=no|1987|round=-6}} at retail. According to Square's publicity department in 1994, the game had sold 600,000 copies in Japan. The NES release was more successful in North America, where it sold 700,000 copies, adding up to copies sold worldwide by 1994. As of March 2003, the game, including all re-releases and remakes at the time, had shipped 1.99 million copies worldwide, with 1.21 million of those copies being shipped in Japan and 780,000 abroad. As of November 2007, another PlayStation Portable version has shipped 140,000 copies.
Editors at [IGN](IGN) ranked *Final Fantasy* the 11th best game on the NES, calling the game's class system diverse, and praising its convenient use of vehicles as a means of traveling across the world map. [GamesRadar](GamesRadar) ranked it the eighth best NES game ever made. The staff felt that while *Dragon Warrior* introduced gamers to the genre, *Final Fantasy* popularized it. In 2004, readers of *[Gamer](Retro)(Retro Gamer)* voted *Final Fantasy* 93rd top retro game, with the staff noting that "despite poor visuals and a relatively simple quest, many still consider the original to be the best (with the exception of *FFVII*)".*Retro Gamer* 8, page 60. In 2006, *Final Fantasy* appeared in the Japanese magazine *[Famitsu](Famitsu)*s Top 100 games list, where readers voted it the 63rd best game of all time. [GameFAQs](GameFAQs) users made a similar list in 2005, which ranked *Final Fantasy* at 76th. It was rated the 49th best game made on a Nintendo system in *[Power](Nintendo)(Nintendo Power)*s Top 200 Games list. In 2008, *Nintendo Power* ranked it the 19th best Nintendo Entertainment System video game, praising it for setting up the basics of console role-playing games, along with *[Warrior](Dragon)(Dragon Warrior)*, and citing examples such as epic stories, leveling up, random battles, and character classes. In 2023, Time Extension included the game on their "Best JRPGs of All Time" list, also noting it as one of the best and influential NES games.
*Final Fantasy* was one of the most influential early console role-playing games and played a major role in legitimizing and popularizing the genre. According to IGN's [Casamassina](Matt)(Matt Casamassina), *Final Fantasy*s storyline had a deeper and more engaging story than the original *Dragon Quest* (known as *Dragon Warrior* in North America). Modern critics have criticized the game for being poorly paced by contemporary standards, as it involves much more time wandering in search of random battle encounters to raise their experience levels and money than it does exploring and solving puzzles. Other reviewers find the level-building and exploration portions of the game as the most entertaining. In 1987, *Famitsu* initially described the original *Final Fantasy* as "one of many" that imitated the *Dragon Quest* formula. Roe R. Adams, III reviewed the game for *[Gaming World](Computer)(Computer Gaming World)*, and stated that gamers should "put *Final Fantasy* high on your list of games to recommend to people who have no idea what a CRPG is or how to play one". The game is considered by some to be the weakest and most difficult installment of the series.
The subsequent versions of *Final Fantasy* have garnered mostly favorable reviews from the media. Peer Schneider of *IGN* enjoyed the WonderSwan Color version, praising its graphical improvements, especially the environments, characters, and monsters. *Famitsu* scored this version a 30 out of 40.*ワンダースワン - ファイナルファンタジー*. Weekly Famitsu. No.915 Pt.2. Pg.112. June 30, 2006. *[Fantasy Origins](Final)(Final Fantasy Origins)* was generally well-received; *[GamePro](GamePro)* said the music was "fantastic", and that the graphics had a suitably retro cuteness to them. Reviews for *[Fantasy I & II: Dawn of Souls](Final)(Final Fantasy I & II: Dawn of Souls)* were generally positive, with Jeremy Dunham of *IGN* giving particular praise to the improved English translation, saying it was better than any previous version of the game. The PlayStation Portable version was not as critically successful as the previous releases; [GameSpot](GameSpot)'s Kevin VanOrd cited the visuals as its strongest enhancement but stated that the additional random enemy encounters and updated graphics did not add much value. The *Dawn of Souls* package was rated 76th in *Nintendo Power*s Top 200 Games list.
## Legacy
A soundtrack album was released together with the score of *[Fantasy II](Final)(Final Fantasy II)* in 1989. Some of the game's tracks became mainstays to the *Final Fantasy* series: the "Prelude", the [arpeggio](arpeggio) played on the title screen; the "Opening Theme", which is played when the party crosses the bridge early in the game and later referred to as the *Final Fantasy* theme; and the "Victory Fanfare", which is played after every victorious battle. The opening [motif](Motif (music)) of the battle theme has also been reused a number of times in the series. *Final Fantasy* was also the basis for the series finale of a video game-themed cartoon series *[N: The Game Master](Captain)(Captain N: The Game Master)* entitled "The Fractured Fantasy of Captain N". *[Theater](8-Bit)(8-Bit Theater)*, a [sprite](sprite (computer graphics))-based [webcomic](webcomic) created by [Clevinger](Brian)(Brian Clevinger), parodies the game, and has become very popular in the gaming community since it started in March 2001.
Elements from the video game have also appeared in a series of [game](fighting)(fighting game)s: *[Final Fantasy](Dissidia)(Dissidia Final Fantasy)*, *[012](Dissidia)(Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy)* and *[NT](Dissidia)(Dissidia Final Fantasy NT)*. Warrior of Light, based on [Amano](Yoshitaka)(Yoshitaka Amano)'s design of the lead character, and Garland are the respective hero and villain representing *Final Fantasy*. Warrior of Light is voiced by [Seki](Toshihiko)(Toshihiko Seki) in the Japanese version and [George](Grant)(Grant George) in the English version, while Garland is voiced by [Utsumi](Kenji)(Kenji Utsumi) (*Dissidia Final Fantasy* and *Dissidia 012*) and [Ishii](Kōji)(Kōji Ishii) (*Dissidia NT*) in the Japanese versions and [Sabat](Christopher)(Christopher Sabat) in the English versions. All the games add background information to the world of *Final Fantasy*. For instance, *Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy* names the world of *Final Fantasy* "World A" in order to distinguish it from World B, the world of *Dissidia*. Characters and music from *Final Fantasy* have also appeared in the *[Final Fantasy](Theatrhythm)(Theatrhythm Final Fantasy)* series. The Amano Warrior of Light makes an appearance as a boss in [*Shadowbringers*](Final Fantasy XIV: Shadowbringers), the third expansion pack for *[Fantasy XIV](Final)(Final Fantasy XIV)*.
*[of Paradise: Final Fantasy Origin](Stranger)(Stranger of Paradise: Final Fantasy Origin)*, an alternate universe prequel to the original *Final Fantasy*, contains numerous references and allusions to the original game, in addition acting as an "origin story" of the antagonist Chaos and the four Warriors of Light.
## See also
* [of Square Enix video game franchises](List)(List of Square Enix video game franchises)
## Further reading
*
## Notes
## References
## External links
*
[video games](Category:1987)(Category:1987 video games)
[(operating system) games](Category:Android)(Category:Android (operating system) games)
[Fantasy video games](Category:Final)(Category:Final Fantasy video games)
[Boy Advance games](Category:Game)(Category:Game Boy Advance games)
[games](Category:IOS)(Category:IOS games)
[role-playing video games](Category:Japanese)(Category:Japanese role-playing video games)
[games](Category:Microcabin)(Category:Microcabin games)
[games](Category:MSX2)(Category:MSX2 games)
[3DS eShop games](Category:Nintendo)(Category:Nintendo 3DS eShop games)
[3DS games](Category:Nintendo)(Category:Nintendo 3DS games)
[Entertainment System games](Category:Nintendo)(Category:Nintendo Entertainment System games)
[games](Category:Nintendo)(Category:Nintendo games)
[Switch games](Category:Nintendo)(Category:Nintendo Switch games)
[4 games](Category:PlayStation)(Category:PlayStation 4 games)
[(console) games](Category:PlayStation)(Category:PlayStation (console) games)
[Network games](Category:PlayStation)(Category:PlayStation Network games)
[Portable games](Category:PlayStation)(Category:PlayStation Portable games)
[video games](Category:Role-playing)(Category:Role-playing video games)
[video games](Category:Single-player)(Category:Single-player video games)
[games about time loops](Category:Video)(Category:Video games about time loops)
[games about time travel](Category:Video)(Category:Video games about time travel)
[games developed in Japan](Category:Video)(Category:Video games developed in Japan)
[games scored by Nobuo Uematsu](Category:Video)(Category:Video games scored by Nobuo Uematsu)
[Console games for Wii U](Category:Virtual)(Category:Virtual Console games for Wii U)
[Console games](Category:Virtual)(Category:Virtual Console games)
[games](Category:Wii)(Category:Wii games)
[U games](Category:Wii)(Category:Wii U games)
[games](Category:Windows)(Category:Windows games)
[Phone games](Category:Windows)(Category:Windows Phone games)
[Color games](Category:WonderSwan)(Category:WonderSwan Color games)
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LVMH
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lvmh
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# LVMH
*Revision ID: 1160254401 | Timestamp: 2023-06-15T10:01:23Z*
---
[40 Component](CAC)(CAC 40)
| ISIN =
| predecessors =
| num_locations = 5,664 stories (2022)
| area_served = Worldwide
| key_people = [Arnault](Bernard)(Bernard Arnault) [Arnault](Delphine)(Delphine Arnault) Antonio Belloni Andrew Lovell
| industry = [goods](Luxury)(Luxury goods)
| founders = [Arnault](Bernard)(Bernard Arnault) Alain Chevalier [Racamier](Henry)(Henry Racamier)
| products =
| services = [store](Department)(Department store)s
| revenue = €79.2 billion (2022)
| operating_income = €21.1 billion (2022)
| net_income = €14.1 billion (2022)
| assets = €135 billion (2022)
| equity = €56.6 billion (2022)
| num_employees = 196,006 (2022)
| subsid = [of subsidiaries](List)(#Subsidiaries)
| homepage = [lvmh.com](https://www.lvmh.com)
| parent = [Dior SE](Christian)(Dior) (41.1%)
| foundation =
| location = [Paris](Paris), FranceOverseas: [Tower](LVMH)(LVMH Tower)19 [57th Street](East)(57th Street (Manhattan))[York](New)(New York City), [N.Y.](New York (state)), U.S.
}}
**LVMH Moët Hennessy Louis Vuitton** (), commonly known as **LVMH**, is a French [multinational](Multinational corporation) [holding](Holding company) and [conglomerate](conglomerate (company)) specializing in [goods](luxury)(luxury goods), headquartered in [Paris](Paris). The company was formed in 1987 through the merger of [house](fashion)(fashion house) [Vuitton](Louis)(Louis Vuitton) (founded in 1854) with Moët Hennessy, which was established following the 1971 [merger](Mergers and acquisitions) between the [champagne](champagne) producer [& Chandon](Moët)(Moët & Chandon) (founded in 1743) and the [cognac](Cognac (brandy)) producer [Hennessy](Hennessy) (founded in 1765). In 2023, with a valuation of $500 billion, LVMH became the most valuable company in Europe.
LVMH controls around 60 [subsidiaries](Subsidiary) that manage 75 prestigious brands. These include [& Co.](Tiffany)(Tiffany & Co.), [Dior](Christian)(Dior), [Fendi](Fendi), [Givenchy](Givenchy), [Jacobs](Marc)(Marc Jacobs (brand)), [McCartney](Stella)(Stella McCartney), [Loewe](LOEWE (fashion brand)), [Piana](Loro)(Loro Piana), [Kenzo](Kenzo (brand)), [Celine](Celine (brand)), [Sephora](Sephora), [Yachts](Princess)(Princess Yachts), [Heuer](TAG)(TAG Heuer), and [Bulgari](Bulgari). The subsidiaries are often managed independently, under the umbrellas of six branches: Fashion Group, Wines and Spirits, Perfumes and Cosmetics, Watches and Jewelry, Selective Distribution, and Other Activities. The oldest of the LVMH brands is wine producer [d'Yquem](Château)(Château d'Yquem), which dates its origins back to 1593.[The Beginnings of Château d'Yquem](https://web.archive.org/web/20041018103236/http://www2.yquem.fr/yquem.php?lang=uk) ''Château d'Yquem'' Retrieved 29 January 2010 [Arnault](Bernard)(Bernard Arnault) is the chairman and CEO of LVMH.
## History
In the 1980s, French investor [Arnault](Bernard)(Bernard Arnault) had the idea to create a group of luxury brands. He worked with Alain Chevalier, CEO of Moët Hennessy, and [Racamier](Henry)(Henry Racamier), president of [Vuitton](Louis)(Louis Vuitton), to form LVMH. Their successful integration of various famous [brand](aspirational)(aspirational brand)s into a single group inspired other luxury companies to do the same. Thus, the French conglomerate [Kering](Kering) and the Swiss-based [Richemont](Richemont) have also created extended portfolios of luxury brands. LVMH is a component of the [Stoxx 50](Euro)(Euro Stoxx 50) [market index](stock)(stock market index).
Make Up For Ever was established in 1984, and was acquired by LVMH in 1999.
On 7 March 2011, LVMH announced the acquisition of the 50.4% family-owned shares of the Italian jeweller [Bulgari](Bulgari) and the intention to make a tender offer for the rest, which was publicly owned. The transaction was about $5.2 billion.
By 2012, LVMH established LCapitalAsia, a continuation of its private-equity arm, focused on Asia. In 2012, the growth of LVMH's sales "decreased by about 10 percent from the growth rate in 2011", and in early 2013 LVMH expressed that it would "stop opening stores in second and third-tier cities in mainland China". Xue Shengwen, a senior researcher at ChinaVenture, said the developing trend of young people is to take advantage of more acceptable prices.
On 7 March 2013, *National Business Daily* reported that mid-priced clothing brand QDA would open its first store in Beijing as a co-investment of LVMH's private equity LCapitalAsia and the Chinese apparel company Xin Hee Co., Ltd.
In February 2014, LVMH entered into a joint venture with the Italian fashion brand Marco De Vincenzo, taking a minority 45% stake in the firm.
In April 2017, LVMH announced it would gain ownership of [Dior](Christian)(Christian Dior) haute couture, leather, men's and women's ready-to-wear, and footwear lines to integrate the entire Christian Dior brand within its luxury group.
In January 2018, LVMH announced record sales of 42.6 billion euros in 2017, up 13% over the previous year, as all divisions turned in strong performances. In the same year, the net profit increased by 29%. On 1 November 2018, co-founder Alain Chevalier died at age 87.
[[File: 1995-1999_LVMH_Tower,_New_York,.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|The [Tower](LVMH)(LVMH Tower) in [Manhattan](Midtown)(Midtown Manhattan), with its bluish, [gem](gem)-shaped, angulated glass facade|alt=a tall blue glass building with angles]]
On 12 May 2019, the fashion house Fenty, styled as [FEИTY](Fenty (brand)), created by singer [Rihanna](Rihanna), was launched by LVMH in Paris. It is the first new fashion house by LVMH in 32 years, and she is the first woman of colour to head a brand under LVMH. On 15 July 2019, LVMH announced a new partnership to further develop the [McCartney](Stella)(Stella McCartney) House. On 29 November 2019, LVMH announced its 55% stake in Château d’Esclans, the producer best known for the brand [Angel](Whispering)(Whispering Angel). The acquisition was part of LVMH's move to offer a beloved high-end rosé portfolio, in addition to reaching customers worldwide. In November 2019, LVMH expressed plans to acquire [& Co.](Tiffany)(Tiffany & Co.) for approximately US $16.2 billion. The deal was expected to close by June 2020. LVMH issued a statement in September 2020 indicating that the takeover would not proceed and that the deal was "invalid" because Tiffany handled the business during the COVID-19 pandemic. Subsequently, Tiffany filed suit against LVMH, asking the court to compel the purchase or to assess damages against the defendant; LVMH planned to counter sue, alleging that mismanagement had invalidated the purchase agreement.
In mid-September 2020, a reliable source told *[Forbes](Forbes (magazine))* that the reason for Arnault's decision to cancel the Tiffany purchase was purely financial: because Tiffany was paying millions in dividends to shareholders despite a financial loss of US$32 million during the pandemic. Some US$70 million had already been paid out by Tiffany, with an additional US$70 million scheduled to be paid in November 2020. LVMH filed a counterclaim against the court action commenced by Tiffany; a statement issued by LMVH blamed Tiffany's mismanagement during the pandemic and claimed that it was 'burning cash and reporting losses'". In late October 2020, Tiffany and LVMH agreed to the original takeover plan, though at a slightly reduced price of nearly $16 billion, a minor reduction of 2.6% from the aforementioned deal. The new deal reduced the amount paid per share by LVMH from the original price of $135 to $131.50. As of late 2020, LVMH has the largest market capitalization of any company in France, and also in the [Eurozone](Eurozone) with a record of 261 billion euros ($317.6 billion). As of December 2020, Arnault's own fortune was nearly half that, with a personal net worth of $151.7 billion.
LVMH completed the purchase of Tiffany in January 2021. In 2021, with a valuation of $329 billion, LVMH became the most valuable company in Europe.
In January 2022, LVMH acquired a minority stake in the New York-based label [Leon Dore](Aimé)(Aimé Leon Dore) for an undisclosed sum. The investment was made through the conglomerate's LVMH Luxury Ventures arm. The Industry Fashion|url=https://www.theindustry.fashion/lvmh-acquires-stake-in-new-york-based-label-aime-leon-dore/|access-date=18 January 2022|website=|date=18 January 2022 }} In March 2022, LVMH announced the closure of its 120+ stores in Russia, "given the current circumstances in the region", due to the [War](Russo-Ukrainian)(Russo-Ukrainian War). An LVMH spokesperson stated the company would continue to pay salary and benefits to its 3,500 employees in Russia. In November 2022, it was announced LVMH had acquired the [Piedmont](Piedmont)-based jewellery maker Pedemonte Group.
On 24 April 2023, LVMH became the first European company to reach a $500 billion valuation.
## Corporate structure
LVMH is headquartered in the [arrondissement of Paris](8th)(8th arrondissement of Paris), France.
The company is listed on the [Paris](Euronext)(Euronext Paris) exchange and is a constituent of the [40](CAC)(CAC 40) index.
As of 2009, the group employed more than 83,000 people, 30 percent of LVMH's staff worked in France, and LVMH operated over 2,400 stores worldwide.[LVMH First half 2009 interim report](http://www.lvmh.com/comfi/pdf_gbr/Rapport_semestriel2009_gbr.pdf) *LVMH* Retrieved 29 January 2010
As of 2010, the group had [revenue](revenue)s of €20.3 billion with a [income](net)(net income) of just over €3 billion.
In 2013, with a revenue of $21.7 billion, LVMH was ranked first [goods](luxury)(luxury goods) company in [Deloitte](Deloitte)'s "Global Powers of Luxury Goods" report. By 29 February 2016, the company had a share value of 78,126 million euros, distributed in 506,980,299 shares.
### Shareholders
As of 2009, LVMH held 66% of the drinks division, Moët Hennessy, with the remaining 34% held by [Diageo](Diageo).
As of 2013, [Dior SE](Christian)(Dior) was the leading [company](holding)(holding company) of LVMH, owning 40.9% of its shares and 59.01% of its voting rights. Bernard Arnault is Chairman and CEO of LVMH and Chairman of Christian Dior SE. In 2017, Arnault purchased all the remaining Christian Dior shares in a reported $13.1 billion buyout.
At the end of 2017, the only declared major shareholder in LVMH was the Arnault Family Group, the [company](holding)(holding company) of Bernard Arnault. The group's control amounted to 46.84% of LVMH's stock and 63.13% of its voting rights..
### Senior leadership
[Arnault](Bernard)(Bernard Arnault) has served as LVMH's chairman and CEO since January 1989. Alain Chevalier was chairman from 1987 until Arnault took over the role.
## Subsidiaries
A partial list, including some of LVMH's best-known brands and subsidiaries:
; Wines and spirits
* Ao Yun
* [Ardbeg](Ardbeg distillery)
* [Belvedere](Belvedere Vodka)
* Bodega Numanthia
* [Mentelle](Cape)(Cape Mentelle Vineyards)
* [Chandon](Domaine Chandon California)
* Château d'Esclans
* [Cheval Blanc](Château)(Château Cheval Blanc)
* [d'Yquem](Château)(Château d'Yquem)
* [des Andes](Cheval)(Terrazas de los Andes)
* [des Lambrays](Clos)(Clos des Lambrays)
* [Bay](Cloudy)(Cloudy Bay Vineyards)
* [Cellars](Colgin)(Colgin Cellars)
* [Pérignon](Dom)(Dom Pérignon)
* [Glenmorangie](Glenmorangie distillery)
* [Hennessy](Hennessy)
* [Krug](Champagne Krug)
* [Mercier](Champagne Mercier)
* [& Chandon](Moët)(Moët & Chandon)
* [Vineyard](Newton)(Newton Vineyard)
* [Ruinart](Ruinart (Champagne))
* [de los Andes](Terrazas)(Terrazas de los Andes)
* [Clicquot](Veuve)(Veuve Clicquot)
* Volcan de mi Tierra
* Woodinville
; Fashion and leather goods
* [Berluti](Berluti)
* [Birkenstock](Birkenstock)
* [Celine](Celine (brand))
* [Dior](Christian)(Dior)
* [Pucci](Emilio)(Emilio Pucci)
* [Fendi](Fendi)
* [Givenchy](Givenchy)
* [Anderson](JW)(JW Anderson)
* [Kenzo](Kenzo (brand))
* [Loewe](Loewe (fashion brand))
* [Piana](Loro)(Loro Piana)
* [Vuitton](Louis)(Louis Vuitton)
* [Jacobs](Marc)(Marc Jacobs)
* [Moynat](Moynat)
* [Off-White](Off-White (company))
* [Patou](Patou)
* [Philo](Phoebe)(Phoebe Philo)
* [Rimowa](Rimowa)
* [McCartney](Stella)(Stella McCartney)
; Perfumes and cosmetics
* [di Parma](Acqua)(Acqua di Parma)
* [Cosmetics](Benefit)(Benefit Cosmetics)
* [Beauty](BITE)(BITE Beauty)
* Cha Ling
* [Beauty](Fenty)(Fenty Beauty) by [Rihanna](Rihanna)
* Fresh Beauty
* [Givenchy](Parfums)(Parfums Givenchy)
* [Guerlain](Guerlain)
* [Parfums](Kenzo)(Kenzo (brand))
* KVD Vegan Beauty
* [Francis Kurkdjian](Maison)(Francis Kurkdjian)
* [Up For Ever](Make)(Make Up For Ever)
* [Jacobs Beauty](Marc)(Marc Jacobs)
* [Universelle Buly](Officine)(Officine Universelle Buly)
* [Henriksen](Ole)(Ole Henriksen)
* [Christian Dior](Parfums)(Parfums Christian Dior)
* [Loewe](Perfumes)(Loewe (fashion brand))
* [Sephora](Sephora)
; Watches and jewelry
* [Bulgari](Bulgari)
* [Chaumet](Chaumet)
* [Roth](Daniel)(Daniel Roth (watchmakers))
* [Fred](Fred Joaillier)
* [Hublot](Hublot)
* [Genta](Gerald)(Gerald Genta)
* [Repossi](Repossi)
* [Heuer](TAG)(TAG Heuer)
* [& Co.](Tiffany)(Tiffany & Co.)
* [Zenith](Zenith (watchmaker))
; Selective retailing
* [DFS](DFS Group)
* [Grande Epicerie](La)(Le Bon Marché)
* [Samaritaine](La)(La Samaritaine)
* [Bon Marché](Le)(Le Bon Marché)
* Starboard Cruise Services
; Other activities
* [Belmond](Belmond Limited)
* Maisons Cheval Blanc
* *[des Arts](Connaissance)(Connaissance des Arts)*
* [Cova](Caffè-Pasticceria Cova)
* *[Investir](Investir)*
* [d'Acclimatation](Jardin)(Jardin d'Acclimatation)
* *[Parisien](Le)(Le Parisien)*
* [Echos*](*Les)(Les Echos (France))
* [Classique](Radio)(Radio Classique)
* [Van Lent](Royal)(Feadship)
## *Journées Particulières*
Launched in 2011, *Journées Particulières* (Particular Days) is a biennial event which allows visitors to enter the various ateliers, studios, caves, and mansions owned by LVMH, for free.
It is staged every two years and has opened doors in France, Italy, Switzerland, the UK, the Netherlands, Spain and Germany, with 56 brands welcoming guests into over 70 sites on four continents. The 2017 issue attracted 145,000 visitors.
## Philanthropy
### Visual arts
LVMH is a major patron of art in France. The group supported about ten exhibitions as "*Le grand monde d’Andy Warhol*" and "*Picasso et les maîtres*" at le [Palais](Grand)(Grand Palais) in Paris. LVMH also endorsed the patronage of "''l'atelier d'Alberto Giacometti''" and "Yves Klein" at [Georges Pompidou](Centre)(Centre Georges Pompidou).
Since 2005, when the LVMH flagship store opened in Paris at 3, [George V](avenue)(avenue George V), 75008, the company presented close collaborations with contemporary artists. Features included a light sculpture by American [Turrell](James)(James Turrell), a 20-metre (65 feet) long "travelling staircase" showcasing the work of American video artist [White-Sobieski](Tim)(Tim White-Sobieski) and an elevator linking the store to the top floor by Iceland's [Eliasson](Olafur)(Olafur Eliasson).
In 2006, a gallery space was inaugurated on the second floor of the same building and named "*Espace Culturel*". "*Icônes*" was one of the first exhibitions. [Ban](Shigeru)(Shigeru Ban), [Fleury](Sylvie)(Sylvie Fleury), [Hadid](Zaha)(Zaha Hadid), [Peinado](Bruno)(Bruno Peinado), [Putman](Andrée)(Andrée Putman), [Rondinone](Ugo)(Ugo Rondinone), [Turrell](James)(James Turrell), [White-Sobieski](Tim)(Tim White-Sobieski) and [Wilson](Robert)(Robert Wilson (director)) were the nine artists invited by Louis Vuitton to participate in it.
In addition, LVMH foundation created the "young creators LVMH award", an international competition opened to French and international beaux-arts students. Each year, six grants are allocated to the winners.
In 2014, LVMH opened the Fondation Louis Vuitton pour la Creation in a new building designed by Frank Gerry in the Bois de Boulogne in Paris. The Fondation is designed as the Group's own museum to present its collections and organize major world-class art exhibitions.
### Fashion
In November 2013, LVMH created the *LVMH Young Fashion Designer Prize*, which comes with a €300,000 grant with a year of mentoring; it was the brainchild of [Arnault](Delphine)(Delphine Arnault). In February 2014 20 finalists for the inaugural prize were shown in London, including Simone Rocha, Thomas Tait, Meadham Kirchhoff, [Marques'Almeida](Marques'Almeida), J JS Lee, and others, and Thomas Tait was the winner. Marques'Almeida won the 2015 prize. In 2019, South African designer [Magugu](Thebe)(Thebe Magugu) became the first African to win the prize, and was commended by the President of South Africa, [Ramaphosa](Cyril)(Cyril Ramaphosa).
LVMH underwrites other fashion competitions, including the Andam prize in France, the International Festival of Fashion and Photography in [Hyères](Hyères), France, an investment fund for young designers created by the [Ministry of Culture and Communication](French)(French Ministry of Culture and Communication), and a scholarship program and sponsored lecture theater at [Saint Martins](Central)(Central Saint Martins) in London.
### Music
The group also lends [violins](Stradivarius)(List of Stradivarius instruments) to young talented musicians. [Vengerov](Maxim)(Maxim Vengerov) and [Korcia](Laurent)(Laurent Korcia) have used the instruments.
### Humanitarian aid
On 26 August 2019, Bernard Arnault declared that LVMH would donate $11 million to help fight the [Brazil wildfires](2019)(2019 Brazil wildfires).
During the [COVID-19](COVID-19) crisis, the group shifted its production of perfume and spirits towards hand sanitizer. This production of 12 tons has been offered to hospitals in Paris, France.
In 2022, Louis Vuitton announced a €1 million donation to UNICEF to help the Ukrainian victims of the [invasion](Russian)(2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine). On 2 March 2022, LVMH Group pledged €5 million to the [Cross](Red)(International Committee of the Red Cross) to those affected by the war. In addition, the company closed 124 of its stores in Russia.
## E-commerce
On 24 May 2018, LVMH launched an e-commerce initiative by investing in online fashion search business Lyst, as a way for LVMH's luxury brands to expand their presence online and capture younger shoppers. LVMH contributed to Lyst's $60 million funding round, which also included access to LVMH's international expertise, designed to drive Lyst's global expansion.
## Financial data
## Controversy
### John Galliano's anti-semitism
On 25 February 2011, Christian Dior announced they had suspended designer John Galliano following his arrest over an alleged anti-semitic tirade in a Paris bar. In France, it is against the law to make anti-semitic remarks of this nature, and it can be punished by up to six months in prison. On 1 March 2011, Christian Dior officially announced that it had fired Galliano amidst the controversy.
### Sebastian Suhl
In 2012 former Prada COO Sebastian Suhl was hired by Givenchy as the company's new CEO. The Asian Transnational Corporation Monitoring Network (ATNC), a network made of 15 organizations from 12 Asian countries wrote a letter of concern to LVMH Group's Bernard Arnault as Suhl was at the same time a key person in the [Female Discrimination Case](Prada)(Prada Female Discrimination Case) where he described as complicit in sexual harassment and discrimination practices.
### Corruption
During December 2021, LVMH paid €10 million to settle claims in Paris to end several criminal investigations that a former French intelligence chief, [Squarcini](Bernard)(Bernard Squarcini), spied for the company, on competitors and others, including on an activist making a film about its billionaire owner, Bernard Arnault. Prosecutors allege that the intelligence chief used tactics like influence peddling, invasion of privacy, and leveraging his network in intelligence and police on behalf of the company.
## See also
* [Lauder Companies](Estée)(Estée Lauder Companies)
* [Richemont](Richemont)
* [Kering](Kering)
* [Luxottica](Luxottica)
## References
## External links
*
*[Marques de LVMH classées par secteurs d'activités](https://elegance-suisse.ch/project/lvmh/)
[ ](Category:LVMH)
[arrondissement of Paris](Category:8th)(Category:8th arrondissement of Paris)
[40](Category:CAC)(Category:CAC 40)
[in the Euro Stoxx 50](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies in the Euro Stoxx 50)
[listed on Euronext Paris](Category:Companies)(Category:Companies listed on Euronext Paris)
[companies of France](Category:Conglomerate)(Category:Conglomerate companies of France)
[companies established in 1987](Category:French)(Category:French companies established in 1987)
[family](Category:Hennessy)(Category:Hennessy family)
[of cosmetics](Category:History)(Category:History of cosmetics)
[companies established in 1987](Category:Holding)(Category:Holding companies established in 1987)
[companies of France](Category:Hospitality)(Category:Hospitality companies of France)
[brand holding companies](Category:Luxury)(Category:Luxury brand holding companies)
[companies based in Paris](Category:Manufacturing)(Category:Manufacturing companies based in Paris)
[companies headquartered in France](Category:Multinational)(Category:Multinational companies headquartered in France)
[companies established in 1987](Category:Retail)(Category:Retail companies established in 1987)
[conglomerates](Category:Watchmaking)(Category:Watchmaking conglomerates)
[companies based in New York City](Category:Clothing)(Category:Clothing companies based in New York City)
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